Table  of  Contents  

Trigonometric Ratios and Identities ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Trigonometric Equations ................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Inverse Trigonometric Functions...................................................................................................................................................... 5
Solution of Triangle .......................................................................................................................................................................... 10
Logarithms ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
Quadratic Equations ........................................................................................................................................................................ 13
Sequence and Series ......................................................................................................................................................................... 15
Determinants..................................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Matrices ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 18
Permutations and Combinations..................................................................................................................................................... 20
Probability......................................................................................................................................................................................... 22
Complex Numbers ............................................................................................................................................................................ 24
Functions ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 28
Limits ................................................................................................................................................................................................. 33
Continuity.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 34
Differentiability................................................................................................................................................................................. 35
Method of Differentiation ................................................................................................................................................................ 36
Application of Derivative ................................................................................................................................................................. 38
Indefinite Integration ....................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Definite Integration .......................................................................................................................................................................... 45
Area Under the Curve...................................................................................................................................................................... 47
Differential Equations ...................................................................................................................................................................... 48
Straight Lines and Pair of Straight Lines ...................................................................................................................................... 50
Circles ................................................................................................................................................................................................ 54
Parabola............................................................................................................................................................................................. 57
Ellipse................................................................................................................................................................................................. 59
Hyperbola .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 61
Vectors ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 63
3-Dimensional Geometry ................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Binomial Theorem………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….68
Inequalities………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….70

  1  
  

Trigonometric Ratios and Identities

sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1 , 1+ tan 2 θ = sec2 θ , 1+ cot 2 θ = cos ec2θ ,
1 1
sec θ − tan θ = and cos ecθ − cot θ =
sec θ + tan θ cos ecθ + cot θ
Def. of Radian: Angle subtended by an arc of length equals to radius of the circle is called 1 radian. 180° ≈ π
€ € €

€
€

π π
+X axis → 2nπ , − X axis → (2n +1)π +Y axis → (4n +1)
, −Y axis → (4n −1)
2 2
π π
X axis → nπ , Y axis → (2n +1) X axis and Y axis → n
2 2
€ I Quadrant → 2nπ + θ , II Quadrant → ( 2n + 1) π − θ , III Quadrant → ( 2n + 1) π + θ , IV Quadrant → 2nπ − θ
€
I Quadrant → sin θ > 0,cos θ > 0,tan θ > 0 ; II Quadrant → sin θ > 0,cos θ < 0,tan θ < 0
III Quadrant → sin θ < 0,cos θ < 0,tan θ > 0 ; IV Quadrant → sin θ < 0,cos θ > 0,tan θ < 0
€ €
Reduction Formulae:
€ sin (−θ ) = − sin θ cos(−θ ) = cos θ tan (−θ ) = − tan θ
€
€ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
sin⎜(4n +1) − θ ⎟ = cos θ cos⎜(4n +1) − θ ⎟ = sin θ tan⎜(4n +1) − θ ⎟ = cot θ
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
€ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
sin⎜(4n +1) + θ ⎟ = cos θ € cos⎜(4n +1) + θ ⎟ = − sin €
θ tan⎜(4n +1) + θ ⎟ = − cot θ
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
€ sin ((2n +1)π − θ ) = sin θ € cos((2n +1)π − θ ) = − cos θ€ tan ((2n +1)π − θ ) = − tan θ
sin ((2n +1)π + θ ) = − sin θ cos(( 2n + 1) π + θ ) = − cos θ tan(( 2n + 1) π + θ ) = tan θ
€ ⎛ π ⎞ € ⎛ π ⎞ € ⎛ π ⎞
sin⎜(4n −1) − θ ⎟ = − cos θ cos⎜(4n −1) − θ ⎟ = − sin θ tan⎜(4n −1) − θ ⎟ = cot θ
€ ⎝ 2 ⎠ € ⎝ 2 ⎠ € ⎝ 2 ⎠
€ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ π ⎞
sin⎜(4n −1) + θ ⎟ = − cos€ θ cos⎜( 4n − 1) + θ ⎟ = sin θ€ tan⎜( 4n − 1) + θ ⎟ = − cot θ
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
€ sin (2nπ − θ ) = − sin θ € cos(2nπ − θ ) = cos θ € tan (2nπ − θ ) = − tan θ
sin (2nπ + θ ) = sin θ cos(2nπ + θ ) = cos θ tan (2nπ + θ ) = tan θ
€ Highlights: € €
€ € €
€ € €
Domain and Range of the T-ratios:
1. y = sin x x ∈ R or (−∞, ∞), y ∈ [−1, 1] 2. y = cos x x ∈ R or (−∞, ∞), y ∈ [−1, 1]
π
3. y = tan x x ∈ R − (2n +1) , y ∈ R 4. y = cot x x ∈ R − nπ , y ∈ R
2
π
€ 5. y = sec x, x ∈ R − (2n +1) , | y | ≥ 1€ 6. y = cos ecx, x ∈ R − nπ , | y | ≥1
2
Standard Formulae: €
€
1. sin ( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B 2. sin ( A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
€ 3. cos ( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B €4. cos( A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
5. sin ( A + B) + sin ( A − B) = 2 sin A cos B 6. sin ( A + B) − sin ( A − B) = 2 cos A sin B
€ €
€ €
€   € 2  
  

7. cos ( A + B) + cos ( A − B) = 2 cos A cos B 8. cos ( A − B) − cos ( A + B) = 2 sin A sin B

⎛ C + D ⎞ ⎛ C − D ⎞ ⎛ C + D ⎞ ⎛ C − D ⎞
9. sin C + sin D = 2 sin⎜ ⎟ cos⎜ ⎟ 10. sin C − sin D = 2 cos⎜ ⎟ sin⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
€ ⎛ C + D ⎞ ⎛ C − D ⎞ € ⎛ C + D ⎞ ⎛ C − D ⎞
11. cos C + cos D = 2 cos⎜ ⎟ cos⎜ ⎟ 12. cos C − cos D = −2 sin⎜ ⎟ sin⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
€ 13. sin ( A + B) sin ( A − B) = sin 2 A − sin 2 B = cos 2€B − cos 2 A
14. cos ( A + B) cos( A − B) = cos 2 A − sin 2 B
€ tan A + tan B € tan A − tan B
15. tan ( A + B) = 16. tan ( A − B) =
€ 1− tan A tan B 1+ tan A tan B
cot B cot A −1 cot B cot A +1
€ 17. cot ( A + B) = 18. cot ( A − B) =
cot B + cot A cot B − cot A
Multiple of Angles:
€ €
2 tan A 1− tan 2 A
19. sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = 20. cos 2A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A = 1− 2 sin 2 A = 2 cos 2 A −1 =
€ 1+ tan 2 A € 1+ tan 2 A
1− cos 2A
Gold Formulaes: 1− cos 2A = 2 sin 2 A and 1+ cos 2A = 2 cos 2 A and tan 2 A =
1+ cos 2A
2 tan A 1+ cos 2A 1− cos 2A
€ 21. tan 2A = 22. cot A = € 23. tan A =
1− tan 2 A sin 2A sin 2A
3 tan A − tan 3 A
24. sin €
3A = 3sin A − 4 sin 3 A 25. cos 3A = 4 cos 3 A − 3cos A 26. tan 3A =
1− 3 tan 2 A
€ Standard Angles: € €
π 5π 3 −1 5π π 3 +1
€ sin15° = sin = cos 75° = cos = € and sin 75° = sin = cos15° = cos =
12 12 2 2 12 € 12 2 2
π 5π 3 −1 5π π 3 +1
tan15° = tan = cot 75° = cot = = 2− 3 and tan 75° = tan = cot15° = cot = = 2+ 3
12 12 3 +1 12 12 3 −1
€ 1 π 1 3π €and 1 π 1 3π
tan 22 ° = tan = cot 67 ° = cot = 2 −1 cot 22 ° = cot = tan 67 ° = tan = 2 +1
2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8
€ 1 2 +1 1 2 −1 € 1
cos 22 ° = and sin 22 ° and tan 7 ° = 6 + 2 − 3 − 4
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
€ π 2π 5 −1 € π 3π 5 +1
sin18° = sin = cos 72° = cos = and cos 36° = cos = sin 54° = sin =
10 5 4 5 10 4
1 €
€ (
tan11 ° = − 2 +1 + 4 + 2 2
4
)
Special Type of Series:
€ Type 1: cont’d product of cos, each angle is double of € its preceeding angle)
sin16θ sin (double of the largest angle)
€ cos θ cos 2θ cos 4θ cos 8θ = 4 = no. of cos in the series
2 sin θ 2 ( ) sin smallest angle
( )
Type 2: cont’d summation of sin/cos angles are in AP/or difference between consecutive angle is same
⎛ difference ⎞ ⎛ 1st angle + last angle ⎞
sin⎜n ⎟ sin⎜ ⎟
€ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
S = sin θ + sin 2θ + sin 3θ + ...........+ sin nθ =
⎛ difference ⎞
sin⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎛ difference ⎞ ⎛ 1st angle + last angle ⎞
sin⎜n ⎟ cos⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Type 3: S = cos θ + cos 2θ + cos 3θ + ...........+ cos nθ =
€ ⎛ difference ⎞
sin⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
With the three angles:
1. sin ( A + B + C ) = sin A cos B cos C + cos A sin B cos C + cos A cos B sin C − sin A sin B sin C
€2. cos( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cosC − cos A sin B sin C + sin A cos B sin C + sin A sin B cos C
In a triangle A + B +C = π , 1+ cos A cos B cosC = cos A sin B sin C + sin A cos B sin C + sin A sin B cos C
€
3. tan ( A + B + C ) =
tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C S −S
= 1 3=
tan A − ∑
tan A ∏
€
€ €
1− (tan A tan B + tan B tan C + tan C tan A) 1− S2 1− tan A tan B ∑

  3  
  

S1 − S3 + S5 − S7 ........
tan ( A + B + C + ......) = , where S1 = sum of the tangents of the angles taking one at a time
1− S2 + S4 − S6 ........
S2 = sum of the product of the tangents taking 2 at a time
S 3 = sum of the product of the tangents taking 3 at a time
A B
If A + B +C = π , then tan ( A + B + C ) = 0 ⇒ tan A = ∑ tan A or ∏ ∑
cot A cot B = 1 or tan tan = 1
2 2
∑
π
€ If A + B + C = , then
2
∑
tan A tan B = 1
€ Important Results:
If A + B +C =€π , then sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sin A sin B sin C
A B C
€ If A + B +C =€π , then cos A + cos B − cos C = −1+ 4 cos cos sin
2 2 2
Extreme values of Trigono. Functions:
€ €
Type 1: E = a cos θ + b sin θ , Emax = a 2 + b2 , Emin = − a2 + b2
€
Or − a2 + b€ 2
≤ a cos θ + b sin θ ≤ a2 + b 2
If y = a cos θ + b sin θ + c , then − a2 + b2 + c ≤ a cos θ + b sin θ + c ≤ a2 + b 2 + c
€Type 2: In case quadratic in sin θ or cos θ is given then max or min value can be obtained by making perfect square.
€ Important Formulae:
A A A A
€ | sin + cos |= 1+€sin A and sin − cos = 1− sin A
2 2 € 2 2
π A π A A A A
1. If − ≤ ≤ , then 1+ sin A = sin + cos and 1− sin A = cos − sin
4 2 4 2 2 2 2
π A 3π A A A A
€ 2. If ≤ ≤ , then 1+ sin A €
= sin + cos and 1− sin A = sin − cos
4 2 4 2 2 2 2
3π A 5π A A A A
€ 3. If ≤ ≤€ , then 1+ sin A = − sin − cos and 1− sin A = sin − cos
4 2 4 2 2 2 2
5π A 7π A A A A
€ 4. If ≤ ≤€ , then 1+ sin A = − sin − cos and 1− sin A = cos − sin
4 2 4 2 2 2 2
Inequalities in a triangle:
€ € 1 3
1. cot 2 A + cot 2 B + cot 2 C ≥ 1 2. cos A cos B cos C ≤ 3. 1 < cos A + cos B + cosC ≤
8 2
€ €
Graphs:
€ 1. 2.
€ €
1 y=cosx 1
y=sinx

0.5 0.5

-3π -2.5π -2π -1.5π -π -0.5π 0 0.5π π 1.5π 2π 2.5π 3π -3π -2.5π -2π -1.5π -π -0.5π 0 0.5π π 1.5π 2π 2.5π 3π

-0.5
-0.5

-1
-1

3. 4.

y=tanx y=cotx

-1.5π -π -0.5π 0 0.5π π 1.5π -1.5π -π -0.5π 0 0.5π π 1.5π

  4  
  

5. 6.

5
4
y=secx y=cosecx
3
2
1

-1.5π -π -0.5π 0 0.5π π 1.5π -1.5π -π -0.5π 0 0.5π π 1.5π

-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

Trigonometric Equations
Def.: Equations involving trigonometric ratios are called trigonometric equations
π
sin x = 0 ⇒ x = nπ , n ∈ I, cos x = 0 ⇒ x = (2n +1) , n ∈ I, tan x = 0 ⇒ x = nπ , n ∈ I
2
Two types of solutions: 1. General Solution (in terms of n) 2. Principal Solution x ∈ [0,2π ]
⎡ π π ⎤ n
1. sin θ = sin α, α ∈ ⎢− , ⎥, θ = nπ + (−1) α, n ∈ I
€ ⎣ 2 2 ⎦
2. cos θ = cos α, α ∈ [0, π ], θ = 2nπ ± α, n ∈ I €
⎛ π π ⎞
3. tan θ = tan α, α ∈ ⎜− , ⎟, θ = nπ + α, n ∈ I
€ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
€ 4. sin 2 θ = sin 2 α, cos 2 θ = cos 2 α, tan 2 θ = tan 2 α, then θ = nπ ± α
1 n π π 5π
Example: sin θ = , θ = nπ + (−1) , n ∈ I or x = 2nπ + , x = 2nπ +
€ 2 6 6 6
Types of Trigonometric equations:
€ Type 1: Factorization (refer to notes)
Type 2: Equations to reducible to quadratic equations
€ 3: Solving equations by introducing auxiliary arguments, to solve
Type
a cos θ + b sin θ = c, then divide both sides by a 2 + b2
Type 4: Solving equations by transforming sum of trigonometric functions into product
Type 5: Solving equations by transforming product into sum
Type 6: Change of Variable
€ Type 7: Solving Equations with the use of boundedness of the function or by making sum of more than one perfect squares
Trigonometric Inequalities:
1 ⎛ π 5π ⎞
Example: sin x > , x ∈ ⎜ + 2nπ , + 2nπ ⎟, n ∈ I
2 ⎝ 6 6 ⎠

Inverse
€
Trigonometric Functions
Definitions:
1. sin-1x, cos-1x, tan-1x etc. denote angles or real numbers whose sine is x, whose cosine is x, and whose tangent is x, provided that
the answers given are numerically smallest available. These are also written as arc(sinx), arc(cosx) etc.
If there are two angles one positive and the other negative having same numerical value, then positive angle should be taken.
2. PRINCIPAL Values and Domain of Inverse Circular Functions:
π π
(i) y = sin-1x where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1; − ≤ y ≤ and sin y = x
2 2
(ii) y = cos −1 x where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1; 0 ≤ y ≤ π and cos y = x

€
  5  
€
  

π π
(iii) y = tan −1 x where x ∈ R; − <y< and tan y = x
2 2
(iv) y = cot −1 x where x ∈ R; 0 < y < π and cot y = x
π
(v) y = sec−1 x where | x |≥ 1; 0 ≤ y ≤ π y ≠ and sec y = x
€ 2
−1 π π
€ (vi) y = cos ec x where | x |≥ 1; − ≤ y ≤ y ≠ 0and cos ecy = x
2 2
st
NOTE THAT: (a) 1 quadrant is common to all the inverse functions
€ (b) 3rd quadrant is not used in inverse functions.
π
€ (c) 4th quadrant is used in the clockwise direction i.e. − < y < 0
2
3. Properties of Inverse Circular Functions:
( )
P-1 (i) sin sin −1 x = x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ( )
(ii) cos cos −1 x = x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 ( )
(iii) tan tan −1 x = x, x ∈ R
π π € π π
(iv) sin −1 (sin x ) = x, − ≤x≤ (v) cos −1 (cos x ) = x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π (vi) tan −1 (tan x ) = x, − <x<
2 2 2 2
−1 −1
€ P-2 (i) cos ec−1 x = sin −1 (1/ x) ; | x |> 1€ € cot x = tan (1/ x ); x > 0
(ii) sec−1 x = cos −1 (1/ x) ; | x |> 1 (iii)
= π + tan −1 (1/ x ); x < 0
€ € €
P-3
−1 −1
€ (i) sin (−x ) = − sin x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 €
−1 −1
(ii) tan (−x ) = − tan x, x ∈ R €
(iii) cos (−x ) = π − cos −1 x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
−1

(iv) cot −1 (−x ) = π − cot −1 x, x ∈ R

(v) cos ec−1 (−x ) = − cos ec−1 x, x ≥ 1
(vi) sec−1 (−x ) = π − sec−1 x, x ≥ 1
P-4 (i ) sin −1 x + cos −1 x = π 2, −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (ii) tan −1 x + cot −1 x = π 2, x ∈ R (iii) cos ec−1 x + sec−1 x = π 2, x ≥ 1
P-5
€ x+y
tan −1 x + tan −1 y = tan −1 where x > 0, y > 0 and xy < 1
1− xy
€
x+y
= π + tan −1 where x > 0, y > 0 and xy > 1
1− xy
x−y
and tan −1 x − tan −1 y = tan −1 where x > 0, y > 0
1+ xy
⎡ ⎤
€ P-6 (i) sin −1 x + sin −1 y = sin −1⎢ x 1− y2 + y 1− x 2 ⎥ where x > 0, y > 0 & x 2 + y2 ≤ 1
⎣ ⎦
2 2 −1 −1
€ Note that: x +y <1 ⇒ 0 < sin x + sin y < π 2
⎡ ⎤
(ii) sin −1 x + sin −1 y = π − sin −1⎢ x 1− y2 + y 1− x 2 ⎥ where x > 0, y > 0 & x 2 + y2 ≥ 1
€ ⎣ ⎦
Note that: x€2+y2>1 ⇒ π 2 < sin −1 x + sin −1 y < π
⎡ ⎤
(iii) sin −1 x − sin −1 y = sin −1⎢ x 1− y2 − y 1− x 2 ⎥ where x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
€ ⎣ ⎦
−1 −1 −1⎡ 2 2 ⎤
(iv) cos x€± cos y = cos ⎢ xy + 1− x 1− y ⎥ where x > 0, y > 0
⎣ ⎦
−1 −1 −1 −1 x + y + z − xyz
€ P-7 If tan x + tan y + tan z = tan if x>0, y>0, z>0 and xy+yz+zx<1
1− xy − yz − zx
€ Note: (i) If tan −1 x + tan −1 y + tan −1 z = π then x + y + z = xyz
(ii) tan −1 x + tan −1 y + tan −1 z = π 2 then xy + yz + zx = 1
€ 2
2x −1 1− x 2x
P-8 2 tan −1 x = sin −1 2
= cos 2
= tan −1
€ 1+ x 1+ x 1− x 2
€ ⎡ −1
2 tan x | x |< 1 ⎡2 tan −1 x | x |< 1
⎢ 2 ⎡ −1
2 tan x x ≥ 0 ⎢
2x −1 1− x −1 2x
Note: sin −1 = ⎢π − 2 tan −1 x x > 1 cos = ⎢ tan = ⎢π + 2 tan −1 x x < −1
€ 1+ x 2 ⎢ 1+ x 2
⎢
⎣−2 tan −1
x x < 0 1− x 2
⎢
( −1
)
⎢⎣− π + 2 tan x x < −1 ( −1
⎢⎣− π − 2 tan x ) x >1
Remember that:
3π
(i) sin −1 x + sin −1 y + sin −1 z = ⇒ x = y€= z = 1 (ii) cos −1 x + cos −1 y + cos −1 z = 3π ⇒ x = y = z = −1
2
€ €

€
  € 6  
  

1 1 π
(iii) tan −1 1+ tan −1 2 + tan −1 3 = π and tan −1 1+ tan −1 + tan −1 =
2 3 2

Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 0.5π

0.4π
y=arc(sinx)
€ 0.3π
0.2π
−1
y = sin x = arcsin x, x = sin y; 0.1π

-1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

1. ⎡ π π ⎤ dy 1 -0.1π

x ∈ [ −1,1], y ∈ ⎢ − , ⎥, = x ∈ ( −1,1) -0.2π

⎣ 2 2 ⎦ dx 1− x2
-0.3π
-0.4π

Bounded, odd function, strictly increasing, -0.5π

x>0 concave upwards and x<0 concave downwards, aperiodic

π

€ −1
y = cos x = arccos x, x = cos y;
0.75π y=arc(cosx)

2. dy −1
x ∈ [ −1,1], y ∈ [0, π ], = x ∈ ( −1,1) 0.5π
dx 1− x2
Bounded, aperiodic, neither odd nor even, strictly decreasing 0.25π

-1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

€ y = tan −1 x = arctan x, x = tan y; 0.5π

3. ⎛ π π ⎞ dy 1 0.4π

x ∈ R, y ∈ ⎜ − , ⎟, = x ∈R 0.3π
y=arc(tanx)
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ dx 1+ x 2 0.2π
0.1π
Bounded , aperiodic, odd function, strictly increasing, -10 -7.5 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 7.5 10
-0.1π
-0.2π
-0.3π
-0.4π
€ -0.5π

y = cot −1 x = arc cot x, x = cot y; π

0.9π

4. dy −1 0.8π
y=arc(cotx)
x ∈ R, y ∈ (0, π ), = x ∈R 0.7π

dx 1+ x 2 0.6π
0.5π
Bounded, aperiodic, neither even nor odd, strictly decreasing 0.4π
0.3π
0.2π
0.1π

€ -10 -7.5 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 7.5 10

π
y = sec −1 x = arc sec x, x = sec y;
5. ⎧ π ⎫ dy 1 0.75π y=arc(secx)

x ≥1, y ∈ [0, π ] − ⎨ ⎬, = x >1

⎩ 2 ⎭ dx x x 2 −1 0.5π

bounded, aperiodic, increasing, odd function

0.25π

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0
€
0.5π

y = cosec −1 x = arccosecx, x = cosecy;

0.25π y=arc(cosecx)
6. ⎡ π π ⎤ dy −1
x ≥1, y ∈ ⎢ − , ⎥ − {0}, = x >1
⎣ 2 2 ⎦ dx x x 2 −1 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

bounded, aperiodic, decreasing, odd function -0.25π

-0.5π

  7  
  

⎡ π π ⎤
7. (a) y = sin −1 (sin x), x ∈ R, y ∈ ⎢− , ⎥ periodic with period T = 2π
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
7. (b) y = sin sin −1 x = x ( ) x ∈ [−1,1] y ∈ [−1,1]

0.5π
1
€

x
€

y=
€

2π
y=π
0.25π

y=
0.5

y=x-
y=-π

3π
-x

-x
Insert text here

-x
nsert text here
-1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-0.5

-0.25π
-1

-0.5π

8. (a) y = cos −1( cos x ), x ∈ R, y ∈ [ 0,π] (

8. (b) y = cos cos −1 x = x x ∈ [−1,1] y ∈ [−1,1] )
π
1

€ 0.75π € 0.5
y=
y=-x
2π

2π
y=x+

-x

Insert text here

nsert text here -1 -0.75 -0.5 -0.25 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

x

0.5π
y=

-0.5

0.25π -1

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0

⎧ π ⎫ ⎛ π π ⎞
9. (a) y = tan −1( tan x ), x ∈ R − ⎨( 2n + 1) ⎬, y ∈ ⎜− , ⎟
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(
9. (b) y = tan tan −1 x = x x ∈ R y ∈ R )
0.5π 10

7.5
+π

€
x
2π

y=

€ 0.25π 5
y=x
y=x+

π
y=x-

2.5
x
y=
nsert text here Insert text here

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -10 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -7.5 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 7.5

-2.5

-0.25π -5

-7.5

-0.5π -10

10. (a) y = cot −1( cot x ), x ∈ R − { nπ}, y ∈ ( 0,π ) (

10. (b) y = cot cot −1 x = x x ∈ R y ∈ R )
π 10

7.5
€ €
+π

5
2π

0.75π
y=x
y=x+

π
y=x-

2.5
x
y=

nsert text here Insert text here

0.5π -7.5 -5 -2.5 0 2.5 5 7.5

x
y=

-2.5

-5
0.25π
-7.5

-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 -10
0

⎧ π ⎫ ⎧ π ⎫
11. (a) y = sec −1(sec x ), x ∈ R − ⎨( 2n + 1) ⎬, y ∈ [ 0,π] − ⎨ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩ 2 ⎭
(
11. (b) y = sec sec −1 x = x | x |≥ 1, | y |≥ 1 )

€ €

  8  
  

⎡ π π ⎤
12. (a) y = cos ec −1( cos ecx ), x ∈ R − { nπ}, y ∈ ⎢− , ⎥ − { 0}
⎣ 2 2 ⎦
( )
12. (b) y = cos ec cos ec −1 x = x | x |≥ 1, | y |≥ 1

€ €

Analysis and Graphs of some useful functions: 0.5π

⎡ 2 tan −1 x x <1
⎢ 0.25π
⎛ 2x ⎞
1. y = f ( x ) = sin −1⎜ −1
⎟ = ⎢ π − 2 tan x x > 1
⎝ 1− x 2 ⎠ ⎢ Insert text here

( )
⎢⎣− π + 2 tan −1 x x < −1
-4 -3.2 -2.4 -1.6 -0.8 0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 4 4.8

-0.25π
⎡ π π ⎤
(a) Domain is x ∈ R & Range is ⎢− , ⎥
⎣ 2 2 ⎦ -0.5π

€ (b) f(x) is continuous for all x but not differentiable at x=1, – 1

⎡ 2 π
€ ⎢ x <1
⎢ 1+ x2 €
dy
(c) = ⎢ DNE x =1 0.75π
dx ⎢
2
⎢− x >1 Insert text here

0.5π
⎣ 1 + x 2
(d) Inc. in (-1, 1) and Dec. (−∞,−1) ∪ (1,∞)
0.25π
⎛ 1− x 2 ⎞ ⎧⎪ 2 tan −1 x x ≥ 0
2. y = f ( x ) = cos −1 ⎜ ⎟ = ⎨
€ 2
⎝ 1+ x ⎠ ⎩⎪−2 tan −1 x x < 0 -7.5 -5 -2.5 2.5 5 7.5
0
(a) Domain is x ∈€R & Range is [0,π)
(b) Continuous for all x but not diff. at x= 0
⎧ 2
€ ⎪ 2
x>0
€ 1+ x €
dy ⎪
(c) = ⎨ DNE x=0 (d) Inc. in ( 0,∞) & Dec. in (−∞,0)
dx ⎪ 0.5π
2
⎪− x<0
⎩ 1+ x 2
0.25π
⎡€2 tan −1 x €x < 1
⎢
−1 ⎛ 2x ⎞ ⎢ −1 Insert text here

3. y = f ( x ) = tan ⎜ ⎟ = π + 2 tan x x < −1 -3.5 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.50 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
€ ⎝ 1− x 2 ⎠ ⎢
( )
⎢⎣− π − 2 tan −1 x x > 1
-0.25π
⎛ π π ⎞
(a) Domain is x ∈ R − {−1,1} & Range is ⎜− , ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ -0.5π

€ (b) f(x) is neither continuous nor diff. at x= -1, 1

⎧ 2
dy
€ ⎪ x ≠1
(c) = ⎨ 1+ x 2 € (d) Increasing for all x.
dx ⎪
⎩ DNE x = 1
⎧ 1
(
⎪− π + 3sin x
−1
) −1 ≤ x < −
2
⎪
⎪ 1 1
€ (
4. y = f (x) = sin −1 3x − 4 x 3 ) = ⎨ 3sin −1 x
⎪
− ≤x≤
2 2
⎪ −1 1
⎪⎩ π – 3sin x 2
< x ≤1

⎡ π π ⎤
(a) Domain is x ∈ [−1,1] & Range is ⎢− , ⎥
€ ⎣ 2 2 ⎦

  € 9  
€
  

1
(b) Not Differentiable at x =
2
⎧ 3 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
⎪ x ∈ ⎜− , ⎟
dy ⎪ 1− x 2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(c) = ⎨ (d) Continuous everywhere in its domain
dx ⎪ €3 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
− x ∈ ⎜−1,− ⎟ ∪ ⎜ ,1⎟
⎪ ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎩ 1− x 2
⎧ −1 1
⎪ 3cos x − 2π − 1 ≤ x < − 2
⎪
€5. y = f ( x ) = cos −1 4 x 3 − 3x = ⎪⎨ 2π − 3cos −1 x − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
( ) ⎪ 2 2
⎪ −1 1
⎪⎩ 3cos x 2
< x ≤1

(a) Domain is x ∈ [−1,1] & Range is x ∈ [0,π]

1 1
(b) Continuous everywhere in its domain but not differentiable at x = − ,
2 2
€ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎞
(c) Increasing
€ in ⎜− , ⎟ &€Decreasing in ⎜−1,− ⎥ ∪ ⎢ ,1⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎠
⎧ 3 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ €
⎪ x ∈ ⎜− , ⎟
dy ⎪ 1− x 2 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(d) = ⎨
dx € ⎪ 3 ⎛ €
1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
− x ∈ ⎜−1,− ⎟ ∪ ⎜ ,1⎟
⎪ 2 ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
⎩ 1− x

Solution of Triangle
• How to solve a triangle
• A triangle has six elements( 3 sides and 3 angles)
• Any 3 are known and 3 can be evaluated
Formulae:
a b c
1. Sine Law = = = 2R ; sides are proportional to sines of their opposite angles
sin A sin B sin C
b 2 + c2 − a 2 a 2 + c2 − b 2 a 2 + b 2 − c2
2. Cosine Law cos A = ; cos B = ; cos C = ;
2bc 2ac 2ab
cosine
€ law is used when two sides and included angle is given
3. Projection Formula a = c cos B + b cosC; b = a cosC + c cos A; c = a cos B + b cos A
A− B a−b C B −C b − c A C− A c−a B
4. Napier’s
€ Analogy/Tangent Rule tan = cot ; tan = cot ; tan = cot
2 a+b 2 2 b+c 2 2 c+a 2
Trigonometric functions of half angles
€
Δ = Area of triangle Δ = s (s − a)(s − b)(s − c) and 2s = a + b + c

1. sin
A
=
(s − b)(s − c) ;€sin B = (s − a)(s − c) ; sin C = (s − a)(s − b)
2 bc 2 ac 2 ab
€ A s ( s − a) B s ( s − b) C s (s − c )
2. cos = ; cos = ; cos =
2 bc 2 ac 2 ab
€ A
3. tan =
( )( ) ; tan B = ( )( ) ; tan C = (s − a)(s − b)
s − b s − c s − a s − c
2 s ( s − a) 2 s ( s − b) 2 s (s − c)
€ A Δ B Δ C Δ
4. tan = ; tan = ; tan =
2 s ( s − a) 2 s (s − b ) 2 s ( s − c)
€ 2Δ 2Δ 2Δ
5. sin A = ; sin B = ; sin C =
bc ac ab
1 1 1
€ 6. Δ = bc sin A = ac sin B = ab sin C
2 2 2
m-n Theorem:
€
(m + n) cot θ = m cot α − n cot β
€ (m + n) cot θ = n cot B − m cot C

