Geomodels in Engineering Geology:

an Introduction
Peter Fookes
Consultant Engineering Geologist, Retired, Winchester, Hampshire, UK

Geoff Pettifer
Engineering and Environmental Geologist, Mitcham, Surrey, UK

Tony Waltham
Engineering Geologist and Karst Specialist, Nottingham, UK

Whittles Publishing
 Published by
Whittles Publishing,
Dunbeath,
Caithness KW6 6EG,
Scotland, UK

www.whittlespublishing.com

© 2015 P. Fookes, G. Pettifer, A. Waltham

ISBN 978-1-84995-139-5

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, recording or otherwise
without prior permission of the publishers.

The publisher and authors have used their best efforts in preparing this
book, but assume no responsibility for any injury and/or damage to persons or
property from the use or implementation of any methods, instructions, ideas or
materials contained within this book. All operations should be undertaken in
accordance with existing legislation, recognized codes and standards and trade
practice. While the information and advice in this book is believed to be true and
accurate at the time of going to press, the authors and publishers accept no legal
responsibility or liability for errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed by
 Geomodels and pictorial block diagrams
Geomodel is the general term for any form of interpretation of a geological situation. Several
other relevant terms are used throughout the book to describe more specific geomodels.

The preparation of each pictorial block diagram in this book typically began with a conceptual
discussion, followed by an examination of maps, the published literature, photographs and
the development of a sketch model based on experience. This was then reviewed. The final
diagrams were produced manually by placing a sheet of tracing paper on a template and, using
a soft pencil, drawing a block outline from an arbitrary viewpoint to cover the area of interest
and important locations. Approximate distances were estimated along the horizontal axes of the
block, the topography was sketched using an appropriate vertical exaggeration and the surface
drainage was added. The underlying stratigraphy and geological structure were then added, the
probable groundwater conditions assessed and adjustments were made to highlight important
landforms. Finally, the lines were inked in, the pencil work erased, the key features emphasized
and labelled and captions added. Layers of colour were then applied by crayon on a good paper
copy.
It is not suggested that this method is followed during a ground investigation to produce
site geomodels, but the same procedures can be used to produce block diagrams for important
engineering projects. These would also incorporate specific information from ground inves-
tigations, satellite images and site reconnaissance mapping. Site models (ground models) are
primarily intended to aid site evaluation and engineering decision-making, but they can also be
used to inform a wider non-specialist audience. Larger scale block geomodels covering small
areas may be useful in illustrating how specific landscape features have evolved, or are expected
to evolve, to update knowledge of ground conditions as more data become available, or to help
solve specific problems arising during investigation and construction. The production of such
diagrams is a time-consuming process. Software packages can now be used to produce the basic
block outline and topography, but an interpretation of the ‘total geology’ generally has to be
The geological map: the vital starting point for any ground investigation built up using freehand methods. It is therefore likely that for the time being ‘traditional’ field
(see Part 4) maps, sketches and cross-sections will continue to be the most practical form of geomodels for
smaller projects.
 Contents

List of tables vi Part 2. Near-surface ground changes

Preface vii 2.1 Basic soils and landscapes 49
Dedication viii 2.2 Climate and rock weathering characteristics from the poles to 54
The Authors viii the equator
Foreword by Professor John Burland, CBE, FRS, FREng ix 2.3 Conceptual geological changes within a weathering profile 56
Acknowledgements x 2.4 Residual soils: an example of granitic rocks 62
2.5 Valley, hill-slope and surface models in weathered terrain 68
Introduction 1
Part 1. Underlying factors: climate and geology Part 3. Basic geological environments influencing engineering
1.1 Characteristics of the major global morphoclimatic zones   8 3.1 Glacial environments 72
1.2 Map of the major global morphoclimatic zones 12 3.2 Periglacial environments 78
1.3 Major movements of crustal plates: volcanic and earthquake zones 14 3.3 Temperate environments 82
1.4 Igneous rocks 20 3.4 Temperate environments: the Mediterranean 88
1.5 Metamorphic rocks 24 3.5 Relict periglacial terrain: southern Britain 92
1.6 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: introduction and the coast 28 3.6 Hot desert environments: drylands 98
1.7 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a linear clastic barrier island beach 32 3.7 Savanna environments 102
1.8 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a quarry in ancient rocks 34 3.8 Hot wet tropical environments 104
– the lithified equivalent of modern barrier beach sediments 3.9 Mountain environments 110
1.9 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: carbonates 38
1.10 Geological structures 44
 Contents

Part 4. Ground investigations 5.7 Idealized quarry face modelled on a quarry in a quartz dolerite sill in 168
4.1 Increase in site knowledge during the different stages of the 116 Scotland as seen by a quarry manager
ground investigation 5.8 Idealized quarry face modelled on a quarry in a quartz dolerite sill in
4.2 Stage 1: desk study 118 Scotland as seen by an engineering geologist 174
4.3 Stage 2: walkover survey 122 5.9 Example of environmental impact and infrastructure development 180
in a sensitive environment: the continuous permafrost zone
4.4 Stage 3: shallow geophysical surveys 126
4.5 Stage 4: main ground investigation 128
Appendix
4.6 Stage 5: additional ground investigations 132
Geotechnical problems associated with different types of engineering soils 184
4.7 Idealized layout of ground investigations in gently dipping strata 134
4.8 Idealized layout of ground investigations in steeply dipping strata 138
References 187

Part 5. Case histories and some basic ground characteristics and properties
Bibliography
5.1 Problems in interpreting information from ground investigations in 140
periglacial areas of southern Britain A: Introductory geology and geomorphology textbooks 190
5.2 Problems in interpreting information from ground investigations in 144 B: Engineering geology, engineering geomorphology, geotechnical and site 190
structurally complex regions investigation textbooks
5.3 Route of new road in hilly terrain: walkover 1, rocks 148
5.4 Route of new road in hilly terrain: walkover 2, soils 154 Key to photograph locations 191
5.5 Karst conditions in limestone bedrock interpreted from the ground 158
investigation for a river crossing Index 195
5.6 Karst conditions in limestone foundations for a river crossing as 162
found during construction
 List of Tables
Table 1 Basic stratigraphic column showing the main divisions of geological time and the Table 4.1.1 Example of a simple flow chart for a basic ground investigation. Large or
relative ages of major events. complex projects will have several stages of investigation.
Table 2 Main types of transported soil. Table 4.2.1 Estimated relative costs and benefits of ground investigation.
Table 4.2.2 Data typically derived from traditional desk study sources (after Hearn, 2011).
Table 1.3.1 Characteristic features of active seismo-tectonic and volcanic regions.
Table 4.5.1 Function of the reference conditions, adapted to incorporate geological and
Table 1.9.1 Classification of impure carbonate rocks (after Fookes, 1988).
geomorphological information.
Table 1.9.2 Classification of mixed carbonate rocks in percentage carbonate and pre-
Table 4.5.2 Common specialist skills for the assessment of terrain and slope stability and
dominant grain size (after Dearman, 1981).
the design of mountain roads (Hearn, 2011).
Table 2.1.1 Typical permeability values.
Table 4.6.1 Sequence of important features of the observational method to be used during
Table 2.1.2 Typical ranges of coefficient of permeability (k) for different types and condi- construction (after Nicholson et al., 1999; Baynes et al., 2005).
tions of rock.
Table 5.1.1 Description and grading of the Middle and Upper Chalk for engineering
Table 2.4.1 Summary of information to be recorded on exposures (after Norbury, 2010). purposes.
Table 2.4.2 Descriptive scheme for residual soil materials, after Fookes (1997b). Table 5.3.1 Classification of rock strength.
Table 3.1.1 Some characteristics and properties of different types of fill. Table 5.3.2 Shapes of joints and bedding-bound natural blocks.
Table 3.1.2 Types of glacial and glacially related hazards (adapted from Richardson and Table 5.3.3 Basic spacing of discontinuities.
Reynolds, 2000).
Table 5.3.4 Typical mechanical properties of some common rocks.
Table 3.3.1 Types of deposit that may occur in temperate areas, including those developed
Table 5.4.1 Unified Soil Classification: some basic characteristics.
in past climates.
Table 5.4.2 Some typical properties of cohesive fine soils.
Table 3.4.1 Subdivisions of the boreal forest temperate environments (modified after
Tricart, 1957; Alexander, 1999). Table 5.4.3 Typical properties of sands.
Table 3.5.1 Examples of geomorphological problems found in former periglacial terrains. Table 5.6.1 Types of karst landscape.
Table 3.5.2 Basic English Chalk stratigraphy (after Rawson et al., 2001 and Mortimore Table 5.6.2 An engineering classification of karst
et al., 2001). Table 5.7.1 Standard aggregate tests.
Table 3.8.1 Principal types of wet/humid tropical rain forests and their engineering im- Table 5.8.1 Rock types and their potential aggregate and building stone characteristics.
plications. Table 5.8.2 World morphoclimatic environments (Figures 1.1 and 1.2) and potential
Table 3.8.2 Summary of Duchaufour tropical soil phases, location and climate (from borrow sources.
Fookes, 1997a).
Appendix Geotechnical problems associated with different types of engineering soils
Table 3.9.1 Main factors controlling the stability of rock and soil slopes (after Hearn, (adapted and extended from Fookes, 1997a).
2011).
Table 3.9.2 Scheme for recording low core recoveries.

