MODULE 17

PROPELLERS

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 Index

Chapter 1 Fundamentals Page 3

Chapter 2 Control Page 29
Chapter 3 Maintenance Page 55
Chapter 4 Associated systems Page 79

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 Module 17

Propellers
Chapter 1

Fundamentals

Introduction Power absorption

Thrust and Torque Fixed Pitch Propellers
Angle of Attack Two Pitch propellers
Blade Angle Constant Speed propellers
Variations in force on a Blade Positions
blade
Windmilling
Variations in angle of attack
Reverse Pitch
Terminology
CTM
Propeller Efficiency
ATM
Pusher and tractor

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PROPELLERS - INTRODUCTION
The propeller converts ENGINE POWER into a PROPULSIVE FORCE.
A rotating propeller accelerates a mass of air rearwards.
Reaction to this acceleration produces a FORWARD FORCE on the propeller blades.
The propeller blades have an aerofoil cross-section and produce a reactional force similar
to that produced by an aircraft's wing.

Fig 17.1.1 Propeller Terminology

The face side is usually .flat and can be considered to be the blade chord.

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Propellers - Introduction
The resultant force produced by the propeller as it moves through the air can be resolved
into.

 THRUST - The component acting at right angles to the PLANE OF ROTATION

 TORQUE - The component acting in the PLANE OP ROTATION opposing ENGINE

TORQUE. The resistance offered by the propeller to being rotated.

Thrust and Torque arc similar to the LIFT and DRAG forces produced by an aerofoil.

Fig 17.1.2 Aerofoil

Fig 17.1.3 Propeller

Factors Affecting Thrust and Torque

• AIR DENSITY
Increased air density produces increased Thrust (LIFT = CL ½ PV2S). Denser air offers
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greater resistance to the propeller i.e. Increased Torque

• ANGLE OF ATTACK
An increase in Angle of Attack will produce more Thrust and Torque up to the stalling
angle.
The optimum Angle of Attack will give the best Thrust/Torque Ratio

• PROPELLER SPEED (R.P.M.)

Thrust and Torque will alter directly with the speed of rotation.

Propellers - Relative Airflow

The resultant of two components

 Propeller rotational speed (RPM)

 Aircraft speed
To produce the speed and direction at which the airflow meets the propeller blade.

Fig 17.1.4 Relative Airflow

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Angle of Attack

 The angle between the Blade Face (chord) and the Relative Airflow.

 The angle of attack varies with changes in RPM and Forward Speed.

Fig 17.1.5 Angle of Attack

Blade Angle
The angle, normally acute, between the pressure face of an element of propeller blade and
the plane of rotation.
When the pressure face is curved, the blade angle is measured with reference to the blade
chord"
Note - An element is a particular section of the blade.

Fig 17.1.6 Blade Angle

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Propellers - Blade "Twisting"
The rotational speed of any part of the blade depends on the distance from the propeller
axis of rotation.
The forward speed of the propeller is the same at all parts of the blade.
The relative airflow is dependant on these two velocities and so it can vary along the
length of the blade producing varying angles of attack on a blade of constant angle.
In order to maintain a constant ANGLE OF ATTACK along the blade the BLADE ANGLE
IS REDUCED FROM ROOT TO TIP.

ROOT

TIP
Fig 17.1.7 Blade Twist

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Variations of Forces along the Blade
The propeller blade is shaped to make the most use of each blade element. Only a
proportion of the blade is really effective due to losses at the root and tip. The blade is
most effective between two thirds and three quarters of the distance from the blade root.

Fig 17.1.8 Variations of Forces

• ROOT LOSSES
The thickened root withstands high stresses but loses aerodynamic efficiency. The airflow
at the root is affected by the proximity of the engine.
• TIP LOSSES
Tip vortices and induced drag cause tip losses.
At high tip speeds further losses are caused due to compressibility effects.
Slight improvements are achieved by having a thin tip of laminar flow section.

Variations in Angle of Attack

Forward Speed

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With a fixed pitch propeller any alteration in airspeed will change the direction of the
relative airflow and the angle of attack will vary.

Fig 17.1.9(a) Variations in A o A

• An INCREASE in airspeed will DECREASE the angle of attack.
As the angle of attack decreases the load on the propeller (torque) is reduced.
Reduced propeller torque allows the engine RPM to increase until the propeller and engine
torque match each other.
So with a fixed pitch propeller an increase in airspeed would result in an increased engine
RPM without any alteration to the throttle setting.
This has a limiting affect on the aircrafts' performance.
e.g. The maximum speed of the aircraft is limited to prevent an engine overspeed.

Engine Speed
Changes in engine speed also vary the relative airflow and so affect the angle of attack on
a fixed pitch propeller.

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 Fig 17.1.9(b) Variations in A o A

• An INCREASE in engine speed will INCREASE the angle of attack.

Increased engine speed means more power available, the aircraft would accelerate and
the angle of attack would be restored to its original value.

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Propellers - Terminology
Geometric Pitch
The distance the propeller would move forward in one revolution without SLIP,
A theoretical distance calculated from the BLADE ANGLE (θ) and PROPELLER RADIUS
(r) at a particular blade section. Can be compared with a screw thread LEAD.
GEOMETRIC PITCH = 2πr tan θ

Fixed pitch propellers are classified by DIAMETER and PITCH.

Advance Per Revolution
The actual distance moved forward In one revolution. It is not a fixed quantity, depending
upon the aircrafts' SPEED and propeller RPM.
ADVANCE PER REVOLUTION = AIRCRAFT SPEED
PROPELLER SPEED
When the aircraft is stationary with engines running the Advance per Revolution is ZERO.
SLIP = GEOMETRIC PITCH - ADVANCE/REV
GEOMETRIC PITCH X 100
The difference between the Geometric Pitch and the Advance per Revolution, expressed
as a percentage.

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Slip varies with Angle of Attack. If there is no Slip the Angle of Attack would be ZERO.
With ZERO Angle of Attack the THRUST is ZERO.

Fig 17.1.10 Slip

Propeller Efficiency
The ratio of work done by the propeller to the work put in by the engine.
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 PROPELLER EFFICIENCY = WORK DONE BY PROPELLER
WORK DONE BY ENGINE
E.G. The drag on an aircraft traveling at 300 feet/second is 1100 Ibs.
The engine produces 750 SHP. Calculate the propeller efficiency (1HP = 550 ft Ib/sec)
WORK = FORCE X DISTANCE
In level flight DRAG = THRUST
WORK DONE BY PROPELLER IN ONE SEC = THRUST x SPEED
= 1100 X 300 ft Ibs
WORK DONE BY ENGINE = HP PER SEC
= 750 x 550 ft Ibs
PROPELLER EFFICIENCY = 1100 x 300
750 X 550 x 100
= 80%
When the aircraft is stationary with engines running, thrust is produced but as there is no
forward movement the PROPELLER EFFICIENCY is ZERO.
At high forward speeds the Slip could be ZERO i.e. No angle of attack therefore NO
THRUST with NO THRUST the PROPELLER EFFICIENCY is ZERO.

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Tractor and Pusher Propellers

 TRACTOR - PULLS and is in front of the engine

 PUSHER - PUSHES and is behind the engine

Fig 17.1.11 Tractor and Pusher Propellers

Direction of Rotation
RIGHT HAND – CLOCKWISE }
LEFT HAND - ANTICLOCKWISE } VIEWED FROM THE REAR

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Absorbing Power
For maximum efficiency the propeller must be able to absorb the engine power available.
Power can be absorbed by propeller design but each method used has its limitations and a
compromise has to be made for the final propeller design.

POWER ABSORBED BY LIMITATIONS

• Increasing Blade Angle Reduction in Thrust/Torque ratio Blades

"stall" at low engine speeds

• Blade Length increased High tip speeds - increased

compressibility problems. Propeller
clearance of ground and aircraft structure.

