Advances in Applied Energy 13 (2024) 100163

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Advances in Applied Energy

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/adapen

Geographically constrained resource potential of integrating floating

photovoltaics in global existing offshore wind farms
Yubin Jin a, b, Zhenzhong Zeng a, b, *, Yuntian Chen b, *, Rongrong Xu a, Alan D. Ziegler c, d,
Wenchuang Chen e, Bin Ye a, Dongxiao Zhang a, b, *
a
School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
b
Ningbo Institute of Digital Twin, Eastern Institute for Advanced Study, Ningbo 315200, China
c
Faculty of Fisheries Technology and Aquatic Resources, Mae Jo University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
d
Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
e
School of Civil Engineering, Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Marine renewable energy is gaining prominence as a crucial component of the energy supply in coastal cities due
Offshore wind power to proximity and minimal land requirements. The synergistic potential of integrating floating photovoltaics with
Offshore photovoltaic power offshore wind turbines presents an encouraging avenue for boosting power production, amplifying spatial energy
Hybrid energy system
generation density, and mitigating seasonal output fluctuations. While the global promise of offshore wind-
Energy complementarity
photovoltaic hybrid systems is evident, a definitive understanding of their potential remains elusive. Here, we
evaluate the resource potential of the hybrid systems under geographical constraints, offering insights into
sustainable and efficient offshore energy solutions. We compile a database with 11,198 offshore wind turbine
locations from Sentinel-1 imagery and technical parameters from commercial project details. Our analysis re­
veals an underutilization of spatial resources within existing offshore wind farms, yielding a modest 26 kWh per
square meter. Furthermore, employing realistic climate-driven system simulations, we find an impressive po­
tential photovoltaic generation of 1372 ± 18 TWh annually, over seven times higher than the current offshore
wind capacity. Notably, floating photovoltaics demonstrated remarkable efficiency, matching wind turbine
output with a mere 17 % of the wind farm area and achieving an average 76 % increase in power generation at
equivalent investment costs. Additionally, the hybrid wind and photovoltaic systems exhibit monthly-scale
complementarity, reflected by a Pearson correlation coefficient of -0.78, providing a consistent and reliable
power supply. These findings support the notion that hybrid offshore renewable energy could revolutionize the
renewable energy industry, optimize energy structures, and contribute to a sustainable future for coastal cities.

Introduction land-based systems, offshore systems are advantageous because of the

abundance of wind, the potential for large-scale development without
Coastal cities face the formidable challenge of meeting the energy using scarce lands near large population centers, and the lower envi­
demands of their substantial populations and thriving economic activ­ ronmental impact on bird migration risks, noise pollution, and visual
ities while transitioning to sustainable and renewable energy sources. aesthetics [4,5]. However, one critical issue of developing efficient wind
Due to limited land resources and the expensive nature of long-distance farms relates to the need to reduce the airflow wake effect downstream
energy transmission, coastal cities are increasingly turning to offshore of a turbine. Maintaining high energy generation efficiency, requires
renewable energy sources to take advantage of favorable prices and placing individual turbines at considerable distances apart, thereby
abundant marine resources [1,2]. Concurrently, new technological in­ reducing the “spatial energy generation density” (hereafter simply en­
novations and cost reductions in offshore wind turbines are expected to ergy density which is calculated as the ratio of the annual output of a
boost offshore wind generation in the near future [3]. Compared with power plant to the occupied area) of the whole system, as well as

* Corresponding authors at: School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055; Ningbo Institute
of Digital Twin, Eastern Institute for Advanced Study, Ningbo 315200, China.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Z. Zeng), [email protected] (Y. Chen), [email protected] (D. Zhang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adapen.2024.100163
Received 19 November 2023; Received in revised form 16 January 2024; Accepted 16 January 2024
Available online 18 January 2024
2666-7924/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
Y. Jin et al. Advances in Applied Energy 13 (2024) 100163

