SURVEYING

Definition:
Surveying is the science and art of determining the horizontal distances, vertical distances
(elevations), horizontal and vertical angles, areas of land and volumes using various surveying
instruments.
CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYS:

Surveying can be classified based on:

 Size of the earth surface covered

 Purpose or use of the survey

 The surveying Techniques/Equipment Used.

a) Based on the size of the earth surface covered:

i) Geodetic Surveying- Determines the precise positions on the surface of the earth of a
system of widely distant points. Large areas of the earth’s surface are involved and
the curvature of the earth must be taken into consideration.
ii) Plane Surveying- Plane survey is used for location and construction of physical
features. The curvature of the earth is not accounted for. The earth’s surface is
considered as a plane. Relatively small areas are under consideration, normally less
than 250 km².
b) Based on the purpose or use of the survey:

i. Topographical survey

This is a type of survey that establishes the position and shape of natural and man-made
(artificial) features of a given area. The purpose of this survey is to produce a map or a plan
for the area.

ii. Cadastral survey

- Type of survey which establishes and record boundaries and ownership of land and
property.
- It provides added information on topographical surveys.

i. Photogrammetry survey
- This is survey taken using photographs with a special type of camera from an aircraft to the
ground. It also involves remote sensing and satellite images.

ii. Hydrographic survey

 - Type of survey carried out to determine the water, depth and to investigate the nature of the
seabed.
- It’s used in the design, construction and maintenance of harbours in land water routes, rivers
and sea defenses.

iii.Military survey
This is survey done to provide information for military use.
iv.Engineering survey
This is any surveying work that is carried out in connection with construction of a particular
engineering feature e.g. roads, dams, buildings, pipelines, airports, power stations etc. this
may again have three other types. This includes all the survey works required before, during
and after any engineering construction project.

v. Topographical Surveys- A Topographical Map is a large-scale representation of a

portion of the earth’s surface, showing both natural features (such as mountains, rivers,
lakes, seas, oceans, forests, deserts), artificial features (such as towns, villages, roads,
railways, canals, buildings, bridges, and boundary lines) and elevations used in map
making.
vi. Agricultural Survey- They are used for establishing and preparing maps of properties,
computing field and farm areas, prepare land use maps or plans of an area or
catchments and laying out soil and water conservation structures and other farm
physicals.
c) Based on surveying Techniques or Equipment Used:
a) Levelling surveying
b) Chain Surveying
c) Traverse Surveying
d) Plane Table Surveying
e) Aerial Surveying
f) Compass surveying

Difference between plane and geodetic surveying.

Plane surveying Geodetic surveying.

The curvature of the earth is
1. The curvature of the earth is taken.
neglected.
A line joining any two points is A line joining any two points is
2.
considered straight. considered as curved line.
The triangle formed by any three The triangle formed by any three
3. points is considered as plane points is considered as spherical
triangle. triangle.
4. It is done on a area less than 250 t is done on a area greater than 250
I Km
 Km 2

General Uses of survey:

Survey may be used in the following;
i. To prepare topographical maps showing valleys, hills, rivers, lakes etc
ii. To prepare cadastral maps showing boundaries
iii. To prepare engineering maps showing detail of engineering works such as roads, dams, etc
iv. To prepare military maps
v. To prepare contour maps
vi. To prepare an archeological map including places where ancient features existed
vii. To produce a map or a plan which may show hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns, forests
etc.
viii. To estimate the volume of earthworks needed for an excavation in a given contract such as
in roads, pit, building construction etc.
ix. To provide accuracy in construction or to ensure construction in a given plan is what is on
the ground. I.e. setting out a house, a fence, water pond, farm structure.
x. To provide permanent control points e.g. bench marks which help in working from whole
`to detail.
xi. To determine the area of a given piece of land.
xii. To implement the correct soil and water conservation methods, installation of correct
irrigation systems, water, drainage etc.
Uses of surveying in agriculture:
 To establish boundaries, roads or paths, trees in the farm.
 Establish the location, size and plans of a building.
 Locate construction site for Dams, Ponds, canals, culverts, watering troughs, cut off
drains, fences, waterways, wetlands and terraces.
 Establish the location of water supply and Drainage systems (pipe systems, boreholes,
wells, dams, rivers, springs, drainage systems, sewer lines, manholes and septic tanks
 They are used for establishing and preparing maps of properties, computing field and farm
areas and laying out soil and water conservation structures and other farm physicals.
 Laying out contour lines for strip cropping, contour farming and level terraces.