€   10  
  

Formulae for R(Circumradius)

a b c abc
1. = = = 2R 2. R =
sin A sin B sin C 4Δ
Formulae for r(Inradius)
Δ A B C
1. r = 2. r = (s − a) tan = (s − b) tan = (s − c) tan
s 2 2 2
€ B C A C A €B
a sin sin b sin sin c sin sin
2 2 = 2 2 = 2 2 A B C
3. r = 4. r = 4R sin sin sin
A B C 2 2 2
€ cos cos cos €
2 2 2
Ex-circle/Escribed Circle
Centre ex-centre radiusescribed radius/ex-radius
€
two angle bisectors are perpendicular to each other
€  ΔI1 I2 I 3 is called excentral triangle (triangle formed by three ex-centres)
I act as the incentre for ΔABC and I act as orhtocentre for ΔI1 I2 I 3
Δ Δ Δ A B C
1. r1 = ; r2 = ; r3 = 2. r1 = s tan ; r2 = s tan ; r3 = s tan
€ s−a s −b s −c 2 2 2
B €C A C A B
a cos cos b cos cos c cos
€ cos
3. r1 = 2 2; r = 2 2; r = 2 2
2 3
A B C
€ cos cos € cos
2 2 2
A B C B A C C A B
4. r1 = 4 R sin cos cos ; r2 = 4 R sin cos cos ; r3 = 4 R sin cos cos
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Length of the angle bisector
€ A B C
2bc cos 2ac cos 2ab cos
LA = 2; L = 2; L = 2
€ B C
b+c a+c a+b

Length of the median

€
a 2 b 2 c2 a 2 b 2 c2 a 2 b 2 c2 3
m a2 = − + + ; m b2 =
4 2 2 2
− + ; mc 2 =
4 2 2
+ −
2 4 4
(
and m a 2 + m b 2 + mc 2 = a2 + b 2 + c2 )
Orthocentre and pedal triangle
The triangle KLM which is formed by joining the feet of the altitudes is called the pedal triangle
1. Distance of orthocenter from A, B, C
€ OA = 2R cos A; OB = 2R cos B; OC = 2R cosC
2. Distance of orthocenter (O) from sides
yBC = 2R cos B cos C; yAC = 2R cos A cosC; y AB = 2R cos A cos B
3. Side of the pedal triangle ML = a cos A; KL = c cosC; KM = b cos B
€
4. Angle of the pedal triangle ∠K = π − 2A; ∠L = π − 2B; ∠M = π − 2C
5. Circumradius of ΔOBC, ΔOAC, ΔOAB, ΔABC is same as Circumradius of triangle ABC is R
€
R
6. Circumradius of€ pedal triangle R pedal =
€ 2
Remark: Point O which act as orthocenter in triangle ABC is acting as incentre for triangle KLM
€
Ex-central Triangle:
€
 point I which act as incentre for triangle ABC will act as orthocenter for ΔI1 I2 I 3
π A π B π C
1. Angle of ΔI1 I2 I 3 ∠I1 = − ; ∠I2 = − ; ∠I 3 = −
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C
2. I1 I = 4 R sin ; I2 I = 4 R sin ; I 3 I = 4 R sin €
2 2 2
C A B
3. €
Sides of the ex-central triangle
€ I1 I2 = 4R cos ; I 3 I2 = 4 R cos ; I 3 I1 = 4 R cos
2 2 2
4. Circumradius of ΔI1 I2 I 3 is 2R where R is the circumradius of triangle ABC
€
Distances between the special points:
€
1. Distance between circumcentre and orthocenter = R 1− 8 cos A cos B cosC
€
2. Distance between circumcentre and incentre = R2 − 2Rr
3.  Distance  between  incentre  and  orthocenter  =   2r 2 − 4 R2 cos A cos B cos C  
  €
  €
€

  11  
  

Logarithms  
Development of Number System
Natural Nos. (N) = {1,2, 3,4………}
Whole Nos. (W) = {0,1,2, 3,4………}
Integers (I) = {0,±1,±2,±3,±4………}
p
Rational Nos.
€ (Q) = {x = ; p,q ∈ I, ( p,q ) = 1,q ≠ 0}
€ q
Terminating
€ Rational Nos. e.g. 1, 3.5, − 0.5
4
Non-terminating but repeating rational nos. e.g. 1.3 =
3
€
Irrational Nos. ( ∅ ) = Non-terminating but non-repeating nos. e.g. π = 3.14159265………, 2 = 1.4142135………, 3, e
€
Real Nos. (R) = Rational and Irrational Numbers = Q + ∅
Remark: Positive x > 0, non - negative € x ≥ 0, negative x < 0, non - positive x ≤ 0
--zero€is neither positive nor negative
€
--zero is considered as even number
€
Prime Nos.: Every natural number except 1 has at least two factors. If a number have exactly two factors then number is called
€
prime number. Prime numbers begins with 2.
Composite Number: Which have more than two factors
Co-prime /relatively prime: Two natural nos. are said to be co-prime whose H.C.F. is one
Twin Prime: Two prime numbers are twin primes whose difference is 2.
Remark: -- 2 is the only even prime no.
-- 1 is neither prime nor composite
Logarithms: rule to simplify arithmetic calculations
Def: Loga N = x ⇔ N = a x , provided N > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1
Read it as Log of the number ‘N’ to the base ‘a’ is equal to power ‘x’
Three important properties:
1. log a M + log a N = log a MN , M > 0, N > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1
€ M
2. log a M − log a N = log a , M > 0, N > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1
N
N
€ 3. log a M = N log a M , M > 0,a > 0,a ≠ 1
2 2
Remark: Re mark : log x 2 ≠ (log x ) , (log x ) = log2 x, log x 2 = 2 log x
€ Natural Logarithms: John Naparian(1614) invented a constant (e) is called Napier’s constant and e is an irrational constant. 2.7<
€ e < 2.8
loge 2 = ln 2, ln e = 1, log10 3 = 0.4771, ln 2 = 0.693, log10 2 = 0.3010, ln10 = 2.303
€
Fundamental Identity: alog a N = N , N > 0, a > 0, a ≠ 1
Note: a x = e x ln a , x x = e x ln x
€ Base Changing Theorem: It states that the quotient of logarithm of two numbers is independent of their common base. i.e.
log B m
log n m = €
log B n
€
1
Remark: 1. log b a log a b = 1 and log b a =
log a b
€ 2. log b a logc b log d c = log d a
3. alog c b = blog c a
Logarithmic
€ Inequalities:
I. log a x > log a y ⇔ x > y, when a > 1, x, y > 0
€
€ II. log a x > log a y ⇔ 0 < x < y, when 0 < a < 1, x, y > 0
Graphs:
€
€

  12  
  

Characteristic and Mantissa of a logarithm:

n = m ×10 p ⇒ log n = p + log m, p is an int eger & 1 ≤ m ≤ 10 ⇒ 0 ≤ log m < 1
The integral part is known as characteristic and the decimal part is called mantissa.
log n = characteristic + mantissa
Algorithm: 1. Obtain the number
€ 2. write it in decimal form of it is not given in the decimal form.
3. if n ≥ 1, then obtain its characteristic by using the formula, char = (number of digits to the left of the decimal point) – 1
€ if n<1, char = –(Number of zeroes between the decimal point and the first non-zero digit of number + 1)
Significant digits: The digits used to compute the mantissa of a given number are called its significant digits.
Algorithm: 1. Obtain the given number.
€ 2. obtain the number formed by the significant digits in the given number.
3. consider first two digits in the number obtained in step-2
4. look in the row starting with the number obtained in step-3 in the log table
5. now, look at the number in the column headed by the third significant digit. If there is no third significant digit, then look at the
number column headed by zero.
6. In the same row move to the column of mean difference and look under the column headed by the fourth significant digit.
Obtain the number there and add this number to the number got in step-5. This is the required mantissa
Antilogarithm:
If log2 8 = 3 , antilog of 3 to the base 2 = 2 3
Algorithm: 1. Obtain the number
2. determine whether the decimal part of the given number is positive or negative. If it is negative make it positive by adding one
to the decimal part and by subtracting
€ 1 from the integral part.
€
e.g. –2.5983 = -2 - 0.5983 = - 2 – 1 + 1 – 0.5983 = -3 + 0.4017 = 3.4017
3. In the antilog table, look into the row containing the first two digits in the decimal part of the given number.
4. In the row obtained in step-3 look at the number in the column headed by the third digit in decimal part.
5. In the row chosen in step-3, move in the column of mean difference and look at the number in the column headed by the fourth
€
digit in the decimal part. Add this number to the number obtained in step-4
6.  To  obtain  integral  part  (char.)  of  the  given  number.  If  the  characteristic  is  positive  and  is  equal  to  n,  
then  insert  the  decimal  point  after  (n+1)  digits  in  the  number  obtained  in  step-­‐5.  If  char.  Is  negative  
and  is  equal  to  –n  or   n  then  on  the  right  side  of  the  decimal  point  write  (n-­‐1)  consecutive  zeroes  and  
the  write  the  number  obtained  in  step-­‐5  
 
  €

Quadratic  Equations  
Polynomial: Expression in the form of
* If coefficient are imaginary then it is not polynomial
Constant Polynomial If , Monomial
Linear Polynomial If , Binomial
Quadratic Polynomial If , Trinomial,
Where ‘a’ is called leading coefficient of trinomial because it decides the nature of graph and ‘c’ is called absolute term (constant
term)
For various values of a, b, c if we plot the graph between a and y for the function then six different shapes(parabola) of the curves
can be found.
Quadratic Equation: Quadratic polynomial when equated to zero is called quadratic equation i.e.
ax 2 + bx + c = 0, a,b,c ∈ R, a ≠ 0
−b + D −b − D
Roots are x1 = ; x2 = ; D = b 2 − 4ac , where D is discriminant because it decides the nature of roots with
2a 2a
€ actually determines the roots
Nature of Roots:
If a,b,c ∈ R
€
1. D > 0 ⇔ roots are real and distinct
2. D = 0 ⇔ roots are real and equal
€ 3. D < 0 ⇔ roots are complex conjugate of each other
If a,b,c ∈ Q
1. D is a perfect square ⇔ roots are rational
€ 2. If x1 = p + q q ∈ Q + , then x2 = p − q
€ b c
Sum of roots (S) = x1 + x2 = − ; Product of roots (P) = x1 x2 =
a a
€ Formation of Equation: If x1 and x2 are roots then x 2 − (sum of roots) x + product of roots = 0

€
  13  
€ €
  

Remark: 1. Two necessary and sufficient condition for a quadratic polynomial to be always positive is
a > 0 and D < 0
2. Two necessary and sufficient condition for a quadratic polynomial to be negative is a < 0 and D < 0
b D
The Maximum or Minimum of a quadratic poly. Is obtained at x = − ; ymin/max = −
2a 4a
€ Note: 1. If exactly one root of quadratic equation is zero, then P = 0 ⇒ c = 0
€
2. Both the roots of quadratic equation are zero, then S = 0 & P = 0
3. If one root is infinite, then a = 0,b ≠ 0, f ( x ) = bx + c
€
4. When both roots of quadratic equation are infinite € , then a = 0, b = 0, c ≠ 0, f ( x ) = c
Note: A quadratic equation cannot have more € than two distinct roots but if it has then it becomes an identity
Symmetric Functions: € If f (α , β ) = f (β , α ) then f (α, β ) denotes the symmetric function of the roots.
Every symmetric function in α, β can be expressed € in terms of two symmetric functions α + β, and αβ
Condition of common roots:
2
1. If two quadratic€ equations have a common € root, then (a1b2 − a2 b1 )(b1c2 − b2 c1 ) = (a1c2 − a1c2 )
€ a b c €
2. If both roots are common, then 1 = 1 = 1
a2 b2 c2
Find the condition such that the general equation € of degree 2 in two variables can resolve into two linear factors.
General equation of degree 2 is f ( x, y) = ax + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0
2

General equation of degree € 2 can represents pair of straight lines or circle or parabola or ellipse or hyperbola.
To represent pair of straight line D = abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg2 − ch 2 = 0
Theory of Equations:€It deals with the relation between the coefficients and the roots of the equation.
Consider a cubic equation ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0 having three roots x1, x2 & x 3 , then

∑ € one at a time = − b
x1 = sum of roots taking
a
€ c
∑ x1 x2 = sum of roots taking two at a time =
a
€

d
∏ x1 = product of roots = −
a
Location of Roots:
Profile 1: To find the condition when both roots of Q. E. are greater than a specified number ‘d’
b
€ Case I : a > 0, then D ≥ 0, f (d ) > 0,− >d
2a
b
Case II : a < 0, then D ≥ 0, f (d ) < 0,− >d
2a
Profile 2: To find the condition when both the roots lie either side of a specified number i.e. one root is greater than ‘d’ and other
root is less than ‘d’ i.e. ‘d’ lie in between both the roots.
Case I : a > 0, then f (d ) < 0
€
Case II : a < 0, then f (d ) > 0
Profile 3: to find the condition when both the roots of Q. E. are lie between two specified numbers ‘d’ and ‘e’, where d < e
b
Case I : a > 0, then D ≥ 0, f (d ) > 0, f (e) > 0, d < − <e
2a
€
b
Case II : a < 0, then D ≥ 0, f (d ) < 0, f (e) < 0, d < − <e
2a
Profile 4: To find the condition when one root is greater than ‘e’ and other root is less than ‘d’, where d < e
Case I : a > 0, then f (d ) < 0, f (e) < 0
€ Case II : a < 0, then f (d ) > 0, f (e) > 0
Profile 5: To find the condition when exactly one root lie in the interval (d, e)
Case I : a > 0, then f (d ) f (e) < 0
 
€ Case II : a < 0, then f (d ) f (e) < 0
 
 
€
 
 
 
  14  
  

Sequence  and  Series  

Sequence: A sequence is a set of terms which may be algebraic, real or complex numbers written according to definite rule and
the series thus formed is called progression.
Note: minimum number of terms in a sequence should by 3.
Arithmatic Progression: It is a sequence whose terms increase or decrease by a fixed number. This fixed number is called
common difference. If ‘a’ is the first term and ‘d’ is the common difference, then the standard appearance of an AP is
a, a + d, a + 2d, ………………
Tn = a + (n −1)d , In case, no. of terms in the series is ‘n’, then this term represents last term (l) , l = a+ (n-1)d
1. If d>0, then AP is increasing. 2. If d<0, then decreasing AP. 3. If d=0, all terms remains same
n n
€ Sum of n terms of an AP Sn = (2a + (n −1)d ) = (a + l )
2 2
€
n(n +1)
Note: 1. Sum of first n natural numbers, S =
2
2
2. Sum of first n € odd natural numbers, Sn = n
3. Sum of first n even natural numbers, Sn = n(n +1)
€ a+b a + a +………an
Arithmetic Mean b/w a & b, then A.M . = A = , Arithmetic Mean b/w a1, a2 ,………an , A = 1 2
€ 2 n
Note: 1. Sum of n AM’s between ‘a’ and ‘b’ is equal to n times the single AM between them.
2. If number of terms are even, €then it can be assume as 2n
3. If number of terms are odd, then it can be assume as 2n+1 or 2n – 1
Highlights on AP: 1. If each€ term of an AP is increased, decreased, € multiplied or divided by the same non-zero number, then the
resulting sequence is also an AP
2. Three numbers in AP can be taken as a − d,a, a + d
four numbers in AP can be taken as a − 3d,a − d,a + d,a + 3d
3. The sum of 2 terms of an AP equidistant from beginning and end is constant and is equal to sum of first term and last term.
4. In any series n th term is equal to Tn = Sn − Sn−1
€
a+c
5. If a, b, c are in AP, then€b =
2
Geometric
€ Progression (GP): It is q sequence of numbers whose first term is non-zero and each of the succeeding term is equal
€
to te preceeding term multiplied by a constant. In a GP the ratio of successive terms s constant and this constant factor is called as
T
common ratio and€is given by r = n
Tn−1
Standard appearance of GP is, a, ar, ar 2 , ar 3 ,……………
General Term Tn = ar n−1 or l = ar n−1
Sum of n terms of a€GP whose first term is ‘a’ and common ratio is ‘r’

If r > 1 Sn =
(
a r n −1
€ )
and If r < 1, Sn =
( )
a 1− r n
€ r −1 1− r
a
Sum of infinite GP, when r < 1, then S∞ =
1− r
1
€ Geometric Mean (GM) between a and b is G.M . = G = ab , GM between n terms a1, a2 ………an is G = (a1a2 ……an ) n
Note: Product of € ‘n’ GM’s inserted between 2 positive quantities is equal to the n th power of the single G.M. between them.
Highlights of G.P.: 1. If each€term of a GP be multiplied or divided by the same non-zero quantity then resulting sequence is also
a GP. €
a €
2. Any 3 consecutive terms of a GP can be taken as ,a,ar €
r
a a
Any 4 consecutive terms of a GP can be taken as 3 , , ar, ar 3
r r
3. If a, b, c are in GP, then b2 = ac and log€ a, log b, log c are in AP
Tn
4. r =
Tn−1 €
Arithmetic Geometric€ Series:
€
Standard appearance a, (a + d )r, (a + 2d )r,……………(a + (n −1)d )r n−1 , then sum of all terms
€
S=
a
+
(
dr 1− r n−1
−
)
(a + (n −1)d )r n
2
1− r (1− r ) 1− r
a € dr
S∞ = + , r <1
1− r (1− r )2
€ Harmonic Progression (HP): A sequence is said to be in HP if the reciprocal of its terms are in AP.

€   15  
  

1 1 1 1
Standard appearance , , ,………
a a + d a + 2d a + (n −1)d
2ab
Harmonic mean (HM) between ‘a’ and ‘b’ is, H.M . = H =
a+b
Note: The sum of reciprocal of n HM’s between two terms is equal to n times the reciprocal of single HM between a & b.
Thm: If A, €G, H are AM, GM and HM between 2 positive numbers a and b, then
(i) G 2 = AH or A,G, H are in GP€(ii) A ≥ G ≥ H
Standard Formulae:
n(n +1)
1. ∑
n = 1+ 2 + 3 + 4 +………+ n =
2
€
n(n +1)(2n +1)
2. ∑
n2 = 12 + 2 2 + 32 + 4 2 +………+ n2 =
6
2
€ ⎛ n ( ) ⎞ = n 2
n +1
3. ∑
n 3 = 13 + 2 3 + 33 + 4 3 +………+ n 3 = ⎜
⎝ 2 ⎠
⎟ (∑ )
€

Determinants
a1 b1
1. The symbol is called the determinant of order two. Its value is given by: D = a1b2 − a 2b1
a2 b2
a1 b1 c1
b2 c 2 b c b c
2. The symbol a 2 b2 c 2 is called the determinant of order three. Its value can be found as D = a1 − a2 1 1 + a3 1 1
€ b3 c 3 b3 c 3 b2 c 2
€ a 3 b3 c 3
3. Following examples of short hand writing large expressions are:
a1 b1 c1
(i) The€lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0, a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 = 0 & a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 = 0 are concurrent€if, a 2 b2 c 2 = 0
a 3 b3 c 3
Condition for the consistency of three simulataneous linear equations in 2 variables.
€ a h g
(ii) ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 represents a pair of straight lines if: abc +€2 fgh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch 2 = 0 = h b f
g f c
x1 y1 1
€ (iii) Area of a triangle whose vertices are ( x r , y r ); r = 1,2,3 is D = 1 x 2 y 2 1 . If D=0 then the three points are collinear.
2
€ x3 y3 1
x y 1
(iv) Equation of a straight line passing
€ through ( x1, y1) & ( x 2 , y 2 ) is x1 y1 1 = 0
€ x2 y2 1
MINORS: The minor of a given element of a determinant is the determinant of the elemens which remain after deleting the row
b2 c 2 a c
& column in which the given element stands. For example, the minor of a1 is & the minor of b2 is 1 1
€ b3 c 3 a3 c3
Hence a determinant or order two will have “4 minors” & a determinant of order three will have “9 minors”
COFACTOR:
If Mij represents the minor of some typical element then the cofactor€ is€ defined as: Cij=(-)i+jM€
ij; where i & j denotes the row &
€
column in which the particular element lies. Note that the value of a determinant of order three in terms of ‘Minor’ & ‘Cofactor’
can be written as: D = a11M 11 − a12 M 12 + a13 M 13 or D = a11C11 + a12C12 + a13C13 & so on ……
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS:
1. The value of a determinant remains unaltered, if the rows & columns are interchanged. e.g. if
a1 €b1 c1 a1 a 2 a3
D = a 2 b2 c 2 = b1 b2 b3 = D' = DT
a 3 b3 c 3 c1 c 2 c3
D & D’ are transpose of each other. If D’= - D then it is Skew Symmetric determinant but D’ = DD=0Skew Symmetric
determinant of third order has the value zero.
€
2. If any two rows(or cols) of a determinant be interchanged, the value of determinant is changed in sign only. e.g.

  16  
  

a1 b1 c1 a 2 b2 c 2
Let D = a 2 b2 c 2 & D' = a1 b1 c1 Then D’ = - D
a 3 b3 c 3 a 3 b3 c 3
a1 b1 c1
3. If a determinant has any two rows (or cols) identical, then its value is zero. e.g. Let D = a 2 b2 c 2 then it can be verified
€ € a 3 b3 c 3
that D=0
4. If all the elements of any row (or col) be multiplied by the same number, then the determinant is multiplied by that number.
a1 b1 c1 Ka1 Kb1 Kc1 €
Let D = a 2 b2 c 2 and D' = a 2 b2 c 2 then D’ = KD
a 3 b3 c 3 a3 b3 c3
5. If each element of any row (or col) can be expressed as a sum of two terms then the determinant can be expressed as the sum
a1 + x b1 + y c1 + z a1 b1 c1 x y z
€ of two determinants.
€ e.g. a2 b2 c 2 = a 2 b2 c 2 + a 2 b2 c 2
a3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 c 3 a 3 b3 c 3
6. The value of a determinant is not altered by adding to the elements of any row (or col) the same multiples of the
a1 b1 c1
corresponding elements
€ of any other row
€ (or col). e.g.
€ Let D = a 2 b2 c 2 &
a 3 b3 c 3
a1 + la 2 + ma 3 b1 + lb2 + mb3 c1 + lc 2 + mc 3
D' = a2 b2 c2 . Then D’ = D
a3 b3 c3 €
Note: while applying this property atleast one row (or col) must remain unchanged.
7. MULTIPLICATION OF TWO DETERMINANTS:
a1 b1 l1 m1 a l +b l a1m1 + b1m2
€ (i) * = 11 1 2 Similarly two determinants of order three are multiplied.
a 2 b2 l 2 m2 a 2 l1 + b2 l 2 a 2 m1 + b2 m2
a1 b1 c1 A1 B1 C1
(ii) If D = a 2 b2 c 2 ≠ 0 then, D 2 = A2 B2 C 2 where Ai, Bi, Ci are cofactors
€ a 3 b3 c 3 A3 B3 C 3
8. SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATION (IN TWO VARIABLES):
(i) Consistent Equations: Define & unique solution [Intersecting Lines]
(ii) Inconsistent Equation: No Solution [Parallel Lines]
€ €
(iii) Dependent Equation: Infinite Solutions [Identical Lines]
a1 b1 c1
Let a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 & a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 = 0 then: = ≠ ⇒ Given equations are inconsistent
a 2 b2 c 2
a1 b1 c1
= = ⇒ Given equations are dependent
a 2 b2 c 2
€
9. CRAMER’S RULE: [Simultaneous
€ Equations Involving Three Unknowns]
D1 D D
Let a1 x + b1 y + c1z = d1, a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = d 2 , & a 3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = d 3 Then x = , y= 2, z= 3
D D D
€
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
Where D = a 2 b2 c 2 ; D1 = d 2 b2 c 2 ; D2 = a 2 d 2 c 2 & D3 = a 2 b2 d 2
€
a 3 b3 c 3 d 3 b3 c 3 a3 d 3 c3 € a3 b3 d 3
Note: (a) If D ≠ 0 and atleast one of D1, D2, D3 ≠ 0 , then the given system of equations are consistent and have unique non trivial
solution.
(b) If D ≠ 0 & D1 = D2 = D3 = 0 , then the given system of equations are consistent and have trivial solution only.
€ € € €
(c) If
€ D=D1=D2=D3=0, then the given system € of equations are consistent and have infinite solutions or represents parallel planes
then the system is inconsistent.
€ (d) If D=0 but atleast one of D1, D2, D3 is not zero then the equations are inconsistent and have no solution.
10. If x, y, z are not all zero, the condition for a1 x + b1 y + c1z = 0, a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z = 0, & a 3 x + b3 y + c 3 z = 0 to be consistent in x, y, z
a1 b1 c1
is that a 2 b2 c 2 = 0
a 3 b3 c 3 €
Remember that if a given system of linear equations have Only Zero solution for all its variables then the given equations are
said to have Trivial Solution.
€

  17  
  

Matrices
Definition: Rectangular array of mn numbers. Unlike determinants it has no value.
⎡ a11 a12 . . a1n ⎤ ⎛ a11 a12 . . a1n ⎞
⎢ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
⎢ a 21 a 22 . . a 2n ⎥ ⎜ a 21 a 22 . . a 2n ⎟
A = ⎢ . . . . . ⎥ or A = ⎜ . . . . . ⎟
⎢ ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
⎢ . . . . . ⎥ ⎜ . . . . . ⎟
⎢⎣ a m1 a m2 ⎥ ⎜ ⎟
. . a mn ⎦ ⎝ a m1 a m2 . . a mn ⎠

Abbreviated as: A = [a ij ] 1 ≤ i ≤ m ; 1 ≤ j ≤ n, i denotes the row and j denotes the column is called a matrix of order m × n
€ Special Type of Matrices:
€
(a) Row Matrix: (or row vectors) A = [a11,a12 ,........a1n ] having one row (1× n) matrix
⎡ a11 ⎤ €
€ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ a 21 ⎥
(b) Column Matrix: (or column
€ matrix) A = ⎢. ⎥ having one €
column ( m × 1) matrix
⎢ ⎥
⎢. ⎥
⎢⎣ a m1 ⎥⎦
€ ⎡ 0 0⎤
(c) Zero or Null Matrix: ( A = Om×n ) An m × n matrix all whose entries are zero. A = ⎢ 0 0⎥ is a 3× 2 null matrix.
⎢ ⎥
€ ⎢⎣ 0 0⎥⎦
⎡13 12 31 41⎤
(d) Horizontal Matrix: a matrix€of order m × n is a horizontal matrix if n>m ⎢ € ⎥
€ ⎣ 21 51 11 31⎦
€⎡ 21 32⎤
⎢ ⎥
12 34⎥
(e) Vertical Matrix: A matrix of order
€ m × n is a vertical matrix if m>n ⎢
€ ⎢ 45 56⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 67 43⎦
(f) Square Matrix: (order n) If€ number of ros = number of columnsa square matrix.
Note: (i) In a square matrix the pair of elements aij & aji are called conjugate elements.
(ii) The elements a11, a22, a33, …..ann are called Diagonal Elements. The line along which the diagonal elements lie is called
€
“Principal or Leading diagonal”. The quantity ∑
a ii = trace of the matrix written as, i.e. tr(A)

Note: Min. number of zeroes in a diagonal matrix of order n=n(n-1)

It is noted that with square matrix there is a corresponding determinant formed by the elements of A in the same order.
Equality of Matrices:
Let A=[aij] & B=[bij] are equal if, (i) both have the same order (ii) aij=bij for each pair of i & j
Algebra of Matrices:
Addition: A+B=[aij+bij] where A & B are of the same type (same order)
(a) Addition of matrices is commutative. i.e. A+B=B+A
(b) Matrix addition is associative i.e. (A+B)+C=A+(B+C) A,B,C are of same type
(c) Additive inverse, if A+B=O=B+A

  18  
  

Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar:

⎡ a b c ⎤ ⎡ ka kb kc ⎤
If A = ⎢ b c a⎥; ⎢ ⎥
kA = ⎢ kb kc ka ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ c a b⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ kc ka kb⎥⎦
Multiplication of Matrices: (Row by Column)
AB exists if, A = m × n & B = n × p but BA does not exist ⇒ AB ≠ BA
€ Note: In the product AB, A=pre factor and B=post factor
⎡b1 ⎤
⎢ ⎥
€ ⎢b2 ⎥ €
A=(a1, a2, a3,……..an) & B = ⎢. ⎥ AB = [ a1b1 + a 2b2 + ....... + a n bn ]
⎢ ⎥
⎢. ⎥
⎢⎣bn ⎥⎦
€ n
If A = [a ij ]m×n & , then ( AB) = ∑ a irbrj
ij
r =1
€
Properties of Matrix Multiplication:
⎡1 1⎤ ⎡1 0⎤ ⎡1 0⎤ ⎡1 1⎤
€ (a) Matrix multiplication is not commutative. A = ⎢ ⎥ B = ⎢ ⎥ AB = ⎢ ⎥ BA = ⎢ ⎥ ⇒ AB ≠ BA(in general)
€ ⎣ 0 0⎦ ⎣ 0 0⎦ ⎣ 0 0⎦ ⎣ 0 0⎦
(b) If AB = O ⇒ A = O or B = O Note: If A and B are two non-zero matrices such that AB=O then A and B are called the divisors
of zero. Also is [AB]=O|AB|=0|A|=0 or |B|=0 but not the converse.
If A and B are two matrices such that€
€ (i) AB=BAA and B commute each other.
(ii) AB = - BAA and B anti commute each other
(c) Matrix multiplication is associative: (A.B).C=A.(B.C)
(d) Distributivity: A(B+C)=AB+AC (A+B)C=AC+BC
(e) Positive Integral powers of a square matrix: A 2 A = AAA = A 3
Note that for a unit matrix I of any order, Im=I for all m ∈ N
(f) Matrix Polynomial: If f ( x) = a 0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a 2 x n −2 + ............+ a n x 0 then we define a matrix polynomial.
f ( A) = a 0 A n + a1 A n −1 + a 2 A n −2 + ..........a n I n€where A is the given square matrix. If f(A) is the null matrix then A is called the zero
or root of the polynomial f(x). €
DEFINITIONS: €
IDEMPOTENT MATRIX: A square matrix is idempotent provided A2=A. Note that An=A ∀n ≥ 2, n ∈ N
€
NILPOTENT MATRIX: A square matrix is said to be nilpotent matrix of order m, m ∈ N , if A m = O, A m −1 ≠ O
PERIODIC MATRIX: A square matrix is which satisfies the relation A k+! = A , for some positive integer K, is a periodic matrix.
The period of the matrix is the least value of K for which this holds true. €
Note that period of an idempotent matrix is 1. € €
INVOLUTARY MATRIX: If A 2 = I , the matrix is said to be€an involuntary matrix.
Note that A = A −1 for an involuntary matrix.
TRANSPOSE of a MATRIX: (Changing rows and columns)
Let A be any matrix. Then
€ A=aij of order m × n ⇒ A or A' = [a ji ] for 1 ≤ i ≤ n & 1 ≤ j ≤ m of order n × m
T

Properties
€ of Transpose: If A T & B T denote the transpose of A and B
T
(a) ( A ± B) = A T ± B T ; note that A & B have the same order.
T
(b) ( AB) = B T A T ; A & B are €
conformable for matrix product AB.
T €
€
(c) A T( ) =A
T
(d) ( kA) = kA T ; k is a scalar
€
T
General: ( A1 A2 .........An ) = An T ..............A2T A1T (reversal law for transpose)
€ Symmetric & Skew Symmetric Matrix:
€ A square matrix A=[aij] is said to be, symmetric is aij=aji ∀ i & j (conjugate elements are equal) (Note A=AT)
n( n + 1)
Note: Max. number of distinct entries in a symmetric matrix of order n is
€
2
and Skew Symmetric if, a ij = a ji ∀ i & j (the€pair of conjugate elements are additive inverse of each other) (Note A = −A T )
Hence If A is skew symmetric, then a ii = −a ii ⇒ a ii = 0 ∀ i
Thus the diagonal elements of a skew symmetric matrix is all are€zero, but not the converse.
Properties of Symmetric
€ and Skew Symmetric Matrix: €
(a) A is symmetric if AT=A€ and A is skew symmetric if AT= - A
(b) A+AT is symmetric matrix, A – AT is a skew symmetric matrix.
(c) The sum of two symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix and the sum of two skew symmetric matrix is a skew symmetric.
(d) If A & B are symmetric matrices then , AB+BA is a symmetric and AB – BA is a skew symmetric matrix.
(e) Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.