increasing the total environmental footprint [6]. Utilizing ocean re­ the land in the buffer according to the outline of the world map provided
sources sustainably for energy generation therefore benefits from by the Global Administrative Areas (GADM) spatial database [26] to
improving energy density, meanwhile minimizing the size of the area reduce the impact of noise. We incorporate a percentile-based yearly
impacted. image collection reduction and an auto-adaptive threshold algorithm to
One strategy to improve energy density is to combine offshore process the SAR image and extract the precise positions of the turbines
floating photovoltaic (FPV) systems of high energy density with wind [25]. While the method effectively utilizes time series images to elimi­
turbines [6,7]. The application of FPV technology, which initially gained nate the interference of moving objects, it struggles to distinguish be­
prominence in inland water bodies [8–10], has raised concerns tween the inverter and the turbine. To address this limitation, we
regarding its compatibility in urban or near-city water bodies due to its manually exclude the inverters according to the map provided by 4C
potential impact on shipping, flood control, and water ecosystems. Offshore, which delineates the locations of both turbines and inverters.
Therefore, this technology has extended to oceanic environments, A few wind turbines might be inevitably overlooked possibly due to
exemplified by notable projects in China [11], Germany [12], Japan shoreline or cloud-related noise; however, their quantity is restricted,
[13], and the Netherlands [14]. FPV systems are scalable and can, in and their influence on subsequent results is negligible. Furthermore, we
many cases, be installed in the space between the turbines, repurposing define the scope of each wind farm as a polygon extending 200 m out­
unused areas [15,16]. The offshore wind-photovoltaic hybrid systems ward from the perimeter line of the outermost wind turbine. The spec­
could share the energy transmission infrastructure, reducing costs and ified distance already serves as a designated warning area to prevent
environmental impact [17,18]. As technology and the associated in­ ships from entering existing offshore wind farms in the industry. To
dustry chain continue to develop, the integration of offshore wind and guarantee the safety of both wind turbines and FPV systems, a 50-m
FPV systems should become a key source of electricity for inland locales, radius around each turbine is designated as a safe area where FPV
particularly in high-demand coastal cities [19]. In the early stages of installation is not permitted. Other areas within the wind farm are
offshore FPV development, assessing the integration of FPV systems selected as potential sites for FPV installation (Fig. S1).
with existing offshore wind farms is significant for optimizing renewable To assess the wind power production and energy density of each
energy generation, improving grid reliability, reducing operational wind farm, we construct the power curve of the turbine according to the
costs, and lessening environmental impacts. cut-in wind speed, cut-out wind speed, rated power and employing the
Several studies have explored the regional combination of offshore cubic wind power model as follows [27]:
wind turbines and photovoltaics in China [20], Great Britain [21], the ⎧
⎪ 0 vhb < vci or vhb > vco
Belgian North Sea [22], Brazil [23], the Mediterranean [16], and the ⎪
⎨
western Iberian Peninsula [24]. However, it is crucial to highlight that p(vhb ) = q(vhb ) vci ≤ vhb < vr (1)
⎪
the complete worldwide resource potential of offshore ⎪
⎩
Pr vr ≤ vhb ≤ vco
wind-photovoltaic hybrid systems in meeting energy demands remains
to be definitively established. Given the significant impact of weather where p(vhb ) is the power of the turbine (W); vr is the rated wind speed
conditions on wind and photovoltaic power generation, it is imperative (m/s); vco is the cut-out wind speed (m/s); vhb is the wind speed (m/s) at
to conduct a geographically constrained resource potential assessment. hub height; Pr is the rated power of the turbine (W); and q(vhb ) is the
This assessment is essential for gaining a comprehensive understanding non-linear relationship between power and wind speed as follows:
of the full extent of contributions that this promising renewable energy
synergy can make to global energy needs. Pr ( 3 )
q(vhb ) = v − v3ci (2)
To determine this potential, we extract the locations of existing v3r − v3ci hb
offshore turbines globally and then amalgamate available information Wind speed at the hub height of a turbine is calculated through the
on wind projects to determine the electricity output and energy density application of an exponential wind profile power law relationship:
of each wind farm. Subsequently, we assess the boost in energy pro­ ( z )α
duction brought by integrating FPV technology at each site (Fig. S1). We vhb = v100
hb
(3)
100
analyze energy production and efficiency benefits that the companion
FPV systems can deliver to wind farms under three hypothetical sce­ where v100 is the wind speed at 100 m; α is usually assumed to be the
narios: (1) full coverage of the wind farm; (2) equal annual power constant 1/7. Wind speed at 100 m is provided by ERA5 hourly data in
generation as wind turbines in each wind farm; and (3) equal con­ 0.25◦ ×0.25◦ global grids between 2002 and 2021, which is the climate
struction cost as wind turbines in each wind farm. Additionally, for the reanalysis data from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather
first time, we evaluate the complementarity of wind and FPV output on a Forecasts (ECMWF) [28]. We utilize wind speed data collected over 20
monthly scale in the same annual power generation scenario within years to calculate the average output of all wind turbines. Given the
existing global offshore wind farms. relatively smooth underlying surface in the marine environment and the
small spatial differences in wind speed, we consider meteorological data
Materials and methods with a spatial resolution of approximately 30 km to be adequate for the
evaluation of energy generation in wind farms. To analyze the devel­
We derive the global spatial distribution of existing offshore wind opment trend of new wind farms, we compare the average energy
turbines by the end of 2022 from Sentinel-1 synthetic aperture radar density, area, turbine density, turbine hub height, and rated power of
(SAR) images on the Google Earth Engine platform referring to one prior newly established wind farms each year. Single-row wind farms are
study (Fig. S2) [25]. Utilizing the technical parameters of turbines excluded when considering energy density and FPV coverage because
sourced from the commercial database of 4C Offshore company, we the calculation of these wind farm areas does not account for the wide
proceed to construct a comprehensive offshore wind turbine database. spacing between rows as multi-row turbines do, resulting in extreme
This database encompasses crucial information such as the location, turbine density.
type, hub height, cut-in wind speed, cut-out wind speed, rated wind We further assess the resource potential for FPV with fine precision
speed, and rated power of the wind turbines. in global offshore wind farms using a reliable climate-driven photovol­
Specifically, we first set up a 25 km radius buffer around the central taic system performance model named PV_LIB [29] developed by Sandia
point of the wind farm to delineate the maximum range to detect the National Laboratories to calculate the photovoltaic generation as in the
location of the turbines. We select this specific distance empirically prior study [10]. PV_LIB model offers a valuable toolbox with
because it effectively encompasses all wind turbines within each wind well-documented functions that enable precise modeling and analysis of
farm while minimizing the onshore noise interference. Next, we remove