• Higher propeller speed Increased tip speeds - reduced efficiency

• Altering the blade camber Reduced aerodynamic efficiency

• Increasing the blade chord Increased weight, increased turning

moment loading

• Increased number of blades Increased weight, structural difficulties at

propeller hub

• Contra Rotating propellers Complicated pitch change mechanism,

expense and maintenance

• Blade length, chord, number all affect the propeller's SOLIDITY.

of blades

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Propellers - Solidity
The ratio of total blade area to the Disc Area (area of circle described by the blade tip)
Solidity is calculated at the blade master station (about 0.7 of the blade length from the
root) the greater the Solidity the more power can be absorbed by the propeller.

Fig 17.1.12 Propeller Solidity

• SOLIDITY = NUMBER OF BLADES X BLADE CHORD

2 π x RADIUS
(at the blade master station)
• DISC AREA = 2 π X PROPELLER RADIUS

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Disadvantages of a Fixed Pitch Propeller
A fixed blade angle will only be efficient at one combination of airspeed and RPM.
During take off the angle of attack will be large because the airspeed is low with a high
RPM.
With the blades nearly stalled the acceleration is poor and a long take off run is required.
At cruise conditions the angle of attack is small and the forward speed is limited to prevent
an engine overspeed.
The fixed pitch propeller has to compromise to improve take off performance by reducing
the cruise performance.

Fig 17.1.13 Take off

Fig 17.1.14 Cruise

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Two Pitch Propellers
To improve the propeller performance a two pitch propeller was evolved, it enabled two
blade angles to be selected.

 For Take Off and Climb a Low blade angle or FINE PITCH is used.

 For Cruise a LARGE blade angle or COARSE PITCH is selected.

This improves the performance in both conditions as the angle of attack is near the
optimum for take off and cruise.
The Two Pitch propeller is limited as it behaves like a fixed pitch propeller once the
selections are made.

Fig 17.1.15 Take-off – Fine Pitch

Fig 17.1.16 Cruise – Coarse Pitch

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Constant Speed or Variable Pitch
A propeller, the pitch setting of which varies automatically to maintain a preselected
constant rotational speed.

 The variable pitch propeller overcomes the disadvantages of the fixed and two pitch
propellers.

 It maintains the beat propeller speed to suit the engine power output.

 The propeller control unit (P.C.U.) or constant speed unit (CSU) maintains the
selected RPM through all changes in flight conditions without any assistance from
the pilot.

 The optimum angle of attack for the propeller blades will be selected at all times.

 Blade angles can be changed as much as 110° which enables the propeller to be
'feathered' and also to be used as a "power on brake" for landing.

 P.C.U. used with Turbo propeller engines

 C.S.U. used with Piston engines.

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Constant Speed Propeller

Fig 17.1.17 Constant Speed Variations

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Propeller Blade Positions

FEATHERED
Blade chord parallel to airflow

COARSE PITCH FLIGHT RANGE FLIGHT FINE PITCH

Maximum blade angle for cruise Constant Speeding Minimum pitch available in flight

TRANSITION RANGE
Between ground & Flight operating

GROUND FINE PITCH (SUPERFINE) BETA RANGE REVERSE PITCH

Minimum blade angle reducing torque Ground operating range only Negative blade angle to
for easier engine start available on the ground provide power on braking

a = Angle of attack (angle formed by the relative airflow and the chord line)
b = Pitch or blade angle

Fig 17.1.18 Propeller Hub Blade Angles

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Feathering
The blade is turned so that the chord Is parallel to the oncoming airflow, or fully fine.
This prevents the propeller being turned by the airflow or "WINDMILLING" when the
engine is stopped in flight.
This reduces drag from the propeller and protects the engine from damage.

Fig 17.1.19 Propeller Hub Blade Positions

Beta Range
Can only be used when the aircraft is on the ground, a 'gate* on the power lever quadrant
prevents selection in flight.
Used for ground operations - taxiing and braking.

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Windmilling
When an engine is stopped or fails in flight the Propeller Control Unit maintains the
selected RPM by reducing the blade angle (FINES OFF).
The combination of the small blade angle and the forward speed of the aircraft produce a
small negative angle of attack on the blades.
A negative angle of attack reverses the resultant force and with it the THRUST and
TORQUE. The negative THRUST increases the DRAG on the aircraft making it difficult to
handle and requiring extra power from the remaining engines to maintain control and
altitude.
Negative TORQUE causes the propeller to turn as before but now the propeller is turning
the engine which can cause or increase damage to the engine.
'Wlndmilling' is stopped by FEATHERING the propeller

 WINDMILLING WILL ONLY TAKE PLACE IF THERE IS FORWARD SPEED.

Windmilling Brake
By allowing a non reversing propeller to 'Windmill' on landing it can provide an effective air
brake.
On touching down the propeller blades are turned to GROUND FINE PITCH as the engine
is throttled back.
A small negative angle of attack is produced on the blades providing negative Thrust and
Torque to slow the aircraft down.
Braking effectiveness reduces as the speed drops off due to the lessening of the
Wlndmilling forces.
Safety devices incorporated in the propeller control system prevents Wlndmilling occurring
in flight.

Angle of Attack - Negative

Blade Angle - Positive
Thrust - Negative
Torque - Negative

Fig 17.1.20 Propeller Windmilling Brake

Reverse Pitch
Used to provide a very effective brake and limited ground manoeuvres.
On selection of Reverse the propeller blades move to a NEGATIVE BLADE ANGLE to

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produce a NEGATIVE ANGLE OF ATTACK and NEGATIVE THRUST.
TORQUE will remain positive to oppose the engine driving the propeller.
The transition from forward to reverse pitch must be achieved rapidly to prevent an over
speed as the blades pass through very fine pitch angles where the propeller torque would
be negative and assisting engine torque.

TORQUE - POSITIVE
THRUST - NEGATIVE
BLADE ANGLE - NEGATIVE
ANGLE OF ATTACK - NEGATIVE

Fig 17.1.21 Reverse Pitch

Centrifugal Turning Moment (C.T.M.)

A powerful moment on the propeller blades trying to turn the blades to a ZERO BLADE
ANGLE or FINE PITCH.
The magnitude of CTM depends on blade CHORD, WEIGHT and RPM, any increase will
increase CTM. The centrifugal force acting through the centre of gravity of the blade mass
forward of the blade centre line and the centrifugal force acting through the centre of
gravity of the mass rear of the centre line produce a couple which tries to align the blade
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chord with the plane of rotation regardless of the blade angle.
C.T.M. has to be overcome to prevent a propeller over speeding.

Fig 17.1.22 CTM

Aerodynamic Turning Moment (A.T.M.)

A weaker force than C.T.M. normally acting in opposition and trying to turn the blade to
COARSE PITCH.
The blade's centre of pressure is forward of the PITCH CHANGE AXIS and the moment of
the resultant force turns the blade to COARSE PITCH.
In reverse pitch the ATM will turn the blade to a COARSER NEGATIVE BLADE ANGLE.
ATM acts with CTM to fine off the blades ONLY WHEN THE PROPELLER IS
WINDMILLING.
N.B. PITCH CHANGE AXIS - the axis about which the blade turns when the blade angle is

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changed.

Fig 17.1.23 ATM

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Forces Acting On Propeller Blades

 BENDING - Due to Thrust and Torque forces on the blade.

 CENTRIFUGAL - Caused by the propeller blade mass rotating at high speeds.

 TORSION - Due to the affects of CTM and ATM and pitch change loads.

Fig 17.1 24 Forces Acting on a Blade

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 MODULE 17

PROPELLERS
CHAPTER 2

CONTROL
Pitch Change Mechanism
Control Units
Operation
Feathering System
Flight Fine Pitch Stop
Pitch Locks
Beta Control
Synchronising

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Ground Adjustable
As the name suggests, this type of construction allows for adjustment whilst the aircraft is
on the ground only.
To help ensure that the propeller blades are not pulled out of the hub on a ground-
adjustable propeller, shoulders are machined into the base of each blade shank. These
shoulders fit into grooves that are machined into each hub half.