  19  
  

1 1
A=
2
( ) (
A + AT + A − AT
2
)
ADJOINT of a SQUARE MATRIX:
⎡ a11 a12 a13 ⎤
€ Let A = [a ij ] = ⎢ a 21 a 22 a 23 ⎥ be a square matrix and let the matrix formed by the cofactors of [a ij ] in determinant |A| is
⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣ a 31 a 32 a 33 ⎥⎦
⎡ C11 C12 C13 ⎤ ⎡C11 C 21 C 31 ⎤
€ = C 21 C 22 C 23 . Then ( AdjA) = ⎢C12 C 22 C 32 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ €
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢⎣C 31€ C 32 C 33 ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣C13 C 23 C 33 ⎥⎦
Thm: A( AdjA) = ( AdjA) A = A I n , If A be a square matrix of order n.
Note: If A and B are non singular square matrices of same order, then
n −1
€ (i) AdjA = A € (ii) Adj ( AB) = ( AdjB)( AdjA) (Reversal Law) (iii) Adj ( kA) = k n −1( AdjA) , k is a scalar
€ Inverse of a Matrix (Reciprocal Matrix): A square matrix A said to be invertible (non singular) if there exists a matrix B such
that, AB = I = BA
€ B is called the
€ inverse (reciprocal) of A and is denoted by A . Thus
−1 −1
€ A = B ⇔ AB = I = BA
And also A −1 = AdjA
A
Note: The necessary and sufficient for a square matrix
€ A to €
be invertible is that A ≠ 0
−1
Thm.: If A & B are invertible matrices of the same order, then ( AB) = B −1 A −1 . This is reversal law of inverse.
€ −1
−1 T
Note: (i) If A be an invertible matrix, then A T is also invertible & A T ( )€ = ( A )
−1 k
−1
k −1
(ii) If A is invertible (a) A −1 ( ) = A; € (A ) = (A ) = A , k ∈ N
(b) −k

(iii) If A is an Orthogonal Matrix €AAT = I = A T A

€
(iv) A square matrix is said to be orthogonal is A −1 = A T
(v) A −1 = 1 € €
A €
SYSTEM OF EQUATION & CRITERIAN
€ FOR CONSISTENCY
GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD
€ AX = B ⇒ A −1 AX = A −1B

X = A −1B =
( AdjA) B
A
Note:
(i) If A ≠ 0 system is consistent having unique solution
€ (ii) If |A| ≠ 0 & ( AdjA) B ≠ O system is consistent having unique non-trivial solution
(iii) If |A| ≠ 0 & ( AdjA) B = O system is consistent having trivial solution
€ (iv) If |A|=0, matrix method fails
€ If (€AdjA) B = O Consistent (Infinite Solutions) (b) If ( AdjA) B ≠ O Inconsistent (No Solution)
(a)
€ €

€ €

Permutations and Combinations

DEFINITIONS:

1. PERMUTATION : Each of the arrangements in a definite order which can be made by taking some or all of a number of
things is called a PERMUTATION.
2. COMBINATION: Each of the groups or selections which can be made by taking some or all of a number of things without
reference to the order of the things in each group is called a COMBINATION.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING:
If an event can occur in 'm' different ways, following which another event can occur in n different ways, then the total number of
different ways of simultaneous occurrence of both events in a definite order is m x n. This can be extended to any number of
events.
RESULTS:
(i) A Useful Notation: n! = n(n-l)(n-2) 3. 2. 1 ; n! = n. (n- 1) !
0! = 1! = 1 ; (2n)! = 2n. n ! [1. 3. 5. 7...(2n- 1)]
Note that factorials of negative integers are not defined.
n!
(ii) If n Pr denotes the number of permutations of n different things, taking r at a time, then n Pr = n(n −1)(n − 2).......3.2.1 =
(n − r )!

€   20  
€
  

n
Note that, Pn = n!

(iii) If n Cr denotes the number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time, then
€ n
n n! P
Cr = = r where r ≤ n; n ∈ N and r ∈ W
r! (n − r )! r!
€ (iv) The number of ways in which (m + n) different things can be divided into two groups containing m & n

things respectively is :
(m + n)! . If m = n the groups are equal & in this case the number of subdivision is (2n)! ; for in any one
€ m!n! n!n!2!
way it is possible to interchange the two groups without obtaining a new distribution. However, if 2n things are to be divided
€
equally between two persons
(2n)!
€ then the number of ways n!n!
€ €
(v) Number of ways in which (m + n + p) different things can be divided into three groups containing m, n & p
things respectively is
(m + n + p)! , m ≠ n ≠ p .
m!n! p! €
If m = n = p then the number of groups =
( 3n)!
n!n!n!3!
However, if€3n things are to be divided equally among three people then the number of ways =
(3n)!
3
(n!)
(vi) The number of permutations € of n things taken all at a time when p of them are similar & of one type, q of
them are similar & of another type, r of them are similar & of a third type & the remaining n - (p + q + r) are all
n!
different is €
p!q!r!
(vii) The number of circular permutations of n different things taken all at a time is; (n −1)! If clockwise & anti-
(n −1)!
clockwise circular permutations are considered to be same, then it is
2
€
Note : Number of circular permutations of n things when p alike and the rest different taken all at a time
(n −1)! €
distinguishing clockwise and anticlockwise arrangement is
p!
€
(viii) Given n different objects, the number of ways of selecting atleast one of them is
n
C1 + n C2 + ............+ n Cn = 2 n −1 . This can also be stated as the total number of combinations of n distinct things.
(ix) Total number of ways in which it is possible to € make a selection by taking some or all out of
p + q + r +……. things, where p are alike of one kind, q alike of a second kind, r alike of third kind & so on is given by: (p+ l)(q+
l)(r+ 1) – 1
€ (x) Number of ways in which it is possible to make a selection of m + n + p = N things, where p are alike of one
kind, m alike of second kind & n alike of third kind taken r at a time is given by coefficient of x r in the
( )( )( )
expansion 1+ x + x 2 + ....... + x p 1+ x + x 2 + ...... + x m 1+ x + x 2 + ....... + x n
r −n n+r−1
Note : Remember that coefficient of x in (1− x ) = Cr (n ∈ N ) . For example the number of ways in which a selection of
€
four letters can be made from the letters of the word PROPORTION is given by coefficient of x 4 in
€ x + x 2 + x 3 1+ x + x 2 1+ x + x 2 (1+ x )3 .
(
1+ )( )( )
€
(xi) Number of ways in which n distinct
€ things can be distributed to p persons if there is no restriction to the
number of things received by men = p n €

€ (xii) Number of ways in which n identical things may be distributed among p persons if each person may
receive none, one or more things is; n+ p−1Cn
n
(xiii) a. Cr = n Cn−r ;
C n
n n n n
€0 = Cn = 1 (b) C x = C y ⇒ x = y or x + y = n; (c) Cr + Cr−1 = Cr
n n+1

n n +1 n -1
(xiv) n Cr is maximum if : (a) r = if n is even. (b) r = r= or if n is odd.
€ 2 2 2
(xv) Let N = p a q b r c .....where p,q,r..... are distinct primes & a, b, c are natural numbers then:
€
(a) The total numbers of divisors of N including 1 & N is = (a +1)(b +1)(c +1).........
€ ( )( )( )
(b) The sum of these divisors is p0 + p1 + p2 + .......p a q 0 + q1 + q 2 + ...... + q b r 0 + r 1 + r 2 + ........ + r c .........
€(c) Number of ways in which N can be resolved as a product of two
1 €
factors is = (a +1)(b +1)(c +1)....... if N is not a perfect square
2
€
1
= [(a +1)(b +1)(c +1).......] if N is a perfect square
2
(d) Number of ways in which a composite number N can be resolved into two factors which are relatively prime (or coprime) to
each other is equal to 2 n−1 where n is the number of different prime factors in N.
€
  21  
  

(xvi) Grid Problems and tree diagrams.

DEARRANGEMENT:
Number of ways in which n letters can be placed in n directed letters so that no letter goes into its own envelope is
⎡ 1 1 1 1 ⎤
= n!⎢ − + − .......+ (−1) n ⎥
⎣ 2! 3! 4! n!⎦
(xvii) Some times students find it difficult to decide whether a problem is on permutation or combination or both. Based on certain
words/phrases occuring in the problem we can fairly decide its nature as per the following table:
PROBLEMS OF COMBINATIONS
€ • Selections, choose
• Distributed group is formed
• Committee
• Geometrical problems
PROBLEMS OF PERMUTATIONS
• Arrangements
• Standing in a line seated in a row
• Problems on digits
• Problems on letters from a word

PROBABILITY
1. Sample-Space: The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.
2. Event: A subset of sample space is called an Event.
−
3. Complement of an Event A: The set of all outcomes which are in S but not in A and denoted by A or A c
4. Compound Event: If A & B are two given events then A ∩ B and denoted by A ∩ B or AB or A & B
5. Mutually Exclusive Events: Two events are said to be mutually exclusive( or disjoint or incompatible) if the occurrence of
one precludes (rules out) the simultaneous occurrence of the other. If A & B are two mutually exclusive events then P( A ∩ B) = 0
€
For eg. 1. Getting an ace and getting a king in a single
€ draw from a well shuffled
€ pack of 52 playing cards is ME
2. getting a queen and getting a heart in a single draw is the example of not ME
3. throwing a total of 7 and total of 11 in a single throw with a pair of dice are example of ME
4. throwing an even number and an odd number in a single throw of unbiased dice are ME but throwing an€even number and
throwing a prime number in a single throw are not ME
6. Equally Likely Events: Events are said to be Equally Likely when each event if as likely to occur as any other event.
For eg. 1. Dice rolled once, 6 equally likely events occur
2. If a coin is tossed once, 2 equally likely events occur
3. selecting a card from well shuffled pack of cards are 52 equally likely events occur
4. the pair of dice is rolled once then getting a total of 7 and getting a total of 2 are not equally likely.
7. Exhaustive Events: Events A, B, C,….. are said to be Exhaustive events of no event outside this set can result as an outcome
of an experiment. For example, if A & B are two events defined on a sample space S, then A & B are exhaustive
⇒ A ∪ B = S ⇒ P( A ∪ B) = 1
For eg. 1. If a dice is rolled once then we get 6 EL, ME, EE
2. If a coin is tossed once then 2 EL, ME, EE
3. If pair of dice is rolled once then we get 36 EL, ME, EE
€ 4. Getting Heart, Spade, Club, Diamond in a single draw from well shuffled pack of 52 playing cards are EL, ME, EE
8. Classical Definition of Probability: If n represents the total number of equally likely, mutually exclusive and exhaustive
outcomes of an experiment and m of them are favourable to the happening of the event A, then the probability of happening of the
event A is given by P(A)=m/n
Note: (a) 0 ≤ P( A) ≤ 1
( )
(b) P( A) + P A = 1 where A = A c
x y
(c) If x cases are favourable to A & y cases are favourable to A then P( A) =
€ x+y
( )
and P A =
x+y
We say that Odds in

€ favour of A are x:y & odds against A are y:x

Occurrence of Two Events: AUB=A+B=A or B denotes € occurrence of at least A or B for two events A & B.
€ €
( ) ( ) (
(i) P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B) − P( A ∩ B) = P A ∩ B + P A c ∩ B + P( A ∩ B) = 1 − P A c ∩ B c
c
)
(ii) Opposite of “atleast A or B” is Neither A nor B i.e. A + B = 1− ( A or B) = A ∩ B
( )
Note that P( A + B) + P A ∩ B = 1
€
(iii) If A & B are mutually exclusive then P( A ∪ B) = P( A) + P( B)
(iv) For any two events A & B, P(exactly one€of A, b occurs)
€
€
  22  
  

( ) ( )
= P A ∩ B + P B ∩ A = P( A) + P( B) − 2P( A ∩ B)

( ) (
= P( A ∪ B) − P ( A ∩ B) = P A c ∪ B c − P A c ∩ B c )
(v) If A & B are any two events P( A ∩ B) = P( A).P( B / A) = P( B).P( A / B) , where P(B/A)
means conditional probability of B given A & P(A/B) means conditional probability of A
€ given B.
(vi) De Morgan’s Law: If A & B are two subsets of a universal set U. then (a)
c € c
( AUB) = A c ∩ B c & (b) ( A ∩ B) = A cUB c
(vii) A ∪ ( B ∩C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪C ) & A ∩ ( B ∪C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩C )
Occurrence of Three Events:
€ (i) P( A or B or C
€) = P( A) + P( B) + P(C ) − P( A ∩ B) − P( B ∩C ) − P(C ∩ A) + P( A ∩ B ∩C )
€ (ii) P( at least two of A, B, C occur ) = P( B ∩C ) + P(C ∩ A) + P( A ∩ B) − 2P( A ∩ B ∩C )
(iii) P( exactly two of A, B, C occur ) = P( B ∩C ) + P(C ∩ A) + P( A ∩ B) − 3P( A ∩ B ∩C )
€ (iv) P( exactly one of A, B, C occur ) = P( A) + P( B) + P(C ) − 2P( B ∩C ) − 2P(C ∩ A) − 2P( A ∩ B) + 3P( A ∩ B ∩C )
€ Note: If three events A, B, & C are pairwise mutually exclusive then they must be ME i.e.
€ P( B ∩C ) = P(C ∩ A) = P( A ∩ B) = 0 ⇒ P( A ∩ B ∩C ) = 0 . However the converse of this not true.
€ INDEPENDENT EVENTS: Two evetns A & B are said to be independent if occurrence or non-occurrence of one does not effect
the probability of the occurrence or non-occurrence of other.
(i) If the occurrence of one event affects the probability of the occurrence of the other event then the events are said to be
€ Dependent Contingent. For two independent events A and B: P( A ∩ B) = P( A).P( B) . Often this is taken as the defintion of
independent events.
(ii) Three events A, B & C are independent if & only if all the following conditions hold; P( A ∩ B) = P( A).P( B) ;
P( B ∩C ) = P( B).P(C ) ; P(C ∩ A) = P(C ).P( A) & P €( A ∩ B ∩C ) = P( A).P( B).P(C ) i.e. they must be pairwise as well as mutually
independent.
n n n n n
Similarly for n events A1, A2 ,......An to be independent, the number of these conditions
€ to C 2 + C 3 + C 4 + ........+ C n = 2 − n −1
n r n −r
€ (iii) The probability
€ of getting exactly € ‘r’ success in ‘n’ independent trails is given by P( r ) = C r p q where p=probability
of success in a single trial & q= probability of failure in a single trial, note that p+q=1
Note: Independent
€ events are not in general mutually exclusive & vice verse. Mutually € exclusive can be used when the events are
taken from the same experiment & independence can be used when the events are taken from different experiments.
BAYE’s Theorem or Total Probability Theorem: €
If an event A can occue only with one of the n ME & EE B1, B2 ,.........Bn & the
probabilities P( A / B1),P( A / B2 )........P( A / Bn )
P( B1).P( A / B1)
are known then, P( B1 / A) = n
Note: A=event what we have;
€
€ ∑ P(B ).P( A / B )
i i
i=1
Bi=event what we want B1, B2, …..Bn are alternate evetns

STATISTICAL PROBABILITY
(i) € A probability distribution spells out how a total probability of 1 is distributed over several values of a random variable.

∑p x = p x
i i
(ii) Mean of any probability distribution of a random variable is given by: µ =
∑p i
∑ i i (since ∑ p = 1)
i

2
(iii) Variance of a random variable is given by σ 2 = ∑ ( x − µ)
i pi = ∑p x
i i
2
− µ 2 Note: Standard Deviation= SD = σ 2
(iv) The probability distribution for a binomial variate ‘X’ is given by P( X = r ) = n C r p r q n −r .
€
P( r + 1) n − r p
The recurrence formula = , is very helpful for quickly computing P(1), P(2), P(3) etc. €
if P(0) is known.
P( r ) r€+ 1 q €
(v) Mean of BPD=np; Variance of BPD=npq €
(vi) If p represents a persons chance of success in any venture and ‘M’ the sum of money which he will receive in case of
success, then his expectations or probable value =pM
€
GEOMETRICAL Applications:
The following statements are axiomatic:
(i) If a point is taken at random on a given St. line AB, the chance that it falls on a particular segment PQ of the line is PQ/AB
σ
(ii) If a point is taken at random on the area S which includes an area σ , the chance that the point falls on σ is
S

€
€
  23  
  

Complex Numbers
Definition:

Complex numbers are defined as expressions of the form a + ib where a,b ∈ R and i = −1 denoted by z i.e. z = a + ib . ‘a’
is called as real part of z Re(z) and ‘b’ is called as imaginary part z Im(z).

Every complex number can be regarded as

€ € € €
1. Purely Real if b=0 2. Purely Imaginary if a=0 3. Imaginary if b≠0
Note:

(a) The set of R of real numbers is a proper set subset of the complex numbers. Hence the complex number system is
N ⊂W ⊂ I ⊂Q⊂ R ⊂C €

(b) Zero if both purely real as well as purely imaginary but not imaginary.

(c) i = −1 is called the imaginary unit. Also i 2 = −1; i 3 = −i; i 4 = 1, etc.

(d) a b = ab only if atleast one of the either ‘a’ or ‘b’ is non-negative.

€ Conjugate Complex: €

€ If z = a + ib then its conjugate complex is obtained by changing the sign of its imaginary part is denoted by z . i.e. z = a − ib .

Note that: (i) z + z = 2Re( z) (ii) z − z = 2Im( z) (iii) zz = a 2 + b 2 which is real

€ (iv) If z lies in the 1st quadrant then z lies in the 4th quadrant and −z lies in the 2nd quadrant. € €
Algebraic
€ Operations: € €
The algebraic operations on complex numbers are similar to those on real numbers treating i as a polynomial. Inequalities in
complex are not defined.€There is no validity if we say€the complex number is positive or negative.

e.g. z>0, 4+2i<2+4i are meaningless.

However in real numbers if a 2 + b 2 = 0 then a = 0 = b but in complex numbers. z12 + z2 2 = 0 does not imply z1 = z2 = 0 .
Equality in Complex Number:

Two complex numbers

€ z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 are equal if and only if their real & imaginary parts coincide.
€ €
REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX NUMBER IN VARIOUS FORMS:

(a) Cartesian Form (Geometric Representation): Every complex number z = x + iy can he represented by a point on the
€
cartesian plane (Argand diagram) by the ordered pair (x, y).

length OP is called modulus of the complex number denoted by |z| and θ is called the argument or amplitude

⎛ y ⎞ €
2 2 −1
eg. | z |= x + y and θ = tan ⎜ ⎟ (angle made by OP with positive x-axis)
⎝ x ⎠
€
NOTE:

€ ⎡ z if z > 0
(i) |z| is always€non negative. Unlike real numbers | z |= ⎢ is not correct
⎣ −z if z < 0

(ii) Argument of a complex number is a many-valued function. If θ is the argument of a complex number then 2nπ + θ ; n ∈ I
will also be the argument of that complex number. Any two arguments of a complex number differ by 2nπ .

(iii) The unique value of θ €

such that −π < θ ≤ π is called the principal value of the argument.
€ € €
(iv) Unless otherwise stated, amp(z) implies principal value of the argument
€
€
  € 24  
  

(v) By specifying the modulus & argument a complex number is defined completely. For the complex number 0+0i the argument
is not defined and this is the only complex number, which is given by its modulus.

(vi) There exists a one-one correspondence between the points of the plane and the members of the set of complex numbers.

(b) Trigonometric/Polar Representation:

z = r(cosθ + i sin θ ) where | z |= r; arg( z) = θ ; z = r(cosθ − i sin θ )

Note: cosθ + i sin θ is also written as CiSθ

e ix +
€e −ix e ix − e −ix
Also cos x = and sin x = are also known as Euler’s identities.
2 2i
€ €
(c) Exponential Representation:

€ z = re iθ ; | z |= r; arg( z ) = θ ; z = re − iθ

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CONJUGATE/MODULI/AMPLITUDE:

If z,z1,z 2 ∈ C then;

z1 z
(a) z + z = 2Re( z); z − z = 2i Im( z); z = z; z1 + z 2 = z1 + z 2 ; z1 − z 2 = z1 − z 2 ; z1z 2 = z1 z 2 ; = 1 z ≠0
z2 z2 2
€

2 z1 z n
(b) z ≥ 0; z ≥ Re( z); z ≥ Im( z); z = z = −z ; zz = z ; z1z2 = z1 z2 ; = 1 , z2 ≠ 0; z n = z
€ z2 z2
2 2
[
z1 + z2 + z1 − z2 = 2 z1 + z2
2 2
]; z1 − z2 ≤ z1 + z2 ≤ z1 + z2 [Triangle Inequality]
€
(c) (i) amp( z1 .z2 ) = amp( z1 ) + amp( z2 ) + 2kπ,k ∈ I

⎛ z1 ⎞ €
(ii) amp⎜ ⎟ = amp( z1 ) − amp( z 2 ) + 2kπ , k ∈ I
⎝ z2 ⎠
€
(iii) amp( z n ) = n amp( z) + 2kπ , k ∈ I

€ where proper value of ‘k’ must be chosen so that RHS lies in (−π, π ]
VECTORIAL REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEX:
€
Every complex number can be considered as if it is the position vector of that point. If the point P represents the complex number
€
z then, OP = z and OP = z

NOTE:

€ (i) If OP = z = re iθ then OQ = z = re i(θ +φ ) = ze iφ . If OP and OQ are of unequal magnitude then OP = OQ e iφ

1
OP OQ

z4 − z3
€ (ii) If A, B, C and D are four points representing€the complex numbers
€ z1,z2 ,z3 and z4 then AB || CD if is purely
€ z2 − z1
real; €
z4 − z3
AB⊥CD if is purely imaginary €
z2 − z1 €

(iii) If z1,z2 ,z3 are the vertices of an equilateral triangle where z0 is its circum centre then

(a) z12 + z2 2 + z3 2 = z1z2 + z2 z3 + z3 z1 (b) z12 + z2 2 + z3 2 = 3z0 2

€ €
  25  
  

DEMOIVRE'S THEOREM:

Statement: cos nθ + isin nθ is the value or one of the values of (cosθ + isinθ ) n ∀n ∈ Q theorem is very useful in
determining the roots of any complex quantity

Note: Continued product of the roots of a complex quantity should be determined using theory of equations.
€ €
CUBE ROOT OF UNITY:

−1+ i 3 −1 − i 3
(i) The cube roots of unity are 1, ,
2 2
(ii) If ω is one of the imaginary cube roots of unity then 1+ ω + ω 2 = 0 . In general 1+ ω r + ω 2r = 0 ; where r ∈ I but is not
multiple of 3.
€
2π 2π 4π 4π
(iii) In polar form of the cube roots of unity are: cos0 + isin0; cos + isin ; cos + isin
€ € 3 € 3 3 € 3
(iv) The three cube roots of unity when plotted on the argand plane constitute the vertices of an equilateral triangle.

(v) The following factorization should be remembered: (a, b, c ∈ R and ω is the cube root of unity)
€
a 3 − b 3 = ( a − b)( a − bω )( a − bω 2 ) ; x 2 + x +1 = ( x − ω )( x − ω 2 ) ; a 3 + b 3 = ( a + b)( a + bω )( a + bω 2 )

a 3 + b 3 + c 3 − 3abc = ( a + b + c )( a + bω + c€
ω 2 )( a + €
bω 2 + cω )

n th ROOTS OF UNITY: € €

If 1, α1, α 2 ,........α n −1 are n, n th roots of unity then:

2π
i
(i) They are in G.P. with common ratio e n

€ € p
1p + α1 p + α 2 p + .......+ α n −1 = 0 if p is not integral multiple of n
(ii)
€ = n if p is an integral multiple of n

(iii) (1 − α1)(1 − α 2 )......(1 − α n −1) = n and (1+ α1)(1+ α 2 )......(1+ α n −1) = 0 if n is even and 1 if n is odd.
€ (iv) 1α1α 2 ........α n −1 = 1 or −1 according as n is odd or even.

€ THE SUM OFTHE FOLLOWING

€ SERIES SHOULD BE REMEMBERED:

€ ⎛ ( n +1)θ ⎞ ⎛ nθ ⎞
cos⎜ ⎟ sin⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
(i) cosθ + cos 2θ + cos 3θ + ..........cos nθ =
θ
sin
2
⎛ ( n +1)θ ⎞ ⎛ nθ ⎞
sin⎜ ⎟ sin⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
€ (ii) sin θ + sin 2θ + sin 3θ + ..........sin nθ =
θ
sin
2
2π
Note: If θ= then the sum of the above series vanishes.
n
€
STRAIGHT LINES & CIRCLES IN TERMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS:

nz1 + mz2
€ (A) If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers then the complex number z = divides the joins of z1 and z 2 in the
m+n
ratio m:n

  26  
€ €
  

Note:

(i) If a, b, c are three real numbers such that az1 + bz2 + cz3 = 0 ;

where a + b + c = 0 and a,b,c are not all simultaneously zero, then the complex numbers z1,z2 and z3 are collinear.

(ii) If the vertices A, B, C of a triangle

€ represent the complex nos. z1,z2 and z3 respectively. then:
z1 + z2 + z3 €
(a) Centroid of the triangle ABC =
3
€
z1asec A + z2bsec B + z3c secC z tan A + z2 tan B + z3 tanC
(b) Orthocentre of the triangle ABC = or 1
asec A + bsec B + c secC tan A + tan B + tanC
€
az1 + bz2 + cz3
(c) Incentre of the triangle ABC =
a+b+c
€
z1 sin2A + z2 sin2B + z3 sin2C
(d) Circumcentre of the triangle ABC =
sin2A + sin2B + sin2C
€
(B) amp( z) = θ is a ray emanating from the origin inclined at an angle to the x-axis.

(C) z − a = z − b is the perpendicular

€ bisector of the line joining a to b.

€ (D) The equation of a line joining z1 and z2 is given by z = z1 + t ( z1 − z2 ) where ‘t’ is a parameter.

€ (E) z = z1 (1+ it ) where ‘t’ is a real parameter is a line through the point z1 and perpendicular to Oz1
€ € z z 1
(F) The equation of a line passing through z1 and z 2 can be expressed in the determinant form as z1 z1 1 = 0 . This is also
€ € €
z2 z2 1
the condition for three complex numbers to be collinear.
€ line through two given points
(G) Complex equation of a straight z1 and z2 can be written as
( )
z z1 − z2 − z( z1 − z2 ) + z1 z2 − z1z2 = 0 , which on manipulating takes the form as α z€+ α z + r = 0 where ‘r’ is real and α
is a non zero complex constant.
€
(H) The equation of circle having centre z0 and radius ρ is: z − z0 = ρ or zz − z0 z − z0 z + z0 z0 − ρ 2 = 0 which is of the
€ €
form zz + α z + α z + r = 0 , ‘r’ is real centre −α and radius αα − r . Circle will be real if αα − r ≥ 0

€ € € €
€ € € €
(I) The equation of the circle described on the line segment joining z1 and z2 as diameter is:

⎛ z − z2 ⎞ π
arg⎜ ( ) (
⎟ = ± or ( z − z1 ) z − z2 + ( z − z2 ) z − z1 = 0
⎝ z − z1 ⎠ 2
)
€

(J) Condition for four given points z1,z2 , z3 and z4 to be concyclic is, the number
(z3 − z1) (z4 − z2 ) is real. Hence the
€ (z3 − z2 ) (z4 − z1)
equation of a circle 3 non collinear points z1 ,z2 and z3 can be taken as
(z − z2 ) (z3 − z1) is real. or
€ (z − z1) (z3 − z2 )
(z − z2 ) (z3 − z1) =
( ) (z
z − z2 3 )
− z1 €
(z − z ) (z − z ) (z − z €) (z
1 3 2 1 3 −z )2
€

  27  
  

Reflection points for a straight line:

Two given points P & Q are the reflection points for a given straight line if the given line is the right bisector of the segment PQ.
Note that the two points denoted by the complex numbers z1 and z 2 will be the reflection points for the straight line
α z + α z + r = 0 if and only if; α z1 + α z2 + r = 0 , where ‘r’ is real and α is non zero complex constant.
PTOLEMY'S THEOREM:
€
It states that the product of the lengths of the diagonals of a convex
€ quadrilateral inscribed in a circle is equal to the sum of the
€
lengths of the two pairs of its opposite sides. i.e. z1 − z 3 z 2 − z 4 = z1 − z 2 z 3 − z 4 + z1 − z 4 z 2 − z 3

LOGARITHM OF A COMPLEX QUANTITY:

1 ⎛ β ⎞
(i) Loge (α + iβ) = log e (α 2 + β€2 ) + i⎜ 2nπ + tan −1 ⎟ where n ∈ I
2 ⎝ α ⎠
⎛ π ⎞
−⎜ 2nπ + ⎟
i ⎝ 2 ⎠
(ii) i represents a set of positive real numbers given by e , n∈I
€

€ €

Functions
Things to Remember:
1. General Definition:
If to every value (Considered as real unless other-wise stated) of a variable x, which belongs to some collection (Set) E, there
corresponds one and only one finite value of the quantity y, then y is said to be a function (Single valued) of x or a dependent
variable defined on the set E; x is the argument or independent variable.
If to every value of x belonging to some set E there corresponds one or several values of the variable y, then y is called a multiple
valued function of x defined on E. Conventionally the word "FUNCTION" is used only as the meaning of a single valued
function, if not otherwise stated.
Pictorially:

y is called the image of x & x is the pre-image of y under f.

Every function from AB satisfies the following conditions.
(i) f ⊂ A × B (ii) ∀a ∈ A ⇒ (a, f (a)) ∈ f and (iii) (a,b) ∈ f & (a,c) ∈ f ⇒ b = c

2. DOMAIN, CO-DOMAIN & RANGE OF A FUNCTION:

Let f: AB, then the set A is known as the domain of f & the set B is known as co-domain. The set of all f images of elements of
€
A is known as the range of f. Thus, Domain of f = {a | a ∈ A, (a, f (a)) ∈ f } Range of f = { f (a) | a ∈ A, f (a) ∈ B} It should be
noted that range is a subset of co-domain. If only the rule of function is given then the domain of the function is the set of those
real numbers, where function is defined. For a continuous function, the interval from minimum to maximum value of a function
gives the range.
€ €
3. IMPORTANT TYPES OF FUNCTIONS :

(i) POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION :

If a function f is defined by f ( x ) = a0 x n + a1 x n−1 + ax n−2 + ........ + an−1 x + an where n is a non negative integer and a0 , a1, a2 ,.......an
are real numbers and a0 ≠ 0 , then f is called a polynomial function of degree n.
NOTE : (a) A polynomial of degree one with no constant term is called an odd linear function, i.e. f ( x ) = ax, a ≠ 0
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞ €
(b) There are two € polynomial functions, satisfying the relation; f ( x ) f ⎜ ⎟ = f ( x ) + f ⎜ ⎟ . They are :
€ ⎝ x ⎠ ⎝ x ⎠
(i) f ( x ) = x n +1 & (ii) f ( x ) = 1− x n , where n is a positive integer. €

(ii) ALGEBRAIC FUNCTION : €

y is an algebraic function of x, if it is a function that satisfies an algebraic equation of the form
€ €
P0 ( x ) y n + P1 ( x ) y n−1 + .........+ Pn−1 ( x ) y + Pn ( x ) = 0 Where n is a positive integer and P0 ( x ), P1 ( x )...... are Polynomials in x.
e.g. y = | x | is an algebraic function, since it satisfies the equation y2 − x 2 = 0 .
Note that all polynomial functions are Algebraic but not the converse. A function that is not algebraic is called
€ €
  € 28  
  

TRANSCEDENTAL FUNCTION .
g( x )
(iii) FRACTIONAL RATIONAL FUNCTION : A rational function is a function of the form, y = f ( x ) = , where
h( x )
g( x ) & h( x ) are polynomials & h( x ) ≠ 0
(iv) EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION :
A function f ( x ) = a x = e x ln a (a > 0,a ≠ 1, x ∈ R) is called an exponential function. The €
inverse of the exponential function is called
€ the logarithmic function. € i.e. g( x ) = log a x
Note that f(x) & g(x) are inverse of each other & their graphs are as shown.
€
€

(v) ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION :

⎡ x if x ≥ 0
A function y=f (x) = |x| is called the absolute value function or Modulus function. It is defined as y = x = ⎢
⎣−x if x < 0

(vi) SIGNUM FUNCTION :

A function y= f (x) = Sgn (x) is defined as follows:
⎡1 for x > 0 €
⎢
y = f ( x ) = ⎢0 for x = 0
⎢⎣-1 for x < 0
x
It is also written as Sgn( x ) = x ≠ 0; f (0) = 0 for x = 0
x
€ (viii) GREATEST INTEGER OR STEP UP FUNCTION/Box Function :
The function y = f (x) = [x] is called the greatest integer function where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
Note that for:
€ ⎡−2 − 2 ≤ x < −1
⎢
−1 −1 ≤ x < 0
y = f ( x ) = [x] = ⎢
⎢0 0 ≤ x < 1
⎢
⎣1 1 ≤ x < 2
Properties of greatest integer function
(a) [x]<x<[x]+l and
x-1 < [x] < x, 0 <x-[x] < 1
€ (b) [x+m] = [x]+m if m is an integer.
(c) [x] + [y]<[x+y]<[x] + [y] + l
(d) [x] + [-x] = 0 if x is an integer
= -1 otherwise .
(viii) Fractional Part Function:
It is defined as : g(x)={x}=x-[x], e.g. the fractional part of the no. 2.1 is 2.1-2
= 0.1 and the fractional part of - 3.7 is 0.3. The period of this function is 1 and
graph of this function is as shown.