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Y. Jin et al. Advances in Applied Energy 13 (2024) 100163

photovoltaic systems, allowing for the simulation and evaluation of Table 1

photovoltaic generation under various conditions and configurations. It Statistics on detected existing offshore wind farms for countries. The table presents
considers factors including climate, module and inverter design, DC country-specific statistics for all offshore wind turbines obtained through remote
module characteristics, DC to AC conversion, and AC system output. sensing imagery and commercial offshore wind power databases. The annual
Solar radiation data used in our analysis is derived from output for each wind turbine is computed utilizing the wind power curve and
meteorological data. The ranking of countries is based on the magnitude of their
SYN1deg-Hourly, a 3-level CERES remote sensing product that provides
offshore wind capacity.
hourly mean shortwave down flux in 1◦ ×1◦ global grids [30]. Similarly,
the spatial resolution of solar radiation data is adequate for evaluating Country Number of Area of Wind Wind power
wind farms wind farms capacity generation (TWh/
the annual power generation of offshore photovoltaics. Temperature
(km2) (GW) yr)
and wind speed data are obtained from ERA5 hourly data [28]. All FPV
China 93 45.79 24.59 81.71 ± 3.56
potential power generation is averaged using meteorological data from
United 36 82.07 13.35 45.23 ± 2.82
2002 to 2021. Because all offshore wind farms are located in the Kingdom
Northern Hemisphere, solar panels are oriented toward the south to Germany 23 45.62 7.72 30.34 ± 1.79
maximize their exposure to the sun. To optimize the amount of incoming Netherlands 17 25.16 2.93 9.99 ± 0.66
solar radiation and reduce the risk of damage from wind and waves, the Denmark 13 42.66 2.27 7.89 ± 0.52
Belgium 8 25.54 2.20 7.12 ± 0.49
tilt angle of the FPV systems is set equal to the latitude of the location,
Vietnam 20 4.58 1.01 3.43 ± 0.32
but not exceeding 20◦ [31,32]. Furthermore, the spacing between each France 1 96.25 0.47 2.06 ± 0.10
row of FPV panels is 20 % greater than the height of the modules from Sweden 4 3.59 0.19 0.47 ± 0.04
the floats to prevent the shading of adjacent panels [33]. The cooling South Korea 2 5.49 0.09 0.14 ± 0.01
Finland 2 4.81 0.07 0.18 ± 0.02
effect resulting from evaporation under the modules is not factored in, as
United States 1 1.86 0.03 0.15 ± 0.01
the assumption that floating structure fully covers the water, impeding Italy 1 2.84 0.03 0.08 ± 0.00
the process. Ireland 1 1.86 0.03 0.06 ± 0.01
We analyze the variability and complementarity of wind and
photovoltaic power generation on a monthly scale from 2002 to 2021.
Seasonality is eliminated in the calculation of variability through the generation of all offshore wind farms to be 189 ± 6 TWh/yr in 2022
following process: (Fig. 1). To remove the impact of interannual variations in wind speed,
we use a 20-year average wind speed dataset to estimate the power
Energyde,yr = Energyyr − Energy, yr = 1, …, 20 (4) generation of each wind farm (Fig. S3). Our analysis reveals a moderate
increase in the energy density of wind farms, progressing at a rate of 0.7
where Energyde,yr represents the power generation after deseasonaliza­ kWh/m2 per year and reaching 26 kWh/m2 by 2022. Additionally, we
tion for an individual month from 2002 to 2021; Energyyr is the original observe an expanding footprint at a rate of 3 km2 per year, resulting in
power generation for an individual month; Energy is the average of an average area of 90 km2 per wind farm by 2022.
power generation for an individual month over 20 years. Without taking into account the interannual variation in wind speed,
We employ the Pearson correlation coefficient to evaluate the changes in energy density are mainly related to differences in turbine
complementarity between wind and photovoltaic power generation over density, turbine hub height, and rated power on new installations. We
a span of 240 months. The coefficient, which ranges from − 1 to 1, sig­ found that with the improvement of manufacturing and installation
nifies the degree of correlation between the two variables. A negative technology, the hub height and rated power of wind turbines have
value indicates complementary, signifying that an increase in one var­ notably increased to produce more energy over time. Compared with 20
iable corresponds to a decrease in the other. The proximity of the cor­ years prior, the hub height of wind turbines in 2022 almost doubled to
relation coefficient to − 1 indicates the strength of the complementary an average of 107 m. The average rated power of wind turbines reached
relationship. 6 MW, far exceeding the level of 1 MW before 2003. However, wakes
generated by larger wind turbines are inherently larger and have an
Results extended downwind reach, requiring turbines to be spaced farther apart
to mitigate the impact of wake interference, consequently reducing the
Existing offshore wind power energy density [36,37].