Fig 17.2.1 Ground Adjustable Propeller

Ground adjustable propellers utilize either clamp rings or bolts to secure the hub halves
and hold the blades tightly.

Fig 17.2.2 Ground Adjustable Propeller Clamp Arrangements

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Pitch Change Mechanism
A controllable-pitch propeller is designed so that the pilot can select any blade angle within
the propeller’s range regardless of the aircraft operational conditions. This type of propeller
is occasionally found on aircraft of the post-World War 2 era and was eventually refined
into the Beechcraft electric constant-speed propeller.
This propeller design allowed light aircraft with as little as 65 horsepower to have the
advantages of a variable pitch propeller without the complexity and expense of a constant
speed system.
Electrically Operated Propellers
A reversible electric motor drives a bevel gear through a high reduction gear train. The
bevel gear meshes with bevel gear segments on the blade roots.
Rotation of the bevel gear moves the blades to change the blade angle.
Electric power is supplied through a brush and slip ring assembly at the rear of the
propeller. A motor brake prevents "over-run" and is solenoid released when the pitch is
changed.
Control is through a hydraulically operated switch or a system of master and slave motors
balancing outputs from each engine. Cockpit switches provide manual control.

Single Acting Hydraulically Controlled Propellers

Fig 17.2.3 Single Acting Propeller

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 Fig 17.2.4 Low Pitch Selected
When low pitch is selected, engine oil pressure forces the cylinder forward. This motion
moves the counterweights and blades to the low pitch position.

Fig 17.2.5 High Pitch Selected

When high pitch is selected, engine oil pressure is removed from the piston assembly
allowing centrifugal force to move the counterweights outward. This rotates the blades to
the high pitch position.

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Hydraulic Pitch Change Mechanism (Double Acting)
There are three main types
1. MOVING PISTON
2. MOVING CYLINDER
3. GEARED OR "HYDROMATIC"

Moving Piston
A cylinder and piston are mounted on the front of the hub.
The piston is linked to the blade roots so that as the piston moves the blade angle is
changed.
Small propellers use a single acting unit which uses oil pressure on one side of the piston
to move the blades to fine pitch.
C.T.M. acting on counterweights coarsen the pitch.
Large propellers use double acting mechanisms which use oil pressure on both sides of
the piston to change the blade angle.

Fig 17.2.6 Moving Piston

Moving Cylinder
Operation is similar to the Moving Piston type. A fixed piston divides the coarse and fine oil
pressure supplies.
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As oil pressure is fed to one side of the piston the other side oil is returned to the P.C.U.
The oil pressure moves the 'cylinder which being linked to the blade roots changes the
blade angle.

Fig 17.2.7 Moving Cylinder or Double Acting System

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Geared or "Hydromatic"
The dome is a stationary cylinder.
The piston is U shaped to contain a pair of co-axial cylindrical cams.
The outer cam is fixed in relation to the hub.
The inner cam is free to turn and carries a bevel gear which meshes with bevel gear
segments on the blade roots.
Shafts and rollers translate piston movement into rotational movement of the inner cam.
The "dog leg' slots in the cams are cut in opposite directions to double the movement of
the inner cam.
Cam rotation is transmitted to the blades through the bevel gears to produce a pitch
change proportional to piston movement.

Fig 17.2.8 Hydromatic Pitch Change

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Propellers Control Units
The control unit is basically

 A pump with a relief valve

 A control valve with a centrifugal governor

The control unit directs oil pressure to the pitch change mechanism
Constant Speed Unit (C.S.U.)
Used with piston engines
The CSU is connected to a pitch control or R.P.M, lever on the pilot's control pedestal.
.The unit maintains a selected RPH even though the engine power is changed with the
throttle.
Propeller Control Unit (P.C.U.)
Similar in operation to the CSU but used with Turbo Propeller engines.
A single lever is connected to the PCU and the fuel control unit.
RPM and fuel flow are selected together enabling the engine to overcome the combined
inertia of the propeller and compressor which impairs engine acceleration.
The single power lever selects the propeller RPM for the particular power setting

 Mounted on and driven by the engine.

 The drive operates a spur gear pump which boosts the engine oil pressure to the
system operating pressure.

 Maximum system pressure is governed by a relief valve which provides an idling

circuit for the pump when the control valve is in neutral.

 Through gears the drive rotates the governor weights which tend to fly outwards as
the engine speed increases.

 The governor weights are linked to the control valve and move the valve upwards
as they fly outwards.

 A linkage from the power lever load the governor or speeder spring which tries to
push the control valve downwards.

 A further connection to the HP fuel cock enables the control valve to be lifted when
'Feather' is selected.

 Solenoid valves direct oil pressure to lift .the control valve for automatic feathering
and to withdraw the pitch lock to move into ground operating range.

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 Fig 17.2.9 PCU and Hydromatic Pitch Change

To unfeather a Hydromatic propeller, high pressure oil bypasses the governor and forces
the distributor valve over so the oil is directed to the outboard side of the piston. At the
same time, a passage is provided for oil to drain from the inboard side of the piston.

Fig 17.2.10 Over Speed Condition

In an over speed condition, governor oil pressure forces the piston in the dome assembly
forward. When this happens, the cam rollers also move forward causing the rotating cam
to turn. As the rotating cam turns, the beveled gear attached to the back of the cam
engages the sector gears on the propeller blades and rotates the blades to a higher angle.

37
 Fig 17.2.11 Under Speed Condition

In an under speed condition, governor oil pressure is ported back to the engine through
the governor. Once the pressure behind the piston decreases below the engine oil
pressure, the piston moves aft. As the piston moves aft, the rotating cam turns and drives
the propeller blades to a lower blade angle.

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Pitch Control Unit (P.C.U.)

Fig 17.2.12 Pitch Change Unit

39
P.C.U. Operation "On Speed"

The speeder spring setting balances the centrifugal force acting through the governor
weights.
The engine RPM is equal to that selected by the power lever.
The control valve is in a neutral position hydraulically locking the pitch change piston.

Fig 17.2.13 PCU On Speed

40
PCU Operation Under Speed

Speeder spring load is greater than the force of the governor weights the valve is pushed
DOWN.
Propeller blades move to a FINER PITCH to increase RPM. Below neutral position fly
weights turning too slow for load on speeder spring

Fig 17.2.14 PCU Under Speed

41
PCU Operation - Overspeed

Centrifugal force of the governor weights overcomes the speeder spring load, the control
valve moves UP.
Propeller blades move to a COARSER PITCH to decrease RPM. Above neutral position
fly weights turning too fast for load on speeder spring

Fig 17.2.15 PCU Over Speed

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PCU Operation
RPM Increase selected

 Power lever moved

 Speeder spring load increased

 Control valve moves down

 Pressure oil directed to fine pitch line

 Return oil from coarse pitch line goes to pump inlet

 Blade angle changes to a finer pitch

 RPM increases as the load on the propeller reduces

 Governor weights Ely outwards to lift the control valve as the RPM increases due to
pitch change and increased power.

 Control valve is moved to the 'ON SPEED' position when speeder spring and
governor weight forces balance.

Increase in Forward Speed

 Angle of attack decreases

 Propeller torque decreases

 RPM increases

 Increased centrifugal force on governor weights lift the control valve

 Oil pressure is directed to the coarse line

 Fine oil is returned to pump inlet

 Diode angle is increased

 Propeller torque is restored

 RPM is now at the selected value but with a coarser blade angle

43
Propeller Control

Fig 17.2.16 PCU Schematic

Pitch Variation Range

Fig 17.2.17 Pitch Variation Range

Power Lever Movement
With the aircraft stationary and the engine ' idling ' fuel flow is Insufficient to obtain the
RPM selected at the PCU.
44
The governor valve is in an under speed condition and the propeller is in fine pitch against
the stops. The propeller behaves like a fixed pitch propeller RPM varies with the fuel flow.