4. Domains and Ranges of Common Function:

  29  
  

Function ( y = f ( x )) Domain (i.e. val;ues taken by x) Range (i.e. values taken by f(x))
A. Algebraic Function
(i) xn , n ∈ N R=(set of real numbers) R, if n is odd; R+ ∪ {0} , if n is even
1
(ii) €n , n ∈ N R − {0} R − {0}, if n is odd; R+ , if n is even
x
1/ n
€(iii) x , n∈ N R, if n is odd; R+ ∪ {0} m if n is even R, if€n is odd; R+ ∪ {0} , if n is even
1
(iv) , n∈ N R − {0} , if n is odd; R+ , if n is even R − {0} , if n is odd; R+ , if n is even
€ x1/ n € €
B. Trigonometric Functions
€ € €
(i) sin x R [-1, 1]
(ii) cos x € R € € [-1, 1] €
€ π
(iii) tan x R − (2n +1) , n ∈ I R
€ 2
π
€(iv) sec x R − (2n +1) , n ∈ I (−∞,−1]∪[1,∞) or y ≥ 1
2
€(v) cos ecx R − nπ , n ∈ I (−∞,−1]∪[1,∞) or y ≥ 1
€
(vi) cot x R − nπ , n ∈ I R
€C. Inverse Circular Functions €
€
€(i) −1 ⎡ π π ⎤
sin x € [-1,1] € ⎢⎣− 2 , 2 ⎥⎦
€ €
(ii) cos −1 x [-1, 1] [0, π ]
⎛ π π ⎞
€(iii) tan −1 x R ⎜− , ⎟
€ ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
€ € ⎡ π π ⎤
(iv) cos ec−1 x (−∞,−1]∪[1,∞) or x ≥ 1 ⎢⎣− 2 , 2 ⎥⎦ − {0}
€
€ ⎧ π ⎫
(v) sec−1 x (−∞,−1]∪[1,∞) or x ≥ 1 [0, π ] − ⎨ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭
€ €
(vi) cot −1 x R € (0, π )
€D. Exponential
x
Functions
€
(i) e R € R+
1/ x
€(ii) e R − {0} € R+ − {1}
(iii) ax, a > 0 R R+
€(iv) a1/ x , a > 0 R − {0} € R+ − {1}
€E. Logarithmic Functions € €
€(i) log a x, a > 0 ≠ 1 R+ € R
€(ii) 1
log x a = , €a > 0 ≠ 1 R+ − {1} € R − {0}
log a x
€F. Integral Part Functions: €
(i) [ ] x R I
1 € €⎧ 1 ⎫
€(ii) R −[0,1) ⎨ , n ∈ I − {0}⎬
[ x] ⎩ n ⎭
€G. Fractional Part Functions
(i) { x} R [0, 1)
1 €
€(ii) R− I € (1,∞)
{ x}
€H. Modulus Functions
(i) |x| R R+ ∪ {0}
€ €
1
€(ii) R − {0} R+
|x|
I. Signum function
€ €
⎧ | x |
⎪ , x ≠ 0 €
sgn ( x ) = ⎨ x € R {-1, 0, 1}
€ ⎪⎩0, x=0
J. Constant Function
f ( x) = c R {c}
€ 5. Equal or Identical Function
Two functions f and g are said to be equal if:
(i) The domain of f = the domain of g
€

  30  
  

(ii) The range of f = the range of g

(iii) f(x) = g(x), for every c belonging to their common domain
1 x
e.g. f ( x ) = and g( x ) = 2 are identical functions
x x
6. Classification of Functions
One-One function (Injective Mapping)
A function f : A → B is said to be a one-one function or injective mapping if different elements of A have different f images in B.
€
Thus for x1 and x2 ∈ A & f ( x1 ), f ( x2 ) ∈ B, f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) ⇔ x1 = x2 or x1 ≠ x2 ⇔ f ( x1 ) ≠ f ( x2 )

€
€

Note: (i) Any function which is entirely increasing or decreasing in whole domain, then f(x) is one-one
(ii) If any line parallel to x-axis cuts the graph of the function atmost at one point, then function if one-one
Many-One Function
A function f : A → B is said to be a many one function if two or more elements of A have the same f image in B. Thus f : A → B
is many one if for x1, x2 ∈ A, f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) but x1 ≠ x2

€ €
€
Note: (i) Any continuous function which has atleast one local maximum or local minimum, then f(x) is many-one. In other words,
if a line parallel to x-axis cuts the graph of the function atleast at two points, then f is many-one.
(ii) If a function is one-one, it cannot be many-one and vice-versa.
Onto Function (Surjective mapping):
If the function f : A → B is such that each element in B (co-domain) is the f image of atleast one element in A, then we say that f
is a function of A ‘onto’ B. Thus f : A → B is surjective iff ∀ b ∈ B,∃ some a ∈ A such that f(a)=b

€
€ €
Note that: if range = co-domain, then f(x) is onto.
Into Function:
If f : A → B is such that there exists atleast one element in co-domain which is not the image of any element in domain, then f(x)
is into.

Note that: If a function is onto, it cannot be into and vice versa. A polynomial of degree always be into.
Thus a function can be one of these four types:
(a) one-one onto (injective and surjective)

(b) one-one into (injective but not surjective)

(c) many-one onto (surjective but not injective)

(d) many-one into (neither injective nor surjective)

Note: (i) If f is both injective and surjective, then it is called a bijective mapping. The bijective functions are also named as
invertible, non-singular or biuniform functions.
(ii) If a set A contains ‘n’ distinct elements then the number of different functions defined from A → A is n n and out of it n! are
one-one.
Identity function
The function f : A → A defined by f ( x ) = x ∀ x ∈ A is called the identity of A and is denoted by I A . It is easy to observe that
€ € €
identity function is bijection.
Constant Function:
A function f : A → B is said to be a constant function if every element of A has the same f image in B. Thus f : A → B ;
€ € €
f ( x ) = c ∀ x ∈ A, c ∈ B is a constant function. Note that the range of a constant function is a singleton and a constant function
may be one-one or many-one, onto or into.
€ €
€   31  
  

7. Algebraic operations on functions: If f and g are real valued functions of ‘x’ with domain set A, B resp., then both f and g
(i) ( f ± g)( x ) = f ( x ) ± g( x )
(ii) ( f .g)( x ) = f ( x ).g( x ) domain in each case is A  B
⎛ f ⎞ f ( x)
(iii) ⎜ ⎟( x ) = domain is { x | x ∈ A ∩ B s.t. g( x ) ≠ 0}
⎝ g ⎠ g( x )
€ 8. Composite of Uniformly and Non-uniformly defined functions:
Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. Then the function gof : A → C defined by (gof )( x ) = g( f ( x )) ∀ x ∈ A is called
€ composite of the functions f and g.

€ €
Thus the image of every x ∈ A under the function gof is € the g-image of the f-image€ of x. Note that gof is defined only if
∀ x ∈ A , f(x) is an element of the domain of g so that we can take its g-image. Hence for the product gof of two functions f and
g. then range of f must be a subset of the domain of g.
Properties of composite functions:
(i) €
The composite of functions is not commutative i.e. gof ≠ fog
€
(ii) The composite of fns is associative i.e. if f, g, h are three functions s. t. fo(goh) and (fog)oh are defined, then fo(goh)=(fog)oh
(iii) The composite of two bijections is a bijection i.e. if f and f are two bijections s.t. gof is defined, the gof is also a bijection.
9. Homogeneous Functions:
A function is said to be homogeneous with respect€ to any set of variables when each of its terms is of the same degree with respect
to those variables.
For example, 5x2+3y2-xy is homogeneous in x and y. symbolically if, f (λx, λy) = λn f ( x, y) then f ( x, y) is homogeneous function
of degree n.
10. Bounded Function:
A function is said to be bounded if m < f ( x ) < M , where m and M is a finite quatity.
€
11. Implicit and Explicit Function:
A function defined by an equation not solved for the dependent variable is called an Implicit Function. For eg. The equation
x3+y3=1 defined y as an implicit function. If y has been expressed in terms of a alone then it is called an Explicit Function.
12. Inverse of a Function:€
Let f : A → B be a one-one and onto function, then their exists a unique function g : B → A s.t.
f ( x ) = y ⇔ g( y) = x, ∀ x ∈ A & y ∈ B . Then g is said to be inverse of f. Thus g = f −1 : B → A = {( f ( x ), x ) | ( x, f ( x )) ∈ f }
Properties of Inverse Function:
€ (i) The inverse of a bijection is unique. €
(ii) If f : A → B is a bijection and g : B → A is the inverse of f, then fog=IB and gof=IA, where IA & IB are identity functions on
€ €
the sets A and B resp. Note that the graphs of f & g are mirror images of each other in the line y = x. As Shown in the figure given
2
below a point (x’, y’) corresponding to y = x ( x ≥ 0) changes to (y’, x’) corresponding to y = x , the changed form of x = y
€ €

€ € €

(iii) The inverse of a bijection is also a bijection.

−1
(iv) If f & g are two functions f : AB, g : BA then the inverse of gof exists and (gof ) = f −1og−1
13. ODD & EVEN Functions:
If f (−x ) = f ( x ) for all x in the domain of ‘f’ then f is said to be an even function. E.g. f(x) = cosx; g(x)=x2+3
If f (−x ) = − f ( x ) for all x in the domain of ‘f’ then f is said to be an odd function.
€ E.g. f(x) = sinx; g(x)=x3+x
Note: (a) f ( x ) − f (−x ) = 0 => f ( x ) is even and f ( x ) + f (−x ) => f ( x ) is odd
€ (b) A function may neither be odd nor even.
€ (c) Inverse of an even function is not defined.
(d) Every function is symmetric about the y-axis and every odd function is symmetric about the origin.
€
(e) Every function can be expressed as € the sum of an even and odd function.
f ( x ) + f (−x ) f ( x ) − f (−x )
e.g. ( )
f x = +
2 2
Even Odd
(f) The only function which is defined on the entire number line and is even and odd at the same time is f ( x ) = 0
(g) If f and g both are even or both are odd then the function f.g will be even but if any one of them is odd then f.g will be odd.
€
14. PERIODIC Function:
A function f(x) is called periodic if there exists a positive number T (T>0) called the period of €
the function such that
f (x + T ) = f (x) , for all values of x within the domain of x.
e.g. The function sinx and cosx both are periodic over 2π and tanx is periodic over π

€   32  
€ €
  

NOTE: (a) f(T)=f(0)=f(-T), where T is the period.

(b) Inverse of a periodic function does not exist.
(c) Every constant function is always periodic, with no fundamental period.
(d) If f(x) has a period T and g(x) also has a period T then it does not mean that f(x)+g(x) must have a period T.
π
e.g. f(x) = |sinx| + |cosx| has period
2
1
, f ( x ) , e ( ) and ln ( f ( x )) also has a period T
f x
(e) If f(x) has a period T, then
f ( x)

(f) If f(x) has a period T then € f(ax+b) has a period T (a > 0)

|a|
15. GENERAL:
If x, y are independent € variables, then:
(i) f ( xy) = f ( x ) + f ( y) ⇒ f ( x ) = k ln x or f ( x ) = 0
€
(ii) f ( xy) = f ( x ). f ( y) ⇒ f ( x ) = x n , n ∈ R
(iii) f ( x + y) = f ( x ). f ( y) ⇒ f ( x ) = a kx
(iv) f ( x + y) = f ( x ) + f ( y) ⇒ f ( x ) = kx, where k is a constant

€ LIMITS
1. Limit of a function f(x) is said to exist as xa when Lt f (x) = Lt − f (x) = finite quantity
x→a+ x→a
Lt ⇒ x ≠ a
x→a
0 ∞
2. INDETERMINANTE FORMS: , , 0 × ∞, ∞ − ∞, 0 0 , ∞ 0 & 1∞
0 ∞ €
Note:
€
(i) We cannot plot ∞ on the paper. Infinity (∞) is a symbol & not a number. It does not obey laws of elementary algebra.
finite non zero finite
(ii) ∞ + ∞ = ∞ (iii) ∞ × ∞ =€∞ (iv) = 0 (v) = Not Defined (N .D.)
∞ 0
(vi) ab=0,€if & only if a=0 or b=0 and a & b are finite.
3. Fundamental Theorems on€Limits:
€ Let Lt f (x)€= l & Lt g(x) = m . If l & m exists then:
x→a x→a € €
f ( x) l
(i) Lt { f (x) ± g( x )} = l ± m (ii) Lt f (x).g( x ) = l.m (iii) Lt = , provided m ≠ 0
x→a x→a x → a g( x) m
€ € ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ ⎛ ⎞
(iv) Lt kf (x) = k Lt f (x) (v) Lt f [ g( x )] = f Lt g( x ) e.g. Lt ln( f ( x )) = ln⎜ Lt f (x) ⎟
x→a x→a x→a ⎝ x → a ⎠ x→a ⎝ x → a ⎠
€ 4. STANDARD LIMITS: €
€
sin x tan x sin −1 x tan −1 x
(a) Lt = Lt = Lt = Lt =1 (where x is measured in radians)
€ 0 x
x →€ x→0 x x→0 x €x → 0 x €
x
€ €
1x ⎛ 1 ⎞ n n
(b) Lt (1 + x ) = e = Lt ⎜1 + ⎟ however there Lt (1− h) = 0 & Lt (1+ h) → ∞
x→0 x → ∞⎝ x ⎠ h→0 h→0
n→∞ n→∞
€ € € € Lt g ( x){ f ( x ) −1}
g ( x)
(c) If Lt f ( x ) = 1 and Lt g( x ) = ∞ , then Lt f ( x ) = e x→ a
x→a x→a x→a
€ g ( x)
(d)€If Lt f ( x ) = A > 0 & Lt €g( x ) = B (finite quantity)
€ then; Lt f ( x ) = ez
x→a x→a x→a
where z = Lt g( x ) ln[ f ( x ) ] = e B ln A = A B €
€ x→€ a €
x x
a −1 e −1
(e) Lt€ = ln a (a >€0) . In particular Lt =1 €
x→0 x x→0 x
n n
x −a
(f) Lt€ = na n −1
x→a x − a

€ 5. SQUEEZE PLAY THEOREM: €

If f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ) ≤ h( x ) ∀ x & Lt f ( x ) = l = Lt h( x ) then Lt g( x ) = l
x→a x→a x→a
€ 6. The following strategies for evaluating the limits:
(a) Factorization (b) Rationalization or Double Rationalization
(c) Use of trigonometric transformation; appropriate substitution and using standard limits
€ € like Binomial € expansion,€exponential & logarithmic expansion, expansion of sinx. Cosx, tanx are given
(d) Expansion of function
below:
x x2 x3
(i) e x = 1 + + + + ................... x ∈ R
1! 2! 3!

€   33  
  

x ln a x 2 ln 2 a x 3 ln 3 a
(ii) a x = 1 + + + + ................... x ∈ R & a > 0
1! 2! 3!
x2 x3 x4
(iii) ln(1 + x ) = x − + − + ................... for − 1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 4
€ x3 x5 x7 ⎛ π π ⎞
(iv) sin x = x − + − + ............x ∈ ⎜− , ⎟
3! 5! 7! ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
€ x2 x4 x6 ⎛ π π ⎞
(v) cos x = 1− + − + ............x ∈ ⎜− , ⎟
2! 4! 6! ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
€ x 3 2x 5 ⎛ π π ⎞
(vi) tan x = x + + + ............x ∈ ⎜− , ⎟
3 15 ⎝ 2 2 ⎠
3 5 7
€ x x x
(vii) tan −1 x = x − + − + ............
3 5 7
€

CONTINUITY
1. A function f(x) is said to be continuous at x=a, if Lt f ( x ) = f ( a) . Symbolically f is continuous at x=a if
x→a
Lt f ( a − h) = Lt f ( a + h) = f ( a)
h→0 h→0
i.e. LHL at x=a = RHL at x=a equals value of f at x=a
It should be noted that continuity of a function
€ at x=a is meaningful only if the function is defined in the immediate neighborhood
of x=a, not necessarily at x=a.
€ 2. €
Reasons of Discontinuity:
(i) Lt f ( x ) does not exist. RHL ≠ LHL
x→a
(ii) f(x) is not defined at x=a.
(iii) Lt f ( x ) ≠ f ( a)
x→a
€
€ 3. Types of Discontinuities:
Type 1: (Removable type of discontinuities)
In case Lt f ( x ) exists but is not equal to f(a) then the function is said to have a removable discontinuity or discontinuity of the
€ x→a
first kind. In this case we can redefine the function such that Lt f ( x ) = f ( a) & make it continuous at x=a. Removable type of
x→a
discontinuity can be further classified as:
€
(a) Missing Point Discontinuity: Where Lt f ( x ) exists finitely but f(a) is not defined. e.g. f ( x ) =
(
(1− x) 9 − x 2 )
has a missing
x→a € (1− x)
sin x
point discontinuity at x=1, and f ( x ) = has a missing point discontinuity at x=0
x
(b) Isolated Point Discontinuity: € Where Lt f ( x ) exists & f(a) also exists but: Lt f ( x ) ≠ f ( a) . e.g.
x→a x→€a
2
x − 16
f ( x) = , x ≠ 4 & f ( 4) = 9 has an isolated point discontinuity at x=4
x−4 €
Type 2: (Non-Removable type of Discontinuities)
€ €
In case Lt f ( x ) does not exist then it is not possible to make the function continuous by redefining it. Such discontinuities are
x→a
€ known as non-removable discontinuity or discontinuity of the 2nd kind. Non-removable type of discontinuity can be further
classified as:
1 1
(a)€ Finite discontinuity e.g. f(x) = x – [x] at all integral x; f ( x ) = tan −1 at x=0 and f ( x ) = at x=0
x 1 + 21/ x
1 1 π
(b) Infinite discontinuity e.g. f ( x ) = or g( x ) = 2
at x=4 f ( x ) = 2 tan x at x=
x−4 ( x − 4) 2
1 € €
(c) Oscillatory discontinuity e.g. f ( x ) = sin at x=0
x
€(point of
In all these cases€the value of f ( a) of the function at x=a €
€
discontinuity) may or may not exist but Limit DNE
x→a
Note: From the adjacent
€ graph note that
at x= - 1 f(x) is continuous
€
at x = 0 f has non removable type finite type discontinuity
€
at x= 1 f has removable type isolated point discontinuity
at x = 2 removable type missing point discontinuity

  34  
  

4. In case of discontinuity of the second kind the non-negative difference between the value of RHL at x=a & LHL at x=a is
called the Jump of Discontinuity. A function having a finite number of jumps in a given interval I is called a Piece Wise
Continuous or Sectionally Continuous in this interval.
5. All polynomials, trigonometrical functions, exponential & Logarithmic functions are continuous in their domains.
6. If f & g are two functions that are continuous at x=a then the functions defined by: F1( x ) = f ( x ) ± g( x ) ; F2 ( x ) = Kf ( x ) , K
f ( x)
any real number; F3 ( x ) = f ( x ).g( x ) are also continuous at x=a. Further, if g(a) is not zero, then F4 ( x ) = is also continuous
g( x)
at x=a. € €
7. Intermediate Value Theorem: Suppose f(x) is continuous on an interval I, and a & b are any two points of I. Then if y0 is a
number€between f(a) & f(b), their exists a number a between a & b such that f(a)=y0
Note: €
(a) If f(x) is continuous & g(x) is discontinuous at x=a then the product function ø( x ) = f ( x ).g( x ) is not necessarily be discontinuous
⎧ π
⎪sin x≠0
at x=a e.g. f ( x ) = x & g ( x ) = ⎨ x
⎪⎩ 0 x=0 €
(b) If f(x) & g(x) both are discontinuous at x=a then the product function ø( x ) = f ( x ).g( x ) is not necessarily be discontinuous at x=a
⎧1 x ≥ 0
e.g. f ( x ) = −g( x ) = ⎨
€ ⎩−1 x < 0
(c) Point functions are to be treated as discontinuous e.g. f ( x ) =€ 1− x + x − 1 is not continuous at x=1.
(d) A continuous function whose domain is closed must have a range also in closed interval.
€(e) If f is continuous at x=a & g is continuous at x=f(a) then the composite function g( f ( x )) is continuous at x=a.
x sin x € x sin x
e.g. f ( x ) =2
& g ( x ) = x are continuous at x=0, hence the composite gof(x)= 2 will also be continuous at x=0.
x +2 x +2
Continuity in an Interval: €
(a) A function f is said to be continuous in (a, b) if f is continuous at each & every point ∈ (a, b)
(b) A function f is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a, b] if:
€ (i) f is continuous in the open interval (a, b) & €
(ii) f is right continuous at ‘a’ i.e. Lt + f ( x ) =f(a) = a finite quantity
x→a €
(iii) f is left continuous at ‘b’ i.e. Lt − f ( x ) =f(b) = a finite quantity
x→b
Note that a function is continuous in [a, b] possess the following properties:
(i) If f(a) & f(b) possess€opposite signs, then there exists at least one solution of the eqn f(x)=0 in the open interval (a, b)
(ii) If K is any real number between f(a) & f(b) , then there exists at least one solution o the equation f(x) = K in the open
interval (a, b) €
Single Point Continuity:
⎧ x x ∈ Q
Functions which are continuous only at one point are said to exhibit single point continuity e.g. f ( x ) = ⎨ &
⎩−x x ∉ Q
⎧ x x ∈ Q
g( x ) = ⎨ are both continuous only at x=0
⎩ 0 x ∉ Q
€

€
DIFFERENTIABILITY
1. Right hand & Left hand Derivatives:
f ( a + h) − f ( a)
By Definition: f ʹ′(a) = Lt if it exist
h→0 h
(i) ( )
The right hand derivative of f ` at x=a denoted by f ʹ′ a + is
f ( a + h) − f ( a)
defined ( )
+
€ by: f ' a = h → Lt +
0 h
provided the limit exists
& is finite. €
(ii) The left hand derivative of f at x=a denoted by f ' a − ( )
€ f ( a − h) − f ( a)
( )
defined by: f ' a − = Lt
h→0 −h
provided the limit exists &
is finite. €
( ) ( )
We also write f ' a + = f ' a − = f ' ( a)
• This
€ geometrically means that a unique tangent with finite slope can be drawn at x=a as shown in the figure.
(iii) Derivability & Continuity:
(a) f `(a) exists then f(x) is derivable at x=a f(x) is continuous at x=a
€

  35  
  

(b) If a function f is derivable at x then f is continuous at x

f ( x + h) − f ( x)
For: f ' ( x ) = Lt exists.
h→0 h
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
Also f ( x + h) − f ( x ) = .h [h ≠ 0]
h
€ Therefore: Lt [ f ( x + h) − f ( x )] = Lt f ( x + h) − f ( x ) .h = f ' ( x ).0 = 0
h→0 h→0 h
€ Therefore Lt [ f ( x + h) − f ( x )] = 0 ⇒ Lt f ( x + h) = f ( x ) ⇒ f is continuous at .
h→0 h→0
Note: If f(x) is derivable for every point of its domain of definition, then it is continuous in that domain. The converse of the
above
€ result is not true. €
“If f is continuous at x, then f is derivable at x” is not true.
€ € 1
e.g. the functions f(x)=|x| & g( x ) = x sin ; x ≠ 0 & g( 0) = 0 are continuous at x=0 but not derivable at x=0
x
Note:
( )
(a) Let f ' a + = p & f ' ( a) = q where p & q are finite then:
€
(i) p=qf is derivable
€ €
at x=af is continuous at x=a
(ii) p ≠ q f is note derivable at x=a
It is very important to note that f may be still continuous at x=a.
€ €
In short, for a function f: DifferentiabilityContinuity; Continuity does not necessarily implies Derivability
Non-Derivability does not necessarily implies Discontinuous; Discontinuity Non-Dervability
(b) €If a function f is not differentiable but is continuous at x=a it geometrically implies a sharp corner at x=a.
2. Derivability Over an Interval: f(x) is said to be derivable over an interval if it is derivable at each & every point of the interval
f(x) is said to be derivable over the closed interval [a, b] if:
(i) ( ) ( )
for the points a & b, f ' a + & f ' b − exist &
(ii) for any point c such that a<c<b, f ' (c ) & f ' (c ) exist & are equal.
+ −

Note:
1. If f(x) & g(x) are derivable
€ at x=a then the functions f(x)+g(x), f(x) – g(x), f(x).g(x) will also be derivable at x=a & if g( a) ≠ 0
f ( x) € be derivable
€
then the function will also at x=a
g( x)
2. If f(x) is differentiable at x=a & g(x) is not differentiable at x=a, then the product function F(x)=f(x).g(x) can€still be differentiable
at x=a e.g. f(x)=x & g(x)=|x|
3. If f(x) & g(x) both are not differentiable at x=a then the product function; F(x)=f(x)g(x) can still be differentiable at x=a e.g. f(x) =
€
|x| & g(x)=|x|
4. If f(x) & g(x) both are non-derivable at x=a then the sum function F(x)=f(x)+g(x) may be differential function
e.g. f(x) =|x| & g(x) = - |x|
5. If f(x) is derivable at x=a does not necessarily implies f ‘(x) is continuous at x=a
⎧ 2 1
⎪ x sin if x ≠ 0
e.g. f ( x ) = ⎨ x
⎪⎩ 0 if x=0
6. A surprising result:
Suppose that the function f(x) & g(x) defined in the interval ( x1, x 2 ) contain the point x0 and if f is differentiable at x=x0 with
€ f(x0)=0 together with g is continuous as x=x0 then the function F(x)=f(x).g(x) is differentiable at x=x0
e.g. F ( x ) = x 2 3 sin x is differentiable at x=0
€

METHOD OF DIFFERENTIATION
f ( x + h) − f ( x)
1. Definition: If x & x+h belong to the domain of a function f defined by y=f(x) , then Lt if it exists, is called
h→0 h
dy f ( x + h) − f ( x)
the Derivative of f at x & is denoted by f `(x) or . We have therefore, f ' ( x ) = Lt
dx h→0 h
2. The derivative of a given function f at a point x=a of its domain is defined € as: Lt
f ( a + h ) − f ( a) , provided the limit exists &
h→0 h
€ we can define f ' ( a) =€Lt f (€
denoted by f ' ( a) . Note that alternately,
x) − f ( a)
, provided the limit exists.
x→a x−a
3. Derivative of f(x) from the first principle/ a-b initio method: €

€ €
  36  
  

Δy f ( x + Δx ) − f ( x ) dy
If f(x) is a derivable function then, Lt = Lt = f ' ( x) =
Δx
Δx → 0 Δx → 0 Δx dx
4. Theorems on Derivatives: If f and g are derivable function of x, then,
d df dg d ( kf ) df
(i) ( f + g) = + (ii) =k , where k is any constant
dx dx dx € € dx dx
d dg df
(iii) ( f ⋅ g) = f + g known as “Product Rule”
dx dx dx
df dg
€ g −f €
d ⎛ f ⎞ dx dx where g ≠ 0 known as “Quotient Rule”
(iv) ⎜ ⎟ =
€
dx ⎝ g ⎠ g2
dy dy du
(v) If y=f(u) & u=g(x) then = known as “Chain Rule”
dx du dx
5. Derivative of Standards € Functions:
€
( )
n n −1
(i) D x = nx ; x ∈ R, n ∈ R, x > 0 ( ) ( )
(ii) D e x = e x (iii) D a x = a x ln a , a > 0
1 € 1
(iv) D( ln x ) = (v) D( log a x ) = log a e (vi) D(sin x ) = cos x (vii) D(sin x ) = − cos x
x x
2
€ (viii) D( tan
€ x ) = sec x (ix) D(sec x ) = sec x tan x € (x) D( cos ecx€) = − cos ecx cot x (xi) D( cot x ) = − cos ec 2 x
d
(xii) D( constant ) = 0 where D =
€ € dx € €
6. Inverse functions and their derivatives:
€ € € € 1
(a) Theorem: If the inverse functions f & g are defined by y=f(x) & x=g(y) & if f’(x) exists & f ' ( x ) ≠ 0 then g' ( y ) = .
€ f ' ( x)
€
dy dy dx ⎛ dy ⎞ dy dx dy ⎛ dx ⎞ ⎡ dx ⎤
This result can also be written as, if exists & ≠ 0 , then = 1 ⎜ ⎟ or = 1 or = 1 ⎜ ⎟ ⎢ ≠ 0⎥
dx dx dy ⎝ dx ⎠ dx dy dx ⎝ dy ⎠ ⎣ dy ⎦
€
1 −1 €
−1
(b) Results: (i) D sin x = ( )
1− x 2
−1 < x < 1 ( −1
(ii) D cos x = ) 1− x 2
, −1 < x < 1

1 € € 1
(
(iii) D tan −1 x = )
1+ x 2
, x∈R (
€(vi) D sec −1 x =
) x x2 −1
, x >1
€
€ −1 € −1
(
(v) D cos ec −1 x = )
x x −12
, x >1 (
(vi) D cot −1 x = ) 1 + x2
, x∈R
€
dy du
€
Note: In general if y = f ( u) then = f ' ( u)
dx dx
7. Logarithmic Differentiation: To find the derivative
€ of:
€ (i) a function which is the product or quotient of a number of functions OR
€ of the form €[ f ( x ) ] ( ) where f & g are both derivable, it will be found convenient to take the logarithm of the
g x
(ii) a function
function first & then differentiable. This is called Logarithmic Differentiation.