We find that the installed wind generation capacity over the world Hybrid wind-photovoltaic potential
reached 55 GW (11,198 turbines) by the end of 2022, with most in­
stallations located in China and Europe (Table 1; Fig. 1). These turbines Our study stands as the pioneering global assessment of offshore
are strategically positioned in close proximity to prominent economic
hybrid wind and photovoltaic systems. This assessment holds the po­
zones, including the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area, tential to optimize energy structures, bolster energy security, provide
the Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone, the Bohai Sea Economic Zone,
insights for strategic planning, and offer guidance for investments in the
the London Metropolitan Area, and the New York Metropolitan Area. evolving landscape of offshore renewable energy, especially considering
This pattern is intricately linked to factors such as policy support, in­
the nascent stage of offshore photovoltaic development. If the available
vestment and financing, technical expertise, resource availability, and marine area for offshore wind farms is fully utilized by combining with
the impetus generated by market demand [34,35].
FPV technology, the annual power generation and energy density of
We conduct the first-ever assessment of trends and factors influ­ these hybrid farms can be raised by nearly an order of magnitude on
encing energy density in offshore wind farms worldwide, providing
average. The global potential of the photovoltaic systems is an addi­
valuable insights to guide the planning of future offshore projects. The tional 1372 ± 18 TWh of electricity per year (Fig. 2). Again, the existing
installed capacity and power generation output of global offshore wind
farms are currently located mostly in China, Europe, and Southeast Asia
turbines are both constantly increasing. In 2021, the increase in wind (Fig. 1). From a geographical perspective, Europe receives the least
capacity was 18 GW, as 72 new wind farms were installed, mainly in amount of solar radiation, resulting in a lower energy density of only
China (78 % of farms). Leveraging the technical specifications of each 121 kWh/m2 per year for FPV. Consequently, the benefit of FPV to wind
wind turbine, we utilize the cubic wind power model to formulate the farms is not as great as in lower latitudes, such as East Asia and South­
power curve for individual turbines. Through integration with high- east Asia where sunlight is more abundant (Fig. S4). The energy density
time-resolution wind speed data, we estimate the annual electricity of FPV in Southeast Asia reaches more than twice that in Europe at 245

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Y. Jin et al. Advances in Applied Energy 13 (2024) 100163

Fig. 1. Spatial distribution and technical parameter trends of global offshore wind farms. (a) Cumulative share of installed offshore wind turbine capacity by country over
the years. The percentage of each sector signifies the proportion of each country’s cumulative offshore wind capacity by the end of 2022, with labels placed after the
country’s name. The lines of different colors represent the ratio of cumulative installed capacity in each country by the year of its completion. (b) The locations of
global offshore wind farms. All fully commissioned offshore wind farms are currently located in the Northern Hemisphere. (c) Cumulative installed capacity and
estimated annual generating capacity of offshore wind turbines worldwide. (d) The number of new offshore wind farms commissioned each year and their average
energy density and area. (e) Average turbine density, hub height, and rated power of new offshore wind farms commissioned each year. In (d) and (e), single-row
wind farms are excluded.

Fig. 2. Additional energy production gains from the integration of floating photovoltaic (FPV) systems into existing offshore wind farms in three hypothetical scenarios. (a-b)
The annual power generation and energy density of wind turbines and fully covered FPV in wind farms on average. (c) The energy density of wind farms by latitude
in the full coverage scenario. (d) The coverage of FPV systems and the installed cost ratio between FPV and wind turbines under the equal annual power generation
scenario. (e-f) The power generation and energy density of wind and photovoltaics and the coverage and installed cost of FPV systems under the equal installed cost
scenario. Single-row wind farms are excluded.