LINEAR DISTANCE MEASUREMENT

Linear distance: its principle is based on straight lines/courses and their measurements on the
surface of the land etc.
Direct Distance Measurement (DD)
This involves measurement of linear distance using a measuring equipment, device or means that
is in direct contact with the surface being measured. This involves taping/chaining, pacing,
odometer readings
 1) Passometer/Pedometer: is a device with a shape similar to a watch and is carried or
attached to a pocket or leg. As the surveyor walks from one point to the other, it registers
the number of paces which can then be converted into distance by multiplication with P.F
2) Odometer/speedometer: odometer registers the number of revolutions of a wheel. The
speedometer works on the same principle. The number of revolutions made are then
multiplied by the circumference to get distance covered.
3) Taping/chaining: direct measurement of distance using a tape/chain. Various types of
tapes are in use today such as cloth or linen tape, steel, invar, fiber glass, metallic etc.

Taping/chaining
Taping/chaining refers to the exercise of physically measuring horizontal distances.
Types of Chains: Metric chain, Gunter/surveyors’ chain, Engineers chain, steel band/band chain

Ranging out a survey line

When measuring linear distances using a tape/chain it should be stretched straight between the
two terminal stations. In case the distance being measured is less than the tape/chain then direct
distance measurement is easy. However, in case the distance exceeds the tape/chain length, then
intermediate stations/points need to be established between the end points.

LEVELING

Levelling is defined as the process of measuring the reletive difference in elevation/height

between points on, above and below the surface of the earth.

Leveling provide information for planning, establishment and layout of engineering works
buildings, roads, soil and water conseration.

Specifically leveling is applied in:

 layout of contour lines

 layourt of soil and water conservation structures, terraces, strip cropping and trash lines
 set up of leveling foundations for buidings
 running grade lines for canals, water ways, farm roads, drainage ditches
 marking of profiles for land leveling
 used to establish the boundaries, lines, and elevation for the construction of those
structures
Procedure of levelling

 Instrument station set up

 Staff stations
 Marking of staff points and order of taking readings
 Back sight
  Intermediate sight
 Datum (opening and closing BM)
Procedure for booking staff reading

 Back sight (BS)

 Intermediate sight (IS)
 Fore sight (FS)
Methods used in determination of reduced levels

1. Height of Collimation Method

2. Rise and Fall Method
3. Arithmetic Checks
LEVELING

Levelling is defined as the process of measuring the reletive difference in elevation/height

between points on, above and below the surface of the earth.

Instruments/equipment used in leveling

 Dumpy level or Tilting level or Automatic Level and spirit level

Dumpy Level

The most common type of level is called an engineer’s or a dumpy level. The leveling instrument
is a telescope containing both vertical and horizontal crosshairs and one or more spirit levels
(bubble in a liquid-filled tube) to indicate when the instrument base is horizontal.

Levelling staff
Levelling staffs are made of wood, metal or glass fiber and graduated in metres and centimetres.
The alternate meter lengths are usually shown in black and red on a white background. The
majority of staffs are telescopic or socketed in three or four sections for easy carrying.
Ranging rods

Tripod Stand
TYPES OF LEVELING

There are three major types of leveling

 differential leveling
 profile leveling

Differential Leveling

Differential leveling is the process of finding the difference in elevation between two or more
points. When the two points are within the sight limits of the instrument, two readings are taken.
The difference in rod readings represents the difference in elevation between the two points.
When one or more of the points are beyond the range of the instrument turning points are used.

Terms used in leveling

Datum is the plane to which all vertical distances or elevations in survey work are referred to. It
is usually considered to be having an elevation of zero. The mean sea level (msl) is taken as
Datum.