€
8. Implicit differentiation: ø( x, y ) = 0
dy
(i) In order to find , in the case of implicit functions, we differentiate each term w.r.t x regarding y as a functions of x then
dx
dy dy
collect terms in € together on one side to finally find .
dx dx
dy
(ii) In answers
€ of in the case of implicit functions, both x and y are present.
dx
9. Parametric Differentiation:
€ € dy dy dt
If y = f ( t ) & x = g( t ) where ‘t’ is a parameter, then =
dx dx dt
€
10. Derivative of a function w.r.t. another function:
dy dy dx f ' ( x )
€ Let y=f(x)
€ ; z=g(x) then = =
dz dz dx g' ( x€) €
11. Derivatives of order two & three:
Let a function y = f(x) be defined on (a, b). It’s derivative, if it exists on (a, b) is a certain function f ' ( x ) & is called the first
derivative of y€w.r.t. ‘x’.
If it happens that the first derivative has a derivative on (a, b) then this derivative is called the second derivative of y w.r.t ‘x’ & is
denoted by f ' ' ( x ) or d 2 y dx 2 or y’’
€

€
  € 37  
  

d 3 y d ⎛ d 2 y ⎞
Similarly, the 3rd order derivative of y w.r.t. ‘x’, if it exists, is defined by = ⎜ ⎟ . It is also denoted by f ' ' ' ( x ) or y’’’
dx 3 dx ⎝ dx 2 ⎠
f (x) g( x) h( x)
12. If F ( x ) = l ( x ) m( x ) n( x ) , where f, g, h, l, m, n, u, v, w are differentiable functions of ‘x’ then
€
u( x) v ( x) w( x ) €
f ' g' h' f g h f g h
F' ( x ) = l m n + l' m' n' + l m n
€ u v w u v w u' v' w'
13. L’Hospital’s Rule:
If f(x) & g(x) are functions of x such that:
(i) Lt f ( x ) = 0 = Lt g( x ) or Lt f ( x ) = ∞ = Lt g( x ) and
€ x→a x→a x→a x→a
(ii) Both f(x) & g(x) are continuous at x=a &
(iii) Both f(x) & g(x) are differentiable at x=a &
(iv) Both f ' ( x ) & g' ( x ) are continuous at x=a, then
€ € € €
f ( x) f ' ( x) f ' ' ( x)
Lt = Lt = Lt & so on till indeterminant form vanishes
x → a g ( x ) x → a g' ( x ) x → a g' ' ( x )

€ € €
Application of Derivatives
Tangent & Normal
dy
I. The value of the derivative at P(x1,y1) gives the slope of the tangent to the curve at P. Symbolically f ' ( x1 ) = =Slope of
dx ( x1 ,y1 )
tangent at P( x1 , y1) = m( say)
dy
II. Equation of tangent at ( x1, y1) is y − y1 = ( x − x1)
dx x1 ,y1 €
€ Equation of normal at x , y is y − y = − 1
III. ( 1 1) 1 ( x − x1)
dy
€ dx
€ x1 ,y1
Note: 1. The point P( x1 , y1) will satisfy the equation of the curve & the equation of tangent
€
& normal line.
dy
2. If the tangent at any P on€the curve is parallel to the x-axis, then = 0 at the point.
dx
€ dy dx
3. If the tangent at any point on the curve is parallel to the y-axis, then = ∞ or =0
dx dy
dy
4. If the tangent at any point on the curve is equally inclined
€ to both the axes then = ±1
dx
dy
5. If the tangent at any point makes equal intercept on the coordinate
€ axes then = −1
dx
dy
6. Tangent to a curve at the point P( x1 , y1) can be drawn even through € at P does not exist.
dx
e.g. x=0 is a tangent to y = x 2 / 3 at (0,0)
€
7. If a curve passing through the origin be given by a rational integral algebraic equation, the equation of the tangent( or tangents)
at the origin is obtained €by equating to zero the terms of the lowest degree in the equation. e.g. If the equation of a curve by
€
x − y + x + 3x y − y = 0 , the tangents at the origin are given by x 2 − y 2 = 0 i.e. x + y = 0 and x − y = 0
2 2 3 2 3
€
IV. Angle of intersection between two curves is defined as the angle between the two tangents drawn to the two curves at their
point of intersection. If the angle between two curves is 90 o everywhere then they are called ORTHOGONAL curves.
2
€ y1 1 + [ f ' ( x1 )] € € € y1
V. (a) Length of the tangent (PT) = (b) Length of Subtangent (MT) =
f ' ( x1) f ' ( x1 )
€
2
(c) Length of Normal (PN) = y1 1+ [ f ' ( x1 )] (d) Length of Subnormal (MN) = y1 f ' ( x1)
VI. Differentials: The differential of a function is equal to its derivative multiplied by the differential of the independent variable.
€ €
Thus if, y = tan x then dy = sec 2 xdx In general dy = f ' ( x ) dx
Note that: d(c)=0 where
€ ‘c’ is constant. €
d(u+v-w)=du+dv-dw d(uv) = udv + vdu
€ € €
  38  
  

Note: 1. For the independent variable ‘x’, increment Δx and differential dx are equal by this is not the case with the dependent
variable ‘y’ i.e. Δy ≠ dy
dy
2. The relation dy = f ' ( x ) dx can be written as = f ' ( x ) ; thus the quotient of the differentials of ‘y’ and ‘x’ is equal to the
€ dx €
derivative of ‘y’ w.r.t. ‘x’
€

€ €

MONOTONOCITY
(Significance of the sign of the first order derivative)
Definitions:
1. A function f(x) is called an increasing function at a point x=a if in a sufficiently small neighborhood around x=a we have
f ( a + h) > f ( a) ⎪⎫ f ( a + h) < f ( a) ⎪⎫
⎬ increasing and similarly decreasing if ⎬ disregards whether f(x) is non differentiable or even
f ( a − h) < f ( a) ⎪⎭ f ( a − h) > f ( a) ⎪⎭
discontinuous at x=a
2. A differentiable function is called increasing in an interval (a, b) if it is increasing at every point within the interval (but not
necessarily at the end points). A function decreasing in an interval (a, b) is similarly defined.
€ €
3. A function which in a given interval is increasing or decreasing is called “Monotonic” in that interval.
4. Tests for increasing and decreasing of a function at a point:
If the derivative f’(x) is positive at a point x=a, then the function f(x) at this point is increasing. If it is negative, then the function
is decreasing. Even if f’(a) is not defined, f(x) can still be increasing or decreasing.

Note: If f’(a)=0, then for x=a the function may be still increasing or it may be decreasing as shown. It has to be defined by a
dy
separate rule. e.g. f(x) = x3 is increasing at every point. Note that = 3x 2
dx

5. Tests for Increasing and Decreasing of a function in an interval:

Suffciently Test: If the derivative function f’(x) in an interval (a, b) is everywhere positive, then the function f(x) in this interval
is increasing; If f’(x) is everywhere negative, then f(x) is Decreasing.
General Note: (1) If a function is invertible it has to be either increasing or decreasing.
(2) If a function is continuous the intervals in which it rises and falls may be separated by points at which its derivative fails to
exist.
(3) If f(x) is increasing in [a, b] and is continuous then f(b) is the greatest and f(a) is the least value of f(x) in [a, b]. Similarly if
f(x) is decreasing in [a, b] then f(a) is the greatest value and f(b) is the least value.

ROLLE’s THEOREM:

  39  
  

Let f(x) be a function of x subject to the following conditions:

(i) f(x) is a continuous function of x in [a, b]
(ii) f’(x) exists for every point (a, b)
(iii) f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists at least one point x=c such that a<c<b where f’(c)=0.
LMVT THEOREM:
Let f(x) be a function of x subject to the following conditions:
(i) f(x) is a continuous function of x in [a, b]
(ii) f’(x) exists for every point in (a, b)
(iii) f ( a) ≠ f (b)
f (b) − f ( a)
Then there exists at least one point x=c such that a<c<b where f ' (c ) =
b− a
Geometrically, the slope of the secant line joining the curve at x=a & x=b is equal to the slope of the tangent line drawn to the
€
f (b) − f ( a )
curve at x=c. Note that Rolle’s theorem is special case of LMVT since f ( a) = f (b) ⇒ =0
€ b− a
f (b) − f ( a)
Note: Now [f(b) – f(a)] is the change in the function f(x) as x changes from a to b so that is the average rate of
b− a
change of the function over the interval [a, b]. Also f’(c) is the
€ actual rate of change of the function for x=c. Thus, the theorem
states that the average rate of change of a function over an interval is also the actual rate of change of the function at some point of
the interval. In particular, for instance, the average velocity of a particle over an interval of time is equal to the velocity at some
instant belonging to the interval. €
This interpretation of the theorem justifies the name “Mean Value” for the theorem.
Application of Rolle’s Theorem for Isolating the Real Roots of an Equation f(x) = 0
Suppose a & b are two real numbers such that;
(i) f(x) & its first derivative f’(x) are continuous for a ≤ x ≤ b
(ii) f(a) & f(b) have opposite signs.
(iii) f’(x) is different from zero for all values of x between a & b.
Then there is one & only one real root of the equation f(x) = 0 between a & b.
€

MAXIMA & MINIMA

(Functions of a Single Variable)
1. A function f(x) is said to have a maximum at x=a if f(a) is
greater than every other value assumed by f(x) in the immediate
f ( a) > f ( a + h)⎤
neighborhood of x=a. Symbolically ⎥ ⇒ x = a
f ( a) > f ( a − h)⎥⎦
gives maxima for a sufficiently small positive h.
Similarly, a function f(x) is said to have a minimum value at x=b
if f(b) is least than every other value assumed by f(x) in the
immediate neighborhood at € x=b. Symbolically if
f (b) < f (b + h) ⎤
⎥ ⇒ x = b gives minima for a sufficiently small
f (b) < f (b − h)⎥⎦
positive h.
Note that:
(i) the maximum & minimum values of a function are also known as local/relative maxima or local/relative minima as these are
€ the greatest & least values of the function relative to some neighborhood of the point.
(ii) the term ‘extremum’ or (extremal) or ‘turning value’ is used both for maximum or a minimum value.
(iii) a maximum (minimum) value of a function may not be the greatest(least) value in a finite interval.
(iv) a function can have several maximum & minimum values & a minimum value may even be greater than a maximum value.
(v) maximum & minimum values of a continuous function occur alternately & between two consecutive maximum values there is
a minimum value & vice verse.
Necessary Condition for Maximum & Minimum:
If f(x) is a maximum or minimum at x=c & if f’(c) exists then f’(c)=0
Note: (i) The set of values of x for which f’(x)=0 are often called as stationary points or critical points. The rate of change of
function is zero at a stationary point.
(ii) In case f’(c) does not exist f(c) may be maximum or a minimum & in this case left hand and right hand derivatives are of
opposite signs.
(iii) The greatest (global maxima) and the least (global minima) values of a function f(x) in an interval [a, b] are f(a) or f(b) or are
given by the values of x for which f’(x)=0

  40  
  

dy
(iv) Critical points are those where = 0 , if it exists, or it fails to exist either by virtue of a vertical tangent or by virtue of a
dx
geometrical sharp corner but not because of discontinuity of function.
Sufficient Condition for Extreme Values:
f ' (c − h) > 0⎤ f ' (c − h) < 0⎤
⎥ ⇒ x = c is €
a point of local maxima, where f’(c)=0. Similarly ⎥ ⇒ x = c is a point of local minima,
f ' (c + h) < 0⎥⎦ f ' (c + h) > 0⎥⎦
where f’(c)=0 [h is a sufficiently small positive quantity]
Note: If f’(x) does not change sign i.e. has the same sign in a certain complete neighborhood of c, then f(x) is either strictly
increasing or decreasing throughout this neighborhood implying that f(c) is not an extreme value of f(x).
€ Second Order Derivative in Ascertaining the Maxima or Minima: €
(a) f(c) is a minimum value of the function f(x), if f’(c)=0 & f’’(c)>0
(b) f(c) is a maximum value of the function f(x), if f’(c)=0 & f’’(c)<0
Note: if f’’(c)=0 then the test fails. Revert back to the first order derivative check for ascertaining then maxima or minima.
Summary Working Rule:
First: When possible, draw a figure to illustrate the problem & label those parts that are important in the problem. Constants &
variables should be clearly distinguished.
Second: Write an equation for the quantity that is to be maximized or minimized. If this quantity is denoted by ‘y’, it must be
expressed in terms of a single independent variable x. this may require some algebraic manipulations.
dy
Third: If y=f(x) is a quantity to be maximum or minimum, find those values of x for which = f ' ( x) = 0
dx
Fourth: Test each values of x for which f’(x)=0 to determine whether it provides a maximum or minimum or neither. The usual
tests are:
d 2y dy
(a) If 2
> 0 when = 0 ⇒ y is minimum. €
dx dx
d 2y dy
If 2
< 0 when = 0 ⇒ y is maximum.
dx dx
d 2y dy
€ If € 2 =0 when = 0 , the test fails.
dx dx
€ positive€ x < x 0 ⎤
dy ⎥
(b) If is zero x = x 0 ⎥ ⇒ a maximum occurs at x=x0
dx
€ negative€ x > x 0 ⎦⎥
But if dy/dx changes sign from negative to zero to positive as x advances through x0 there is a minimum. If dy/dx does not change
sign, neither a maximum nor a minimum. Such points are called INFLECTION Points.
€ Fifth: If the function y=f(x) is defined for only a limited range of values a<x<b then examine x=a & x=b for possible extreme
€values.
Sixth: If the derivative fails to exist at some point, examine this point as possible maximum or minimum.
Important Note:
• Given a fixed point A( x1 , y1) and a moving point P( x, f ( x )) on the curve y=f(x). then AP will be maximum or minimum if it is
normal to the curve at P.
• If the sum of two positive numbers x and y is constant then their product is maximum if they are equal.
• If the product of two positive numbers is constant then their sum is least if they are equal.
€
Useful Formulae: €
• Volume of a cuboid =lbh
• Surface area of a cuboid=2(lb+bh+hl)
• Volume of a prism = area of the base * height
• Lateral surface of a prism = lateral surface + 2 area of the base (lateral surfaces of a prism are all rectangles)
1
• Volume of a pyramid= area of the base * height
3
1
• Curved surface of a pyramid = (perimeter of the base)*slant height (slant
2
surfaces of a pyramid are triangles)
€ 1
• Volume of a cone = πr 2 h
3
• €
Curved surface of a cylinder = 2πrh
• Total surface of a cylinder = 2πrh + 2πr 2
4
• Volume of€a sphere = πr 3
€3 2
• Surface area of sphere
€ = 4πr
1
• Area of a circular sector = r 2θ , when θ is in radians
€ 2
Significance of the sign of 2nd order derivative and points of Inflection:
€
€
€
  41  
  

The sign of the 2nd order derivative determines the concavity of the curve. Such points such as C & E on the graph where the
concavity of the curve changes are called the points of inflection.
From the graph we find that if:
d 2y
(i) > 0 ⇒ concave upwards
dx 2
d 2y
(ii) < 0 ⇒ concave downwards
dx 2
€ d 2y d 2y
At the point of inflection we find that =0 & changes sign.
dx 2 dx 2
€ d 2y
Inflection points can also occur if fails to exist. For example, consider the graph of the function defined as,
dx 2
⎧⎪ x 3 / 5 x ∈ (−∞,1) € €
f ( x ) = ⎨ exhibits two critical points one is a point of local maximum & the other a point of inflection.
2
⎩⎪ 2 − x x ∈ (1,∞)
€

Indefinite Integration
d
(F(x) + c ) = f ( x ) ⇒ ∫ f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c , Where
dx
f (x) is integrand and 'c' is constant of integration .
Loving Integrals
n +1
x n +1 ( ax + b)
n
€ 1. ∫ x dx =
n +1
n
+ c, n ≠ −1 2. ∫ (ax + b) dx = a(n +1) + c; n ≠ −1
1 dx 1
3. If n ≠ −1 ∫ dx = ln x + c 4. ∫ ax + b = a ln(ax + b) + c
x
1
€ 5. ∫ e dx = e
x x
+c € 6. ∫e ax +b
dx = e ax +b + c
a
ax a px +q
∫ a dx = ln a + c 8. ∫ a
x px +q
€ 7. € dx = +c
pln a
€ € cos( ax + b)
9. ∫ sin xdx = −cos x + c 10. ∫ sin( ax + b) dx = −
a
+c
1
€ 11. ∫ cos xdx = sin x + c € 12. ∫
cos(ax + b)dx = sin (ax + b) + c
a
1
∫ sec 14. ∫ sec ( ax + b) dx = tan( ax + b) + c
2 2
€ 13. xdx = tan x + c €
a
1
∫ cosec 16. ∫ cosec ( ax + b) dx = − cot ( ax + b) + c
2 2
€ 15. xdx = −cot x + c €
a
1
€ 17. ∫ sec x tan xdx = sec x + c € 18. ∫ sec( ax + b) tan( ax + b) dx = sec( ax + b) + c
a
dx dx x −1 x
€ 19. ∫ 2
= sin −1 x + c = −cos−1 x +€c 20. ∫ = sin −1

a
+ c = −cos
a
+c
1− x a2 − x 2
€ dx dx 1 x 1 x
21. ∫ x 2 +1
= tan −1 x + c = −cot −1 x + c€ 22. ∫ 2
x +a 2
= tan −1 + c = − cot −1 + c
a a a a
dx dx 1 x 1 x
€ 23. ∫ 2
= sec −1 x + c = −cosec€ −1
x +c 24. ∫ = sec−1 + c = − cos ec−1 + c
a a a a
x x −1 x x 2 − a2
Integration by Substitution: €
€
f n +1 ( x )
(I) I= ∫ f n ( x ) f ' ( x ) dx = + c [Hint : put f ( x ) = t ]
n +1 €
€ f ' ( x)
(II) I= ∫ dx = ln f ( x ) + c [Hint : put f ( x ) = t ]
f ( x)
€ 1. ∫ tan x dx = ln sec x + c 2. ∫ cot x dx = ln sin x + c

€   42  
  

⎛ π x ⎞
3. ∫ sec x dx = ln sec x + tan x + c = ln tan⎜ + ⎟ + c
⎝ 4 2 ⎠
4. ∫ cosecx dx = ln cosecx − cot x + c = −ln cosecx + cot x + c

5. ∫ sin m x cos n dx
I. If m is odd, then put cos x = t
II. If n is odd, then put sin x = t
III. If both of them are odd, then put cos x = t or sin x = t
IV. If both of them are even, then use trigonometric ratios and identities
6. General Substitutions:
a. a 2 − x 2 x = acos θ /asin θ
b. a 2 + x 2 x = atan θ /acot θ
c. x 2 − a 2 x = asec θ /acot θ
a2 − x 2
d. x 2 = a 2 cos2θ
a2 + x 2
dx dx
7. ∫ 2 2
= ln x + x 2 + a 2 + c 8. ∫ 2 2
= ln x + x 2 − a 2 + c
x +a x −a
2
a x x 2
9. ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx =
2
sin −1 +
a 2
a − x2 + c
const const const const
€ 10. ∫ Quad
dx or ∫
Quad
dx convert
€ it into ∫ ±lin 2 ± k 2
dx or ∫ dx
lin 2 ± k 2
Linear Linear ax + b ax + b
€ 11. ∫ Quad
dx or ∫ Quad
dx or ∫ 2
px + qx + r
dx or ∫ px 2 + qx + r
dx

d
€ Then write ax + b = A
dx
( )
px 2 + qx + r + B
Integration by Parts:

∫ f ( x )g( x )dx = f ( x ) ∫ g( x )dx − ∫ f ' ( x ) ∫ g( x ) dx

€
Preference order of the first function {f (x)} is according to the ILATE
x a2
1. ∫ 2 2
x + a dx =
2
x + a + ln x + x 2 + a 2 + c
2 2

2
€ x a 2
2. ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx =
2
x 2 − a 2 − ln x + x 2 − a 2 + c
2
€ 3. ∫ e [ f ( x ) + f ' ( x )]dx = e f ( x ) + c
x x

€
4. ∫ [ f ( x ) + xf ' ( x )]dx = xf ( x ) + c

€ Reduction Formula:

€
1. In = ∫ sin n θdθ

nIn = −sin n −1 θ cos θ + ( n −1) In −2

2. In = ∫ tan n θdθ

tan n −1 θ
In = − In −2
n −1
3. In = ∫ sec n θdθ

(n −1)In = sec n −2 θ tan θ + (n − 2)In −2

  43  
  

e ax
4. I = ∫ ax
e cosbx dx = 2
a + b2
( acosbx + bsinbx ) + c
e ax
5. I = ∫ e ax sinbx dx = 2 2 ( asinbx − bcosbx ) + c
a +b
Integration by Partial Fraction:
dx 1 a+ x
1. ∫ a −x2 2 = ln
2a a − x
+c
dx 1 x −a
2. ∫ 2
x −a 2 = ln
2a x + a
+c
Case I: When degree of x in Dr. > degree of x in Nr.
€ (a) When denominator contains non-repeating linear factors
x +1 A B C
€ ∫ ( x −1)( x − 2)( x − 3) dx = ∫ x −1
dx + ∫ x −2
dx + ∫ x −3
dx
(b) When denominator contains repeating linear factors
x +1 A B C
∫ ( x −1) ( x + 2) dx = ∫
2
x −1
dx + ∫ ( x −1) 2 dx + ∫ x +2
dx

(c) When denominator contains non-repeating quadratic factors

x −1 Ax + B C
∫ dx = ∫ dx + ∫ ( x − 2) dx
( x + x +1)( x − 2)
2
( x 2 + x +1)
(d) When denominator contains repeating quadratic factors
x +1 Ax + B Cx + D E
∫ 2 dx = ∫ dx + ∫ 2 dx + ∫ ( x − 2) dx
(x 2
+ x +1) ( x − 2) ( x 2 + x +1) (x 2
+ x +1)
Case II: When degree of x in Dr. ≤ degree of x in Nr.
Divide Numerator by Denominator
Quad ax 2 + bx + c d
Type 1: ∫ dx or ∫ Put ax 2 + bx + c = A( px 2 + qx + r) + B ( px 2 + qx + r) + C
(Quad ) 2 € px 2 + qx + r dx
Type 2:

dx dx dx
€ ∫ a + bsin 2 x
or ∫ a + bcos 2 x
or ∫ 22
asin x + bcos x + c sin x cos x
Hint : Multiply Nr. and Dr. by sec 2 x

dx dx dx x
Type 3: ∫ a + bsin x
or ∫ a + bcos x
or ∫ asin x + bcos x + c
Hint : Convert sin x and cos x into tan
2
Type 4:
asin x + bcos x + c d
€ ∫
lsin x + m cos x + n
dx Put asin x + bcos x + c = A(lsin x + m cos x + n) + B ( lsin x + m cos x + n ) + C
dx
2 2
x +1 x −1
Type 5: ∫ 4 2 dx or ∫ 4 2 dx Divide Nr. and Dr. by x 2
x + kx +1 x + kx +1
Integration of Algebraic Function:
dx (x − α)
1. ∫ or ∫ ( x − α )(β − x )dx or ∫ (β − x ) dx Put x = α cos2 θ + β sin 2 θ
€ ( x − α ) ( x − α )( β − x )
dx
2. ∫ Put x = α sec 2 θ − β tan 2 θ
( x − α )( x − β)
€ dx
3. ∫ (ax + b) px + q Put px + q = t 2

dx
€ 4. ∫ ax + bx + c px + q Put px + q = t 2
( ) 2

€ dx 1
5. ∫ Put
ax + b
=t
(ax + b) px 2 + qx + r
€

€   44  
  

dx
6. ∫
(ax
+ bx + c ) px 2 + qx + r
2

dx ⎛ A B ⎞ dx
∫ 2 = ∫ ⎜ + ⎟ 2
( x − x − 2) x + x +1 ⎝ ( x − 2) ( x +1) ⎠ x + x +1
2

€ dx 1
7. ∫ Put x =
(ax 2 + b) px 2 + q t

Some Integrals which can’t be found:

sin x cos x 1 2 2 x2 2 3/2 1/ 2
€ , , , 1 − k 2 sin 2 x , sin x ,sin( x 2 ),cos( x 2 ), x tan x,e −x ,e x , 5 , (1+ x ) , (1+ x 3 )
x x ln x 1+ x

Definite Integration b
b
∫ f ( x )dx = [F( x)+c] = F (b) − F (a) , where ‘a’ is lower limit and ‘b’ is upper limit
a a

n −1
b
Process of Summation: lim h∑ f (a + rh) = ∫ f ( x )dx
h→0 r =0
a
n→∞

Remarks: 1. Definite integral can be positive, negative or zero, but area can never be negative or zero.
b
2. If f ( x ) is€always positive in (a, b) (a<b), then ∫ f ( x )dx
a
is always positive.

b
3. If ∫ f ( x )dx = 0 , then the equation f ( x ) has atleast one root in (a, b) provided f ( x ) is continuous in its interval but
a

€ converse is not always true.

€

€
4. lim
n→∞
(∫ b

a ) ∫ (€lim f ( x))dx
f n ( x )dx =
b

a n→∞ n
€
Important Notes:
x2
€ ⎡ 1 ⎛ ⎞⎤
x2 dx −1 x
1. ∫ = ⎢ tan ⎜ ⎟⎥
x1 x + a2
2

⎣ a ⎝ a ⎠⎦ x1

x
dx 1 − tan 2
2π
2 b'coz tan x is not continuous at x = π
€
2. ∫ 0 5 − 2cos x
can' t substitute cos x =
x 2
1+ tan 2
2
π dx π
3. ∫ 2
0 1+ cos x
don't multiply by sec 2
x b'coz sec x is not continuous at x =
2
€
d b
∫
b

a dx
f ( x )dx = [ f ( x)] a
provided function is continuous in (a, b), but if f (x) is discontinuous at x = c ∈ ( a, b) then
€ 4.
b c b c− b
∫ a f ' ( x )dx = ∫ a f ' ( x )dx + ∫ c
f ' ( x )dx = [f(x)] [f(x)]
a
+
c+

Properties of Definite Integral:

€
  45  
  

b b
P I. ∫ f ( x )dx = ∫ f (t )dt
a a

b a
P II. ∫ f ( x )dx = − ∫ f ( x )dx
a b

€ b c b
P III. ∫ f ( x )dx = ∫ f ( x )dx + ∫ f ( x )dx
a a c

€ a a
∫ −a
f ( x ) dx = ∫ [ f ( x ) + f (−x )]dx
0

€ P IV. If f ( x ) is odd function, then I = 0

a
If f ( x ) is even function, then I = 2 ∫ 0 f ( x )dx

b b
P V. ∫ f ( x )dx = ∫ f (a + b − x )dx
a a

€ 2a a
∫ 0
∫ [ f ( x ) + f (2a − x )]dx
f ( x ) dx = 0
a
€ P VI. If f ( x ) = f (2a − x ), then I = 2 ∫ f ( x ) dx 0

If f ( x ) = − f (2a − x ), then I = 0
na a
P VII. ∫ 0
f ( x ) dx = n ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx n ∈ I and ' a' is Time period of f ( x )
€ b +nT b
P VIII. ∫ a +nT
f ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x )dx
a
n ∈ I and 'T' is Time period of f ( x )
€ na a
P IX. ∫ ma
f ( x ) dx = ( n − m) ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx m,n ∈ I and ' a' is Time period of f ( x )
€ b b
P X. If f ( x ) ≤ φ ( x ) for a ≤ x ≤ b, then ∫ f ( x) ≤ ∫ φ( x)
a a

€ b b
P XI. ∫ f ( x )dx ≤ ∫ f ( x ) dx
a a

€
Derivative of anti-derivative function (Leibnitz Rule):

d h ( x)
€ If f ( x ) is continuous function, then
dx
∫ ( ) f (t)dt = f [h( x )]h' ( x ) − f [g( x )]g' ( x )
g x

Definite Integral Inequalities:

b
€ Case (I) If € increasing in (a, b) then (b − a) f ( a) <
f ( x ) is monotonic ∫ f ( x )dx < (b − a) f (b)
a

b
Case (II) If f ( x ) is monotonic decreasing in (a, b) then (b − a) f (b) < ∫ f ( x )dx < (b − a) f (a)
a

€ €
Walli’s Theorem:

€ π /2 [(m −1)(m − 3)(€n − 5).......1 or 2][(n −1)(n − 3)(n − 5).......1 or 2]k

∫ 0
sin m x cos n xdx =
[(m + n)(m + n − 2)(m + n − 4)...........1 or 2]
where m, n ∈W

π
where k = if m, n are even
2
k = 1 otherwise

Summation of Series using Integration as the limit of the sum:

  46  
  

n
b
∫ f ( x )dx = lim h∑ f (a + rh)
a
n→∞ r =1

1
a = 0, b = 1, h =
n
1 1 n ⎛ r ⎞
∫ 0 f ( x )dx = lim ∑ f ⎜ ⎟
n → ∞ n r =1 ⎝ n ⎠

r 1
∑→ ∫ ,
n
→ x,
n
→dx
r
Obtain lower and upper limit by computing lim n
n→∞
for the least and greatest values of 'r' respectively.

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 π2
(i) 1 − + − + − ...........∞ = ln 2 (ii) 2
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + ...........∞ =
2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 6

1 1 1 1 π2 1 1 1 1 π2
(iii) − + − + .............∞ = (iv) + + + + ..............∞ =
€ 12 2 2 32 4 2 12
€ 12 32 52 7 2 8
2
1 1 1 1 π
(v) 2
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + ..........∞ =
2 4 6 8 24
€ €

AREA UNDER THE CURVE

1. The area above the x-axis bounded by the curve y=f(x), the x-axis and the ordinates at x=a & x=b is given by
b b
A= ∫ f ( x) dx = ∫ ydx
a a
b
2. If the area is below the x-axis then A is negative. The convention is to consider the magnitude only i.e. A = ∫ f ( x)dx
a
€ 3. Area €
between the curves y=f(x) & y=g(x) between the ordinates at x=a & x=b is given by,
b b b
A= ∫ f ( x) dx − ∫ g( x)dx = ∫ [ f ( x) − g( x)]dx €
a a a
b
1
4. Average value of a function y=f(x) w.r.t. x over an interval a ≤ x ≤ b is defined as: y avg =
b− a
∫ f ( x) dx
a
€ € € dAa x
5. The area function Aa x satisfies the differential equation = f ( x ) with initial condition Aa a = 0
€ dx
∫
Note: If F(x) is any integral of f(x) then, Aa x = f ( x ) dx = F ( x ) + c A€a a = 0 = F ( a) + c ⇒ c = −F ( a)
Hence Aa = F ( x ) − F ( a) . Finally by taking x=b we get, Aa b = F (b) − F ( a)
x
€ € €
CURVE TRACING:
The following outline procedure € is to be applied in sketching the
€ graph of a function y=f(x) which in turn will be extremely
useful to quickly and correctly evaluate the area under the curves.
(a)€ Symmetry: The symmetry of the curve is judged€as follows:
(i) If all the powers of y in the equation are even then the curve is symmetrical about the axis of x.
(ii) If powers of x are even, the curve is symmetrical about the axis of y.
(iii) If powers of x & y both are even, the curve is symmetrical about the axis of x as well as y.
(iv) If the equation of the curve remains unchanged on nterchanging x and y, then the curve is symmetrical about y=x
(v) If on interchanging the signs of x & y both the equation of the curve is unaltered then there is symmetry in opposite
quadrants.
(b) Find dy/dx & equate it to zero to find the points on the curve where you have horizontal tangents.
(c) Find the points where the curve crosses the x-axis & also the y-axis.
(d) Examine if possible the intervals when f(x) is increasing or decreasing Examine what happens to ‘y’ when x → ∞ or − ∞

€
  47  
  

USEFUL RESULTS:
x2 y2
(i) Whole area of the ellipse + = 1 is πab
a 2 b2
16ab
(ii) Area enclosed between the parabolas y 2 = 4ax & x 2 = 4ay is
3
€ 8a 2
2
(iii) Area included between
€ the parabola y = 4ax & the line y=mx is
3m 3
€ €
€
€
€

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
(First Order and First Degree)
DEFINITIONS:
• An equation that involves independent and dependent variables and the derivatives of the dependent variables is called a
Differential Equation.
• A differential equation is said the be ordinary, if the differential coefficients have reference to a single independent variables only
and it is said to be Partial. If there are two or more independent variables. We are concerned with ordinary differential equations
∂u ∂u ∂u
only. e.g. + + = 0 is a partial differential equation.
∂x ∂y ∂z
• Finding the unknown function is called Solving or Integrating the differential equation. The solution of the differential equation
is also called its Primitive, because the differential equation can be regarded as a relation derived from it.
• The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest differential coefficient occurring in it.
• €
The degree of a differential equation which can be written as a polynomial in the derivatives is the degree of the derivative of the
highest order occurring in it, after it has been expressed in a form free from radicals & fractions so far as derivatives are
⎛ d m y ⎞ p ⎛ d m −1 y ⎞q
concerned, thus the differential equation. f ( x, y )⎜ m ⎟ + g ( x, y )⎜ m −1 ⎟ + .........+ y = 0 is order m & degree p. Note that in the
⎝ dx ⎠ ⎝ dx ⎠
y'''
differential equation e − xy' ' +y = 0 order is three but degree doesn’t apply.

FORMATION of a Differential Equation:

€
If an equation in independent and dependent variables having some arbitrary constant is given, then a differential equation is
€
obtained as follows:
• Differentiate the given equation w.r.t. the independent variable (say x) as many times as the number of arbitrary constants in it.
• Eliminate the arbitrary constants.
The Eliminate is required differential equation. Consider forming a differential equation for y 2 = 4a( x + b) where a & b are
arbitrary constant.
Note: A differential equation represents a family of curves all satisfying some common properties. This can be considered as the
geometrical interpretation of the differential equation.
€
GENERAL & PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS:
The solution of a differential equation which contains a number of independent arbitrary constants equal to the order of the
differential equation is called the General Solution (or Complete Integral or Complete Primitive). A solution obtainable from
the general solution by giving particular values to the constants is called a Particular Solution.
Note that the general solution of a differential equation of the nth order contains ‘n’ & only ‘n’ independent arbitrary constants.
The arbitrary constants in the solution of a differential equation are said to be independent, when it is impossible to deduce from
the solution an equivalent relation containing fewer arbitrary constants. Thus the two arbitrary constants A, B in the equation
y = Ae x +B are not independent since the equation can be written as y = Ae B e x = Ce x . Similarly the solution
y = A sin x + B cos( x + C ) appears to contain three arbitrary constants, but they are really equivalent to two only.