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Y. Jin et al. Advances in Applied Energy 13 (2024) 100163

kWh/m2 per year. coastal cities situated in Guangdong, Jiangsu, and Shandong provinces.
The higher potential for energy gains through the integration of FPV These wind farms can produce up to 82 ± 4 TWh of electricity per year,
systems is anticipated in newer wind farms. This is attributed to the with FPV potentially generating a maximum of 696 ± 16 TWh/yr
expansive spacing of the exceptionally large turbines installed in recent (Table 2). Only 14 % of the wind farm area requires the installation of
years, providing a substantial area for the installation of floating sys­ FPV systems to generate the same power as wind turbines, and only 11 %
tems. For example, fully equipping wind farms built in 2022 with FPV is necessary for the equal installed cost scenario. The United Kingdom
should, on average, produce increases of 12 TWh in annual power has the second largest installed capacity globally (13 GW), capable of
generation and 192 kWh/m2 in energy density, which is almost an order generating 45 ± 3 TWh of electricity annually. A total of 547 GW of FPV
of magnitude more than that of the wind turbines alone. Examining systems could be installed in the wind farms, representing a potential
individual cases, the largest offshore wind farm in the United Kingdom, generation capacity of 359 ± 8 TWh per year. Under the scenarios of
spanning 560 km2 with 165 turbines, has an FPV potential of 71 TWh/ equal power generation and equal installed cost, 17 % and 11 % of wind
yr, 11 times that of wind power. In China, a 21-turbine wind farm can farm area should be dedicated to FPV systems, respectively. The ma­
increase power generation by 2 TWh/yr with FPV, 64 times that of wind jority of Europe’s offshore wind farms are situated in the North Sea,
power. The extent of power generation augmentation with FPV is sub­ where wind resources are plentiful but solar radiation and duration are
stantially influenced by the spacing between wind turbines, which dic­ comparatively insufficient (Fig. S3; Fig. S4), Consequently, the incre­
tates the area suitable for FPV installation. ment in the energy density of FPV systems is relatively modest in this
It is worth noting that achieving full coverage of wind farms with region. In contrast, southern Vietnam, which is situated in low latitudes,
FPV is not a practical proposition when taking into account factors such is abundant in solar energy resources (Fig. S4). Among its 20 wind farms,
as cost-effectiveness, risk related to sea waves, transmission challenges, which cover a total area of 92 km2, the potential FPV generation reaches
curtailment issues, and the navigation requirements for maintenance 22.4 ± 0.5 TWh/yr. Only 12 % and 15 % of the area need to be utilized,
ships. Therefore, we examine the following two scenarios: (1) the annual respectively, for equal power generation and equal cost scenarios.
output of FPV is equal to that of turbines, and (2) the construction cost of Notably, the actual development potential of the combination of
FPV is equal to that of turbines. Our findings indicate that by integrating offshore wind and photovoltaic systems needs to be determined ac­
with FPV, a plant can double its energy output with just 17 % of the wind cording to national policy support, economic cost, and natural envi­
farm area and a 56 % increase in costs (Fig. 2). Notably, newer wind ronmental factors.
farms necessitate a greater installation of FPV capacity to achieve a two-
fold increase in power generation, given their state-of-the-art turbine Wind-photovoltaic complementarity
technologies with higher outputs. Comparing costs, the installed cost of
an offshore turbine stands at 2858 US$/kW, while offshore FPV costs The fluctuating nature of power output remains a prominent obstacle
less than half, at 1071 US$/kW [38]. Nevertheless, owing to the lower to offshore wind integration into the electricity market [39]. Com­