A to B

B to C

Fig 17.2.18 Power Lever Movement

Moving from A to B,

 No affect on the speeder spring

 Pitch is fully fine

 RPM increase with fuel flow

 At B minimum constant speed is

attained

 Propeller moves off fine pitch stop.

Moving from B to C

 PCU is governing

 As fuel flow increases the blade

angle increases to absorb
additional power and maintain
RPM.

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NOTE Minimum Constant Speed is the minimum RPM selected by PCU and allows rapid
acceleration if required for 'overshoot

C to D

D to E

Fig 17.2.19 Power Lever Movement

Movement from C to D

 As the fuel flow increases the RPM increases to maintain optimum blade angle for
the power produced.

 Blade angle alters to maintain selected RPM.

Movement from D to E

 A greater RPM increase is required for the fuel flow is steadily increasing to take off
power.

 PCU reduces the blade angle to obtain the required RPM.

NOTE. Selecting a higher RPM does not always result in a finer pitch. The final blade angle
depends on the fuel flow to the engine.

46
Feathering System
Function

 To prevent excessive drag in the event of a propeller or engine failure.

Description

 The system has mechanical and electro-hydraulic means of lifting the PCU control
valve.

 An electrically driven pump supplies the feathering oil pressure.

 Oil Is supplied from a 'Feathering' Reserve in the main engine oil tank.
Operation

 The control valve is lifted by moving the HP lever to 'Feather' or by the Piston lift
solenoid valve opening and hydraulic pressure acts on the valve lift piston.

 Oil pressure from the feathering pump is directed to the coarse pitch line to feather
the blades. When the feathering is complete a pressure operated switch de-
energises the pump-solenoid to stop the pump.

 To unfeather the HP lever is opened and the feathering pump switched on for a few
seconds.

47
 Fig 17.2.20 Feathering System
Manual Feathering

 HP fuel cock lever moved to 'feather'

 Feathering pump started by Manual Feather Switch.

 Some systems have the feathering pump switch incorporated in the Engine Fire
Handle.
Automatic Feathering

 Uses the torque indicating system to sense engine failure.

 When torque drops to a certain valve a LOW TORQUE PRESSURE switch

completes a circuit to operate the PISTON LIFT SOLENOID and start the
FEATHERING PUMP.

48
Automatic Coarsening

 Prevents propeller from over speeding in flight.

 A switch mounted on the Hub closes when the blade angle is below FLIGHT FINE
PITCH.

 With the circuit complete the Piston Lift Solenoid is energised and the propeller
coarsens off.

49
Flight Fine Pitch Stop
Controls the Minimum Pitch available in flight, Pitch below Flight Fine Pitch would produce
over speed or Wlndmilling conditions which would make the aircraft difficult to control.
For ground operations the Flight Fine Pitch Stop is withdrawn to provide Superfine Pitch
(ground fine) for starting and providing a 'Wlndmilling' brake on non reversing propellers.
The stop i« n spring collet held outwards by a spring- loaded pitch lock piston.
When the aircraft is on the ground the undercarriage switch is closed; the flight deck switch
completes the circuit to energise the solenoid valve.
The open solenoid valve directs oil pressure to the stop withdrawal piston allowing the
spring collet to spring inwards to remove the Flight Fine Pitch Stop.

Fig 17.2.21 Flight Fine Pitch Stop

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Pitch Locks
Prevent CTM reducing the blade pitch should a failure to the propeller control mechanism
occur.
Mechanical
A ratchet mechanism allows the propeller to move to coarse pitch and to be feathered.
The Pawl has to be withdrawn by P.C.U. action before the blades can move to a finer pitch.

Fig 17.2.22 Mechanical Pitch Stop

Hydraulic
Fitted in the Coarse pitch line blocks return oil from the Pitch Change Mechanism to form a
hydraulic lock for the piston until released by P.C.U. operation.

Fig 17.2.23 Hydraulic Pitch Stop

‘BETA' Control
'Beta' or Blade Angle Control is used for ground operations i.e. Taxiing and Braking.

51
The Beta range is between + 8o In Flight (max in Beta) and -30o (full reverse) blade angle
(approximately)
In Flight
Selected RPM is maintained by the PCU A gate on the power lever quadrant prevents the
levers selecting below Flight Idle and the Beta range.
An over speed sensor and a mechanical Flight Fine Pitch Stop prevent operation in the
ground range.
On the Ground
The Flight Fine Pitch Stop is withdrawn.
The Power Levers can be moved through the gate into the Beta range.
The Power Levers now directly control the propeller pitch to vary the thrust at positive and
negative blade angles.
The PCU governor is over-ridden
The Power Levers raise or lower the PCU control valve to obtain the coarse or fine pitch
required. Mechanical Feed Back resets the control valve when the required blade angle ib
obtained.

Transition Range
In the Transition Range the PCU speeder spring is biased to push the PCU control valve
down.
When the Control Valve is down a stop on the Control Valve Spindle contacts the Beta
Control Beam this enables the Beta Control System to operate the PCU Governor Valve.
Power Lever movement rotates the Beta Set Cam to move the Roller up or down the
Follow Up Cam. This movement will raise or lower the Beta Control Beam and the Control
Valve to alter the Blade Angle,
Feed Back Cams on the blade root move the Beta Yoke to reposition the Beta Follow Up
Cam to gradually cancel the Power Lever input and return the Control Valve to the On
Speed position.

52
 Fig 17.2.24 BETA Control in the Transition Range
Synchronising
The propeller synchronisation system Is used to set all governors at exactly the same
RPM, thereby eliminating excess noise and vibration. A synchronisation system may be
used with governors having mechanical or electrical heads.
The synchronisation system Is normally used for all flight operations except takeoff and
landing. A master engine is used to establish the RPM to which all other engines (slave
engines) will adjust.
Automatic synchronisation uses a system using the output of a master synchronising
generator as a datum to be matched by outputs of 'Slave' generators on the other engines.

Fig 17.2.25 Selecting a “Master” Engine

Discrepancies between "Master" and "Slave" outputs signal the offending engine PCU to
increase or decrease RPM.
The System is usually only effective in the "Cruise" condition and is engaged by selecting
53
the required RPM on the "Master' engine and manually selecting the RPM on the "Slave"
engines to slightly below the required RPM and then selecting the Synchronising system.
The Synchronisers will then bring all RPM up to that required.
Some aircraft have visual indicators to show if the propellers are properly synchronised.
Synchrophasing
A refinement on the Synchronising system to reduce vibration and noise by maintaining the
maximum blade tip separation.

Fig 17.2.26 Synchrophasing Positions

Summary

REQUIREMENT CONTROLLED BY

Pitch Control Unit Constant Speed control

Minimum Rotational Drag on start up Ground Pine Pitch (Superfine)

Provide high drag on landing (Wlndmilling Ground Pine Pitch

Brake)

Limit the minimum blade angle in flight to Flight Fine Pitch Stop
prevent over speeding

Provide limits to 'excessive RPM and Hydraulic and Mechanical Pitch Locks
propeller drag in the event of engine Automatic Coarsening System
propeller or control failure in flight.