€ Elementary Types of First Order & First Degree Differential

€ Equations:
Type-1 VARIABLES SEPARABLE: If the differential equation can be expressed as: f ( x ) dx + g( y ) dy = 0 then this is said to be
€
variable separable type.

A general solution of this is given by ∫ f ( x) dx + ∫ g( y) dy = c , where c is the€arbitrary constant. Consider the example
dy
= e x −y + x 2e −y
dx
Note: Sometimes transformation to the polar co-ordinates facilitates separation of variables. In this connection it is convenient to
€
remember the following differentials.
€
  48  
  

If x = r cos θ ; y = r sin θ then, (i) xdx + ydy = rdr (ii) dx 2 + dy 2 = dr 2 + r 2 dθ 2 (iii) xdy − ydx = r 2 dθ
If x = r sec θ & y = r tan θ then xdx − ydy = rdr and xdy − ydx = r 2 sec θdθ
dy
Type-2: REDUCIBLE TO VARIABLE SEPARABLE: = f ( ax + by + c ), b ≠ 0 To solve this, subsitute t=ax+by+c.
€ € € dx €
Then the equation reduces to separable type in the variable t and x which can be solved.
€ € €
2 dy
Consider the example ( x + y ) = a2
dx
Type-3 HOMOGENEOUS EQUATIONS: €
dy f ( x, y )
A Differential equation of the form = where f ( x, y ) & g( x, y ) are homogeneous functions of x & y, and of the same
€ dx g( x, y )
dy ⎛ x ⎞
degree, is called Homogeneous. This equation may also be reduced to the form = h⎜ ⎟ & is solved by putting y=vx so that
dx ⎝ y ⎠
€
the dependent variable y is€changed to another variable v, where v is some unknown function, the differential equation is
dy y ( x + y )
transformed to an equation with variables separable. Consider + 2
=0
dx €x
Type-4 REDUCIBLE TO HOMOGENEOUS FORM:
dy a1 x + b1 y + c1 a a
If = ; where a1b2 − a 2b1 ≠ 0 , i.e. 1 ≠ 2 then the substitution x=u+h, y=v+k transform this equation to a
dx a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 b1 b2
€
homogeneous type in the new variables u and v where h and k are arbitrary constants to be chosen so as to make the given
equation homogeneous which can be solved by the method as given in Type-3. If
1. a1b2 − a 2b1 = 0 , then €
a substitution u = a1 x + b1 y transforms the differential equation to an equation with variables separable, and
€ €
2. b1 + a 2 = 0 , then a simple cross multiplication and substituting d ( xy ) for xdy + ydx & integrating term by term yields the result
dy x − 2y + 5 dy 2x + 3y − 1 dy 2x − y + 1
easily. Consider = ; = & =
€ dx 2x€+ y − 1 dx 4 x + 6y − 5 dx 6x − 5y + 4
€ 3. In an equation of the form: yf ( xy) dx + xg( xy) dy = 0 € the variables
€ can be separated by the substitution xy=v.

IMPORTANT € NOTE: € €
(a) The function f(x, y) is said to be a homogeneous function of degree n if for any real number t (≠ 0) , we have f ( tx,ty ) = t n f ( x, y )
€
For eg. f ( x, y ) = ax 2 / 3 + hx1/ 3 y1/ 3 + by 2 / 3 is a homogeneous function of degree 2/3
dy
(b) A differential equation of the form = f ( x, y ) . The function f does not depend on x & y separately but only on their ratio
dx € €
y x
€ or
x y
LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:
€
A differential equation is said to be linear if the dependent variable & its differential coefficients occur in the first degree only and
are not multiplied together.
€ The nth order linear differential equation is of the form;
dny d n −1 y
a 0 ( x ) n + a1( x ) n −1 + ...........+ a n ( x ).y = φ ( x ) where a 0 ( x ),a1( x )..........a n ( x ) are called the coefficients of the differential
dx dx
equation.
Note that a linear differential equation is always of the first degree but every differential equation of first degree need not be linear
3
d 2 y ⎛ dy ⎞ 2 €
€ e.g. the differential equation + ⎜ ⎟ + y = 0 is not linear, though its degree is 1.
dx 2 ⎝ dx ⎠
Type-5 LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER
dy
The most general form a linear differential equations of first order is + Py = Q , where P & Q are functions of x.
dx
€
To solve such an equation multiply both sides by e ∫ Pdx
Note:
(a) The factor e ∫ Pdx on multiplying by which the left hand side€of the differential equation becomes the differential coefficient of
some function of x & y, is called integrating € factor of the differential equation popularly abbreviated as I.F.
(b) It is very important to remember that on multiplying by the integrating factor, the left hand side becomes the derivative of the
product of y and the I.F.
€
(c) Some times a given differential equation becomes linear if we take y as the independent variable and x as the dependent variable.
dy dx
E.g. the equation; ( x + y + 1)
dx
(
= y 2 + 3 can be written as y 2 + 3 ) dy
= x + y + 1 which is linear differential equation.

Type-6 REDUCIBLE TO LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION FORM:

dy
The equation + Py = Qy n , where P & Q functions of x, is reducible to the linear form by dividing it by y n & then substituting
€ dx
€
(
y −n +1 = z . Its solution can be obtained as in Type-5. Consider the example x 3 y 2 + xy dx = dy )
€
€
€   €
49  
  

dy
The equation + Py = Qy n is called Bernouli’s Equation.
dx

Trajectories:
Suppose we are given the family of plane curves. φ ( x, y,a) = 0 depending on a single paramter a.
€
A curve making at each of its points a fixed angle α with the curve of the family passing through that point is called isogonal
π
trajectory of that family; if in particular α = , then it is called an orthogonal trajectory.
2
€
Orthogonal trajectories: We set up the€differential equation of the given family of curves. Let it be of the form F ( x, y, y') = 0
⎛ 1 ⎞
The differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories is of the form F ⎜ x, y,− ⎟ = 0
€ ⎝ y' ⎠
The general integral of this equation φ1( x, y,C ) = 0 gives the family of orthogonal trajectories. €

Note: Following exact differentials must be rememebered:

€
xdy − ydx ⎛ y ⎞
(a) xdy + ydx = d ( xy ) € (b) 2
= d ⎜ ⎟
x ⎝ x ⎠
ydx − xdy ⎛ x ⎞ xdy + ydx
(c) = d ⎜ ⎟ (d) = d ( ln xy )
y2 y
⎝ ⎠ xy
€ dx + dy xdy − ydx ⎛ y ⎞
(e) = d ( ln( x + y ))
€ (f) = d ⎜ ln ⎟
x+y xy ⎝ x ⎠
€ ydx − xdy ⎛ x ⎞ €xdy − ydx ⎛ y ⎞
(g) = d ⎜ ln ⎟ (h) 2 2
= d ⎜ tan −1 ⎟
xy ⎝ y ⎠ x +y ⎝ x ⎠
€ ydx − xdy ⎛ x ⎞ € xdx + ydy ⎛ ⎞
(i) 2 2
= d ⎜ tan −1 ⎟ (j) 2 2
= d ⎜ ln x 2 + y 2 ⎟
x +y ⎝ y ⎠ x +y ⎝ ⎠
€ xdy + ydx ⎛ 1 ⎞ € x
ye dx − e dy x ⎛ e ⎞
x
(k) 2 2
= d ⎜− ⎟ (l) 2
= d ⎜ ⎟
x y ⎝ xy ⎠ y ⎝ y ⎠
€ y
xe dy − e dxy ⎛ e y ⎞ €
(m) 2
= d ⎜ ⎟
x ⎝ x ⎠
€ €

€
STRAIGHT LINES & PAIR OF STRAIGHT
LINES
Position of point is decided by an ordered pair (x, y). where x=abscissa and y=ordinate
Polygon: There are two types of polygon are as follows:
1. Convex polygon: If a line is drawn joining any two adjacent vertices, remaining vertices should lie on the same side. Also if a line
segment is drawn whose extremities lie within the region, the whole line segment should lie within the region.
2. Concave polygon: If a line is drawn joining any two adjacent vertices, some remaining vertices should lie on the either side of the
line.
Quadrilaterals(Convex):
• Parallelogram: opposite sides are parallel, opposite sides are equal, diagonals bisect each other.
• Trapezium: Only one set of opposite side is parallel
• Equilateral/Isosceles Trapezium: non parallel sides are equal, base angles are equal, diagonals are equal, it’s a cyclic
quadrilateral.
• Kite: Diagonals are perpendicular, only one set of diagonals divides the whole region into two regions of equal areas.
• Cyclic Quadrilateral: Opposite angles are supplementary
• Rectangle: all properties are same as parallelogram, angle between adjacent side is 90˚ , Diagonals are equal
• Rhombus: all properties are same as parallelogram, all sides are equal, diagonals bisect each other, diagonals act as angle
bisector, distance between parallel side is same.
• Square: Rectangle+Rhombus
Defintions: €
• Centroid: Point of intersection of 3 medians of a triangle and divides the median in the ratio 2:1
• Orthocenter: Point of intersection of 3 altitudes of a triangle. If triangle is obtuse angled then orthocenter can lie outside the
triangle and if right angled then right angled vertex is orthocenter.
• Incentre: Point of intersection 3 internal angle bisectors of a triangle and it is equidistant from the 3 sides of the triangle.
• Circumcentre: Point of intersection of 3 perpendicular bisectors and equidistant from 3 vertices of the triangle.
Note: (i) Incentre and Centroid always lie inside the triangle.
(ii) In a Δ H, G, C are collinear & G divides line joining of H and C in the ratio 2:1
(iii) In Isosceles Δ H, G, C, I are collinear and they coincides in case of equilateral Δ .

€
  € € 50  
  

(iv) Incentre divides the angle bisectors in the ratio (b+c):a; (c+a):b; (a+b):c
(v) Incentre and excentre are harmonic conjugate of each other w.r.t the angle bisector on which they lie.
Distance Formula between two points ( x1, y1) & ( x 2 , y 2 )
2 2
d= ( x 2 − x1) + ( y 2 − y1)
⎛ mx + nx1 my 2 + ny1 ⎞
Section Formula: If P divides€A( x1 , y1) & B( x 2 , y 2 ) internally in ratio of m : n P⎜ 2 , ⎟
⎝ m + n m + n ⎠
€ ⎛ mx − nx1 my 2 − ny1 ⎞
If P divides A( x1 , y1) & B( x 2 , y 2 ) externally in ratio of m : n P⎜ 2 , ⎟
⎝ m − n m − n ⎠
€
Note: If P divides AB€internally in the ratio of m1 : m2 & Q divides AB € externally in ratio of m1 : m2 the P & Q are harmonic
2 1 1
conjugate to each other w.r.t. AB = €+
€ AB AP AQ €
⎛ ⎞
If ΔABC whose vertices are A( x1, y1),B € ( x 2 , y 2 ) & C ( x 3 , y 3 ) Centroid: G ⎜ x1 + x 2 +€x 3 , y1 + y 2 + y 3 ⎟
⎝ 3 3 ⎠
⎛ ax1 + bx 2 + € cx 3 ay1 + by 2 + cy 3 ⎞
Incentre: I ⎜ , ⎟
⎝ a + b + c a + b + c ⎠
€ ⎛ −ax1 + bx 2 + cx 3 −ay1 + by 2 + cy 3 ⎞ ⎛ ax − bx + cx 3 ay1 − by 2 + cy 3 ⎞ ⎛ ax1 + bx 2 − cx 3 ay1 + by 2 − cy 3 ⎞
Excentre: I1⎜ , ⎟ ; I 2 ⎜ 1 € 2 , ⎟ ; I ⎜ , ⎟
⎝ −a + b + c −a + b + c ⎠ ⎝ a − b + c a − b + c ⎠ ⎝ a + b − c a + b − c ⎠
€ ⎛ tan Ax1 + tan Bx 2 + tan Cx 3 tan Ay1 + tan By 2 + tan Cy 3 ⎞
Orthocentre: H ⎜ , ⎟
⎝ tan A + tan B + tanC tan A + tan B + tanC ⎠
€ ⎛ sin 2Ax1 + sin 2Bx 2 + sin€2Cx 3 sin 2Ay1 + sin 2By 2 + sin 2Cy 3€⎞
Circumcentre: C ⎜ , ⎟
⎝ sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C sin 2A + sin 2B + sin 2C ⎠
€ x1 y1 1
1
Area of ΔABC whose vertices are A( x1, y1),B( x 2 , y 2 ) & C ( x 3 , y 3 ) ΔABC = x 2 y 2 1
2
€ x3 y3 1
x1 y1 1
€Note: Condition for which A( x1 , y1),B( x 2 , y 2 ) & C ( x 3 , y 3 ) are collinear is x 2 y 2 1 = 0
€ x3 y3 1
LOCUS:
Locus is a greek letter word which means path traced by a variable moving particle which is moving under certain condition.
€
How to determine locus of a point
(i) Assume the co-ordinates of the point whose locus is to be € determined as (h, k)
(ii) Apply the given geometrical conditions
(iii) Convert this geometrical condition an algebraic expression & simplicity as far as possible.
(iv) Replaced h by x and k by y
Eg. (i) Locus of a point whose distance from fixed point is constant is a Circle.
(ii) Locus of a point which moves in such a way that its distance from two fixed point is always same is Perpendicular Bisector
Slope Formula: (Gradient)
If θ is the angle at which straight line is inclined to the positive direction of x-axis & 0 ≤ θ < π , θ ≠ 90˚ , then the slope of the
line, denoted by m, is defined by m = tan θ . If θ is 90˚ , m does not exist, but the line is parallel to the y-axis. If θ = 0˚ , then m=0
& the line is parallel to the x-axis.
y −y
€ € by m = 2 1
If A( x1 , y1) & B( x 2 , y 2 ) , are points on a straight line, then the slope m of the€line is given
€ € € x 2 − x€1
Condition of Collinearity of three points:
Points A( x1 , y1),B( x 2 , y 2 ) & C ( x 3 , y 3 ) are collinear if
€
€x1 y1 1
y −y y − y2
(i) mAB = mBC = mCA i.e. 2 1 = 3 (ii) ΔABC = 0 i.e. x 2 y 2 1 = 0
x 2 − x1 x 3 − x 2
€ x3 y3 1
(iii) AC = AB + BC (iv) A divides the line segment BC in some ratio
Equation of a Straight Line in Various Forms:
€ (i) Point-Slope Form: y − y1 = m( x − x1) is the equation of a line whose slope is m & which passes through the point ( x1, y1)
€
€ (ii) Slope-Intercept Form: y = mx + c is the equation of a line whose slope is m & which makes an intercept c on the y-axis.
y −y
(iii) Two Point Form: y − y1 = 2 1 ( x − x1) is the equation of a line which passes through the points A( x1 , y1) & B( x 2 , y 2 )
x 2 − x1
€ €
€ x y 1
(iv) Determinant Form: Equation of line passing through A( x1 , y1) & B( x 2 , y 2 ) is x1 y1 1 = 0
€
€ x2 y2 1

€
  € 51  
  

x y
(v) Intercept Form: + = 1 is the equation of a line which makes intercepts a & b on OX & OY respectively.
a b
(vi) Perpendicular/Normal Form: x cos α + y sin α = p (where p>0, 0 ≤ α < 2π ) is the equation of the line where the length of
perpendicular from the origin O on the line is p and this perpendicular makes an angle α with positive x-axis.
x − x1 y − y1
(vii) Parametric
€ Form: P( r ) = ( x1 + r cos θ , y1 + r sin θ ) or = = r is the equation of the line in parametric form,
€ cos θ sin θ
€
where ‘r’ is the parameter whose absolute value is the distance of any point (€x, y ) on the line from the fixed point A( x1 , y1) on the
line ‘r’ is takes as positive for co-ordinate in increasing direction of ‘y’ and negative for decreasing direction of ‘y’.
(viii) General Form:
€ ax+by+c=0 is the equation of a straight line in the general form.
a c c
In this case, slope of line = − and x-intercept= − & y-intercept= € − €
b a b
Angle Between Two Lines in terms of their Slopes:
m − m2
If m1 & m2 are the slopes of two intersecting lines & θ is the acute angle between them, then tan θ = 1
€ € € 1 + m1m2
Note: (i) Let m1, m2 , m3 are the slopes of three lines where m1>m2>m3 then the interior angles of the ΔABC found by these lines
m − m2 m −m m − m1
€ are given by, tan A = 1 ; tan B = 2€ 3 ; tanC = 3
1+ m1m 2 1+ m2 m 3 1+ m3 m1 €
(ii) €
The equation of lines passing through point ( x1, y1) and making angle α with the line y=mx+c € are given by:
y − y1 = tan(θ ± α )( x − x1) where tan θ = m
Parallel
€ Lines: € €
(i) When two lines are parallel their
€ slopes are equal. Thus€any line parallel to y=mx+c is of the type y=mx+k, where k is a
parameter.
€ a b c
(ii) Two lines ax+by+c=0 and a`x+b`y+c`=0 are parallel if = ≠ Thus any line parallel to ax+by+c=0 is of the type
a' b' c'
ax+by+k=0 where k is a parameter.
c1 − c 2
(iii) The distance between two parallel lines with equations ax + by + c1 = 0 & ax + by + c 2 = 0 is
€ a 2 + b2
Note: Coefficients of x & y in both the equations must be same.
(iv) The area of the parallelogram = p1 p2 cos ecθ where p1 & p2 are distances between two pairs of opposite sides & θ is the
angle between any two adjacent sides. Note that area of€the parallelogram€bounded by the lines y=m1x+c1, y=m1x+c2 and
€
y=m2x+d1, y=m2x+d2 is given by 1 2 1
(c − c )( d − d 2 )
€ m1 − m2 € €
Perpendicular Lines:
1. When two lines of slopes m1 & m2 are at right angles, the product of their slopes is –1, i.e. m1m2= -1. Thus any line perpendicular
1
to y=mx+c is of the form € y = − x + k , where k is a parameter.
m
2. Two lines ax+by+c=0 and a`x+b`y+c`=0 are perpendicular if aa' +bb' = 0 . Thus any line perpendicular to ax+by+c=0 is of the
form bx-ay+k=0, where k is any parameter.
Position of the Point ( x1, y1) relative to the line ax+by+c=0:
€
If ax1 + by1 + c is of the same sign as c, then the point€ ( x1, y1) lie on the origin side of ax+by+c=0. But if the sign of ax1 + by1 + c
is oppsosite to that of c, the point ( x1, y1) will lie on the non-origin side of ax+by+c=0.
In general two € points ( x1, y1) & ( x 2 , y 2 ) will lie on same side or opposite side of ax+by+c=0 according as ax1 + by1 + c &
€ ax 2 + by 2 + c are of same or opposite sign respectively.
€ €
The Ratio in which a given € line divides the line segment joining two points:
m ax + by1 + c
Let the given € line ax+by+c=0
€ divide the line segment joining A( x1 , y1) & B( x 2 , y 2 ) in the ratio m:n
€ then =− 1 . If
n ax 2 + by 2 + c
€
A & B are on the same side of the given line then m/n is negative but if A & B are on opposite sides of the given line, then m/n is
positive.
Length of Perpendicular from a Point ( x1, y1) on€a line: €
€
ax1 + by1 + c
d=
a 2 + b2
€ a line:
Reflection of a Point ( x1, y1) about
x − x1 y − y1 ax + by + c
(i) Foot of the perpendicular from a point on the line is = = − 1 2 12
€ a b a +b
x − x1 y − y1 ax + by + c
(ii) The€image of a point (x1,y1) about the line ax+by+c=0 is = = −2 1 2 12
a b a +b
Bisectors of the Angles Between Two Lines:
€

€
  52  
  

ax + by + c a' x + b' y + c'

Equations of the bisectors of angles between the lines ax+by+c=0 & a’x+b’y+c’=0 ( ab' ≠ a' b) are =±
2 2
a +b a' 2 +b' 2
Note: Equation of lines passing through P ( x1, y1) & equally inclined with the lines ax1 + by1 + c1 = 0 & ax 2 + by 2 + c 2 = 0 are
those which are parallel to the bisectors between these two lines & passing through the point P.
Method to discriminate between the acute angle bisector & the obtuse€angle bisector: €
(i) If θ be the angle between one of the lines & one of the bisectors, find tan θ ,
€ € €
If tan θ < 1, then 2θ < 90˚ so that this bisector is the acute angle bisector.
If tan θ > 1 , then we get the bisector to be the obtuse angle bisector.
(ii)
€ Let L1 = 0 & L2 = 0 are the given lines & u1=0 and u2=0 are the€ bisectors L1 = 0 & L2 = 0 . Take a point P on any one of
€ the lines €L1 = 0 or L2 = 0 and drop perpendicular on u1 = 0 & u 2 = 0 as shown if,
€ p < q ⇒ u1 is the acute angle bisector
> q ⇒ u1 is the obtuse angle bisector
p€ €
€ p = q ⇒ the lines L1 = 0 & L2 = 0 are perpendicular
€
€ ax + by + c a' x + b' y + c'
(iii) If aa' +bb' < 0 then the equation of the bisector of this acute angle is =+
€ a 2 + b2 a' 2 +b' 2
ax + by + c a' x + b' y + c'
€ If however€ aa' +bb' > 0 , then the equation of the bisector of the obtuse angle is: =+
€ a 2 + b2 a' 2 +b' 2
Discriminate between the bisector of the angle containing a point: €
To discriminate between the bisector of the angle containing the origin & that of the angle not containing the origin. Rewrite the
€ ax + by + c a' x + b' y + c'
equations, ax+by+c=0 & a’x+b’y+c’=0 such that the constant term c & €c’ are positive, then =+ gives
2 2
a +b a' 2 +b' 2
ax + by + c a' x + b' y + c'
the equation of the bisector of the angle containing the origin & =− gives the equation of the bisector of
2 2
a +b a' 2 +b' 2
the angle not containing the origin. In general equation of the bisector which contains € the point (α , β ) is
ax + by + c a' x + b' y + c' ax + by + c a' x + b' y + c'
=+ or =− according as aα + bβ + c & a' α + b' β + c' having same sign or
a 2 + b2 a' 2 +b' 2 a 2 + b2 a' 2 €
+b' 2
otherwise. €
Condition of Concurrency:
€ a1 b1 c1
€ €
Three lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 , a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 = 0 & a 3 x + b3 y + c 3 = 0 are concurrent if a 2 b2 c 2 = 0
a 3 b3 c3
Alternatively: If three constants A, B & C (not all zero) can be found such that
A€( a1 x + b1 y + c1) + B€
( a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 ) + C ( a€3 x + b3 y + c 3 ) =0, then the three lines are concurrent.
€
Family of Straight Lines:
The equation of a family of lines passing through the point of intersection of the lines, L1 ≡ a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 ,
€ € €
L2 ≡ a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 = 0 is given by a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 , L1 + λL2 = 0 i.e. (a1 x + b1 y + c1 ) + λ ( a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 ) = 0 , where λ is an
arbitrary real number.
Note: €
• If u1 = ax + by + c = 0 , u 2 = a' x + b' y + d = 0 , u 3 = ax + by + c' = 0 , u 4 = a' x + b' y + d' = 0 then form a parallelogram.
€ The
€ € € € €
diagonal BD can be given by u 2 u 3 − u1u 4 = 0 and diagonal AC is given by u1u 2 − u 3 u 4 = 0
• The diagonal AC is also given by u1 + λυ 4 = 0 and u 2 + µu 3 = 0 if the two equations are identical for some real λ & µ . For
€ getting the values
€ of λ & µ compare € the coefficients of x, € y & the constant terms.
€ €
PAIR OF STRAIGHT
€ € LINES THROUGH ORIGIN: €
€
(i) A homogeneous equation of degree two, ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 always represents a pair of straight lines passing through the
origin if:
(a) h 2 > ab ⇒ lines are real and distinct
(b) h 2 = ab ⇒ lines are concurrent
€
(c) h 2 < ab ⇒ lines are imaginary with real point of intersection i.e. (0,0)
2h a
(ii)€If y = m1 x & y = m2 x be the two equations represented by ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 , then; m1 + m2 = − & m1m2 =
€ b b
2
€ 2 h − ab
(iii) If θ is the acute angle between the pair of straight lines represented by ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 then tan θ =
a +b
€ € €
€
(iv) The condition that these lines are:
2
(a)
€ At right angles to each other is a+b=0 i.e. coefficient of x +coefficient of y2=0
€
€
  53  
  

(b) Coincident is h2=ab

(c) Equally inclined to the axis of x is h=0 i.e. coefficient of xy=0
Note: A homogeneous equation of degree n represents n straight lines passing through origin.
x 2 − y 2 xy
(v) The equation to the pair of straight lines bisecting the angle between the straight lines, ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is =
a −b h
General Equation of Second Degree Representing a pair of straight lines:
a h g
• 2 2 € 2 2 2
ax + 2hxy + by + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 represents a pair of straight lines if: Δ = abc + 2 fgh − af − bg − ch€ = 0 i.e. h b f = 0
g f c
• The angle θ between the two lines representing by a general equation is the same as that between the two lines represented by its
€ homogeneous part only. €
€
€
HOMOGENIZATION:
The equation of a pair of straight lines joining origin to the points of intersection of the line L ≡ lx + my + n = 0 and a second
⎛ lx + my ⎞ ⎛ lx + my ⎞ ⎛ lx + my ⎞2
degree curve. S ≡ ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx ⎜ ⎟ + 2 fy ⎜ ⎟ + c ⎜ ⎟ = 0
⎝ −n ⎠ ⎝ −n ⎠ ⎝ −n ⎠
The equation is obtained by homogenizing the equation of curve with the help of equation € of line.
Note: Equation of any curve passing through the points of intersection of two curves C1=0 and C2=0 is given by λC1 + µC 2 = 0
€ λ & µ are parameters.
where
€

€
€

Circles
Equation of a Circle in various form:
2 2
(a) The circle with centre (h, k) and radius ‘r’ has the equation ; ( x − h) + ( y − k ) = r 2
(b) The general equation of a circle is x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 with centre as (−g,− f ) and radius = g2 + f 2 − c
Remember that every second degree equation in x & y n which coefficient of x 2 = coefficient of y2 and there if no xy
term always represent a circle. €
2 2 2 2
If g + f − c > 0 ⇒ real €circle , g + f − c = 0 ⇒ po int circle , € g2 + f 2 − c < 0€⇒ Im aginary circle
Note that the general equation of a circle contains three arbitrary
€ constants, g, f, & c which corresponds to the fact that a unique
circle passes through non collinear points.
(c) The equation of circle with ( x1, y1 ) & ( x2 , y2 ) as its diameter is: ( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y2 ) = 0
€ € €
Intercepts made by a Circle on the Axes
The intercepts made by the circle x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 on the co-ordinate axes are 2 g2 − c & 2 f 2 − c resp.
Note: If g2 − c > 0€⇒ circle cuts the x-axis at two distinct
€ points.
If g2 = c ⇒ circle touches the x-axis
If g2 − c < 0 ⇒ circle lies
€completely above or below the x-axis. €
€Position of a Point w.r.t. a Circle
€ The circle ( x1, y1 ) is inside, on or outside the circle x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 according as x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c >=< 0
€ Note: The greatest and the least distance of a point A from a circle with centre C and radius r is AC + r & AC − r
Line & Circle:
Let L=0 be a line & S=0 be a circle. If r is the radius of the circle & p is the length of the perpendicular from the centre on the line,
€
then € €
(i) p > r ⇒ the line does not meet the circle i.e. passes outside the circle €
(ii) p = r ⇒ the line touches the circle
(iii) p < r ⇒ the line a secant of the circle
€ (iv) p = 0 ⇒ the line is diameter of the circle
€ Parametric Equations of a Circle:
2 2
€ The parametric equations of ( x − h) + ( y − k ) = r 2 are x = h + r cos θ ; y = k + r sin θ ; − π < θ < π where (h, k) is the centre, r is
€ the radius & θ is a parameter.
α +β α +β α −β
Note: The equation of a straight line joining two points α & β in the circle x 2 + y2 = a2 is x cos + y sin = a cos
€ 2 2 2
€
€
€ € €

  54  
  

Tangent & Normal:

(a) The equation of the tangent to the circle x 2 + y2 = a2 at its point ( x1, y1 ) is, xx1 + yy1 = a2 . Hence equation of a tangent at
(a cos α, a sin α ) is; x cos α + y sin α = a . The point of intersection of the tangents at the points P(α ) & P (β) is
⎛ α +β α + β ⎞
⎜ a cos 2 a sin
2 ⎟ € €
⎜ , €
α − β€ α − β ⎟
€ ⎜ cos cos ⎟ €
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
(b) The equation of the tangents to the circle x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 at its point ( x1, y1 ) is xx1 + yy1 + g( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
⎛ a 2 m a2 ⎞
€ ( )
(c) y = mx + c is always a tangent to a circle x 2 + y2 = a2 if c2 = a2 1+ m 2 and the point of contact is ⎜−
⎝ c
, ⎟
c ⎠
(d) If a line is normal/orthogonal to€a circle then it must pass through the€ € circle. Using this fact normal to the circle
centre of the
y1 + f
€ x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 at ( x€
1 , y1 ) is y − y1 = ( x − x1 )
€x1 + g
€

€ A Family of Circles:
€
(a) The equation of the family of€circles passing through the point of intersection of two circles S1 = 0 & S2 = 0 is
S1 + λS2 = 0 (λ ≠ −1)
(b) The equation of the family of circles passing through the point of intersection of a circle S = 0 & a line L = 0 is given by
S + λL = 0 €
(c) The equation of a family of circles passing through two given points ( x1, y1 ) & ( x2 , y2 ) can be written in the form
€
x y 1 € €
€ ( x − x1 )( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 )( y − y2 ) + λ x1
y1 1 = 0
x2 y2 1 € €
(d) The equation of a family of circles touching a fixed line y − y1 = m ( x − x1 ) at the fixed point ( x1, y1 ) is
2 2
( x − x1 ) + ( y − y1 ) + λ [ y − y1 − m ( x − x1 )] = 0
€ In case the line through ( x1, y1 ) is parallel to y-axis the equation of the family of circles touching it at ( x1, y1 ) becomes
2 2 € €
( ) (
x − x + y− y +λ x− x = 0
1 1 ) ( 1 )
€ Also if line is parallel to x-axis the equation of the family of circles touching it at ( x1, y1 ) becomes
2 2
( x − x ) + ( y −€y ) + λ ( y − y ) = 0
1 1 1
€
€ (e) Equation of circle circumscribing a triangle whose sides are given by L1 = 0 ; L2 = 0 ; & L3 = 0 is given by
L1 L2 + λL2 L3 + µL3 L1 = 0 provided coeff . of xy = 0 & coeff . of x 2 = €coeff . of y2
€ (f) Equation of circle circumscribing a quadrilateral whose side in order are represented by the lines
2 2
L1 = 0, L2 = 0, L3 = 0,&L4 = 0 is L1 L 3 + λL2 L4 = 0 provided € coeff .€of xy = 0€& coeff . of x = coeff . of y
€ Length of a Tangent and€Power of a Point:
The length of a tangent from an external point ( x1, y1 ) to the circle S ≡ x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is given by
€ L = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = S1 €
Square of length of the tangent from the point P is also called The Power Of Point w.r.t. a circle. Power of a point remains
constant w.r.t. a circle. € €
Note: power of a point P is positive, negative or zero according as the point ‘P’ is outside, inside or on the circle resp.
€ Director Circle:
The locus of the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents is called the Director Circle of the given circle. The DC of a
circle is the concentric circle having radius equal to 2 times the original circle.
Equation of the Chord with a given Middle Point:
The equation of the chord of the circle S ≡ x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 in terms of its mid point M ( x1, y1 ) is
x +g € can be put in the form xx + yy + g( x + x ) + f ( y + y ) + c = x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c
y − y1 = − 1 ( x − x1 ) . This on simplication 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
y1 + f
which is designated by T = S1€ €
Note: The shortest chord of a circle passing through a point ‘M’ inside the circle, is one chord whose middle point is M.
Chord of Contact (COC): €
€
If two tangents PT1 & PT2 are drawn from the point P( x1, y1 ) to the circle S ≡ x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 , then the equation of
€
the chord of contact T1T2 is xx1 + yy1 + 2gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = 0
Points to Remember:
(a) Chord€of contact exists only if the point ‘P’ is not inside.
€ €
2LR
(b) Length of COC
€ T1€T2 =
L2 + R2