installed capacity factor of FPV, systems of equal cost generate less pounding this challenge is a notable disparity in wind farm output, with
electricity than wind turbines, averaging approximately 114 TWh/yr. peak wind speeds occurring during winter and nighttime [40], mis­
However, it demands merely 11 % of a wind farm’s area, contributing to aligned with urban electricity consumption patterns. Consequently,
an average 76 % increase in the energy density of wind farms in this ensuring a continuous power supply in urban areas poses significant
scenario. challenges. The proposition of integrating offshore renewable farms,
China is at the forefront of building offshore wind farms, with 93 which combine wind turbines and FPV systems, stands out as a viable
fully operational projects mainly serving economically developed solution to mitigate this challenge. Previous regional studies have
demonstrated the great complementarity between wind and photovol­
taic power, with regard to seasons of high/low potential [41]. We
Table 2 further analyze this issue on a monthly scale under the scenario of equal
Potential floating photovoltaic (FPV) improvement and coverage of existing offshore power generation on a global scale within the marine environment.
wind farms under three hypothetical scenarios for countries. The table displays the Upon eliminating the seasonal component through deseasonalization,
potential installed capacity and electricity generation for full FPV coverage of the annual generating capacity variance of global offshore wind farms is
the wind farm. It also indicates the proportion of FPV area deployable when high at 3.26 TWh2/yr2 (Fig. 3). In contrast, FPV power generation
annual electricity generation and investment costs are equivalent to those of
demonstrates relatively stable, with a variance of 0.46 TWh2/yr2. In
wind turbines. The ranking of countries is based on the magnitude of their
regions hosting these offshore wind farms, winds tend to be stronger in
offshore wind capacity.
winter than in summer, whereas solar radiation exhibits the opposite
Country Full coverage Equal power Equal cost pattern (Figs. S3; S4).
generation
FPV FPV power Coverage* (%) Coverage*
Our analysis reveals a high degree of complementarity between wind
capacity generation (%) and solar power on a monthly scale, with a global Pearson correlation
(GW) (TWh/yr) coefficient of − 0.78. Additionally, it’s noteworthy that wind and solar
China 787.03 695.90 ± 16.21 14 ± 12 10 ± 6 energy exhibit distinct characteristics at various latitudes. In Europe, the
United 547.20 359.35 ± 7.85 17 ± 6 11 ± 4 seasonal variation of these two renewable energy sources displays a
Kingdom harmonious and synergistic relationship, guaranteeing a heightened
Germany 193.50 128.06 ± 2.72 27 ±9 14 ± 6 level of uninterrupted and steadfast electrical provision for urban cen­
Netherlands 78.93 54.58 ± 1.15 20 ±9 12 ± 4
Denmark 102.53 65.60 ± 1.68 12 ±3 7±2
ters. Due to the expansive latitudinal range of wind farms in East Asia,
Belgium 37.53 26.44 ± 0.59 28 ±7 18 ± 4 the fluctuations of wind and photovoltaic power exhibit relatively non-
Vietnam 16.68 22.42 ± 0.46 12 ±6 15 ± 6 uniform patterns, yet they still possess moderate complementarity.
France 17.84 14.50 ± 0.25 14 ±0 8±0 Offshore wind farms in Southeast Asia are all located in southern Viet­
Sweden 2.56 1.56 ± 0.03 16 ± 11 14 ± 11
nam, which is situated in a low-latitude zone with consistent solar ra­
South Korea 2.01 1.78 ± 0.07 16 ± 16 23 ± 19
Finland 1.77 0.95 ± 0.03 19 ±2 12 ± 1 diation and minimal seasonal variation (Fig. 3). Nevertheless, wind
United States 0.34 0.30 ± 0.01 power generation there experiences relatively strong seasonal variation.
Italy 0.52 0.50 ± 0.01 15 15 Consequently, the correlation between wind and photovoltaic power is
Ireland 0.34 0.22 ± 0.01 weak, indicated by a Pearson correlation coefficient of − 0.12. Despite
*
Single-row wind farms are excluded. All wind farms in the United States and the seasonal complementarity observed between offshore wind and FPV
Ireland are single-row. at mid-high latitudes, there remain irremediable fluctuations on a daily