To reduce propeller drag to a minimum on a Manual and Automatic Feathering systems

failed engine

Propeller control during ground operations Beta Control System

Maximum braking on landing Reverse Pitch

Reduction of noise and vibration Synchronising and Synchrophasing systems

54
 MODULE 17

PROPELLERS
CHAPTER 3

MAINTENANCE
Balance
Shock Load Check
Blade Station, Preload
Repairs
Storage and Preservation
Installation
Ground Running

55
Propellers Maintenance - Propellers Balance
An out of balance propeller vibrates and imposes dangerous stresses on the propeller hub.
There are three types of balance to be considered
Static
Balanced when the centre of gravity acts through the AXIS or CENTRE OF ROTATION
IMBALANCE BALANCE

Fig 17.3.1 Propeller Static Balance

Static Balancing
The propeller is mounted on a special Mandrel support on adjustable knife edges or a
mercury bed. Imbalance is corrected by adding small weights to the light side of the
propeller. The weights are installed in the hollow shank of the blade or lead wool is packed
into hollows in the blade or hollow bolts.

Fig 17.3.2 Horizontal Balance Check Vertical Balance Check

56
 Fig 17.3.3 Multiple Blade Static Balance
Check a three-bladed propeller assembly with each blade placed in a downward vertical
position as shown
Before conducting the balance check, inspect to see that each blade has been set at the
same blade angle.
Unless otherwise specified by the manufacturer, an acceptable balance check requires that
the propeller assembly have no tendency to rotate in any of the positions.

Dynamic Balance
Balanced when the blades' centres of gravity are in the PLANE OF ROTATION
IMBALANCE BALANCE

Fig 17.3.4 Propeller Dynamic Balance

Dynamic Balance
Checked by "Tracking" to see if the blades all pass through the same point.

57
A track check can be carried out in situ. A suitable pointer is secured to a heavy base or if
possible to the aircraft to prevent movement during check, the pointer is set to touch a
point about six inches from the blade tip. When the propeller is rotated and the clearance
between each blade and the pointer is recorded.
The readings are checked with the permitted tolerances in the Maintenance Manual.
Small propellers may be checked using a special mandrel, a surface table and a height
gauge.

Fig 17.3.5 Dynamic Balancing

58
Aerodynamic
Slight differences in blade shapes produce unequal aerodynamic forces on the propeller. A
propeller is balanced when the aerodynamic forces on all the blades are equal
IMBALANCE BALANCE

Fig 17.3.6 Propeller Aerodynamic Balance

Aerodynamic Balance
Inequalities can be corrected for by slight adjustments to the individual blade angles to
produce a specific thrust.
The adjustment or index is termed the AERODYNAMIC CORRECTION FACTOR (A.C.F.)
and is usually painted on the blade root.
The ACF is the amount to be added or subtracted from the basic setting when assembling
the propeller. The process is sometimes referred to as 'INDEXING'

BLADE NO A.C.F. PROTRACTOR SETTING

1 NORMAL 27°

2 SET 0°5' COARSE 27°5'

3 SET 0°9' FINE 26°51'

4 NORMAL 27°

Fig 17.3.7 Propeller Indexing

Shock Load Check (Run Out)
A concentricity check of the propeller shaft carried out after a heavy landing or impact.
59
The propeller is removed from the shaft. A weight is hung on the shaft to take up
"backlash" in the reduction gear. Attached to a fixture bolted to the front engine casing a
Dial Test Indicator is set to run on the smooth portion of the shaft.
The propeller is rotated through 360° and the DTI readings noted.
This is repeated with DTI set to a different position on the shaft.
The amount of eccentricity is calculated
and checked with Maintenance Manual limitations
NOTE The amount of eccentricity is HALF the total DTI reading.

Fig 17.3.8 Propeller Run Out Check

Blade Stations
These are the positions on the blade measured from the blade root used as reference
points when checking angles and repair areas.
The blade angle is checked at the Master Station which is usually 0.7 of the blade length
from the blade root.

60
Blade Preload
On assembly propeller blades are friction loaded between the blade and hub.
This improves bearing contact and resistance to blade oscillations.
Preloading prevents 'Blade Flutter' which could result from the varying aerodynamic and
centrifugal loads on the propeller blade.

Fig 17.3.9 Blade Station Identification

Wooden Propellers

61
 Fig 17.3.10 Wooden Propeller Manufacture
(A) The first step in the manufacture of a wooden propeller is to laminate planks
together to form a propeller blank.
(B) The propeller blank is shaped and its hub is drilled to produce a "white."
(C) Once sanded smooth, a fabric sheathing and varnish coating are applied for
reinforcement and protection.

Fig 17.3.11 Leading Edge Erosion Protection

Metal tipping is applied to propeller blade tips and leading edges to help prevent erosion
damage. Three small holes drilled in the tip of each blade release moisture and allow the
wood to breathe.

62
Wooden Blades Repairs
Limited repairs are permitted on wooden blades, the limits relate to depth and area of the
damage compared with the thickness or chord of the blade.
All damage must be assessed and classified in accordance with the approved repair
scheme.

DAMAGE ACTION

Minor defects on surface finish Restore with approved paint or varnish

Small dents or longitudinal cracks Plug with glue and sawdust mixture, sand
smooth

Deep cuts or scores Remove damage, carry out insertion repair

using identical timber, ensuring grain
direction matches.

Tip and leading edge damage Sand to new profile, all blades must be
similarly shaped.

Leading edge metal sheath Shape new sheath to blade, taking care not
to bruise the wooden blade, original screw
holes must be used.

After all repairs the propeller is balanced and

the protective finish restored.

Metal Blades Repair

 Sharp indentations and scores cause stress concentrations which lead to blade
failure.

 A line of chordwise indentations indicating the blade had been continually struck by
an object is particularly dangerous and the blade should be rejected.

 Surface finish faults can lead to corrosion and should be repaired as soon as
possible.

 "Blending Out” minor damage to a smooth, crack free depression prevents stress
build up.

 Few repairs if any are permitted on the inner third of the blade.

 The blade may be "Cold Straightened" if within limits provided the blade was not
damaged by impact.

 Cold straightening is only permitted for two successive occasions; if additional

treatment is required the blade must be returned to the manufacturer for heat
treatment.
Face and Camber Sides
63
 Fig 17.3.12 Face and Camber Sides Repair Limits

Leading and Trailing Edges

Fig 17.3.13 Leading and Trailing Edge Repair Limits

Note
Repair of propeller blades is not normally permitted within the inner third of the length of
the blade from the hub, and the length of any one combined blending shall not exceed 7”.
Propellers Blending Out

Check damage is within repairable limits

↓
64
Remove all damage and corrosion; blend out in direction of Major axis Form a smooth,
rounded depression Polish out all tool marks

↓
Inspect rework area for cracks and scores using magnifying glass or dye penetrant.
Remove any scores, tool marks by polishing. Check rework is still within the repair limits.
NOTE. Gouge and dent damage require a further 0.002" of material to be removed after
the damage has been cleared. Electrical burns or damage with burns require a further
0.02" of material to be removed.

↓
Check the propeller balance and correct as necessary.
Restore the anti corrosive protection with the recommended primer and paint or varnish.

Tip Cropping

 Permitted within specified limits. To preserve propeller balance it has to be done on

all blades.

 A template is made to the new tip dimensions.

 Using the template the new tip arc is marked out on the blades.

 The part of the blade outside the arc is removed by hacksaw or grinder. All tool
marks are polished out. Rework is crack checked. The blade length is checked to be
within repair limits.

 Surface is re-protected against corrosion. The amount of tip cropping is marked on

the butt face of the blade e.g. T.C. ¼”

Propellers Overspeeding
Causes high stresses on the propeller which can affect the material structure of the blades.
Up to 115% max RPM - Considered un-harmful
No special check required, tracking check is recommended
115% to 130% max RPM - Propeller removed for inspection

65
The manufacturer is informed of the over speed conditions namely

 Percentage over speed and duration

 Aircraft attitude

 Height and airspeed

 Aircraft weight

 Installed position
The Information is analysed and the manufacturer decide on whether the blades require re-
rolling.