vi
 Preface

For many years I have had occasional requests for permission than that acquired in their careers as engineering geologists. Part 5 is loosely based on case histories to illustrate some
to use, for teaching purposes, copies of the pictorial block Many good textbooks exist on the various specialist subject minor to major pitfalls in investigation and construction situ-
geomodels and the related two-dimensional figures and tables areas, written by those with better subject knowledge than ations. It was the most enjoyable part to write, but the most
originally published in the first Glossop Lecture of the Engi- ourselves. difficult for which to find photographs. Hence we have taken
neering Group of the Geological Society of London (Fookes, The book is arranged in five parts dictated by the existence the opportunity to put in some small tables.
1997a). I have therefore come to the conclusion that it would of the pictorial block models and the related two-dimensional Geoff Pettifer originally drew all the figures and blocks
be helpful to publish, in a collected form, not only the original figures and tables, to which one completely new block model for me professionally, including the colouring at a later date,
block models, but a few subsequent models that have been has been added to give supporting detail. with meticulous care and skill, typically taking more than one
published elsewhere. Hence the idea for this book. month to complete each drawing. I have long thought that his
The aim of this book is to provide an introduction to Part 1 introduces some necessary basic fundamental geology. particular strength in producing this artwork has been insuf-
geomodels in which the drawings and photographs largely ficiently attributed in previous publications and hope that
speak for themselves. It aims to help engineers to visualize this book makes amends. Tony Waltham, as well as being an
Part 2 looks at common natural surface and near-surface
the three-dimensional geology and to act as a quick intro- experienced, practical engineering geologist and consummate
conditions that have been modified by current and former
duction to new or unfamiliar ground or environments for communicator and friend, is acclaimed for his field photog-
climatic regimes at the location. Such modifications (e.g.
geologists and engineers. It could perhaps also be used as an raphy and has provided nearly all of the photographs in this
tropical and temperate weathering, periglacial freeze–thaw
aide mémoire to those who might be more familiar with the book.
activity) are typically not sufficiently well known to engineers
selected environments, and last, but not least, to be used for
who have not previously worked in these environments. The
teaching. The pictorial models are the springboard for de- P.G. Fookes, F.R.Eng.
models in this Part are intended to help them in their investi-
veloping the geomodel approach as a tool for use in ground Winchester
gation, design and construction activities.
investigations and to help the development of geotechnical
April 2014
models for design and construction. The development of site
geomodels (ground models) during investigation is therefore Part 3 delves further into the main geo-environments with the
an important part of this book. The text is meant to be straight- aim of helping to understand the engineering geology charac-
forward with few frills, i.e. the field engineers’ or geologists’ teristics of a particular environment.
KISS principle: ‘Keep It Simple, Stupid!’ – I first heard of this
a few decades ago when in the field in Western Australia and Part 4 shows how knowledge of the ground improves during
have overused it ever since. the various stages of a ground investigation with the help of
Since their original publication as black-and-white models site geomodels developed as the investigation progresses
in 1997, colour has been added and this has significantly (perhaps the most important part of the book).
improved the originals. It must be emphasized strongly that
these are very basic generic models; they are not compre-
hensive and no doubt contain many arguable points when
viewed by a specialist in a particular terrain or environment.
The authors do not claim such specialist knowledge other

vii
 Dedication

To our friends at Sunrise of Winchester (P. F.)

To Ann, our daughters and grandchildren (G. P.)

To Jan, who is the scale on so many of the photographs (T. W.)

and to the many geologists and engineers who have given us invaluable advice and support during field
and construction projects around the world

The Authors

Peter G. Fookes, F.R.Eng. is a retired international consultant Geoff Pettifer is an active Chartered Geologist with over 35 Tony Waltham is a retired lecturer in engineering geology,
in engineering geology, geomaterials and concrete technol- years’ experience, ranging from microscopic and X-ray exam- who primarily enjoyed teaching the subject to students of
ogy with well over fifty years of working professionally in ination of aggregates, site investigations, rock cutting design civil engineering, and developed his lecture notes into a
some 96 countries. His work has been mainly in large, heavy and earthworks supervision, to regional landslide studies and textbook now widely used in universities. He also pursued
civil engineering and open-cast mining, including bridges, flyover terrain evaluations. He has postgraduate qualifications research and consultancy in ground subsidence, particularly
dams, harbours, highways, pipelines, railways and tunnels, in in Geomaterials and in Environmental and Earth Resources related to sinkholes and collapses in limestone karst, where
deserts, mountains, permafrost and rainforests, in such diverse Management and has worked on projects in Europe, Africa, a deeper understanding was aided by his many years of cave
locations as Australia, Borneo, Brazil, The Falklands, Kenya, South America and the Asia Pacific region, including pipelines, exploration. He has written and edited numerous books and
Libya, Nepal, Papua New Guinea, Siberia, Sudan and most power stations, open pit mines, quarries, railways and roads. academic papers. At the same time, his worldwide travels have
places in between. He was/is a Visiting or Honorary Professor As a member of multidisciplinary teams, he has contributed enabled him to build his own extensive photograph library of
at several universities, has published over 200 refereed papers to ESIA reports and capacity-building manuals, and has par- geographical and geological subjects.
and articles, also seven books as editor or author, and has ticipated in industry-based research projects dealing with
chaired or been a member of many national and international chemical impurities in concretes, the effects of clay minerals
committees and working parties. in tunnelling and the capabilities of chain trenchers.