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Y. Jin et al. Advances in Applied Energy 13 (2024) 100163

Fig. 3. Variability and complementarity of offshore wind and solar power. Time series of estimated wind and photovoltaic power generation in each month on average
from 2002 to 2021 and their variance (X-axis labeled Var) after deseasonalization and complementarity (X-axis labeled r) in the globe (a), Europe (b), East Asia (c),
and Southeast Asia (d).

basis that represent a substantial challenge to stabilizing the power grid objectives [43]. Additionally, the geographical proximity between en­
(Fig. S5). ergy supply and demand reduces transmission losses and costs,
Thus, our research offers valuable insights into the power generation providing a competitive advantage over traditional energy sources in the
potential of each offshore wind farm globally when integrated with FPV market [44]. Furthermore, offshore wind and photovoltaic installations
(Table S1). By uncovering the generation gain and complementary ad­ have the potential to emerge as tourist attractions, drawing visitors with
vantages of this hybrid approach, our findings contribute to the a keen interest in sustainable energy and innovative infrastructure [45].
advancement of sustainable and efficient offshore energy solutions. This These attractions offer invaluable opportunities for people to acquaint
comprehensive evaluation positions our study as a significant resource themselves with renewable energy technologies firsthand and foster a
for guiding the future development of offshore renewable energy deeper understanding of their benefits.
projects. Despite the maturity of the knowledge for installing FPV panels over
inland water bodies, the technology for installation in more complex
Discussion marine environments is still in its early stages, and the industry currently
lacks experience and expertise for rapid and widespread development
The International Energy Agency (IEA) predicts that within the [42]. At present, in spite of no large-scale rollout taking place to date,
Sustainable Development Scenario, the capacity of offshore wind farms several experimental installations are in existence. For example, China
will rise to 560 GW by 2040, providing 5 % of the global electricity has completed a pilot offshore wind and photovoltaic hybrid project in
supply [3]. Assuming that subsequent wind farms maintain the same the Bohai Sea that connects two FPV platforms with a peak capacity of
installed capacity density (0.01 kW/m2) as those fully commissioned by 0.5 MW to a turbine to a submarine cable [11]. Upon completion of the
2022, an additional 56,000 km2 of ocean space will be required, which is pilot phase, followed by a demonstration of the full technical and eco­
about 6 times the area of offshore wind farms in existence as of 2022. nomic potential of the plant, another hybrid FPV project with a total
The establishment of these new offshore wind farms could impact the installed capacity of 20 MW is planned. As of May 2022, China had
delicate marine ecosystem, potentially imposing spatial constraints on confirmed the rights to 28 offshore photovoltaic projects, covering a
fishing activities and maritime navigation. However, fully integrating total area of 17 km2. To facilitate the development of offshore photo­
existing wind farms with FPV technology could completely supplant the voltaic projects into a mature commercial model, relevant offshore
energy output of planned wind farms without the need for additional photovoltaic development plans and subsidy policies have been intro­
ocean areas to be allocated for new turbines. This approach represents a duced in coastal provinces. Elsewhere, Germany, Japan, and the
highly efficient utilization of available space and infrastructure, and Netherlands are also actively pursuing offshore photovoltaic pilot pro­
could significantly enhance the overall energy production capacity of jects, laying the groundwork for future large-scale offshore FPV projects
the wind farms. If offshore wind farms expand as projected by the IEA, [12–14].
and all of them incorporate FPV, these hybrid renewable systems could This expansive portfolio of offshore renewable energy is still con­
potentially satisfy up to 41 % of the global electricity demand in 2040. fronted with numerous challenges. Although the intra-annual comple­
Technological advances and sufficient investment will be needed to mentarity of wind and photovoltaic systems can reduce seasonal
bolster the development of these large-scale renewable energy plants fluctuations in energy output, the intermittency of both resources means
[42]. that they cannot be adjusted to meet changes in power demand in the
Many coastal cities grappling with high population density and manner that traditional energy sources can [46,47]. Moreover, due to
limited land resources may find solace in the development of marine the mismatch between supply and demand caused by the volatility of
hybrid renewable energy as a crucial solution to alleviate the growing wind and solar, renewable energy generation at times exceeds the ca­
strain on electricity demand. The integration of diverse offshore pacity of electricity consumption, resulting in an underutilization of
renewable energy sources enhances the variety in the city’s energy these clean resources—at least for the time being. If surpluses in
portfolio and serves as a significant catalyst for achieving low-carbon renewable energy continue, a shift from large-scale energy development