Storage and Preservation

Installed Propellers

Up to 3 months
Keep clean and Inspect regularly for corrosion, Exercise the propeller once a week on a
ground run to lubricate internal parts. If unable to ground run the engine, exercise the pitch
change mechanism by feathering and un-feathering the propeller.

Over 3 months
Flush out pitch change mechanism with inhibiting oil Treat all external parts with Lanolin or
an approved anti corrosive treatment.
NOTE Ensure the Lanolin does not come in contact with the de-icer shoes.
Cover the pitch change mechanism with waxed paper.
Inspect regularly for corrosion.

Uninstalled Propellers

Store on racks or stands in clean, dry and warm conditions.

Keep in manufacturers' packing if possible. If original packing is not available wrap in
waxed paper.
Coat all external parts with Lanolin. Inhibit the pitch change mechanism with oil Coat all
loose parts - oil tubes, cones etc with Lanolin and wrap in waxed paper.
NOTE Components used to retain the propeller on the engine are considered to be
propeller parts.
Exercise bearings after 6 and 9 months. After 12 months check the bearings for "Brinelling"
66
and corrosion Clean and re-grease bearings.

Disassembled Propellers

Immerse all parts in inhibiting oil.

Drain off oil and coat bearings with a mineral jelly.
Clean all electrical equipment and treat external surfaces with rust preventer
Coat electrical connections with petroleum jelly, store in moisture proof bags. Wrap all
parts in waxed paper and store in suitable crates.
Maximum storage period is up to 3 years with inhibiting checks every 12 months.
All propellers and components should be labeled stating.

 Part number,

 Modification state,

 Serial number,

 Date of storage with a record of inspections since that date.

Cleaning Propeller Blades.

Aluminum propeller blades and hubs should be cleaned regularly with soap and water.
They should be wiped with a clean, soft cloth. Harsh cleaners or abrasives should never be
used, as they may scratch or mar the surface.
If a high polish of the blades is desired, a commercial grade of metal polish may be used.
After the desired finish is achieved, all traces of the metal polish must be removed and the
blade should be covered with a film of engine oil.
To clean wooden propellers, warm water and a mild soap can be used, together with
brushes or cloth.
If a propeller has been subjected to salt water, it should be flushed with fresh water until all
traces of salt have been removed. This should be accomplished as soon as possible after
the salt water has splashed on the propeller, regardless of whether the propeller parts are
aluminum-alloy, steel or wood. After flushing, all parts should be dried thoroughly, and
metal parts should be coated with clean engine oil or a suitable equivalent.
Propellers - Installation

Remove all protective covers and blanks

Clean off the brown wax storage compound using white spirit or nonleaded gasoline
Lubricate as specified
Inspect the propeller and its components for damage, corrosion and serviceability.
Check condition of rubber seals and deicer sheath.

67
 ↓
Fit electrical brush gear housing to engine reduction gear casing.
Check the gear is square with the engine shaft.

↓
Fit sling to propeller
Lightly lubricate driving shaft splines with specified lubricant.
Carry out "Blueing Check"

'Blueing Check'

 Lightly smear "engineers blue" to the front and rear cone seating.

 Check the rear cone is in position on the engine shaft.

 Install the propeller on the shaft.

 Fit and hand tighten the front cone assembly and

 hub retaining nut.

 Rotate the propeller at least one complete turn.

 Remove the hub retaining nut and front case assembly.

 Remove propeller from the shaft.

 Check the surface contact of the cones and their seating.

 The contact area must be at least 80% of the whole surface.

 Minor high spots may be removed by light 'stoning' to improve contact area.

 Clean blue from the Beatings and cones.

Fit oil tubes to engine shaft

All threads and oil seals should be lubricated with clean engine oil before assembly.
The Inner oil tube is usually a left hand thread to facilitate locking of the hub nut.
Torque tighten and lock the oil tubes.

↓
Check propeller back-plate for security
Check slip ring assembly for correct assembly.

68
Lightly lubricate the splines, cone bore and threads with specified lubricant.
Cone faces are normally left dry to prevent the propeller loosening as the oil is squeezed
out.

↓
Fit propeller to engine shaft.
Fit front cone assembly and hub retaining nut
Hand tighten the hub nut and then torque load to stated figure.
Fit lock ring and circlip
Remove lifting sling.

↓
Turn all propeller blades to the feathered position
Lubricate threads and seals with engine oil
Fit the pitch change mechanism and lock.
Connect up electrical brush gear and check slip ring contact
Prime and bleed cylinder
Fit spinner, turn blades through full extent to check for failing
Run the engine and check propeller operation
If vibration occurs check hub nut when engine has cooled down.

Sequence of Installation

69
 Fig 17.3.14 Sequence of Installation

Propellers - Ground Running (General)

REASONS FOR GROUND RUNNING

After ENGINE INSTALLATION
After PROPELLER or PCU change
After CONTROL ADJUSTMENT or CHANGE OF UNIT
To conform a REPORTED DEFECT if the report IS NOT CONCLUSIVE
To check an AIRCRAFT SYSTEM

RAMP HANDLING
Ground running should be kept to an ABSOLUTE MINIMUM
Engine running at LOW GROUND IDLE should be kept to an ABSOLUTE MINIMUM
If a SUDDEN INCREASE in TGT occurs, or the engine starts RUMBLING or BANGING -
STOP THE ENGINE C. INVESTIGATE the cause/s
ALL COWLINGS MUST BE CLOSED during engine running, except when making
ADJUSTMENTS
70
Or carrying out LEAK CHECKS.
All throttle movements must be carried out SMOOTHLY & PROGRESSIVELY
During acceleration TGT gauge readings lag behind the actual TGT within the engine and
CARELESS handling may result in MAX TGT being EXCEEDED WITHOUT any
INDICATION on the GUAGE.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - AIRCRAFT

Where any work, other than engine starting, requires the HP COCK to be OPENED,
ensure that -

 BOOSTER' PUMPS ARE OFF

 AT LEAST 15 MINUTES HAVE ELAPSED SINCE ENGINE SHUTDOWN OR

ENSURE

 THAT ROTATION HAS CEASED & WAIT AT LEAST 5 MINUTES TO ALLOW THE
ENGINE DRAINS SYSTEM TO CLEAR
Head aircraft INTO WIND
Position CLEAR OF OTHER AIRCRAFT & BUILDINGS ETC.
Ensure ground around the aircraft is CLEAR OF DEBRIS

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS - PERSONNEL

All personnel NOT ENGAGED in ground run to be a SAFE DISTANCE;
AT LEAST 50 ft from the FRONT of the aircraft
AT LEAST 150 ft from the REAR of the aircraft
All personnel working in the vicinity of running engines to wear EAR DEFENDERS
Where checks involve an OPERATOR STANDING IN THE PROPELLER SLIPSTREAM,
engine rpm must NOT EXCEED NORMAL (HIGH) GROUND IDLE
NO LOOSE CLOTHING TO BE WORN when in the vicinity of running engines.
POINTS TO BE OBSERVED PRIOR TO GROUND RUNNING
CHOCK the aircraft wheels FORE & AFT
Ensure adequate FIRE FIGHTING equipment and CREW are in position.
Ensure that the required EXTERNAL STARTING EQUIPMENT is in position.
Check ENGINE OIL, FUEL & HYDRAULIC OIL contents are ADEQUATE
Ensure that the TECH LOG is available
71
Obtain OAT & QFE
Obtainable from the TOWER or AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTATION
Using INTERCOMMUNICATION between the GROUND CREW & FLIGHT DECK,
establish CONTACT BEFORE STARTING.
ENGINE LIMITATIONS DURING POWER CHECK
TGT must NOT EXCEED ALERT, or corrected figure if ambient conditions are BELOW ISA
SEA LEVEL.
Torque pressure Must be ABOVE the minimum acceptable figure
LP speed must be WITHIN the laid down limits
HIGH POWER RUNNING must be kept to a MINIMUM
AFTER A POWER CHECK the engine must be run at GROUND IDLE RPM for at least
TWO minutes to ensure adequate and even
COOLING of the CARCASE BEFORE SHUTDOWN
Engine THERMAL ANTICING must be OFF during engine running at TAKE OFF throttle
settings.