  55  
  

RL3
(c) Area of the triangle formed by the pair of tangents and its COC = , where R is radius of the circle and L is the length of
L2 + R2
the tangent from ( x1, y1 ) on S ≡ x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0
⎛ 2RL ⎞
(d) Angle between the pair of tangents from ( x1, y1 ) = tan −1⎜ 2 ⎟
€⎝ L − R2 ⎠
(e) Equation
€ of the circle
€ circumscribing the triangle PT1T2 is ( x − x1 )( x + g) + ( y − y1 )( y + f ) = 0
(f) The join equation of a pair of tangents drawn from the point A( x1, y1 ) to the circle x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is SS1 = T 2
Where S ≡ x 2 + y2 + 2gx + 2 fy +€c ; S1 ≡ x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2 fy1 + c ; T ≡ xx1 + yy1 + g( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c
Pole and Polar: € €
(a) If through a point P in the plane of the circle, there€be drawn any straight€line to meet the circle in Q and € R, the locus of the point
of intersection of the tangents at Q and R is called the POLAR of the point P, also P is called the POLE of the Polar.
€ € €
(b) The equation to the polar of a point P( x1, y1 ) w.r.t. the circle x 2 + y2 = a2 is given by xx1 + yy1 = a2 and if the circle is general
then the equation of the polar becomes xx1 + yy1 + g( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0 . Note that if the point ( x1, y1 ) be on the circle then
the COC, tangent and Polar will be represented by the same equation.
€ € ⎛ Aa2 € Ba2 ⎞
(c) Pole of a given line Ax + By + C = 0 w.r.t. any circle x 2 + y2 = a2 is ⎜− ,− ⎟
€ ⎝ C C ⎠ €
(d) If the polar of a point P pass through a point Q, then the polar of Q passes through P.
(e) Two lines L1 & L2 are conjugate of each other if Pole of L1 lies on L2 and vice versa. Similarly two points P and Q are said to
€ of each other if the polar of P€passes through Q & vice versa.
be conjugate
€
Common Tangents to Two Circles:
(i) Where the two circles neither intersect nor touch each other, there are FOUR common tangents, two of them are transverse &
€ others are direct common tangents.
the € €
(ii) When they intersect there are two common tangents, both of them being direct.
(iii) When they touch each other:
(a) EXTERNALLY : there are three common tangents, two direct and one is the tangent at the point of contact.
(b) INTERNALLY: only one common tangent possible at their point of contact.
(iv) Length of an external common tangent & internal common tangent to the two circles is given by:
2 2
Lext = d 2 − (r1 − r2 ) & Lint = d 2 − (r1 + r2 )
Where d = distance between the centres of the two circles. r1 & r2 are the radii of the two circles.
(v) The direct common tangents meet at a point which divides the line joining centre of circles externally in the ratio of their radii.
Transverse common tangents meet at a point which divides the line joining centre of circles internally in the ratio of their radii.
€
RADICAL AXIS & RADICAL CENTRE :
The radical axis of two circles is the locus of points€ whose powers w.r.t. the two circles are equal. The equation of radical axis of
the two circles S1 = 0 & S2 = 0 is given; S1-S2 = 0 i.e. 2(g1 − g2 ) x + 2( f1 − f2 ) y + (c1 − c2 ) = 0
NOTE THAT:
(a) If two circles intersect, then the radical axis is the common chord of the two circles.
(b) If two circles touch each other then the radical axis is the common tangent of the two circles at the common point of contact.
€
(c) Radical axis is always perpendicular to the € line joining the centres of the two circles.
(d) Radical axis need not always pass through the mid point of the line joining the centres of the two circles.
(e) Radical axis bisects a common tangent between the two circles.
(f) The common point of intersection of the radical axes of three circles taken two at a time is called the radical centre of three
circles.
(g) A system of circles, every two which have the same radical axis, is called a coaxial system.
(h) Pairs of circles which do not have radical axis are concentric.
ORTHOGONALITY OF TWO CIRCLES:
Two circles S1 = 0 & S2 = 0 are said to be orthogonal or said to intersect orthogonally if the tangents at their point of intersection
include a right angle. The condition for two circles to be orthogonal is : 2g1g2 + 2 f1 f2 = c1 + c2
Note :
(a)€Locus of the centre of a variable circle orthogonal to two fixed circles is the radical axis between the two fixed circles.
(b) . If two circles are orthogonal, then the polar of a point 'P' on
€ first circle w.r.t. the second circle passes through the point Q
which is the other end of the diameter through P . Hence locus of a point which moves such that its polars w.r.t. the circles
S1 = 0, S2 = 0 & S3 = 0 are concurrent in a circle which is orthogonal to all the three circles.

  56  
  

PARABOLA
1. Conic Sections: A conic section, or conic is the locus of a point which moves in a plane so that its distance from a fixed point
is in a constant ratio to its perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line.
* The fixed point is called the Focus.
* The fixed straight line is called the Directrix
*The constant ratio is called the Eccentricity denoted by e.
* The line passing trough the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the Axis.
* A point of intersection of a conic with its axis is called a Vertex.
2. General Equation of a Conic: Focal Directrix Property:
the general equation of a conic with focus (p, q) & directrix lx + my + n = 0 is:
(l 2
+ m2 )[(x − p) 2
+ (y − q)
2
] = e (lx + my + n)
2 2
≡ ax 2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0
3. Distinguishing between the conic:
€
The nature of the conic section depends upon the position of the focus S w.r.t. the directrix and also upon the value of the
eccentricity e. Two different cases arise.
€ Case (i) when the focus lies on the directrix.
In this case Δ ≡ abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg 2 − ch 2 = 0 & the general equation of a conic represents a pair of straight lines if:
e>1 the lines will be real and distinct intersecting at S.
e=1 the lines will coincident
e<1 the lines will be imaginary
€ (ii) When the focus does not lie on directrix.
Case
a parabola e = 1, Δ ≠ 0, h 2 = ab
an ellipse 0 < e < 1, Δ ≠ 0, h 2 < ab
a hyperbola e > 1, Δ ≠ 0, h 2 > ab
rectangular hyperbola e > 1, Δ ≠ 0, h 2 > ab, a + b = 0
4. Parabola Definition: a parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane, sucht that its distance from a fixed point(focus)
is equal to its perpendicular distance from a fixed straight line (directrix).
Standard equation of a parabola is y2=4ax. For this parabola:
€ (i) Vertex is (0, 0) (ii) focus is (a, 0) (iii) Axis is y=0 (iv) Directrix is x+a=0
Focal Distance: The distance of a point on the parabola from the focus is called the Focal distance of the point.
Double Ordinate: A chord of the parabola perpendicular to the axis of symmetry is called a Double ordinate.
Latus Rectum: A double ordinate passing through the focus or a focal chord perpendicular to the axis of parabola.
For y2=4ax, LR=4a, ends of LR are L(a, 2a) & (a, -2a)
Note: (i) Perpendicular distance from focus on directrix = half the LR
(ii) Vertex is middle point of the focus & the point of intersection of directrix & axis.
(iii) Two parabolas are laid to be equal if they have the same LR
Four standard forms of the parabola are y 2 = 4ax, y 2 = −4ax, x 2 = 4ay, x 2 = −4ay
5. Position of a point relative to parabola:
The point ( x1, y1) lies outside, on or inside the parabola y 2 = 4ax according as the expression y12 − 4ax1 is positive, zero or
negative resp. €
6. Line and Parabola:
The line y = mx+c meets the parabola y 2 = 4ax € in two points real, coincident or imaginary according as a >< cm ⇒ condition of
€ €
a
tangency is c =
m
⎛ 4 ⎞
7. Length of the chord intercepted
€ by the parabola on the line y = mx + c is ⎜ 2 ⎟ a 1+ m 2 ( a €
⎝ m ⎠
− mc ) ( )
2
Note:
€ Length of the focal chord making an angle α with the x-axis is 4aCosec α
8. Paramteric Representation:
€
The simplest & the best form of representing the co-ordinates of a€point on the parabola is at 2 , 2at . The equations ( )
x = at 2 & y = 2at together represents € € , t being the parameter. The equation of a chord joining
the parabola y 2 = 4ax
t1 & t 2 is 2x − ( t1 + t 2 ) y + 2at1t 2 = 0
Note: If the chord joining t1, t 2 & t 3 , t 4 pass through a point (c, 0) on the axis, € then t1t 2 = t 3 t 4 = c a
€ 9. Tangents to the Parabola y 2 = 4ax €
a ⎛ a 2a ⎞
€ (i) yy1 = 2a( x + x1 ) at the point ( x1, y1)
€
(ii) y = mx +
m
( m ≠ 0) at ⎜ 2 , ⎟
⎝ m € m ⎠
(iii) ty = x + at 2 at at 2 , 2at ( )
Note: Point of intersection
€ of the tangents at the point t1 & t 2 is [ at1t 2 ,a ( t1 + t 2 )]
10. Normals to the parabola y 2 = 4ax €
€ € €
y €
(i) y − y1 = − 1 ( x − x1) at ( x1, y1)
2a
(
(ii) y = mx − 2am − am 3 at am 2 ,−2am
€
) (
(iii) y + tx = 2at + at 3 at at 2 , 2at )
€
  57  
€ € €
  

[( ) ]
Note: Point of intersection of normals at t1 & t 2 are a t12 + t 2 2 + t1t 2 + 2 ;−at1t 2 ( t1 + t 2 )
11. Important Results:
(a) If t1 & t 2 are the ends of a focal chord of the parabola y 2 = 4ax then t1t 2 = −1 . Hence the co-ordinates at the extremities of a
€ ⎛ a 2a ⎞
( )
focal chord can be taken as at 2 , 2at & ⎜ 2 €
⎝ t
,− ⎟
t ⎠
€ € € ⎛ 2 ⎞
(b) If the normal’s to the parabola y 2 = 4ax at the point t1 meets the parabola again at the point t 2 , then t 2 = −⎜ t1 + ⎟
⎝ t1 ⎠
€ € 2
(c) If the normal’s to the parabola y = 4ax at the points t1 & t 2 intersect again on the parabola at the point t 3 then
t1t 2 = 2; t 3 = −( t1 + t 2 ) and
€ the line joining t1 &€t 2 passes through a fixed point (−2a,0)€
General Note: €
2
(i) Length f subtangent € at any point P(x, y) € on the parabola y = 4ax equals twice the abcissa€of the point or that the
subtangent is bisected at the € vertex.
€ €
(ii) Length of subnormal is constant for all points on the parabola & is equal to the semi latus rectum.
(iii) If a family of straight lines can be represented by an equation λ2 P + λQ + R = 0 where λ is a parameter and P, Q, R are
€
linear functions of x and y then the family of lines will be tangent to the curve Q 2 = 4PR
12. Pair of Tangents The equation of the pair which can be drawn from any point ( x1, y1) to the parabola y 2 = 4ax is given by:
SS1 = T 2 where: S = y 2 − 4ax S1 = y12 − 4ax1 € T = yy1 − 2a( x + x1 ) €
€
13. Director Circle: Locus of the point of intersection of the perpendicular tangents to the parabola y 2 = 4ax is called Director
Circle. It’s equation is x + a = 0 which is parabola’s own directrix. € €
€ 14. Chord
€ of Contact: Equation
€ of the chord of contact
€ of tangents drawn from a point P ( 1 1) is yy1 = 2a( x + x1) . Remember
x , y
3/2

that the area of

€ the triangle formed by the tangents from the point P( x1 , y1)
€
& the chord of contact is
(y12 − 4ax1 ) . Also note
2a
that the chord of contact exists only if the point P is not inside. € €
15. Polar & Pole
parabola y 2 = 4ax is yy1 = 2a( x + x1 )
(i) Equation of the polar of the point P( x1 , y1) w.r.t. the €
€
2 ⎛ n 2am ⎞
(ii) The pole of the line lx + my + n = 0 w.r.t. the parabola y = 4ax is ⎜ ,− ⎟
⎝ l l ⎠
Note: (i) The polar of the focus
€ of the parabola is the directrix.
€ €
(ii) When the point ( x1, y1) lies without the parabola the equation to its polar is the same as the equation to the chord of contact of
tangents drawn € from x , y when x , y is on € the parabola€the polar is the same as the tangent at the point.
( 1 1) ( 1 1)
(iii) If the polar of a point P passes through the point Q, then the polar of Q goes through P.
(iv) Two straight
€ lines are said to be conjugated to each other w.r.t. a parabola when the pole of one lies on the other.
(v) Polar of a given point P w.r.t. any Conic is the locus of the harmonic conjugate of P w.r.t. the two points os which any line
through P cuts€ the conic. €
16. Chord with a Given Middle Point
2a
Equation of the chord of the parabola y 2 = 4ax whose middle point is ( x1, y1) is y − y1 = ( x − x1) . This reduced to T=S1 where
y1
T = yy1 − 2a( x + x1 ) & S1 ≡ y12 − 4ax1
17. Diameter:The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of a parabola is called Diameter. Equation to the
€ €
2a
diameter of a parabola is y = where m is slope of parallel chords. €
m
€ Note: (i) The tangent at the extremity of a diameter of a parabola is parallel to the system of chords it bisects.
(ii) The tangent at the ends of any chords of a parabola meet on the diameter which bisects the chord.
(iii) A line segment from a point P on the parabola and parallel to the system of parallel chords is called the ordinate to the
€ the system of parallel chords and the chords are called its double ordinate.
diameter bisecting
18. Highlights: (a) If the tangent & normal at any point ‘P’ of the parabola intersect the axis at T & G then ST=SG=SP where ‘S’
is the focus. In other words the tangent and the normal at a point P on the parabola are the bisectors of the angle between the focal
radius SP & the perpendicular from P on the directrix. From this we conclude that all rays eminating from S will become parallel
to the axis of the parabola after reflection.
(b) The portion of a tangent to a parabola cut off between the directrix & the curve subtends a right angle at the focus.
(c) The tangents at the extremities of a focal chord intersect at right angles on the directrix, and hence a circle on any focal chord
( )
as diameter touches the directrix. Also a circle on any focal radii ofa point P at 2 , 2at as diameter touches the tangent at the

vertex and intercepts a chord of length 1+ t 2 on a normal at the point P.

(d) Any tangent to a parabola & the perpendicular on it from the focus meet on the tangent at the vertex.
2
(e) If the tangents at P and Q meet in T, then: (i) TP and TQ subtends
€ equal angles at the focus S. (ii) ST =SP.SQ & (iii) The
triangles SPT and STQ are similar.
€

  58  
  

(f) Tangents and Normals at the extremeities of the latus rectum of a parabola y 2 = 4ax constitute a square, their points of
intersection being (−a,0) & ( 3a,0)
2bc
(g) Semi LR of the parabola y 2 = 4ax , is the harmonic mean between segments of any focal chord of the parabola is, 2a =
€ b +c
1 1 1
i.e. + €=
b c a
(h) The circle circumscribing
€ the triangle formed by any three tangents to a parabola passes through the focus.
€
(i) The orthocenter of any triangle formed by three tangents to a parabola y 2 = 4ax lies on the directrix & has the co-ordinates
€ (−a,a(t1 + t 2 + t 3 + t1t 2 t 3 ))
(j) The area of the triangle formed by three points on a parabola is twice the area of the triangle formed by the tangents at these
points. €
(k) If normal drawn to a parabola passes through a point P(h, k) then k = mh − 2am − am 3 i.e. am 3 + m( 2a − h) + k = 0 Then
€
2a − h k
gives m1 + m2 + m3 = 0 , m1m2 + m2 m 3 + m3 m1 = , m1m2 m3 = − where m1, m2 & m 3 are the slopes of the three concurrent
a a
normal’s. Note that the algebraic sum of the (i) slopes of the three concurrent normal’s is zero. (ii) ordinates of the three conormal
€
points on the parabola is zero. (iii) centroid of the triangle formed by three co-normal point lies on the x-axis.
€ (l) A circle circumscribing the triangle formed by three co-normal points
€ passes through the vertex of the parabola and its equation
€ €
2
( 2
)
is 2 x + y − 2( h + 2a) x − ky = 0

ELLIPSE
Standard Equation & Definitions:
x2 y2
Standard equation of an ellipse referred to its principal axes along the co-ordinate axes is + = 1 where a > b &
a 2 b2
a a
(
b2 = a 2 1 − e2 ) ⇒ a 2 − b 2 = a 2e 2 . Where e = eccentricity (0<e<1) Focii: S( ae,0) & S' (−ae,0) , Directrices: x = & x = −
e e
€ 0); Major Axis: The line segment AA’ in
Vertices: A’(-a, 0) & A(a,
which the
€ foci S’ & S lie is of length 2a &€is called major axis (a>b) of
€
the ellipse. Point of intersection of major axis with directrix is called the
foot of the directrix. Minor Axis: The y-axis intersects the ellipse in the
points B’(0, -b) & B(0, b). The line segment B’B of length 2b (b<a) is
called the Minor axis of the ellipse.
Principal Axis: The major & minor axis together are called Principal
Axis of the ellipse. Centre: The point which bisects every chord of the
conic drawn through it is called the centre of the conic. C(0, 0) the origin
x2 y2
is the centre of the ellipse. 2 + 2 = 1. Diameter: A chord of the conic
a b
which passes through the centre is called a diameter of the conic. Focal Chord: A chord which passes through a focus is called a
focal chord. Double Ordinate: A chord perpendicular to the major axis is called a double ordinate. Latus Rectum: The focal
chord perpendicular to the major axis is called the latus rectum. Length of LR (LL’) =
2 €
2b 2 ( minor axis)
a
=
major axis
(2
)
= 2a 1 − e = 2e( distance from focus to the corresponding directrix)

Note: (i) The sum of the focal distances of any point on the ellipse is equal to the major axis. Hence distance of focus from the
extremity of a minor axis is equal to semi major axis. i.e. BS=CA.
x2 y2
€ (ii) If the equation of the ellipse is given as 2 + 2 = 1 & nothing is mentioned then the rule is to assume that a>b.
a b
x2 y2
Position of a point w.r.t. an Ellipse: The point P ( x1, y1) lies outside, inside or on the ellipse according as 12 + 12 − 1 >< or = 0
a b
Auxiliary Circle/Eccentric Angle: € A circle described on major axis as diameter is called the auxiliary circle. Let Q be a point on
the auxiliary circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 such that QP produced is perpendicular to the x-axis then P & Q are called as the Corresponding
Points on the ellipse & the auxiliary circle€ respectively θ is called the Eccentric Angle of the point € P on the ellipse ( 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π)
l ( PN ) b Semi minor axis
Note: = = .
l (QN
€ ) a Semi major axis
€ €

€   59  
  

Hence “If from each point of a circle perpendiculars are drawn upon a fixed diameter then the locus of the points dividing these
perpendiculars in a given ratio is in ellipse of which the given circle is the auxiliary circle”
x2 y2
PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION: The equations x = a cos θ & y = bsin θ together the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, where θ is a
a b
parameter. Note that if P(θ ) ≡ ( a cos θ ,bsin θ ) is on the ellipse then; Q(θ ) = ( a cos θ ,a sin θ ) is on the auxiliary circle.
x2 y2
LINE & ELLIPSE: The line y = mx + c is tangent
€ to the ellipse + = 1 if c 2 = a 2 m 2 + b 2 . €
a 2 b2 €
The equation €to the chord of the ellipse joining two points with
€ eccentric angles α & β is given by
x α + β y ⎛ α + β ⎞ ⎛ α − β ⎞
cos + sin⎜ ⎟ = cos⎜ ⎟ €
a 2 b ⎝€ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠ €
xx yy
TANGENTS: (i) 21 + 21 = 1 is tangent to the ellipse at ( x1, y1) €
a b
2a 2
€ Note: The figure formed by the tangents at the extremities of LR is rhombus of area
e
(ii) y = mx 2 2 2 €
€ ± a m + b is tangent to the ellipse for all values of m. Note that there are two tangents to the ellipse having the
same m, i.e. there are two tangents parallel to any given direction.
x cos θ y sin θ
(iii) + = 1 is tangent to the ellipse at the point ( a cos θ ,bsin θ€)
a b
€ (iv) The eccentric angles of point of contact of two parallel tangents differ by π . Conversely of the difference between the
eccentric angles of two points is p then the tangents at these points are parallel.
€ ⎛ α+β α + β ⎞
€ ⎜ cos sin ⎟
(v) Point of intersection of the tangents at the point α & β is a ⎜ a € 2 ,b 2 ⎟
α−β α−β
⎜ cos cos ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
a 2 x b2 y
NORMALS: (i) Equation of the normal at€ ( x1, y1) is − = a 2 − b 2 = a 2e 2
x1 y1
(ii) Equation of the normal at the point ( a cos θ ,bsin θ€) is; ax sec θ − by cos ecθ = a 2 − b 2

(iii) Equation of a normal in terms€of its slope

(a 2
)
− b2 m
€ ‘m’ is y = mx −
€ a + b m2
2 2
€
DIRECTOR CIRCLE: Locus of the point of intersection of the tangents which meet at right angles is called the Director Circle.
The equation to this locus is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 + b 2 i.e. a circle whose centre is the centre of the ellipse & whose radius is the length of
the line joining the ends of the major & minor axis.
€
Chord of Contact, Pair of Tangents, chord with a given middle point, pole & polar are to be interpreted as they are in parabola.
DIAMETER: The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords with slope ‘m’ of an ellipse is a straight line passing
€
b2
through the centre of the ellipse, called its diameter and has the equation y = − 2 x
a m
x2 y2
HIGHLIGHTS: Referring to an ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
1. If P be any point on the ellipse with S & S’ as its foci then l ( SP€) + l ( S' P) = 2a
2. The product of the length’s of the perpendiculars segments from the foci on any tangent to the ellipse is b2 and the feet of these
perpendiculars Y, Y’ lie on its €auxiliary circle. The tangents at these feet to the auxiliary circle meet on the ordinate of P and that
the locus of their point of intersection is a similar ellipse as that of the original one. Also the lines joining centre to the feet of the
perpendicular Y and focus to the point of contact€of tangent are parallel.
3. If the normal at any point P on the ellipse with centre C meet the major & minor axes in G & g respectively & if CF be
perpendicular upon this normal then (i) PF.PG = b 2 (ii) PF.Pg = a 2 (iii) PG. Pg =SP.S’P (iv) CG.CT=CS2
(v) locus of the mid point of Gg is another ellipse having the same eccentricity as that of the original ellipse. [where S & S’ are the
foci of the ellipse and T is the point where tangent at P meet the major axis]
4. The tangent & normal at a point P on the ellipse bisect the external & internal angles between the focal distances of P. This refers
€ € which states that rays from one focus are reflected through other focus & vice-
to the well known reflection property of the ellipse
versa. Hence we can deduce that the straight lines joining each focus to the foot of the perpendicular from the other focus upon the
tangent at any point P meet on the normal PG and bisects it where G is the point where normal at P meets the major axis.
5. The portion of the tangent of an ellipse between the point of contact & the directrix subtends a right angle at the corresponding
focus.
6. The circle on any focal distance as diameter touches the auxiliary circle.
7. Perpendiculars from the centre upon all chords which join the ends of any perpendicular diameters of the ellipse are of constant
length.
8. If the tangent at the point P of a standard ellipse meets the axis in T and t and CY is the perpendicular on it from the centre then,
(i) Tt.PY = a 2 − b 2 and (ii) least value of Tt is a+b

€
  60  
  

HYPERBOLA
The Hyperbola is a conic whose eccentricity is greater than unity (e>1)
Standard Equation & Definition(s)
x2 y2
Standard Equation of the hyperbola is 2 − 2 = 1 where b 2 = a 2 e 2 − 1
a b
( )
b 2 ⎛ C.A. ⎞2
or a 2e 2 = a 2 + b 2 i.e. e 2 = 1+ 2 = 1+ ⎜ ⎟
a ⎝ T .A. ⎠
Focii: S(ae, 0) & S’(-ae, 0) € €
a a
Equations of directrices: x = & x = −
e e
€ Vertices: A(a, 0) & A’(-a, 0)
Latus Rectum (LR)
2
2b 2 (C.A.) €
=
a
=
(T .A.)
2 ( )
= 2a e 2 − 1 = 2e( distance from focus to the corresponding directrix)

Transverse Axis: The line segment A’A of length 2a in which the foci S’ and S both lie is called the T.A. of the hyperbola.
Conjugate Axis: The line segment B’B between the two points B’(0 , -b) & B(0, b) is called as the C.A. of the hyperbola.
€ The TA and CA of the hyperbola are together called the principal axes of the hyperbola.
FOCAL PROPERTY: The difference of the focal distances of any point on the hyperbola is constant and equal to transverse axis
i.e. PS − PS' = 2a . The distance SS’ = focal length.
CONJUGATE HYPERBOLA: Two hyperbolas such that transverse & conjugate axes of one hyperbola are resp. the cojugate &
the transverse axes of the other are called Conjugate Hyperbola as each other.
x2 y2 x2 y2
€ Eg. 2 − 2 = 1 & − 2 + 2 = 1 are conjugate hyperbolas of each other.
a b a b
1 1
Note: (a) If e1 & e2 are eccentricities of the hyperbola & its conjugate then 2 + 2 = 1
e1 e2
€ (b) The foci
€ of a hyperbola and its conjugate are concyclic and form the vertices of a square.
(c) Two hyperbolas are said to be similar if they have the same eccentricity.
RECTANGULAR OR EQUILATERAL HYPERBOLA:
The particular kind of hyperbola in which the lengths of the transverse € & conjugate axis are equal is called an Equilateral
Hyperbola. Note that the eccentricity of the rectangular hyperbola 2 and the length of its latus rectum is equal to its transverse
or conjugate axis.
CONJUGATE CIRCLE:
A circle drawn with centre A and TA as a diameter is called the Auxiliary Circle of the hyperbola. Equation of the auxiliary circle
€
is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 . Note from the figure that P & Q are called the
“Corresponding Points” on the hyperbola and the auxiliary circle. θ
is called the eccentric angle of the point ‘P’ on the hyperbola.
€
( 0 ≤ θ < 2π)
Note: The equations x = a sec θ & y = b tan θ together represents€ the
2 2
x y
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 where θ is a parameter.
€ a b
General Note: € Since the fundamental equation to the hyperbola only
differs from that to the ellipse in having –b2 instead of b2 it will be found
that many proportions € for the hyperbola are derived from those for the
€
ellipse by simply changing the sign of b2
POSITION OF A POINT ‘P’ w.r.t. HYPERBOLA:
x2 y2
The quantity 12 − 12 − 1 is positive, zero or negative according as the point ( x1, y1) lies within, upon or without the curve.
a b
x2 y2
LINE & HYPERBOLA: The straight line y=mx+c is a secant, a tangent or passes outside the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 according
a b
as: € c 2 >=< a 2 m 2 − b 2 €
TANGENTS:
x2 y2 xx yy
(a) Equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 at the point ( x1, y1) is 21 − 21 = 1 €
€ a b a b

€ € €

  61  
  

Note: In general two tangents can be drawn from an external point ( x1, y1) to the hyperbola and they are
( )
y − y1 = m1( x − x1) & y − y1 = m 2 ( x − x1 ), where m1 & m2 are roots of the equation x12 − a 2 m 2 − 2x1 y1m + y12 + b 2 = 0 . If
D<0, then no tangent can be drawn from (x1,y1) to the hyperbola
x2 y2 € x sec θ y tan θ
(b) Equation of the tangent to the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 at the point ( a sec θ ,b tan θ ) is − =1
€ a b € a b
θ −θ θ +θ
cos 1 2 sin 1 2
Note: Point of intersection of the tangents at θ1 & θ 2 is x = a 2 ,y = b 2
€ θ1 + θ 2 θ1 + θ 2
€ cos € cos
2 2
2 2
x y
(c) y = mx ± a 2 m 2 − b 2 can be taken€ as to the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1. Note that there are two parallel tangents having the same
a b
slope m. €
x α−β y α+β α+β
(d) Equation of a chord joining α & β is cos − sin = cos
€ a 2 b 2 2
€
x2 y2
NORMALS: (a) The equation of the normal to the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 at the point P( x1 , y1) on it is
a b
a 2 x b2 y €
2 2 2 2€
+ = a +b = a e
x1 y1
€ € x2 y2 ax by
(b) The equation of the normal at the point P( a sec θ ,b tan θ ) on the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is + = a 2 + b 2 = a 2e 2
a b sec θ tan θ
€ (c) Equation to the chord of contact, polar, chord with a given middle point, pair of tangents from an external point is to be
interpreted as in ellipse.
DIRECTOR CIRCLE: The locus € of the intersection of tangents which are at right angles is known as the Director Circle of the
€2 €
hyperbola. The equation to the director circle is x + y = a − b . If b < a 2 this circle is real; if b 2 = a 2 the radius of the circle
2 2 2 2

is zero & it reduces to a point circle at the origin. In this case the centre is the only point from which the tangents at right angles
can be drawn to the curve. If b 2 > a 2 , the radius of the circle is imaginary, so that there is no such circle & so no tangents at right
angle can be drawn to the curve. € €
€
HIGHLIGHTS:
x2 y2
1. Locus of the feet of€the perpendicular drawn from focus of the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 upon any tangent is its auxiliary circle i.e.
a b
2
x 2 + y 2 = a 2 & the product of the feet of these perpendiculars is b 2 (semi CA)
2. The portion of the tangent between the point of contact & the directrix subtends a right angle at the corresponding focus.
3. The tangent & normal at any point of a hyperbola bisect the angle € between the focal radii. This spells the reflection property of the
hyperbola as “an incoming light ray” aimed towards one focus is reflected from the outer surface of the hyperbola towards the
€
other focus. It follows that if an ellipse and a hyperbola€have the same foci, they cut a right angles at any of their common point.
x2 y2 x2 y2
Note that the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 and the hyperbola 2 − = 1( a > k > b > 0) are confocal and therefore orthogonal.
a b a − k 2 k 2 − b2
4. The foci of the hyperbola and the points P and Q in which any tangent meets the tangent at the vertices are concyclic with PQ as
diameter of the circle.
ASYMPTOTES: If the length of the perpendicular let fall from a point on a hyperbola to a straight line tends to zero as the point
€
on the hyperbola moves to infinity along the€ hyperbola, then the straight line is called the Asymptote of the hyperbola.
x2 y2
To find the asymptote of the hyperbola: Let y = mx + c is the asymptote of the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 Solving these two we get
a b
( 2 2 2
) 2 2
the quadratic as b − a m x − 2a mcx − a b + c = 0 (
2 2 2
)
In order that y = mx + c be an asymptote, both roots of the equation must approach
€
infinity, the conditions for which are: coeff . of x 2 = coeff . of x = 0 €
b
€a 2 m 2 or m = ± & a 2 mc = 0 ⇒ c = 0
⇒ b2 −
€ a
x y x y
Equations of asymptote are € + = 0 & − = 0 combined equation to the
a b a b
x 2 y 2€
€ asymptotes 2 − 2 = 0
a b
Particular Case: € when b=a the asymptotes of the rectangular hyperbola.
x 2 − y 2 = a 2 are y = ±x which are at right angles.
Note:
€
(i) Equilateral Hyperbola ⇔rectangular hyperbola.
(ii) If a hyperbola is equilateral then the conjugate hyperbola is also equilateral.
€ (iii) €A hyperbola and its conjugate have the same asymptote.
(iv) The equation of the pair of asymptotes differ the hyperbola & the conjugate hyperbola by the same constant only.
€
(v) The asymptotes pass through the centre of the hyperbola & the bisectors of the angles between the asymptotes are the

  62  
  

axes of the hyperbola.