Reduce level or Elevation (RL) of a point is its height or elevation above or below a Datum.

Bench mark (BM) is a fixed reference point or station of known or assumed elevations from
which relative elevation of other sections are calculated.

Back Sight (BS) this is a staff reading taken on a point of known elevation. It is also called a
plus sight (+). It is the first staff reading taken after the level is set up and is taken for the
purpose of obtaining the height of Instrument. It is the vertical distance between the line of sight
through the instrument and the point of known or assumed elevation on which the rod is set.

Fore Sight (FS) this is a staff reading taken on a point, whose elevation is yet to be determined.
It is also called minus sight (-). It is the last staff reading denoting the shifting of the instrument.

Intermediate Sight (IS) is a staff reading taken between BS and FS at the same setting of the
level.

Height of instrument (HI) or Plane of collimation is the elevation of the line of sight of the
telescope as compared to the elevation of the bench mark when the instrument is leveled. It is
found by adding the BS to the elevation of the point on which the reading is taken.

Change point or Turning point (CP or TP) a point at which back sight and fore sight staff
readings are taken. It denotes the shifting of the level.

Station -A point whose elevation is to be determined, or a point which is to be established at a

given elevation. It is the point at which the staff is held.
 The procedure for differential leveling is as follows:

1. Set up the leveling instrument at Level position 1.

2. Hold the staff on the Datum (RL+50 m) and take a reading. This will be a backsight, because
it is the first staff reading after the leveling instrument has been set up.
3. Move the staff to A and take a reading. This will be an intermediate sight.
4. Move the staff to B and take a reading. This also will be an intermediate sight.
5. Move the staff to C and take a reading. This will be another intermediate sight.
6. Move the staff to D and take a reading. This will be a foresight; because after this reading the
level will be moved.
7. The distance between the stations should be measured and recorded in the fieldbook
8. Set up the level at Level position 2 and leave the staff at D on the changeplate. Turn the staff
so that it faces the level and take a reading. This will be a back sight.
9. Move the staff to E and take a reading. This will be an intermediate sight.
10. Move the staff to F and take a reading. This will be a foresight; because after taking this
reading the level will be moved.
11. Now move the level to Leveling position 3 and leave the staff at F on the change plate

12. Now repeat the steps describe 8 to 10 until you finished at point J.

There are two main methods of booking levels:

 rise and fall method

 height of collimation method

Rise & Fall Method

1. Backsight, intermediate sight and foresight readings are entered in the appropriate columns
on different lines. However, as shown in the table above backsights and foresights are place
on the same line if you change the level instrument.
2. The first reduced level is the height of the datum, benchmark or R.L.
3. If an intermediate sight or foresight is smaller than the immediately preceding staff reading
then the difference between the two readings is place in the rise column.
4. If an intermediate sight or foresight is larger than the immediately preceding staff reading
then the difference between the two readings is place in the fall column.
5. A rise is added to the preceding reduced level (RL) and a fall is subtracted from the
preceding RL

BS IS FS Rise Fall RLs Distance Remarks

 2.554 50.00 0 Datum RL+50 m

1.783 0.771 50.771 14.990 A

0.926 0.857 51.628 29.105 B

1.963 1.037 50591 48.490 C

1.305 3.587 1.624 48.967 63.540 D / change point 1

1.432 0.127 48.840 87.665 E

3.250 0.573 0.859 49.699 102.050 F / change point 2

1.925 1.325 51.024 113.285 G

3.015 0.496 1.429 52.453 128.345 H / change point 3

0.780 2.235 54.688 150.460 J

10.124 5.436 7.476 2.788 54.688 Sum of BS & FS, Sum of Rise & Fall

-5.436 -2.788 -50.000 Take smaller from greater

4.68
4.688 4.688 Difference should be equal
8

Height of collimation method (height of instrument)

1. Booking is the same as the rise and fall method for back-, intermediate- and foresights.
There is no rise or fall columns, but instead a height of collimation column.
2. The first backsight reading (staff on datum, benchmark or RL) is added to the first RL
giving the height of collimation.
3. The next staff reading is entered in the appropriate column but on a new line. The RL for
the station is found by subtracting the staff reading from the height of collimation
4. The height of collimation changes only when the level is moved to a new position. The new
height of collimation is found by adding the backsight to the RL at the change point.
5. Please note there is no check on the accuracy of intermediate RL's and errors could go
undetected.