Engine Starting
SATISFACTORY START CAN BE DEFINED AS

LIGHT - UP occurs after HP cock is OPENED

&
ADL LIGHT remains OUT
&
TGT remains BELOW MAXIMUM OIL PRESSURE gauge needle comes OFF ITS STOP
LP SPEED stabilises at GROUND IDLE RPM

UNSATISFACTORY START CAN BE DEINFED AS

↓ ↓ ↓
HOT START HUNG START ABORTIVE START

TGT EXCEED MAXIMUM No LP ROTATION with HP Speed foils to achieve

PERMITTED excessive TGT SELF SUSTAINING RPM
Engine fails to light up
No rise in TGT
No increase in speed above
72
 motoring
No sound of ignition
Abnormally LOW fuel flow

↓
HOT STARTS MAY RESULT FROM

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
idle throttle low or incorrect poor or dirty power supply poor starter carboned
valve 'open' ground power lead Connections to the motor burners
source starter motor condition

Propellers - Ground Running

The following tables are the ground running checks for the TYNE engine and are for
illustration ONLY. All ground running checks must be carried out in accordance with the
procedures contained in the relevant MAINTENANCE MANUAL (Chp 71)
ACTION CHECK ACCEPTANCE ACTION IF INCORRECT
STD
Start TGT Momentary: Stop engine
o
engine Max. 720 C
Stabilized:
Max. 460°C

Oil pressure Needle off Stop engine

LP shaft stop2000-6000 Stop engine

speed rpm

TGT Momentary: Stop engine

Max. 720°C
Stabilized:
Max. 580°C

LP shaft 11,250 to Check rpm at MAX. IN BETA throttle lever

11,600 rpm position

Oil Above - 15°C Run engine to reach minimum

temperature

'Low oil OUT Cross-check with pressure gauge. If pressure

pressure low stop engine and investigate.
warning
73
light

74
ACTION CHECK ACCEPTANCE STD. ACTION IF
INCORRECT

Set throttle lever to MAX. LP shaft 10,650 ± 400 Stop engine

BETA by engaging
control locks and opening
TWO throttles on one
side against the pedestal
stops

Set throttle lever at Prop below flight fine OUT Stop engine
FLIGHT IDLE HP cock light
lever at correct trim for
ambient conditions

Accelerate engine from Response of system No signs of surge Check bleed

minimum constant valve setting
speeding to TAKE-OFF
in 5 seconds

Set throttle lever to give Oil pressure Minimum of 50 psi at Stop engine
12,000 rpm 50 deg.C. ,40 psi at
100 deg.C pro-rata

Trim 30 deg.C. below Operation of hot air Indicator OPEN Stop engine
TGT limit and select valve indicated by Minimum torque drop
engine thermal de-icing drop in torque meter of 25 psi
ON pressure, rise in TGT
and cockpit indicator

Switch engine thermal Torque meter Indicator spangle Stop engine

de- icing OFF ,and pressure is restored
restore trim position TGT falls

Set throttle lever to Governing action of LP shaft rpm remain Stop engine
give14,000 LP rpm, trim PCU constant
slowly to reduce torque
meter pressure by 100
psi

Restore trim position LP shaft speed LP shaft rpm remains Stop engine
slowly constant

75
ACTION CHECK ACCEPTANCE ACTION IF
STD. INCORRECT

Set throttle lever at With oil Checking limits :- Set throttle lever to give
TAKE-OFF temperature 15,250±50 rpm 125 ±10 psi torque-
between 70-90 Setting limit:- meter pressure 4 check
deg. C. , check 15,250-50 rpm L.P. shaft rpm +150
L.P. shaft speed 10,500 - 350 Minimum
constant speeding Stop
engine

T.G.T. No more than Adjust trim to correct

maximum T.G.T T.G.T Check fuel flow
corrected and stop engine

Fuel flow Data plate fuel Check F.C.U.

flow corrected + interconnection lever
2% corresponds to data
plate setting

Torque-meter Within limits Ensure auxiliary power

pressure specified take-off is a minimum

Set throttle lever to give Mechanical pitch

15,000 LP rpm Move lock operation
HP cock lever seven
divisions (14%) towards
decrease(weak) from
ambient trim position

Operate propeller LP shaft speed LP shaft rpm Stop engine

datum test switch and for Indication of should fall with
continue to trim towards pitch lock reduction in fuel
decrease (weak) engagement flow

Release test switch and LP shaft speed LP shaft rpm are

restore ambient trim restored
position

Trim towards decrease LP shaft speed LP shaft rpm Stop engine

for indication that remain constant
pitch lock is
disengaged

Move throttle lever to Propeller on Approx. 8,000 rpm Stop engine

FLIGHT IDLE, restore flight fine pitch
ambient trim position stop indicated by
LP shaft speed

ACTION CHECK ACCEPTANCE ACTION IF

STD. INCORRECT
76
Close throttle lever Prop below flight 'ON' when throttle Stop engine
smoothly to GROUND fine light lever is below
IDLE Flight Idle position

CAUTION; NOTIFY GROUND CREW TO STAND CLEAR OF APPROPRIATE ENGINE

Set throttle lever at LP shaft speed 12,770 +480 Recheck at max. in

FULL REVERSE - 200 Beta
rpm

77
 MODULE 17

PROPELLERS
CHAPTER 4

ASSOCIATED SYSTEMS
Fluid Deicing
Electrical Deicing
Reduction Gear
Torquemeter

78
Fluid Anti-Icing System

Fig 17.4.1 Fluid Anti-Icing System

A typical propeller anti-icing system consists of a fluid tank, a rheostat control, a slinger ring
for each propeller, and a fluid pump.

 When mixed with ice or water, deicing fluid lowers the freezing point of the mixture.

 Deicing fluid is pumped from a tank by an electric pump or by air pressure.

 A 'slinger' ring enables the fluid to be transferred from the stationary engine casing
to the rotating propeller.

 Pipes distribute the fluid from the slinger ring to grooved overshoes on the propeller
blades' leading edges.

 The fluid penetrates between the blade surface and the ice which is loosened and
thrown off by centrifugal force.

79
Electrical De-Icing System
Aircraft electrical power is used to operate this propeller de-icing system. When the timer
closes the relay, electrical current flows to the carbon brushes which, in turn, pass the
current to the rotating slip rings on the propeller hub. Flexible connectors carry the current
from the slip rings to each heating element.

Fig 17.4.2 Electrical De-Icing System

The brush block housing is mounted on the engine casing and the slip rings at the rear of
the propeller hub.
The system usually includes the spinner and the engine intake.-
Electrically heated elements are buried in the protective coating on the blade shank leading
edge.
The elements are interwoven in a glass cloth base cemented between rubber sheets.
Beneath the outer sheet a wire gauge guard is cemented to protect the element.
The overshoe is shaped to fit the blade and is cemented in a recess in the blade shank.
The elements are heated by “frequency wild” A.C power with D.C. power used for system
control.
The power is supplied to the propeller via a brush and slip ring assembly which are cleaned
using white spirit whilst in service

80
 Fig 17.4.3 Electrically Heated Elements
As the system makes a heavy demand for power the system is "cycled" which allows parts
of the system to be switched off for short periods.
When the heat comes on the ice formed is loosened and dislodged by centrifugal action.
The speed of the cycle is adjusted to suit the icing conditions.
Part of the air intake element is continuously heated when the system is in operation.
Switches prevent the intake elements overheating on the ground when there is no airflow
over them

81
 Fig 17.4.4 Heating Cycle
SLOW SPEED - Heavy icing - glaze ice FAST SPEED – Light icing - rime ice

82
Propeller Reduction Gears

A reduction gearbox is, as the name suggests, used to reduce the high speeds of the core
engine down to speeds more suited to a connected output device. Typical uses include
turboprop and turboshaft engines.