viii
 Foreword

It has been said of Karl Terzaghi, the father of geotechni- In simple terms this is an exercise in ‘structural modelling’ present climatic environments have profoundly influenced
cal engineering, that he turned every field trip into a joyous which requires a knowledge of the genesis of the building, the both terrain and structural features of the ground. Many
adventure in field geology. I have been on field trips with material properties and the defects and weaknesses. Without important engineering implications are illustrated emphasis-
Peter Fookes and he does exactly that. For those not fortunate this knowledge even the most sophisticated analysis would be ing the necessity of understanding the geological processes
enough to have accompanied Peter on a field excursion this a waste of time and could be very misleading. that form the ground profile.
book is the closest that you can come to that joyous adventure. Geotechnical engineers daily face similar challenges en- Parts 4 and 5 move on to the engineering aspects of
A knowledge of the ground profile and its genesis together countered by the structural engineer working on an ancient geomodels. Part 4 – Ground investigations describes the
with groundwater conditions is arguably the most important building or monument. If they are to model successfully the staged process of gaining knowledge about the site. Peck
body of information required for planning and designing a impacts of a proposed project it is vital that they understand (1962) in an essay on Art and science in subsurface engineering
major geotechnical, quarrying or mining project. Unlike most the genesis of the geological formations they are to encounter, (Géotechnique, 12:1, 60–66) asserts that ‘whether we realise
structural engineers who usually work with well-defined ge- have a good knowledge of the mechanical properties of the it or not, every interpretation of the results of a test boring
ometries and specify their materials, geotechnical engineers materials and be aware of likely defects and weaknesses. This and every interpolation between two borings is an exercise
have to work with materials as they have been laid down by book focusses on understanding ‘what is there, how it got in geology. If carried out without regard to geological prin-
nature – and nature is seldom simple. A structural engineer there and when it got there’. It is about ‘geomodelling’ and its ciples the results may be erroneous or even ridiculous’. This
working on an ancient cathedral (perhaps to stabilise, conserve importance in all aspects of ground engineering from initial section gives graphic illustrations of how the staged evolution
or extend it) has a number of challenges that are similar to desk studies through site and ground investigation, testing, of a geomodel for a site assists in the selection of appropri-
those faced routinely by the geotechnical engineer. First it is design, choice of construction method to construction and ate locations for borings and provides the geological context
necessary to discover how the cathedral was built over the operation. for interpreting the results of these boreholes. Case histories
centuries and the order in which the various elements were I mentioned that a field trip with Peter Fookes was a are vital to developing experience and judgement and Part
constructed. This may be thought of as discovering the genesis joyous adventure in field geology and I urge you to take a stroll 5 – Case histories and some basic ground characteristics and
of the building and without this information it is not possible through Part 1 – Underlying factors: climate and geology. Much properties, in keeping with the earlier parts of the book,
to carry out a reliable analysis of the ‘flow’ of forces through of the material may be familiar but Geoff Pettifer’s splendid provides copious well-illustrated examples of the challenges
the various elements. Then it is necessary to determine the block geomodels and Tony Waltham’s magnificent photo- of interpreting structurally complex geology.
properties of the various elements and usually there is very graphs bring it to life in a new and fresh way. For students studying engineering geology and geotech-
limited scope for extracting samples and testing them – much I hope you have been hooked! Part 2 – Near-surface nics this book will provide an invaluable insight into the art of
reliance has to be placed on experience. A vital part of the ground changes is a must for geotechnical engineers working unravelling the complexities of the ground. Practitioners will
investigation is to identify hidden weaknesses and defects on construction problems. It contains lavish illustrations of a wish to dip into it as they encounter a variety of ground condi-
and this requires detailed visual inspection and a trained wide range of geological and climatic processes that underlie tions and terrains. Anyone interested in the way the landscape
eye – sometimes coupled with measurements of movements. the formation of soil profiles worldwide. is formed, whether or not they are engineers, will find this
Today it would be usual practice to carry out a detailed Part 3 – Basic geological environments for engineering gives book fascinating.
structural analysis of the cathedral and the proposed works. excellent examples of the way in which the various past and John Burland, CBE, FRS, FREng
Imperial College London

ix
 Acknowledgements

I give thanks to the many friends and colleagues who, over five I acknowledge the invaluable support of colleagues stretching For providing guidance over the years and exhibiting qualities
or six decades, have helped me, in the field or laboratory, to back to my formative time at Wimpey Laboratories. Marjorie that I respect, I thank Alistair Lumsden, Neil Dixon, Steve
learn more and to clarify my understanding. I can name here Eglinton was Chief Chemist and Ian Higginbottom headed a Hencher, Peter Smart and Art Palmer: from them and from
only a few: first and foremost, Sir Alec Skempton (polymath) team of geologists that included Jasper Cook, Martin Dawes others there is always much to learn.
and Ian Higginbottom (engineering geologist); also, during and Dave Earle. Since then I have had the privilege of working T.W.
all of my early and middle career, John Atkinson, Ken Head with and learning from many other engineering geologists
(soil laboratory), Alan Little, Mike Sweeney and Peter Vaughn and geomorphologists, in particular Fred Baynes, Andrew
(soil mechanicians); Lawrence Collis (materials engineer and Hart, Gareth Hearn, Alemayehu Mulachew, Alan Poole and
concrete laboratory); latterly, Mark Lee (engineering geo- Mark Ruse. I also thank the numerous site engineers who
morphologist), Fred Baynes and John Charman (engineering gave me unstinting practical advice during construction site
geologists); and, for shorter periods, but still with invaluable visits, among them Peter Bel-Ford, Solomon Kuliche, Mark
interaction, Jim Griffiths, Andrew Hart and Gareth Hearn Miyaoka, Neil O’Donnell, Ian Steele and Hugh Ward.
(engineering geomorphologists), David Shilston (engineer- G.P.
ing geologist), Ian Sims (materials geologist and petrology
laboratory), Jim Clarke (geotechnical engineer), Mike Walker
(concrete and structural engineer) – all knowledgeable, clear
thinkers who have on many occasions helped me to get my
thoughts straight.
P.F.

x
 Introduction

What, why and when? complex Earth systems, or future choices by governments, of this book to enlarge upon the various approaches to, and
The Earth is an active planet in a constant state of change. businesses or individuals that will affect the socio-economic philosophies of, building geomodels, the names given to these
These changes can take place over both long and short periods or physical environment. Many assessments rely on expert models and the uses to which they can be put. These depend
of geological time (thousands or millions of years) or much judgements based on the knowledge available, together with on the actual project. For example, in the pipeline investiga-
more quickly on an engineering timescale (minutes, hours experience from other projects and sites. The problems associ- tion industry, in which we have worked for many years, the
or days). Geological processes continually modify the Earth’s ated with expert judgements include the poor quantification term ‘ground model’ is being increasingly used. Specialist
surface, destroying old rocks, creating new ones and adding to of uncertainty, poor problem definition and any bias of the teams (geoteams) are developing in this industry. It must be
the complexity of ground conditions: the so-called ‘geologi- assessor. emphasized repeatedly that, at any scale, every geomodel is
cal cycle’. The all-important concept that drives this geological To paraphrase the above, many, if not most, difficulties in different and must be tailor-made for the current project.
cycle is plate tectonics (see Figure 1.3). ground engineering arise from either an unawareness of the There is no ideal model, just relevant approaches and good
ground conditions or a failure to appreciate the influence of practices for the situation. Morgenstern and Cruden (1977),
The benefits geologists bring to construction projects must
the known ground conditions on a particular engineering Fookes et al. (2000), Sweeney (2004), Baynes et al. (2005) and
exceed the cost of their services – that is, they must accurately
situation. the many references cited in these papers provide useful back-
improve the engineer’s ground knowledge more cheaply and
ground reading on models and model-making.
effectively than any other method. They must reduce the risk Geomodels It should be noted that during the closing stages of
from geological hazards by anticipating situations perhaps
Geological pictorial models preparing this book, a comprehensive study, Engineering
unforeseen by the engineers and also help to determine
The three-dimensional models in this book are not compre- Geological Models: an Introduction (IAEG Commission 25;
effective ways of dealing with risks and any problems arising
hensive, in particular those on river systems and landslides Parry et al., 2014), was published. This will be a most valuable
during design and construction. The main role of the engi-
(Part 3), and should be considered as an introduction to addition to the field and office libraries of site engineers and
neering geologist is to interpret the geology and ground
landforms. They are mainly intended for teaching and are geologists and will no doubt help to guide the profession for
conditions correctly. Creating an initial model for the geology
too simple for the more detailed prediction needed on an many years.
of a site is an excellent start. Geology (the study of the Earth)
engineering site when a more detailed understanding of the
and its closest geo-relative, geomorphology (the study of the Site models
near-surface geology is required. This is developed through
Earth’s surface), are concerned with changes over time and Before or during the desk study phase of a civil engineering
the stages of a ground investigation and it is necessary to build
any geomodel has to build in any changes likely to occur in ground investigation (see Figures 4.1–4.3), engineering ge-
a site geomodel for practical use (see Part 4). Such a model
the near future, especially when the construction project may ologists, by virtue of their training and experience, should be
is based on engineering geology and ultimately leads to a
have a significant impact on the environment (Fookes, 1997a). able to visualize an initial simple basic model of any part of
‘geotechnical model’. We consider geotechnical models to be
Some degree of uncertainty will always exist in both the an important subject, but they are not discussed further in the Earth’s surface or near-subsurface (a terrain model). We
interpretation of the existing geology and any anticipation of this book, except to emphasize that the engineering geology consider that geology taught to degree level is an essential
significant changes over the lifetime of the project. The key model broadly leads to a geotechnical model and other part of the training of an engineering geologist. A geologist
types of uncertainty include data uncertainty and environmen- end-products. is trained to visualize the third (and fourth) dimension of any
tal uncertainty. Some aspects may defy the precise prediction Much has been published in the last decade or so on the area. This visualization improves with experience. The details
of future conditions – for example, earthquakes, landslips, use of models in engineering geology, building on a very small and accuracy of the model will depend on the location and the
flooding, our limited understanding of the behaviour of number of such papers before this time. It is not the intention individual geologist.