(vi) The asymptotes of a hyperbola are the diagonals of the rectangle formed by the lines drawn through the extremities of
each axis parallel to the other axis.
(vii) Asymptotes are the tangent to the hyperbola from the centre.
(viii) A simple method to find the coordinates of the centre of the hyperbola expressed as a general equation of degree 2 should
be remembered as: Let f(x, y) represents a hyperbola.
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
Find & . Then the point of intersection of =0& = 0 gives the centre of the hyperbola.
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y
HIGHLIGHTS ON ASYMPTOTES:
1. If from any point on the asymptote a straight line be drawn perpendicular to the transverse axis, the product of the segments of this
line, intercepted between the point & the curve is always equal to the square of the semi conjugate axis.
€
2. €
Perpendicular from the foci on either asymptote meet it in the same points as the corresponding directrix & the common points of
intersection lie on the auxiliary circle.
x2 y2
3. The tangent at any point P on hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 with centre C, meets the asymptotes in Q and R and cuts off a ΔCOR of
a b
constant area equal to ‘ab’ from the asymptotes & the portion of the tangent intercepted between the asymptote is bisected at the
point of contact. This implies that locus of the centre of the circle circumscribing the ΔCOR in case of a rectangular hyperbola is
2 €
the hyperbola itself & for a standard
€ ( ) (
hyperbola the locus would be the curve 4 a 2 x 2 − b 2 y 2 = a 2 + b 2 )
2 2
x y
4. If the angle between the asymptote of a hyperbola 2
− 2 = 1 is 2θ then € e = sec θ
a b
RECTANGULAR HYPERBOLA: €
Rectangular hyperbola referred to its asymptotes as axis of coordinates.
€ c €
(a) Equation is xy = c 2 with parametric representation
€ x = ct, y = , t ∈ R − {0}
t
1
(b) Equation of a chord joining the points P( t1) & Q( t1) is x + t1t 2 y = c ( t1 + t 2 ) with slope m = −
t1t 2
€ x y x
(c) Equation of the tangent at P( x1 , y1) is €+ = 2 & at P( t ) is + ty = 2c
x1 y1 t
c €2 €
€
(d) Equation of normal y − = t ( x − ct )
t
(e) Chord with a given
€ middle point as (h, k) is kx + hy = 2hk
€

€
€
VECTORS
DEFINITIONS:
A Vector may be described as a quantity having both magnitude & direction. A vector is generally represented by a directed line
segment, say AB . A is called the initial point & B is called the terminal point. The magnitude of vector AB is expressed as AB

Zero Vector a vector of zero magnitude i.e. which has the same intitial & terminal point, and denoted by O
Unit Vector a vector of unit magnitude in direction of a vector a is called unit vector along a and is denoted by aˆ symbolically
€ €
a €
aˆ =
a €
€ € €
Equal Vectors Two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same magnitude, direction & represent the same physical
quantity.
Collinear Vectors Two vectors are said to be collinear if their directed line segments are parallel disregards to their direction.
€ Collinear vectors are also called Parallel Vectors. If they have the same direction they are named as like vectors otherwise unlike
vectors.
 
Symbolically, two non zero vectors a & b are collinear if and only if, a = kb , where k ∈ R
Coplanar Vectors a given number of vectors are called coplanar if their line segments are all parallel to the same plane. Note that
“Two Vectors are always Coplanar”
Position Vector Let O be € a fixed origin, then the position vector
€ of a point P€is the vector OP . If a & b & position vectors of
€ 
two point A and B, then, AB = b − a = pv of B – pv of A
VECTOR ADDITION:

• If two vectors a & b are represented by OA & OB , then their sum a + b is a vector € represented
€ € by OC , where OC is the
diagonal of the €parallelogram OACB.
        
• a + b = b + a (commutative) ( ) ( )
* a + b + c = a + b + c (associativity)
       
• a + 0€= a €
= 0+ a € € * a +€(−a) = 0 = (−a) + a €
MULTIPLICATION OF VECTOR BY SCALARS:
€
€
€   € 63  
  

If a is a vector & m is a scalar, then ma is a vector parallel to a whose modulus is m times that of a . This multiplication is
 
called SCALAR MULTIPLICATION. If a & b are vectors & m, n are scalars, then: m a = ( a) m = ma
 
()
     
€ ( )
m na = n( ma) = mna € ( m + n) a = ma + n€a €
m a + b =€
ma + mb ( )
SECTION  FORMULA: € €

If a & b are the position vectors of two points A & B then the p.v. of a point€which divides AB in the ratio m:n is given by
   
€  na + m b € a +b €
r= . Note p.v. of mid point of AB =
m+n 2

€ DIRECTION COSINES: Let a = a1iˆ + a 2 ˆj + a 3 kˆ the angles which this vector makes with +ve directions OX, OY & OZ are
called DIRECTION ANGLES & their cosines are called the DIRECTION COSINES
a a a
€ cos α = 1 , cos β = 2 , cos γ = 3€Note that: cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ = 1
a a a
€
VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE:
 
Parametric vector equation of a line passing through two point A( a) & B b is given by
  € ()
  
€ ( )
r = a + t b − a where t is a parameter. If the line passes through the point A( a) & is
   
parallel to the vector b then its equation is r = a + tb
Note that the equation s of the bisectors of the angles€ between the lines
       
€ r = a + λb & r = a + µc is r = a + t bˆ ± cˆ( ) €
TEST OF COLLINEARITY:
€ €
  
Three points A, B, C with position vectors a , b , c respectively are collinear, if & only if
  
€ there exist scalarsx,€y, z not all zero simultaneously such that; xa + yb + zc = 0 , where x+y+z=0
SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS:
       
• a ⋅ b = a b cos θ ( 0 ≤ θ ≤ π) € note that if θ is acute then a ⋅ b > 0 & θ is obtuse then a ⋅ b < 0
  2     
• a ⋅ a = a = a 2 , a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a (commutative) €
      
• a ⋅ (b + c ) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c (distributive)
   €   € € €
€ • (
a ⋅ b = 0 ⇔ a is perpendicular to b a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0
€
)
€ • iˆ ⋅ iˆ = ˆj ⋅ ˆj = kˆ ⋅ kˆ = 1 iˆ ⋅ ˆj = ˆj ⋅ kˆ = kˆ ⋅ iˆ = 0
€  
  a ⋅b
€ • Projection of a on b = 
b €
 
 ⎛ a ⋅ b ⎞    ⎛ a ⋅ b ⎞ 
€ €

Note: That vector component of a along b = ⎜⎜  2 ⎟⎟b and perpendicular to b = a − ⎜⎜  2 ⎟⎟b
⎝ b ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠
 
€   a ⋅b
• The angle φ between a & b is given by cos φ =   0 < φ < π
ab
 €   €  
• If a = a1iˆ + a 2 ˆj + a 3 kˆ & b = b1iˆ + b2 ˆj + b3 kˆ then a ⋅ b = a1b1 + a 2b2 + a 3b3 a = a12 + a 2 2 + a 3 2 , b = b12 + b2 2 + b3 2
€ €    
Note: (i) Maximum value of a ⋅ b = a b
€ 
  
(ii) Minimum values of a ⋅ b = − a b
€ € €
     €
(iii) Any vector a can be written as, a = a ⋅ iˆ iˆ + a ⋅ ˆj ˆj + a ⋅ kˆ kˆ
( ) ( ) ( )
€  
  a b
(iv) A vector in € the direction of the bisector of the angle between the two vectors a & b is  &  . Hence bisector of the
a b
€  
€    
( )
angle between the two vectors a & b is λ a + b , where λ ∈ R + . Bisector of the exterior angle between a & b is
€
λ aˆ − bˆ , λ ∈ R +
( ) €
VECTOR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS:
  € €     €
• If a & b are two vectors & θ € is the angle between them then a × b = a b sin θ nˆ , where nˆ is the unit vector perpendicular to
   
€ both a & b such that a , b & nˆ forms a right handed screw system.

    2  2  2   2 a ⋅ a a ⋅ b
€ • Lagranges Identity for ( ) ( )
€ any two vectors a & b ; a × b = a b − a ⋅ b =  €  
€ a ⋅b b ⋅b

€
• Formulation of € vector product in terms of scalar product: The vector product a × b is the vector c , such that

     2       
(i) c = a 2b 2 − a ⋅ b ( ) (ii)€c ⋅ a = 0; c ⋅ b = 0 and (iii) a , b c form a right handed system
€
€ €
  € €
64  
€
  

       
• ( )
a × b = 0 ⇔ a & b are parallel (collinear) a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0 i.e. a = kb , where k is a scalar.
   
• a × b ≠ b × a (not commutative)
     
• ( ) ( )
( ma) × b = a × mb = m a × b where m is a scalar.
 
€      €
€
€
• ( ) ( ) (
a × b + c = a × b + a × c (distributive)
)
• iˆ × iˆ = ˆj × ˆj = kˆ × kˆ = 0 iˆ × ˆj = kˆ, ˆj × kˆ = iˆ, kˆ × iˆ = ˆj
€
iˆ ˆj kˆ
   
€ • ˆ ˆ
If a = a1iˆ + a 2 ˆj + a 3 k & b = b1iˆ + b2 jˆ + b3 k then a × b = a1 a 2 a 3
€ € b1 b2 b3
   
• Geometrically a × b =area of the parallelogram whose two adjacent sides are represented by a & b
€
  
 a ×b
• Unit Vector perpendicular to the plane of € a & b is nˆ = ±  
a ×b
€
€  
• A vector of magnitude ‘r’ & perpendicular
€
 (
to the plane of a & b is ±r  
 ) a × b
a ×b
€  
  a ×b
• If θ is the angle between a & b then sin θ = €
ab
€
   1      
• Vector Area If a, b & c are the pv’s of 3 points A, B & C then the vector area of triangle ABC = a × b + b × c + c × a . The
2
[ ]
€ €      
points A, B & C are collinear if a × b + b × c + c × a = 0
€   1  
• Area of any quadrilateral whose diagonal vectors are d1 & d 2 is given by d1 × d 2
€ 2 €
SHORTEST DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO LINES:
€
If two lines in space intersect at a point, then obviously the shortest distance between them is zero. Lines which don’t intersect &
are also not parallel are called SKEW LINES. € For Skew lines the€direction of the shortest distance would be perpendicular to
both the lines. The magnitude of the shortest distance vector would be equal to that of the projection of AB along the direction of
 
the line of shortest distance, LM is parallel to p × q i.e.
     
LM = Pr ojection of AB on LM = Pr ojection of AB on p × q =
  AB ⋅ ( p × q)
  =
( )
b − a ⋅ ( p × q)
 €
p× q p× q
€ €
       
• ( )
The two lines directed along p & q will intersect only if shortest distance =0 i.e. b − a ⋅ ( p × q) = 0 i.e. b − a lies in the plane
   
( )
 
€ containing p & q ⇒ b − a€ p q = 0[( ) ] €
  
€       € b × ( a 2 − a€
1)
• If two lines are given by r1 = a1 + Kb & r2 = a 2 + Kb i.e. they are parallel then, d = 
b
€
SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT/BOX PRODUCT/MIXED PRODUCT:
       
• ( )
The scalar triple€product of three vectors a , b & c is defined as: a × b ⋅ c = a b c sin θ cos φ where θ is the angle between
       
[ ]
a & b & φ is the angle between a × b & c . It is also defined as a b€c , spelled as box product.
• Scalar triple product geometrically represents the volume of the parallelopiped whose three co-terminous edges are represented by
      €
a, b & c i.e. V = a b c [ ] €
€ €      
• (
In a scalar triple product the position of dot & cross can€be interchanged i.e. a ⋅ b × c = a × b ⋅ c or ) ( )
        
€ [ ] [
a b c = b c a = c a b ] [ ]
 €          
• ( ) ( ) [
a ⋅ b × c = −a ⋅ c × b i.e. a b c = − a c b ] [ ] €
a1 a 2 a 3
€  ˆ

ˆ  ˆ   
• ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ [ ]
a = a1i + a 2 j + a 3 k & b = b1i + b2 j + b3 k & c = c1i + c 2 j + c 3 k then a b c = b1 b2 b3
€ c3 c1 c2
a1 a 2 a3
                 
€ [
In general, if a = a1l + a 2 m + a 3 n; b = b1l + b2 m + b3 n; c = c1l + c 2 m + c 3 n then a b c = b1 b2 ] [ ]
b3 l m n ; where
€ c1 c 2 c3
  
l , m, & n are non coplanar vectors.
€
€
€   65  
  

     
• If a , b & c are coplanar ⇔ a b c = 0 [ ]
  
• Scalar product of three vectors, two of which are equal or parallel is 0 i.e. a b c = 0 [ ]
        
€
• [ ]
If a , b & c are non-coplanar then a b c > 0 for right handed system & a b c < 0 for left handed system.
€
[ ]
               
• iˆ ˆj kˆ = 1
[ ] • Ka b c = K a b c [ €
] [ • ]
a +b c d = a c d + b c d
  
[( ) ] [ ] [ ]
€ • The volume of the tetrahedron OABC with O as origin & the pv’s of A, B & C being a , b & c respectively is given by
1    € €
V= a b c
6
[ ]
€ € € €    
• The position vector of the centroid of a tetrahedron if the pv’s of its angular vertices are a , b , c & d are given by
€
1    
€ 4
[
a +b +c + d ]
Note that this is also the point of concurrency of the lines joining the vertices to the centroids of the opposite faces and is also
€
called the centre of the tetrahedron. In case the tetrahedron is regular it is equidistant from the vertices and the four faces of the
tetrahedron.
€               
[
Remember that: a − b b − c c − a = 0 & a + b b + c c + a = 2 a b c ] [ ] [ ]
VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT:
     
( )
Let a , b , c be any three vectors, then the expression a × b × c is a vector & is called a vector triple product.
  
Geometrical € Interpretation of a × b × c ( )
     
€ ( )
Consider the expression of a × b × c which itself is a vector, since it is a cross product of two vectors a & b × c . Now ( )
   €     
( ) ( )
a × b × c is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing a & b × c but b × c is a vector perpendicular to the plane
   
( )
 €     
( )
b & c , therefore a × b × c is a vector lies in the plane of b & c and perpendicular to a . Hence we can express a × b × c in
  €    €
( )

( )
terms of b & c i.e. a × b × c = xb + yc where x & y are scalars.
€            €     €       
€ • ( )
a × b × c = ( a ⋅ c )b − a ⋅ b c
€
( ) • a × b ×€ ( )
c = ( a ⋅ c )b − b ⋅ c a ( ) € • a (
×b ×c ≠ a × b ×c
€
) ( )
LINEAR COMBINATIONS/LINEAR  INDEPENDENCE AND DEPENDENCE  OF VECTORS:
€ set of vectors a , b , c............. then the vector r = xa + yb + zc + ........ is called a linear combination of
€
Given a finite
  
a , b , c ........ for any x, y,z....... ∈ R . We have the following results: €
€ €   €   
(a) Fundamental Theorem in Plane: Let a , b be non zero, non collinear vectors. Then any vector r coplanar with a , b can be
    
expressed uniquely € as linear combination of a , b € i.e. There exist some unique x, y ∈ R such that r = xa + yb
  
€ (b) Fundamental € Theorem in Space: Let a , b , c be non-zero, non coplanar vectors in space. Then any vector 
r , can be uniquely
    
expressed as a linear combination € of a , b , c i.e. There exist some unique x, y ∈ R such € that r = xa + y€ b + zc
  
(c) If x1, x 2 ,........x n are n non zero, &€k1, k 2 ,......k n are n scalars & if the linear € combination € 
    
k1 x1 + k 2 x 2 + ........ + k n x n = 0 € ⇒ k1 = 0, k 2 = 0,.....k n = 0 then we say that vectors x1, x 2 ,........x n are Linearly € Independent Vectors
  
(d) If x1, x 2 ,........x n are not Linearly Independent then they are said to be Linearly Dependent vectors. i.e. if
   € €    €
€ k1 x 1 + k 2 x 2 + ........ + k n x n €= 0 & if there exists at least one k i ≠ 0 then x 1 , x 2 ,........ x n are said to be Linearly Dependent.

€ Note: €
 ˆ ˆ ˆ  ˆ ˆ ˆ  ˆ ˆ ˆ
€ • If a = 3i + 2 j + 5k then a is expressed as a Linear Combination of vectors i , j , k Also a, i , j , k form a linearly dependent set of
vectors. In general, every set of four vectors is a linearly dependent system.
€ € €
• iˆ, ˆj , kˆ are Linearly Independent set of vectors. 
     
€ • Two   vectors a€& b are
  linearly dependent ⇒ a is parallel to b i.e. € a × b = 0€ ⇒ linear dependence of a & b . Conversely if
a × b ≠ 0 then a & b are linearly independent.
        
[
€ • If three vectors a, b , c are linearly dependent, then they are coplanar i.e. a b c = 0 , conversely, if a b c ≠ 0 , then the ] [ ]
vectors€ are linearly independent. € € € € € €
€ COPLANARITY€ OF VECTORS
   
Four points € A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b , c , d respectively are coplanar if and only if there exist scalars x, y, z, w not all
    € €
zero simultaneously such that xa + yb + zc + wd = 0 where , x + y + z + w = 0
RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS
           
If a, b , c & a' , b ' , c ' are two sets of€non coplanar vectors such that a ⋅ a' = b ⋅ b ' = c ⋅ c ' = 1 then the two systems are called
Reciprocal System of Vectors.
€ €
b×c c×a a ×b
Note: a' =    ; b' =    c' =   
€ € a b c [ ] a b c [ ]
a b c€ [ ]
EQUATION OF A PLANE
( )
(a) The equation r − r0 ⋅ n = 0 represents a plane containing the point with p.v. r0 where n is a vector normal to the plane r ⋅ n = d
€ is the general equation
€ of a plane. €

€ € €
  € 66  
  

(b) Angle between the two planes is the angle between two normal’s drawn to the plane and the angle between a line and a plane is
the compliment of the angle between the line and the normal to the plane.
APPLICATION OF VECTORS
(a) Wok done against a constant force F over a displacement s is defined as W = F ⋅ s
(b) The tangential velocity V of a body moving in a circle is given by V = ω × r where r is the pv of the point P.
(c) The moment of F about ‘O’ is defined as M = r × F where r is the pv of P w.r.t. O. the direction of M is along the normal to
the plane OPN such that €r,F & M form a right handed
€ system. €
  
(d) Moment of the€couple = ( r1 − r2 ) × F where r1 & r2 are pv’s
€ of the point of€the application of the forces F & −F
€ € € €
€
€ € € €

3 Dimensional Geometry
Distance (d) between two points ( x1, y1,z1) & ( x 2 , y 2 ,z 2 )
2 2 2
d= ( x 2 − x1) + ( y 2 − y1) + ( z 2 − z1)
Section Formula
m x + m1 x 2 € m y + m1 y 2 m z + m1z 2
x= 2 1 ; y= 2 1 z= 2 1
m1 + m2 m1 + m2 m1 + m2
€
(For external division take – ve sign)
Direction Cosine and Direction Ratio’s of a Line
• Direction cosine of a line has the same meaning as d.c’s l,m, n of a vector.
€ € € l m n 1
• Any three numbers a, b, c proportional to the direction cosines are called the direction ratios i.e. = = =±
a b c a + b2 + c 2
2

same sign either +ve or – ve should be taken through € out.

Note that d.r’s of a line joining ( x1, y1,z1) & ( x 2 , y 2 ,z 2 ) are proportional to x 2 − x1, y 2 − y1 & z 2 − z1
• If θ is the angle between the two lines whose d.c.’s are l1, m1, n1 & l 2 , m2 , n 2 €
cos θ = l1l 2 + m1m 2 + n1n 2
hence if lines are perpendicular
€ then l1l 2 + m1m2 + n1n 2 = 0 €
€ € l1 m1 n1
l m n
€ If lines are parallel then 1 = 1 = 1 note that is three lines are coplanar then l 2 m2 n2 = 0
l 2 m2 n 2
€ l 3 m3 n3
• Projection of the joint of two points on a line with d.c.’s l,m, n are l ( x 2 − x1) + m( y 2 − y1) + n( z 2 − z1)
PLANE
• € of degree one in x, y, z i.e. ax+by+cz+d=0 represents a plane.
General equation €
• Equation of a plane passing through ( x1, y1,z1) is a( x − x1 ) + b( y − y1 ) + c ( z − z1 ) = 0 where a, b, c are d.r.’s of the normal of the
€ €
plane.
x y z
• Equation of a plane if its intercepts on the co-ordinate axes are x1, y1 , z1 is + + =1
x1 y1 z1
€ €
• Equation of a plane if the length of the perpendicular from the origin on the plane is p and d.c’s of the perpendiculars as l, m ,n is
lx+my+nz=p
• Parallel and Perpendiclar Planes: Two planes a1 x + b1€ y + c1z + d1 = 0 & a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0
€
are perpendicular if a1a 2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 = 0
a b c a b c d
are parallel if 1 = 1 = 1 and coincident if 1 = 1 = 1 = 1
a 2 b2 c 2 € a 2 b2 c 2 € 2d
€

  € € 67  
  

• Angle between a plane and a line is the compliment of the angle between the normal to the plane and the
 
b ⋅n
line. If Line r = a + λ b and Plane r ⋅ n = d then cos( 90 − θ ) = sin θ =  
bn
Where θ is the angle between the line and normal to the plane.
• Length
€ of the perpendicular
€ from a point ( x1, y1,z1) to a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d €
p=
€ 2 2 2
a +b +c
€ €
d1 − d 2
• Distance between two parallel planes ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 & ax + by + cz + d 2 = 0 is
a + b2 + c 2 2

€ • Planes bisecting the angle between two planes a1 x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0 & a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0 is given by
a1 x + b1 y + c1z + d1 a 2 x +€b2 y + c 2 z + d 2
= of these€two bisecting planes, one bisects the acute angle and the other obtuse angle
a +b +c 2 2 2
a 2 + b2 + c 2 €
between the given planes. € €
• Equation of a plane passing through the intersection of two planes P1&P2 is given by P1 + λP2 = 0
STRAIGHT LINE IN SPACE
€ €
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
• Equation of a line through A( x1 , y1,z1 ) and having d.c.’s l, m, n are = =
l m n
x − x1 y − y1 €
z − z1
And the lines through A( x1 , y1,z1 ) and B( x 2 , y 2 ,z 2 ) = =
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
• Intersection of two
€ planes a1 x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0 & a 2 x +€b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 = 0 together represent the unsymmetrical form of the
straight line.
€ € x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
• General equation of the plane containing the € line = = is A( x − x1 ) + B( y − y1 ) + C ( z − z1 ) = 0 where
l m n
€ €
Al+Bm+Cn=0
LINE OF GREATEST SLOPE
AB is the line of intersection of G-plane and H is the horizontal plane. € Line of greatest slope on a given plane, drawn through a
€ the point ‘P’ perpendicular
given point on the plane, is the line through to the line of intersection of the
given plane with any horizontal plane.

Binomial Theroem
1. Definition: The formula by which any positive integral power of a binomial expression can be expanded in the form of a series
is known as Binomial Theorem.
If x, y ∈ R and n ∈ N , then;
n
n
( x + y) = n C0 x n y0 + n C1 x n−1 y + n C2 x n−2 y2 + ...........+ n Cr x n−r y r + ............+ n Cn y n = ∑ n
Cr x n−r y r
r=0
€ This theorem can be proved by Induction.
Observations:
(i) The number of terms in the expansion is (n+1) i.e. one or more than the index.
€ (ii) The sum of the indices of x and y in each term is ‘n’.
(iii) The binomial coefficients of the terms n C0 ,n C1......... equidistant from the beginning and the end are equal.
2. Important terms in the Binomial Expansion are.
(i) The general term or the (r+1)th term in the expansion of (x+y)n is given by Tr+1 = n Cr x n−r y r
n
(ii) The middle term(s) is the expansion
€ of ( x + y) is (are):
(a) If n is even, there is only one middle term which is given by T( n+2 ) 2 = n Cn 2 x n 2 y n 2
(b) If n is odd, there are two middle terms which are: T( n+1) €
2 & T( n+3) 2
€
(iii) Term independent of x contains no x ; Hence find the value of r for which the exponent of x is zero.
n
€ n T C xr n − r +1
(iv) To find the Numerically greatest term is the expansion of (1+ x ) , n ∈ N find r+1 = n r r−1 = x . Put the
€ Tr Cr−1 x r
T
absolute value of x & find the value of r Consistent with the inequality r+1 > 1
Tr
€
€
  68  
€
  

n n
Note that the numerically greatest term in the expansion of (1− x ) , x > 0, n ∈ N is the same as the greatest term in (1+ x )
n
3. If ( A+B ) = I + f , where I & n are positive integers, n being odd and 0<f<1. Then ( I + f ) ⋅ f = K n where
A − B2 = K > 0 & A − B < 1 If n is an even integer, then ( I + f )(1− f ) = K n
€ €
4. Binomial Coefficients:
€ (i) C0 + C1 + C2 + ................... + Cn = 2 n €
n−1
€ (ii) C0 + C2 + C4 + ................... = C1 + C3 + C5 + ..............
€ =2
(iii) C0 2 + C12 + C2 2 + ...................+ Cn 2 =2n Cn
€ (iv) C0Cr + C1Cr+1 + C2Cr+2 + ...................+ Cn−rCn =2n Cn−r =2n Cn+r
€ 5. Binomial Theorem for negative or fractional indices:
€ n n(n −1) 2 n(n −1)(n − 2) 3
If n ∈ Q , then (1+ x ) = 1+ nx + x + x + ..................∞ provided x < 1
€ 2! 3!
n
Note: (i) When the index n is a positive integer the number of terms in the expansion of (1+ x ) is finite i.e. (n +1) and the
coefficient of successive terms are: n C0 , n C1, n C2 ..................n Cn
€
(ii) When
€ the index is other than a positive integer such as negative integer or fraction, the number of terms in the expansion of
(1+x)n is infinite and the symbol n Cr cannot be used to denote the coefficient €
of the general term. €
should be remembered ( x < 1)
(iii) Following expansion €
−1 −1
(a) (1+ x ) = 1− x + x 2 − x 3 + x 4 − ............∞ (b) (1− x ) = 1+ x + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 + ............∞
−2 € −2
(c) (1+ x ) = 1− 2x + 3x 2 − 4 x 3 + 5x 4 − ............∞ (d) (1− x ) = 1+ 2x + 3x 2 + 4 x 3 + 5x 4 + ............∞
(iv) The expansion in ascending powers€of x are only valid if x is ‘small’. If x is large i.e. |x|>1 then we may find it convenient to
€ expand in powers of 1/x, which then will be small. €
6. Approximations:
€ n(n −1) 2 n(n −1)(n − 2) 3 €
n
(1+ x) = 1+ nx + x + x ................... If x<1, the terms of the above expansion go on decreasing and if x be
1.2 1.2.3
very small, a stage may be reached when we may neglect the terms containing higher powers of x in the expansion. Thus, if x be
so small that its squares and higher powers may be neglected then (1+x)n=1+nx, approximately. This is an approximate value of
n
€ (1+ x)
7. Exponential Series:
x x2 x 3 ⎛ 1 ⎞n
(i) e x = 1+ + + + ..............∞ where x may be real or complex and e = Lt ⎜1+ ⎟
€ 1! 2! 3! n→∞⎝ n ⎠
x x2 x3
(ii) a x = 1+ ln a + ln 2 a + ln 3 a + ..............∞ where a > 0
1! 2! 3!
€ Note: €
1 1 1
(a) e = 1+ + + + ..............∞
1! 2! 3!
€ (b) e is an irrational number lying between 2.7 & 2.8. Its value correct upto 10 places of decimal is 2.7182818284
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
(c) e + e−1 = 2⎜1+ + + + ............∞ ⎟
€ ⎝ 2! 4! 6! ⎠
⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
(d) e − e−1 = 2⎜1+ + + + ............∞ ⎟
⎝ 3! 5! 7! ⎠
€ (e) Logarithms to the base ‘e’ are known as the Napierian system, so named after Napier, their inventor. They are also called
Natural Logarithm.
8. Logarithmic Series:
€
x2 x 3 x 4
(i) ln (1+ x ) = x − + − + ...................∞ where −1 < x < 1
2 3 4
2 3
x x x4
(ii) ln (1− x ) = −x − − − − ..................∞ where −1 < x < 1
2 3 4
€ ⎛ 1+ x ⎞ ⎛ x 3 x5 ⎞
(iii) ln⎜ ⎟ = ⎜ x + + + ...................∞ ⎟ where −1 < x < 1
⎝ 1− x ⎠ ⎝ 3 5 ⎠
€ Remember Points:
1 1 1
(i) (2n)!= 2 n n! [1.3.5..........(2n −1)] (ii) 1− + − + ...............∞ = ln 2
2 3 4
€
(iii) eln x = x (iv) ln 2 = 0.693 & ln 3 = 0.4771 (v) ln10 = 2.303

€ €
€ € €

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Inequalities
Relation between two unequal numbers (real numbers) is called an inequality.
Properties:
1. If a > b , b > c then a < c
2. If a > b , then a + c > b + c
3. In an inequality and terms may be transposed from one side to the other provided its sign is changed.
4. If the sides of an inequality be changed the sign of inequality is reversed, if a>b then b<a.
€
€ 5. €If both sides of an inequality are multiplied or divided by positive number, then sign of inequality remains unaltered.
€ 6. If both€ sides of an inequality be multiplied by a negative number, then sign of inequality is reversed.
1 1
7. If a and b are two positive numbers and a>b, then <
a b
8. If a1 > b1 , a 2 > b2 , ………….. a n > bn then, a1 + a 2 + ........a n > b1 + b2 + ........bn for all positive a’s and positive b’s
9. If a1 > b1 , a 2 > b2 , ………….. a n > bn then, a1a 2 ........a n > b1b2 ........bn for all positive a’s and positive b’s
n
10. If a>b and n is a positive integer, then a€ > b n and a1/ n > b1/ n provided a & b are both positive and only real positive
th
€ values
€ of the n roots€ are taken into
€ account.
€ Special
€ Cases: € €
2 2 a 2 + b2 1
1. ( a − b) ≥ 0 ⇒ a + b − 2ab ≥ 0 ⇒ a 2 + b 2 €
€
2 2 €
(
≥ 2ab  2 a 2 + b 2 ≥ ( a + b) ) a +b
≥ ( a + b)
2
a 4 + b4 1 2 2
2. 2
a + b2 2
≥ a +b ( )
€
3. x 2 + y 2 + a 2 + b 2 ≥ x + a + y + b €
2 2
( ) ( ) €
3 3
a +b
€ 4. ≥ ab
a +b
If a1, a 2 ,......a n are positive numbers then
€
a + a 2 + ....... + a n 1/ n
Arithmetic Mean (A.M.): A = 1 Geometric Mean (G.M.): G = ( a1a 2 ........a n )
€ n
n
€ Harmonic Mean (H.M.): H =
1 1 1
+ + .........
€ a1 a 2 an €
1. A ≥ G ≥ H
2. G 2 = AH
€
2 2 2 2
€ Cauchy’s/Schwarz Inequality: If a,b, x, y, are real, then | ax + by |≤ a + b x + y or
€ | a b + a b + .........a b |≥ a 2 + a 2 + .........a 2 b 2 + b 2 + ...........b 2
1 1 2 2 n n 1 2 n 1 2 n
Weighted A.M. G.M. Inequality: If a1, a 2 ,......a n are positive numbers and m1, m2 ......mn are positive rational numbers. Then
€
m1a1 + m2 a 2 + .........mn a n
1
∑
mi a i 1

€ m1 + m2 + .......mn
(
m1 m2
≥ a1 a 2 .......a n 1
)
m n m +m +........m
2 n in Symbols

∑
mi
≥ ai(∏ )
mi ∑ mi

€ €
2

€
( )( )
Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality: For any real numbers a12 + a 2 2 + ........ + a n 2 b12 + b2 2 + ........bn 2 ≥ ( a1b1 + a 2b2 + ........ + a n bn )
a1 a 2 a €
Equality holds when = = ...... = n
b1 b2 bn
€

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