Fig 17.4.5 Typical Reduction Gearbox

The principle considerations which determine the choice of reduction gear for a specific
application are:

 The reduction ratio possible within a certain overall size.

 The relationship between the input and output shaft axis.

Propellers driven by gas turbine engines require very large reduction gear ratios to cater
for the needs of both the engine and the propeller. For example, the Dart engine develops
its maximum power at 15,000 RPM, and to avoid compressibility problems at the propeller
tips the propeller must be limited to approximately 1370 RPM. Thus a reduction gear ratio
of about 11:1 is required.

A simple spur gear capable of such a reduction would be excessively bulky, and also the
propeller and turbine shafts would lie on different axes which would cause problems in
engine air intake design. Both of these problems are overcome in current turbo-prop
designs by the use of various forms of "Epicyclic" Reduction Gears.

Simple Spur "Epicyclic"

83
A gear train consisting of a sun (driving) gear meshing with and driving three or more equi-
spaced gears known as "Planet Pinions". These pinions are mounted on a carrier and
rotate independently on their own axles. Surrounding the gear train is an internally toothed
"Annulus Gear" in mesh with the Planet Pinions.

If the annulus is fixed rotation of the sun wheel causes the planet .pinions to rotate about
their axes within the annulus gear, this causes the planet carrier to rotate in the same
direction as sun wheel but at a lower speed. With the propeller shaft secured to the planet
pinion carrier, a speed reduction is obtained with the turbine shaft (input shaft) and .the
propeller shaft (output shaft) in the same axis and rotating in the same direction.

Fig 17.4.6 Simple Epicyclic Spur Gear (Fixed Annulus)

If the annulus is free as in the diagram below, rotation of the sun wheel causes the planet
pinions to rotate about their axles within the annulus gear. With the planet pinion carrier
fixed and the propeller shaft attached to the annulus gear, rotation of the planet pinions
causes the annulus gear and propeller to rotate in the opposite direction to the sun wheel
and at a reduced speed.

Fig 17.4.7 Simple Epicyclic Spur Gear (Free Annulus)

Compound Spur Epicyclic

Compound epicyclic reduction gears enables a greater reduction in speed to be obtained

84
without resorting to larger components. They may be of either the fixed or free annulus
type.

Fig 17.4.8 Compound Epicyclic Reduction Gear (Fixed Annulus) (Fitted to theTyne)

Fig 17.4.9 Compound Epicyclic Reduction Gear (Free Annulus) (Fitted to the Dart)

85
Torquemeter System
Because only a small part of the propulsive force produced by a turboprop is due to jet
thrust, neither turbine discharge pressure nor engine pressure ratio is used to indicate the
power being produced by the engine. Instead, a torque-meter is employed to measure the
level of power that the engine is developing both on the ground and in flight.

As the method of measuring torque varies, the engine Maintenance Manual should be
consulted for a description of the manner in which a particular torque meter system
functions. In most systems, however, torque meter oil pressure is used to actuate a torque
indicating instrument in the aircraft. The torque meter instrument displays torque meter oil
pressure (which is proportional to engine power) in pounds per square inch (psi). Some
torque meter instruments are calibrated to read in terms of pounds/feet (Ib-ft) of torque,
and some may read in shaft horsepower (SHP) directly.

A typical torque meter system is shown below. In this system, the axial thrust produced by
the helical gears is opposed by oil pressure acting on a number of pistons; the pressure
required to resist the axial thrust is transmitted to the indicator.

This information to the indicator can be produced:-

 electrically, using an electrical transmitter,

 mechanically, by feeding the oil pressure to a gauge.

Fig 17.4.10 Oil Pressure Torque Meter System

When torque is being transmitted to the propeller shaft, an axial thrust is produced
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between the helical teeth of the three reduction gear layshaft driven gears and the high
speed pinion and between the helical teeth of the layshaft driving gears and the propeller
shaft annulus gear. The resulting forward thrust is proportional to the torque transmitted
through the gear train. In addition to providing an indication of engine power, the torque
meter system may also be used to automatically operate the propeller feathering system.

Fig 17.4.11 Reduction Gear with Hydraulic Torque Meter Cylinders

Pulse Probe Torque Meter

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A typical system consists of a torque meter assembly, two pulse probes and an indicator.
The torque meter assembly consists of two concentric shafts, the inner of which is the
torque shaft connecting the drive from the engine to the propeller reduction gear. Twist in
the inner shaft is proportional to torque.

The outer shaft is the reference shaft and is only connected to the engine output. Both
shafts rotate as a unit. The forward end of each shaft is flanged and has equally spaced
rectangular exciter teeth machined onto these flanges. The rings of exciter teeth form the
phonic wheel element of the pulse probes.

Positioned above each phonic wheel is an electromagnetic pick-up. As the phonic wheels
rotate, the paths of the magnetic lines of flux around the pick-ups are caused to change
under the influence of the exciter teeth. This produces sine waves, generated from both
torque and reference shafts.

Fig 17.4.12 Pulse Probe Torque Meter System

During no load conditions, when the engine is producing no torque, the sine wave
outputs are in-phase with each other. As the load on the engine increases, the torque
will increase, as a result the inner torque shaft will twist. Following on from this any
increase in torque will produce an increase in twist which in turn produces a phase
difference in the sine wave outputs of the pulse probes. Therefore, the greater the
twist the greater the phase difference Both pulse probe outputs are fed to a phase
detector, in turn producing a dc voltage signal, which is proportional to the phase
difference. The dc signal is then amplified and used to provide a visual display of
torque through means of a torque indicator.

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 Fig 17.4.13 Pulse Probe Schematic

Blade Developments
Not all propellers are wood or aluminum. During the 1940s, steel propeller blades
were developed that were extremely satisfactory for the times. Some of these blade
styles are still in use on older piston and large turboprop airplanes.
Steel Blades
Steel blades were a wartime development and were not easily repairable. They were,
for their time, almost as valuable for the aluminum they saved as for the job they did.
Composite Blades
Advanced composite materials have been used to manufacture some excellent new
generation propeller blades. Though composite blades first showed up as helicopter
rotors, the migration to regular propeller blades has been rapid.
The diagram overleaf shows a drawing of a composite blade in current use on
medium commuter-type aeroplanes. Note the built-in lightning protection. Without the
lightning protection, a strike could cause a considerable amount of damage. It also
makes dissipation of static buildup possible.

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 Fig 17.4.14 Composite Blade

Some composite-bladed propellers for the turboprop market are built with foam cores
and Kevlar coverings. These composite propellers have been used on commuter
aircraft for several years, where they regularly operate for 3,000-5,000 hours between
overhauls. This is almost double the life of standard aluminum propeller blades.

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 Fig 17.4.15 Composite Blade With Foam Core
There are many benefits from using composite blades that are not immediately
apparent:

 More accurate manufacturing tolerances, allowing individual blades to be

replaced, instead of complete sets

 Lighter weight as an installed unit, reducing the centrifugal load on all parts of
the airframe and greatly lengthening component life and reducing stresses

 Flexibility even exceeding a wooden propeller eliminates fatigue cycle

constraints

 Repairs have been developed that allows material to be put onto the blade,
rather than the blade being constantly ground down

 With the elimination of fatigue, better aerofoils and tip designs have improved
efficiency and reduced noise

Recommended Further Reading

C.A.I.P. Part II C.A.A.
Aircraft Power Plants Bent Mckinley
Mechanics of Flight A.C. Kermode
Aircraft Propellers and Controls Jeppesen
Aircraft Powerplant Maintenance Avotek Information Resources

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