1
Introduction

Such models, especially in a new area, help us to under- also needed to make judgements on the management of the for specialized use are not shown in Table 1, which gives what
stand the three-dimensional geology, near-surface variations geo-risks associated with the project. we believe are the time names useful to engineers. Good in-
and to identify the relevant geomorphological systems and dications of age can be given by the correlation of fossils in
processes and main environmental controls (see Parts 2, 3 and Total geology any sedimentary strata (e.g. the remains of shallow marine
4). Other disciplines may well be needed to help evaluate the The total geological concept is required during the ground organisms present in a bed of limestone originally deposited
situation – for example, geomorphology, which is indispensa- investigation stages following the early desk study to both on a shallow sea floor) or by radioactive dating. There are a
ble at many sites, surface and groundwater hydrology, ecology, develop thoroughly the initial geomodels and to present a variety of other ways to approximate the age of rocks by their
and specialist seismic and volcanic studies. This is why a comprehensive picture of the ground conditions (Fookes et al., type and history, such as dendrochronology or varve analysis
geoteam is needed. Each site will require consideration of the 2000). Unfortunately, this concept is not always foremost in an and relative dating by the law of superimposition (Bibliogra-
approach to model-making and the value to be obtained. In- engineer’s mind as a result of more pressing concerns, such as phy, Group A books).
teraction with the project’s geotechnical engineers is essential costs, time, quality and the availability of staff, equipment and
at all stages of production of the model. materials. Three-dimensional hand or computer drawings Surface materials
As an example, we can consider the construction of very must attempt to incorporate all the individual surface and The current landforms, – that is, the subdivisions comprising
long mineral railways over a large area in the Pilbara, Western subsurface components of the site, including the tectonic and the landscape in any region – are the result of the geological
Australia, for which little detailed geological mapping existed. structural geology, stratigraphy, geomaterials, ground and and geomorphological history. They may consist of several
In a series of investigations over a number of years, initial con- surface waters, the local climate and the geomorphological different types of rocks and soils, many of which will be
ceptual models were first developed to represent the nature conditions, together with significant surface details resulting familiar to geotechnical engineers. There are several good
of the different terrain units and engineering geological from human activities. For a small site, a model may only need textbooks of engineering geology that describe such materials
formations (Baynes et al. 2005). Observational models were a thumbnail sketch; for a larger site, a series of detailed models (Bibliography, Group B books) and can be read in conjunction
then developed to present the observed and interpreted dis- (of different geological aspects) are probably needed, par- with this book.
tribution of reference conditions in a variety of ways (maps, ticularly where future changes to the local environment and
process systems, or a particular risk(s), are anticipated. The Soils
two- and three-dimensional models, sections). These were
model must be ‘engineer-friendly’ – that is, easy to understand Engineers generally consider any non-lithified (i.e. not rock-
followed by evolutionary models, which illustrated the way in
by those with little geological knowledge. like) materials overlying solid rock (the bedrock) to be an
which the terrain units, engineering geological formations or
Other forms of model-making exist and these are being ‘engineering soil’. These are the ‘overburden’ of engineers or
the reference conditions had developed over geological time,
continually developed and becoming increasingly important, ‘regolith’ of geologists. The overburden may consist of saprolite
using a series of sketch maps, sections and block models. The
particularly through the use of computer-aided studies to (in situ weathered rocks and residual soils), described in Part
models therefore progressed from two to three to four dimen-
evaluate large amounts of data (Culshaw, 2005; Allen et al., 2, and/or a variety of soils transported by gravity, wind, water
sions.
2014). These are not discussed here, but are now part of the or glaciers before deposition (Table 2).
Geomodels created during the desk study of a ground
geologist’s toolkit. A small part of Earth’s surface is bedrock that is more or
investigation will allow a better understanding of the site
less unweathered, or only a little weathered, as in some hot
and more efficient planning of the investigation, such as the Geological time: stratigraphy deserts or glaciated terrains. However, most of the world’s
placing of boreholes, sampling and testing. The models should
The age of Earth is of the order of 4600 million years (4600 Ma bedrock is weathered and is covered by transported soils or
provoke both direct and lateral thinking and therefore lead to
or 4.6 Ga) and Table 1 details the subdivision of this time to soils developed in situ (e.g. tropical residual soils, temperate
a more balanced and cost-effective investigation. The models
the present. The first fossils of simple cells date from about residual soils or duricrusts in arid lands; see Parts 2 and 3).
are continually reviewed and improved as the investigation
3600 Ma and the oldest rocks found on the Earth’s surface date There are also special superficial (‘surficial’ in North
evolves. It is essential to continually check, refine or modify
from about 4400 Ma. Geologists divide the time from the birth America) coverings, which are described in more detail in
the initial model (see Part 4) so that it becomes increasingly
of Earth to the present into long subdivisions or Eras and then Part 2. For example, the land surface of polar regions may be
site-specific. This must include continuous interaction of the
into shorter Periods. Numerous other shorter time divisions covered by ice, forest floors may be covered with decaying leaf
geologists with the site and design engineers. Interaction is

2
 Introduction

Table 1 Basic stratigraphic column showing the main divisions of geological time and the relative ages of major events (dates from the International Chronostratigraphic Chart, 2014).
Age Duration
Eon Era Period Orogenic 2 phases Major biological, climatic and plate tectonic events
(Ma) 1 (Ma)
Quaternary Himalayan Anthropogenic contribution to climate change and mass extinction
Ongoing (ongoing) Major glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere
Cenozoic (Pleistocene and Holocene3)
2.58
(Recent life) Pyrenean First hominids
63 Age of mammals, birds and flowering plants
Tertiary4 Alpine-Laramide
66 Extinction of dinosaurs considered to be caused by major meteorite impact and volcanism
79 Indian and southern oceans open as Gondwanaland breaks apart
Cretaceous
145 First birds, modern bony fishes, rudist bivalves and flowering plants
Mesozoic
56 Opening of North Atlantic Ocean
(Middle life) Jurassic
201 Nevadan First mammals
Phanerozoic (Evident life)

51 First dinosaurs
Triassic
252 Uralian Break-up of Pangaea into Laurasia (north) and Gondwanaland (south)
46
Permian
298 Mass extinction of rugose corals, trilobites and many other species
Hercynian-Appalachian
Carboniferous Glaciation in the southern hemisphere
(Pennsylvanian (Upper Carb), Mississippian 60 Pangaea supercontinent formed
(Variscan) First reptiles
(Lower Carb) in North America) Last graptolites
358
Palaeozoic 61 First insects and amphibians
Devonian Bretonian-Acadian
(Ancient life) 419 First land-living animals and plants
Caledonian
24 First fish with jaws
Silurian
443
42 Worldwide glaciation and mass extinction of marine life
Ordovician
485 First vertebrates (jawless fish)
56 First graptolites
Cambrian
541 Cadomian First skeletal organisms
First soft-bodied animals, forming tracks and trails (about 900 Ma)
Proterozoic Penokean Increasing atmospheric O2 (about 1.7 Ga)
(Huronian)
2500
Plate tectonic motions commence (about 3 Ga)
Precambrian c. 4000 Algoman Earliest bacteria (about 3.5 Ga)
Archaean
(all rocks older than Palaeozoic) (Kenoran)
4000 Major cratering on the Moon (about 4.2 Ga)
Oldest rocks on Earth’s surface (about 4.4 Ga)
Hadean
(Priscoan) 4600 Formation of Earth
1 2
Not to scale. Major plate tectonic phases.
3 4
Also called Recent. Now commonly divided into Neogene (Upper) and Palaeogene (Lower).