Back- Inter- Fore- Height of Reduced Distance Remarks

sight mediate sight collimation level

2.554 52.554 50.00 0 Datum RL+50 m

1.783 50.771 14.990 A

0.926 51.628 29.105 B

1.963 50591 48.490 C

1.305 3.587 50.272 48.967 63.540 D / change point 1

1.432 48.840 87.665 E

3.250 0.573 52.949 49.699 102.050 F / change point 2

1.925 51.024 113.285 G

3.015 0.496 55.468 52.453 128.345 H / change point 3

0.780 54.688 150.460 J

Sum of B-sight & F-sight,

10.124 5.436 54.688 Difference between RL's

-5.436 -50.000 Take smaller from greater

4.688 4.688 Difference should be equal

Differential Levelling Example

Station Distance BS FS HI RL RMKS

BM 0+00 0.92 100.92 100.00 Assumed BM

A 0+50 0.79 1.18 100.53 99.74 TP1 ON CULVAT

B 1+00 1.29 1.38 100.44 99.15 TP2 nEARTREE

C 1+50 1.96 1.88 100.52 98.56 BM2

D 2+00 1.17 1.35 100.34 99.17 TP3 HOUSE

E 2+50 1.56 0.90 101.00 99.44 TP4 ON ROAD

 F 3+00 1.01 99.99 ASSUMED BM 1

SUM 7.69 7.70

Check: ∑BS – ∑FS = FISTRL - LASTRL =7.69 – 7.70 = 99.99 – 100.00 = - 0.01

Temporary Adjustment {Setting Up the Dumpy Level}

The adjustments to be made at every setting of the instrument are called temporary adjustments.
The
following three adjustments are required for the instrument whenever set over a new point before
taking
a reading:
a) Setting
b) Levelling and
c) Focussing.

Setting
Tripod stand is set on the ground firmly so that its top is at a convenient height. Then the level is
fixed on its top. By turning tripod legs radially or circumferentially, the instrument is
approximately levelled.
Open tripod legs to about 60o and press the legs firmly into the ground. (The tripod head should
be approximately level).

Open instrument box and note how the level is packed to avoid damage of level when replacing
it after finishing the leveling excise. Lift the Level from the box, but never by the telescope tube.
Screw the level firmly on to the tripod.

Levelling

 Loosen the clamp and turn the telescope until the bubble axis is parallel to the line joining
any two screws.
 Turn the two screws inward or outward equally and simultaneously till bubble is centred.
 Turn the telescope by 90° so that it lies over the third screw as shown below and level the
instrument by operating the third screw.
 Turn back the telescope to its original position (a) and check the bubble. Repeat steps (ii)
to (iv) till bubble is centred for both positions of the telescope.
 Rotate the instrument by 180°. Check the levelling.
 2
1 3
A B
POSITION 1- Telescope is parallel to screws A and B
Turn screws A and B in opposite direction until bubble is in the centre of the run.
POSITION 2 – At right angles to position 1. Turn screw until bubble is in centre of the run.
POSITION 3 – Turn back to position 1 and repeat until bubble remains central when
telescope is turned.
Focussing
What is parallax: It is the apparent movement of the image of the object relative to the cross-
hairs caused by the image being in the plane of the cross-hairs.

Focussing
What is parallax: It is the apparent movement of the image of the object relative to the cross-
hairs caused by the image being in the plane of the cross-hairs.
Focussing is necessary to eliminate parallax while taking reading on the staff. The following
two steps are required in focussing:
(i) Focussing the eyepiece: For this, hold a sheet of white paper in front of telescope and rotate
eyepiece in or out till the cross hairs are seen sharp and distinct.
(ii) Focussing the objective: For this, telescope is directed towards the staff and the focussing
screw is turned till the reading appears clear and sharp.