6
Y. Jin et al. Advances in Applied Energy 13 (2024) 100163

to more efficient utilization may be needed [48,49]. The positive news is limitations on the FPV scale. These limitations encompass various
that this surplus issue can be addressed by storing energy generated by crucial aspects, including maintenance ship routes, wave influences,
wind turbines and FPV systems. One study found that a regional grid load capacity, local power consumption capacity, environmental
large-scale power system with an optimized combination of wind, impacts, and economic considerations [60,61]. A comprehensive
photovoltaics, and electrochemical storage could provide low-cost assessment that effectively harmonizes offshore renewable energy gen­
power to the grid more than 90 % of the time [50]. In appropriate eration with these specific constraints is imperative for fully optimizing
areas, the construction of an economical wind-photovoltaic-seawater the benefits of this renewable energy source and fortifying grid stability
pumped storage power station is also a plausible approach to enhance and reliability. Moving forward, there is an opportunity to integrate the
the synergy between wind and solar resources in both time and space existing framework with the specific conditions of each wind farm for a
and reduce energy waste caused by voltage instability [51]. In addition, more comprehensive assessment of both technical and economic po­
employing a combination of wind and photovoltaics for electrolytic tential. This study provides the energy density of FPV generation for
water hydrogen production can consume electricity locally and reduce individual wind farms, enabling a straightforward conversion between
greenhouse gas emissions during the hydrogen manufacturing process FPV area and generation. To enhance the practicality of power genera­
[52]. For any prospective site for an offshore wind-photovoltaic hybrid tion potential, geographical limitations for offshore photovoltaics can be
project, a thorough analysis of weather conditions and associated costs heightened by incorporating additional data, such as wave height and
must be conducted to ascertain the optimal combination and capacity of water depth. Determining the required FPV area can also be facilitated
the two technologies. by factoring in transmission load, power consumption capacity, and
To ensure the high-power operation of turbines, the regions of wind economic generation demand. Additionally, by integrating projected
farms must possess abundant wind resources. However, abundant wind future climate data, our analysis extends its reach to forecast the
resources are often accompanied by large sea waves that can potentially long-term potential of wind power generation. This capability offers
threaten the structural integrity of FPV ocean systems. Currently, rigid valuable insights for strategically siting offshore projects, aligning with
integrated floating platforms and large platforms composed of floats and the dynamic energy landscape, and contributing to the development of
buoyancy rings in conjunction with membranes have been proven to sustainable and efficient offshore energy solutions.
withstand powerful waves [53]. We found that 21 % of existing wind
farms have a maximum water depth of no more than 8 m, making it a Conclusion
suitable environment for the installation of fixed pile-based photovoltaic
systems that can ensure structural safety [54]. Regions susceptible to Our analysis represents the first assessment of global floating
typhoons pose heightened challenges to the survival of FPV, yet there is photovoltaic power potential in conjunction with existing offshore wind
still a notable global potential for FPV energy generation, estimated at farms under three levels of development scenarios, utilizing the
1163 ± 14 TWh/yr after typhoon-prone areas are excluded. Further­ extracted locations of offshore wind turbines, climate data, and a reli­
more, by strategically placing wave energy converters in the path of able photovoltaic system performance model. The promotion of offshore
incoming waves, not only can the captured wave energy be efficiently floating photovoltaic systems development and construction will assist
converted into electricity, increasing power output, but it can also coastal cities in overcoming land constraints and expanding the space
enhance the safety of the FPV structure (Fig. S6). This occurs because for renewable energy development. This is crucial for optimizing and
when a wave energy converter device actively captures wave energy, its adjusting the energy structure of the cities and promoting green, low-
motion or oscillation absorbs a portion of the wave energy, resulting in a carbon, and high-quality economic and social development.
downstream reduction in wave height and energy, effectively providing The main findings are as follows.
shelter to the FPV panels [55]. The incoming waves can keep the wave
energy devices working day and night, providing near-constant energy (1) Integrating floating photovoltaic systems around existing
and smoothing the output of offshore renewable energy plants [56]. offshore wind turbines has the potential to augment wind farm
Many wave power projects have already been launched in several production notably, by a remarkable factor of 7, resulting in an
countries, including Australia, China, Portugal, Spain, the United additional generation of approximately 1372 ± 18 TWh each
Kingdom, and the United States. year.
The high costs associated with the installation and maintenance of (2) Floating photovoltaic systems require only 17 % of the wind
offshore FPV plants, as well as potential conflicts between stakeholders, farm’s area to generate an equivalent amount of electricity
necessitate the need for government subsidies to facilitate their con­ annually.
struction [57]. On a positive note, the combination of FPV and wind (3) If the investment cost of floating photovoltaic systems is com­
power reduces expenditure on soft costs, including marine development parable to that of wind turbines, approximately 11 % of the wind
rights, financing, installation, operation, and maintenance. Power farm area can be utilized for photovoltaic installation, resulting in
transmission systems can potentially be shared and/or existing grids can a substantial increase of 76 % on average in total power
be extended to accommodate the additional load. The centralized generation.
arrangement of FPV systems streamlines equipment maintenance and (4) At the monthly scale, offshore wind and photovoltaic energy
reduces transportation costs. A single voyage with a service ship and sources exhibit a notable complementarity, particularly in high-
crew can efficiently repair both renewable energy systems, resulting in latitude regions, enhancing the overall stability of power output.
considerable cost savings [18]. Furthermore, the construction of cages
beneath FPV panels to enable aquaculture could dramatically increase Data statement
the efficiency and economy regarding the usage of marine areas, and the
economic benefits from aquatic products can decrease the payback The temperature and wind speed data are available at https://cds.
period for offshore power investments [58]. As experience and the in­ climate.copernicus.eu/cdsapp#!/dataset/reanalysis-era5-single-levels?
dustrial supply chains improve, the costs associated with offshore FPV tab=overview; the solar radiation data is available at https://ceres.larc.
are expected to decrease, transitioning the development model from nasa.gov/data/#syn1deg-level-3; the information of existing offshore
government-driven to market-driven [59]. wind projects is available at https://www.4coffshore.com/; the Global
It is essential to recognize that our analysis comes with certain lim­ Administrative Areas (GADM) data is available at https://gadm.org/i
itations. This study primarily delves into the resource potential of inte­ ndex.html. The data that support the findings of this study are also
grating offshore wind and photovoltaic technologies under geographical available from the corresponding author upon request.
constraints, but it does so without taking into account the practical

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