3
Introduction

litter and peaty organic soils may develop in wet areas. Surface is typically associated with mountain chains along plate In general, the older rocks within a particular area tend to
clayey soils typically start as under-consolidated clays (see collision margins (e.g. the Himalayas or Andes). Thermal or be stronger and have a more complex structure than younger
Appendix). The sea floor is not considered in this book. contact metamorphism results from the high temperatures rocks. Their geological history is also important and rocks of
around igneous intrusions, which bake the original rock. the same age in different locations (commonly in different
Rocks For example, mudrocks may be altered to shales, slates, tectonic settings) may have very different geological and engi-
Rocks of similar types occur in suites or associations. The phyllites or mixed schists depending on the temperature neering characteristics (see Parts 2 and 3; Bibliography, Group
long-term differential weathering and erosion of stronger and and pressure conditions. Metamorphic rocks can be broadly B books).
weaker rocks are reflected in the various landscapes that have divided into three main groups: foliated (or banded), con-
developed around the world (see Parts 1, 2 and 3). sisting of rocks in which the texture is layered, e.g. gneiss; The Quaternary Period: climate change
Rocks are loosely defined in geology as all forms of deposit those where the minerals have a preferred orientation, such and the geomodel
that are older than the Quaternary Period and, using this as schists and slates; and those that are non-foliated – these The climate has varied throughout the history of our planet,
definition, some forms of ‘soil’ may be called rocks. Many rocks tend to have high isotropic strengths and low perme- over both geological and historical timescales. Examples
other firm or loose definitions of ‘rock’ and ‘soil’ exist for ability, e.g. hornfels and granulite. Foliated rocks tend to be of the most important worldwide variations are the four
engineering situations, including the strength and difficul- weak parallel to the planes of foliation. ‘icehouse’ phases, dominated by repeating glacial episodes,
ties of excavation. Engineers may call ancient clay sediments • Sedimentary rocks. These are rocks formed from material and the four ‘greenhouse’ phases dominated by repeating
(e.g. over-consolidated London Clay, around 40 Ma old) an derived from pre-existing rocks (i.e. sediment) and those interglacial episodes, which occurred during the Phanerozoic
‘engineering soil’ (see Appendix). This subject is fraught with of organic or chemical origin. They form a large part of Eon (Table 1). The slowly changing global distribution of land
potential contractual misunderstandings and unambiguous the Earth’s surface rocks. A distinctive feature of most masses caused by plate tectonic movements has brought about
definitions are needed in any contract documents (Bibliogra- sedimentary rocks is their stratification or bedding, either predominantly icehouse or greenhouse conditions.
phy, Groups A and B books). which tends to control their behaviour. Clastic rocks Each phase is believed to last about 40–95 Ma and greenhouse
There are three main rock types. are composed of particles or fragments that have been phases have accounted for about 60% of Phanerozoic time.
deposited from material derived from the weathering and There have also been special times within the Earth’s history,
• Igneous rocks. Intrusive igneous rocks solidified slowly
erosion of pre-existing rocks. This is then lithified by com- such as part of the Cretaceous Period, when the Earth was in a
from hot magma (molten rock generated by heating within
paction and cementation (diagenesis) at low pressures and long greenhouse cycle with no ice sheets over the poles, higher
the Earth’s crust or upper mantle) before it reached the
temperatures to form mudstones, shales, siltstones, sand- global temperatures and high levels of carbon dioxide in the
surface, forming large crystals, e.g. granites and dolerites.
stones, gritstones, breccias and conglomerates. Chemical atmosphere.
Extrusive rocks such as basalts cooled quickly from hot
sedimentary rocks are typically formed from the precipita- The last icehouse phase began in the middle Tertiary,
surface lava flows and have small crystals, whereas py-
tion of dissolved minerals, e.g. rock salt, gypsum and some building up to its greatest extent in the Quaternary. It was
roclastic rocks formed from volcanic ejections through a
limestones. Organic sedimentary rocks, such as shelly characterized by frequently occurring repeated climatic
volcanic vent, e.g. ash, cinder and larger debris (tephra),
limestones, chalk and coal, are formed from the hard parts changes. Such repeated climatic changes with alternating
making tuffs, agglomerates and volcanic breccia. Intrusive
of animals and plants. interglacial and glacial episodes have been significant in
and extrusive rocks tend to be strong and their behaviour
the creation of today’s landscapes, especially in the current
may be governed by jointing systems. Pyroclastic rocks The mineral composition, fabric and porosity of rocks
regions of temperate climate. The ice advances and retreats
tend to be variable in their engineering performance, from determine their mechanical strength and resistance to weath-
within an icehouse phase are considered to be mainly a result
weak and friable to strong and tough. ering. For example, shale is mechanically weak, but is resistant
of a combination of variations in the Earth’s orbit around
• Metamorphic rocks. These are rocks that have been altered to chemical weathering, whereas limestones are often strong
the Sun (the Milankovitch cycles) and changes in solar
by the effects of high confining pressures and/or high tem- and resistant to mechanical weathering, but are readily soluble
radiation.
peratures within the Earth’s crust. Regional metamorphism under slightly acidic conditions (chemical weathering),
resulting in the formation of karst (cavernous) landscapes (see In addition to the repeating ice advances and retreats
is a result of both high temperatures and high pressures and of the Quaternary, smaller changes that have occurred
Parts 2 and 3; Bibliography, Group B books).

4
 Introduction

Table 2 Main types of transported soil.

Soil type Formation Nature of deposit Lithified 1 equivalent

Taluvium (coarse) Transport down-slope mainly by gravity mass Generally loose to poorly compacted, unsorted, unstratified weathered rock debris Not commonly lithified, but fine to very coarse
movement, e.g. talus and rock avalanche deposits comprising angular gravel to very large boulder-sized material with various amounts of finer breccia, may be indurated with a clay matrix or
(includes mountain soils) particles; typically deposited on steep slopes (25–35°) below cliffs or fault scarps; composed cemented by calcium carbonate or iron oxides
predominantly of strong rocks
Colluvium (fine) Transport down-slope by combinations of gravity Generally moderately compact, unsorted, unstratified, weathered rock debris dominated by Not commonly lithified, but matrix-supported ancient
(creep), slope-wash and freeze–thaw action, e.g. debris clay-, silt- and sand-sized material, rarely with some angular gravel to boulders; typically deposits may be indurated as mudstone or as a gap-
and earth slides, sheet erosion (includes mountain soils) deposited on moderate slopes (15–25°) where the underlying strata up-slope include a high graded fine to coarse sedimentary rock
proportion of weak mudrocks
Debris/earth/mud Rapid transport and deposition as a slurry by either Unsorted, unstratified clay to boulders; often formed when saturated debris slides
flow deposits overland or channelized flow (includes cold lahars, peat disintegrate; channelized flows may transport very large subangular or subrounded boulders;
bog-bursts) typically deposited on gentle slopes (5–15°)
Solifluction deposits 2 Slow down-slope movement of waterlogged soil Variable; a type of colluvial soil, characteristic of gentle slopes in cold regions (gelifluction),
material (includes mountain soils) but can occur on steeper slopes elsewhere

Glacial Transport and deposition by ice Tills 3 of various types forming moraines, usually highly variable lithology; some tills are Tillite
heavily over-consolidated

Glaciofluvial Transport and deposition by meltwater Outwash materials, becoming finer away from the meltwater source; fine material usually Claystone, mudstone, siltstone, sandstone,
laminated and varved (seasonal glacial lake deposits) conglomerate and mixed sedimentary rocks

Alluvium Transport and deposition by rivers Fine clay to coarse gravels; coarse particles usually rounded; soils commonly sorted and often
show pronounced stratification

Aeolian Transport and deposition by wind Usually silts (i.e. loess) and fine to medium sands (e.g. sheet sands, sand dunes) with uniform Well-sorted 4 siltstone or sandstone
grading; may be extensive

Volcanic Ash and rock fragments (i.e. tephra) and pumice, all Silt to cobbles and small boulders; highly angular to subrounded, often vesicular; weathering Tuff, agglomerate, volcanic breccia
deposited during eruptions of basaltic materials commonly produces highly plastic clays

1
Lithified means ‘turned to stone’.
2
There are a number of regional names in Britain for solifluction deposits, e.g. head in southern England and coombe rock in the chalkland of south-east England.
3
Older British geological maps may refer to till as boulder clay (this name is still commonly used by British engineers).
4
Mainly single-sized material.