Diaphragm – carries cross hairs on a brass ring

Arrangement of crosshairs in the diaphragm of a Dumpy level

Methods of Levelling (Direct Levelling)
It is common form of levelling in all engineering projects. In this method horizontal sight is
taken on a graduated staff and the difference in the elevation of line of sight and ground at which
staff is held are found. Knowing the height of line of sight from the instrument station, the
difference in the elevations of instrument station and the ground on which staff is held can be
found.
Types of Direct Levelling
i. Simple levelling
ii. Differential levelling
iii. Profile levelling

Simple Levelling
It is the method used for finding difference between the levels of two nearby points. The Figure
below shows one such case in which level of A is assumed, say 200.00 m. RL of B is required.

RL of A = 200.00 m
Back sight on A = 2.7 m.
∴ Plane of collimation for setting at station = 200 + 2.7 = 202.7 m
Fore sight on B = 0.80 m
∴ RL of B = 202.7 – 0.80 = 201.9 m

Differential Levelling
If the distance between two points A and B is large, it may not be possible to take the readings
on A and B from a single setting. In such situation differential levelling is used. In differential
levelling the instrument is set at more than one position, each shifting facilitated by a change
point.
Profile Levelling
It is the process of determining differences in elevation along a fixed line at designated
short measured intervals. This type of levelling is known as longitudinal sectioning. It is
necessary in design and construction of high way, railway, canal or sewage line projects. In such
cases, along the route, at regular interval, readings are taken and RL of various points are found.
Then, the section of the route is drawn to get the profile. Figure (a) shows the plan view of the
scheme of levelling and Fig. (b) shows the profile of the route. For drawing profile of the route,
vertical scale is usually larger compared to scale for horizontal distances. It gives clear picture of
the profile of the route.
METHODS OF BOOKINGS

The two methods of working out elevations of points from levelling staff or rod readings taken in
the field are:

 The Collimation or the Height of Instrument System.

 The Rise and Fall System.

The collimation method

HEIGHT OF
INSTRUMENT.
BACK SIGHT FORESIGHT ELEVATIO
H.I. N
STATION B.S. F.S. REMARK
R.L. (m) S

BM1 8.16

TP1 7.91 2.40

TP2 9.44 3.07

TP3 12.30 6.91

 BM2 2.11

∑ B . S .=37 .81 ∑ F . S .=14 . 49

Arithmetical check:

(BS) – (FS) = LAST (RL) – FIRST (RL)

∑ B . S .−∑ F . S .=37.81−14.49=23.32
ELEV . B. M .2−ELEV . B . M 1=123.32−100.00=23.32

Indicating no error in booking and reducing. They have been arithmetically checked and
are correct.

Rise and FALL Method

DISTANCE B.S. I.S. F.S. RISE FALL R.L. REMARKS

0.00 4.000 100.00 BM1 A

100.00 4.500 B

250.00 3.500 C TP1

300.00 3.000 Manhole D

400.00 2.000 E TP2

500.00 F

14.000 3.000 Totals

11.000 Diff.

3.000 checked

ARITHEMATIC CHECK

∑ (B . S .)−∑ (F . S .)=∑ (RISE)−∑ (FALL)=¿ ¿LAST R.L. – FIRST R.L.

14.00 – 11.00 = 4.000 – 1.000 = 103.000 – 100.000 = 3.000

indicating no error in booking and reducing. They have been arithmetically checked and
are correct.

PROFILE LEVELLING

It is the method of direct leveling the object of which is to determine the elevation of points at
measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the surface along that line.
The elevations can then be drawn or plotted on a profile paper to a selected scale so that studies
can be made relating to grades, depths, high and low spots and estimating quantities of cuts and
fills.

It is particularly used in laying out roads, terraces, water ways, contour bunds, pipelines etc.
Levels are taken at the center line of the structure.

The procedure involves making a series of instrument set ups along the general route between
the points including a number of intermediate sights between turning points. Usually the line on
which a profile is to be run is located and the station marked before profile levels are taken. The
Bench Mark should be set up near the station point.

Level readings are taken at regular intervals and also at major breaks in slopes and other
important points such as branch ditches, gullies, culverts, bridges, roads fence lines