5
Introduction

during historical times have influenced geomorphological • Till sequences (formerly known as ‘boulder clay’) now For example, around 7000 BP sea levels were a metre
processes and the Earth’s surface systems on a regional scale. cover much of temperate lands and nearby seabed surfaces. or two higher than today and the Sahara experienced
A geologist may need to incorporate some of this knowledge These were deposited from valley and continental glaciers a humid period with extensive vegetation. The climate
into geomodels (see Parts 1, 2 and 3; Bibliography, Group A that have now retreated to high latitudes and highland has continued to change over the last millennium – for
books). areas (see Figure 3.1). example, the Medieval Warm Period (around 1100–1300
• Glaciofluvial (or fluvioglacial) debris were deposited by AD) was followed by the Little Ice Age (around 1550–1850
Climate change AD), probably due to variations in sunspot activity.
rivers issuing from the margins of glaciers in vast volumes
The legacy of climatic instability during the Quaternary Anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide and other
and often cover the tills laid down by glaciers as they
Period, with its significant consequences for our current greenhouse gases may be significant in today’s climate
advanced or retreated (see Figures 3.1 and 3.2).
landforms, is a major geo-influence on today’s engineering changes.
projects (see Parts 2 and 3, especially Figures 3.1, 3.2, 3.5 and • Numerous lakes of all sizes have been left in and near
5.9). glaciated regions, many subsequently filled with seasonal Engineering and the landscape
deposits of laminated clay and silt or very unstable organic
Key features for engineering geologists to consider when The impact of engineering on the landscape can also have
soils and peats (see Figures 3.1 and 3.2).
making the initial geomodel include the following points. significant effects on surface processes. Potential impacts
• There have been marked global temperature fluctua- • Loess (predominantly wind-blown silt and fine sand) was need to be evaluated in relation to the site-specific conditions
tions, from temperatures similar to those of the present exposed in great volumes as the glaciers retreated and was in the site geomodel. Although some impacts may appear
day during interglacial periods to lower temperatures then carried away by the wind to cover vast areas of the to be localized, they can result in indirect consequences
during the major glacial periods that were sufficiently Northern Hemisphere (see Figure 3.5). affecting the operation of surface processes throughout the
cold to treble the volume of today’s land ice. There have • The rapid retreat and decay of the ice sheets over a few whole surface system (Fookes et al., 2007). The following
been at least 17 major glacial–interglacial cycles in the last hundreds to a few thousands of years at the end of the points are examples of the impact of human activities on the
1.6 Ma. interglacial periods replaced tundra landscapes with landscape.
• Immediately beyond the ice limits, permafrost and per- forests in the mid-latitudes. This is happening again • Changes in erosion rates, such as the accelerated erosion
iglacial conditions (including tundra and taiga landscapes) today. seen in recently deforested upland areas and hill-slopes,
have a profound effect on slope instability and cause near- • In low latitudes, the growth and contraction of the notably during the 1930s ‘dust bowl’ of the south-western
surface freeze–thaw changes to the ground (see Figures high-latitude ice sheets corresponded approximately USA.
3.2, 3.5 and 5.9). with periods of greater moisture (pluvials) and greater • Reductions in slope stability caused by artificial recharge
• Marked fluctuations in global sea level have included dryness (interpluvials). For example, during the Last of the local water-table – for example, by leakage from
falls of more than 100 m during glacial periods, Glacial Maximum (about 30,000–20,000 BP), the septic tanks or water supply pipes. Shallow landslides may
exposing parts of the continental shelves. Sea levels Ethiopian Highlands had a cold, dry climate with tundra be triggered by forestry logging activities, e.g. in British
rose again during the warmer interglacial periods at altitudes above 3000 m and glaciers in the higher Columbia, Canada.
and flooded coastal regions to levels even higher than mountains. The world’s great sand seas developed during • Cut-slope failures may be caused by mining activities and
today. Important consequences of these regular rises the dry periods and advanced into today’s desert margins. excavations to create roads and level plots, e.g. a 94-fold
and falls in sea level include ‘buried’ valleys cut below Changes in monsoon patterns (partly associated with the increase in landslides on Vancouver Island, Canada has
the level of modern rivers and subsequently infilled rise of the Himalayas) also relate to changes in climate been associated with the construction of access roads
with sediments, complex river terrace sequences along regimes. across the forested mountain.
valleys, onshore relict (former) sea cliffs, raised beaches, • During the current interglacial period, starting around • An increase in, and acceleration of, run-off within urban
submerged forests, dead coral reefs and submarine 15,000 BP, significant smaller climatic changes have been areas may be caused by the construction of impermeable
canyons. superimposed on the overall glacial–interglacial cycle. surfaces (e.g. concrete, tarmacadam and housing) within

6
 Introduction

a catchment, e.g. at Stevenage, UK, the mean annual flood

volume increased by 2.5 times after the construction of
this new town.
• Numerous examples exist of changes in river discharge
and flood behaviour, including sediment transport along
rivers and changes in the delivery of sediments from
river channels to flood plains and from rivers to the
open coast.

Geotechnical problems with engineering soils

The main engineering soils are detailed in the Appendix. This
is in the form of a large table giving the typical geological and
engineering characteristics of common soil types and the as-
sociated practical problems that may be encountered during
ground investigations, construction and operation.

7
 Relative importance of various geomorphological processes
(see also Fig. 2.2)

Figure 1.1 Characteristics of the major global morphoclimatic zones.

8
 1.1 Morphoclimatic zones

Part 1. Underlying factors: climate and geology

Characteristics of the major global above 0°C (commonly called the frigid zone). Precipita- tures in the equatorial Pacific Ocean. A tropical climate
morphoclimatic zones (Figure 1.1) tion and temperatures are higher in the periglacial and does not have a precise definition, but there is no cool
subarctic environments; average temperatures here during season and no month has a mean temperature <20°C (the
Figure 1.1, which details the major global morphoclimatic the summer months are well above freezing. The subarctic ‘torrid’ zone of earlier usage). Typical continental climates
zones and their relevance to geomorphological processes is adjacent to, but outside, the Arctic Circle. Figures 3.1 have pronounced wet and dry seasons. Figures 3.6 to 3.8
and potential geohazards, is used here as a general in- and 3.2 illustrate glacial and periglacial environments. detail hot desert, savanna and hot, wet tropical environ-
troduction. It should be considered in conjunction with ments, respectively.
• Temperate and Mediterranean. This climatic type is
Figure 1.2, a map of these morphoclimatic zones. Both the
dominated by the westerly upper atmosphere jet stream,
table and the map are approximate and should be treated
which controls the tracks of rotating low pressure
as guides only. The table was developed from the map,
regions. Variations in the atmospheric circulation can
which is based on Tricart and Caileux (1965) and Stoddart
lead to changes in the patterns of drought, wet years and
(1969). A variety of climate/soil classification maps that
frequency of floods. The temperature relates largely to the
bring together different aspects of geological processes – for
amount of sunshine. A Mediterranean climate is char-
example, tectonism, sedimentation, weathering zones, basic
acteristic of the western margins of continents in warm
geomorphology and soil processes – are discussed in Fookes
temperate zones, typically the mid-latitudes from 30° to
(1997a).
40°, with hot dry summers and cool moist winters. The
term ‘temperate’ is from early geographical usage as the
Part 3 of this book is based on the three major climatic zone between the ‘torrid’ and ‘frigid’ zones; in modern
types that reflect global zonal variations in precipitation usage it indicates climates with no great extremes. Figures
and temperature. These variations result from the unequal 3.3 and 3.4 discuss the semi-arid temperate and temperate
distribution of solar radiation, the global circulation of the Mediterranean environments.
atmosphere and ocean currents, and the relative positions of
• Tropical. This climatic type is dominated by the atmos-
the continents and oceans. There is a fourth climatic zone,
pheric Hadley cells (inter-tropical convergence zones)
called azonal, which occurs in high mountains anywhere in
consisting of areas of low pressure near the equator (the
the world: the higher up the mountain, the colder the condi-
Equatorial Trough) towards which persistent winds (the
tions (see Figure 3.9).
trade winds) blow. Areas of subsiding dry air give rise
• Polar and tundra. This climatic type is dominated by low
to major hot deserts such as the Sahara. Intense rainfall,
solar radiation and cold temperatures. A polar climate
floods and/or drought events are associated with tropical
is characterized by continuous low temperatures with
storms, such as Atlantic hurricanes and Pacific typhoons,
perpetual ice and snow. The tundra environment is as-
and with the monsoons. The El Niño Southern Oscillation
sociated with permanently frozen ground (permafrost),
causes abnormal atmospheric and environmental condi-
but without permanent ice and snow, and lies between
tions, primarily in equatorial regions. It consists of two
the polar regions and the northern (or southern) limits of
components: (1) El Niño (Christ child) is associated with
tree growth (the taiga). In the Arctic, Antarctic and high
strong fluctuations in ocean currents and surface tempera-
mountains, precipitation is typically very low and low
tures within the Pacific Basin and (2) La Niña (little girl)
temperatures prevail throughout the year, seldom rising
is associated with abnormal, cold ocean surface tempera-

9
1.1 Morphoclimatic zones

<INSERT PHOTOS 1.1>

Glacial environments are distinguished by the ice cover Peripheral to the glaciers, the periglacial zone is cold Temperate zones have gently rolling terrains defined by
that dominates their processes of erosion and deposition. enough to have permanently frozen ground (permafrost}, fluvial processes, where rivers cut sinuous, V-shaped valleys
Ice caps and glaciers today extend over high mountain but snow melts away every summer, exposing the sparse that evolve into wider and lower profiles. The typical result
and polar regions, but large areas that now have temperate plant cover of tundra or taiga. Conservation of the is a landscape with widespread small-scale modifications
climates bear relict glacial landforms that were created permafrost is essential to keep engineered structures stable by human activity, and typically with large-scale features
during the Ice Ages in the cold stages of the Pleistocene. on soils that derive their strength from the ground ice. inherited from colder climates in the past.

10
 1.1 Morphoclimatic zones

The semi-arid and savanna zones are largely shaped by The dry conditions in the hot deserts allow wind to be The hot, wet, tropical zones are distinguished by their cover
fluvial erosion and deposition, but processes are slower due a major mechanism behind sediment transport, so that of dense rain forest, which invariably requires complete
to the lower rainfall. Long-term weathering and soil erosion sand dunes and dust bowls are characteristic landforms. clearance prior to any engineering works. This exposes thick,
leave residual masses of almost unweathered rock that form However, water erosion, that follows infrequent rainstorm red, clay-rich soils that are commonly unstable when their
small, isolated hills, and gully erosion is widespread on events and flash-floods, is so powerful that dry valleys, plant cover is removed, and stable bedrock is only found
steeper slopes with little or no plant cover. wadis and fluvial sediments are features of all deserts. beneath deep weathering profiles.

11
Figure 1.2 Major global morphoclimatic zones.

12
 1.2 Global morphoclimatic zone map

Major global morphoclimatic zones (Figure 1.2) moderate to severe restrictions on the growth of vegeta- irregular in both depth and profile, leading to difficult dif-
tion. This, in turn, leads to reduced surface stability and ferential foundation conditions (see Parts 2 and 3, Figure
This map should be read in conjunction with Figure 1.1. It is a susceptibility to increased run-off when the occasional 3.8).
a simplified map and the boundaries must be considered as rainfall does occur, thereby increasing both the potential
approximate. for erosion and flash flooding (see Figure 3.6).
Climate is a major influence on the rate, scale and signifi-
• Aggressiveness is defined as a combination of high tem-
cance of the near-surface processes, weathering and erosion
peratures and low precipitation in hot drylands that results
that dominate the construction of site models. In many
in net evaporating conditions. The downward leaching of
regions, extreme climatic events (e.g. high intensity rainfall
salts within the ground is limited and even highly soluble
events) are responsible for initiating short-term changes in
salts such as sulphates and chlorides can remain in the soil
the landscape. Extreme events may also be responsible for
profile. These produce a highly aggressive environment in
a disproportionately large share of erosional changes. Cata-
which salt weathering is an important factor in rock dis-
strophism, the theory that associates past geological changes
integration and ground heave and in which concrete and
with catastrophic happenings, suggests that >90% of change
roads can also be affected. Elsewhere, duricrusts may form
takes place over <10% of time. This is valid in many environ-
from the predominant local surface material (e.g. calcrete
ments and includes effects of considerable importance to
in limestone terrains), especially in semi-arid conditions
communities and engineers, such as massive river erosion in
(see Figures 2.5 and 3.6).
major flood events and major landslides in young mountains,
and large coastal changes induced by major storm waves. • Wind action occurs worldwide, but is generally most
• Water is the most critical factor in most aspects of landform effective in hot and cool drylands with a mean annual
change in all climates. The effects of water include the rainfall <200 mm. This results in the creation of mobile
erosive power of rainfall and running water (even as rare sand and dust hazards, such as dune formation and
events in deserts and in the narrow summer melt water migration, and wind-scoured erosional features (see
window of glaciated regions), pore and cleft water pressure Figure 3.6).
in soils and rock fractures, and the influence of groundwa- • Residual soils are the product of the in situ weathering of
ter through-flow on the weathering and leaching of soils the bedrock. The soil thickness and type are broadly as-
and rocks (see Figure 2.1). sociated with the climate of the region (temperature and
• Frost action can only occur in areas where the ground tem- precipitation), which together influence the intensity of
peratures fall below freezing. Periglacial conditions occur weathering, especially in temperate and tropical envi-
outside the areas of total ice cover characterized by glacial ronments. The depth of weathering reflects the relative
landscapes and allow repeated freezing and thawing. This balance between the rate of bedrock weathering and the
maximizes the frost-splitting of rocks, freeze–thaw ground rate of removal by soil erosion or landslides. Maps of the
movements (e.g. active layer detachment slides see Figure distribution of the different types of residual soils are
5.9) and solifluction. Permafrost only develops when the helpful in a first engineering evaluation (Fookes 1997b; see
ground remains below 0°C for at least two consecutive also discussions in Part 2, especially Figure 2.2).
years. This only occurs in locations where the average air • Tropical residual soils usually exhibit a distinct engineer-
temperature is –2°C or colder (see Figures 3.1, 3.2 and 5.9). ing strength, bearing characteristics and other properties.
• Aridity in hot drylands (e.g. hot deserts and semi-de- Weathering may exceed 100 m in depth, especially in
serts) and cool drylands (e.g. the Gobi Desert) results in humid tropical environments, and will normally be highly

13
Figure 1.3 Seismo-tectonic and volcanic activity related to current tectonic plate boundaries.

14
 1.3 Crustal plates: volcanoes and earthquake zones

Major movements of crustal plates: volcanic or slide past one other, causing most of the active geological process produces numerous igneous dykes and submarine
and earthquake zones (Figure 1.3) processes encountered on Earth. These include the formation volcanoes and also creates mid-oceanic islands from the
of new igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, their excess magma – for example, Iceland, which lies on the
Landforms and their near-surface geology are ultimately the deformation and mineralization, with severe folding, faulting line of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
result of geological and geomorphological processes that and subsequent erosion. • Convergent (collision) boundaries are destructive bounda-
derive their energy from plate tectonics and the climate. Plate In the unstable areas at the plate boundaries, additional ries where one plate is subducted below the other
tectonic movements – which include mountain-building, energy is provided to alter the rate of geomorphological and and undergoes melting. The most important type of
crustal warping, earthquakes, volcanism, folding, faulting geological processes. As an illustration, young mountains in collision boundary is one where a thinner oceanic plate
and metamorphism – are a result of subsurface heat flow. an upward-moving phase are sites of landslides, erosion and is subducted beneath a thicker continental plate. This
The effects of this activity are important in many parts of the the down-cutting of rivers, which typically become more collision produces a great range of geological processes,
world, including the circum-Pacific volcanic/earthquake belt active to keep pace with the uplift. Similarly, there are upwards collectively known as orogenesis. Where plates collide,
and areas of geologically young orogenic mountains, such as or downwards changes in ground level relative to sea level. the over-riding plate is crumpled and thickened to form
the Himalayas and the Andes, which are still growing (see Examples of the effects of changes in sea level include the risk a mountain chain. Probably the clearest example is where
Figure 3.9). of coastal inundation, the rearrangement of coastal features, the eastwards moving Pacific ocean floor is subducted
The theory of plate tectonics, formulated during the late down-cutting of the long profile of rivers, or the burying of beneath the South American plate to form the geologically
1960s, unifies the processes of continental drift, sea-floor former deep channels. An understanding of plate tectonics is active Andes mountain chain.
spreading, mountain-building, seismic activity and volcanism therefore important for geologists constructing site models.
into a single coherent model. It was incorporated into taught • Transform (conservative or shear) boundaries are where
Fortunately, there are many good geological textbooks two plates meet and slide past each other in a sideways
geology courses and textbooks in the 1970s. available (e.g. Waltham, 2009; see also Bibliography, Group A movement, e.g. the San Andreas Fault. Major tear faults
Plates are formed in the lithosphere, which is the rela- books). (see Figure 1.10) are formed and intermittent movement
tively brittle outer rock layer consisting of the crust and upper The ocean crust is 5–10 km thick and forms ocean floors creates major earthquakes.
mantle of the Earth. Plates are huge broken slabs of the Earth’s composed mainly of basic basaltic and doleritic igneous
crust. The outer crust is up to about 100 km thick and consist As the major processes in plate tectonics evolve and the
rocks. It is created at divergent boundaries by upwelling and
of the thinner oceanic crust and the thicker continental crust patterns of the plates change over geological time, new
destroyed at convergent boundaries by subduction under
made from various solid silicate rocks (silicates are the most oceans open up, continents collide and may be welded onto
the thinner of the two colliding plates. The continental crust
abundant of the rock-forming minerals). The mantle, about one another. Therefore, any one place on the Earth’s surface
(20–80 km thick) is mainly made of acidic granitic and
2800 km thick, consists mainly of hot iron silicates, which is a product of the different geological environments that
gneissic rocks, which are of a lower density than the rocks of
behave in a plastic manner. Convection currents circulate have occurred throughout geological time. Time is thus
the oceanic crust. The continental crust therefore floats higher
in the mantle as a result of the heat produced by the largely the fourth dimension that must be appreciated to under-
on the mantle, forming all the continents, submerged conti-
molten iron–nickel core at the centre of the Earth. These con- stand the geology of any area and in the construction of site
nental shelves and adjacent islands. This crust is usually being
vection currents form cells in which the hotter material rises geomodels.
eroded, but may be added to by the accretion of sediments and
and the cooler material falls, with horizontal movement at the rocks scraped off any subducting oceanic plate. Ancient orogenic mountains (formed hundreds of
top of each cell immediately underneath the crust. The plates millions of years ago) are the products of plate collisions that
There are three principal types of plate boundary (also see
move very slowly, only a few centimetres per year, dragged by have now ceased. Their high lands are being constantly worn
Table 1.3.1).
the flow of the underlying convective mantle. The direction of down and their slopes are becoming flatter and more stable,
• Divergent boundaries are constructive boundaries where e.g. the Highlands of Scotland, the mountains of Wales and
movement of the plates is indicated on Figure 1.3 by arrows;
new ocean plates are formed and subsequently diverge as the moorlands of south-west England. Eventually, after a
Table 1.3.1 summarizes the characteristics of the plates.
a result of the upwelling of lighter basaltic magma (very very long period of geological time, an essentially flat, stable
The plates are relatively stable. However, major disturbanc- hot fluid rock) created by silicate liquids separating from
es occur at their boundaries where the plates collide, diverge landscape with a deep weathering profile is produced, unless
heavier iron-rich solids in the partly melted mantle. This

15
1.3 Crustal plates: volcanoes and earthquake zones

Table 1.3.1 Characteristic features of active seismo-tectonic and volcanic regions.

Tectonic zone Occurrence and general characteristics Relative importance of seismic and volcanic processes Particular geohazards
Seismic activity Volcanic activity
Divergent plate Constructive margins: tensional stress initially forms Seismically active continental rift zones Basaltic volcanism derived from rising Alternating layers of strong basalt and weak scoria with palaeosols and
boundaries a continental rift valley (e.g. the main Ethiopian (e.g. the East African Rift) experience mantle magma. Basaltic lavas advance weathered ash horizons cause cut-slope instability, excessive over-break
Rift), which develops in stages through sea-floor damaging earthquakes on moderately slowly and tephra-falls and gas releases in tunnelling and foundation problems; heavy rainfall may trigger
spreading (e.g. the Red Sea) to a mature ocean to steeply dipping normal (extensional are generally minor, so there is little landslides along faulted rift margins; under warm, wet conditions basic
basin (e.g. the Atlantic Ocean); new oceanic crust dip-slip) faults; seismic activity is threat to human life, although built volcanic rocks weather to expansive smectite-rich vertisols (e.g. black
is generated as the plates move apart at mid-ocean generally low on the spreading sections structures may be destroyed; extensive cotton soils) that cause slope instability and foundation problems; the
ridges (e.g. the Mid-Atlantic Ridge) of mid-ocean ridges, but much higher late Cretaceous–early Tertiary continental eruption of lava beneath glaciers causes destructive melt water floods
along their transform offsets flood basalts (e.g. the Deccan Plateau in (e.g. jökulhlaups in Iceland) and tectono-magmatic fissures on rift
India) are implicated in the Cretaceous– floors can disrupt transport routes
Tertiary mass extinctions
Convergent plate Destructive margins: compressional stress moves Seismically and tectonically highly Explosive andesitic volcanism caused by Explosive eruptions create very variable ground conditions in which
boundaries two plates towards each other; thinner oceanic active, with very large, damaging accumulated gas pressure; dominated strong rhyolitic lavas and welded ignimbrites alternate with loose
crust slides beneath thicker continental crust at earthquakes on shallow to moderately by pyroclastic flows, air-fall tephra and tephra and pyroclastic flow deposits and may obscure pre-existing
a subduction zone and accretionary wedges are dipping thrust faults; the world’s largest ash (e.g. the Pacific ‘ring of fire’); lateral weak strata, causing slope instability and foundation problems;
uplifted to form mountain ranges (e.g. the Andes); earthquakes occur in subduction blasts, flank collapses, nuées ardentes, major erosion and landslides occur in the young circum-Pacific and
when two oceanic plates converge, one is usually zones such as that underlying the mudflows and lahars pose a great threat Alpine–Himalayan mountain belts; andesites may weather to unstable
subducted beneath the other, forming a deep ocean circum-Pacific orogenic belt; potential to life and built structures; sulphurous gas halloysite-rich andosols in warm wet–dry climates; clouds of fine
trench and island-arc volcanoes reactivation of the Cascadia Fault off and dust emitted from a super-eruption erupted ash may disrupt air travel and large mud volcanoes may
Collision zones: when two relatively light continental the coast of British Columbia/north- in Sumatra 73,500 years ago is thought to destroy housing and farmland (e.g. Lusi, Java in 2006); strong ground-
plates converge, neither plate is subducted and the west USA is currently causing concern; have cooled worldwide temperatures by shaking can trigger rock-falls, toppling failures, large rotational slides
crust buckles to form mountains (e.g. the collision eruptions of mud, liquid and gas 3–5oC; volcanic activity is not normally and liquefaction of susceptible fine soils. Highly destructive tsunamis
of India and Asia to form the Himalayas and the from vents (mud volcanoes) are often associated with continent–continent are typically generated by sudden large displacements on offshore faults
Tibetan Plateau); many mountain chains are the associated with subduction zones and collisions
product of plate collisions that occurred between the orogenic belts
Mesozoic and the present
Transform plate Conservative margins: shear stress moves two plates Seismically active, with large damaging Volcanic activity is not normally Strong ground-shaking can trigger rock-falls, rotational landslides and
boundaries laterally past each other; lithosphere is neither earthquakes on near-vertical transform associated with transform plate earth flows; the Lisbon earthquake and tsunami of 1755, generated by
created nor destroyed; most transform boundaries (strike-slip) faults; the San Andreas boundaries movement on the Azores–Gibraltar transform fault, caused devastation
offset the spreading sections of mid-ocean ridges, Fault links two divergent boundaries, in southern Portugal and led to the birth of modern seismology
but some occur on land (e.g. the San Andreas Fault whereas the North Anatolian Fault
in the western USA and the North Anatolian Fault links two convergent boundaries
in Turkey)
Areas remote from Unforeseen release of stress within tectonic plates Occasional intra-plate earthquakes Major volcanic activity occurs above hot- Unexpected slope and foundation failures and collapse of built
plate boundaries and volcanic eruptions above magma hot-spots occur in otherwise stable continental spots (e.g. Hawaii); Yellowstone caldera structures that have not been constructed to withstand earthquakes;
regions (e.g. New Madrid, USA in in the USA is thought to be a potential sudden out-gassing of carbon dioxide from crater lakes can result
1811–1812; Guinea, west Africa in location for a very large volcanic eruption in human and animal casualties (e.g. Lake Nyos on the Cameroon
1983; Gujarat, India in 2001) in the near future Volcanic Line in 1986)

some other process, such as a continental ice sheet, removes

the ancient weathering products. Very ancient areas in the
middle of continents are called cratons (or shields), e.g. the
Mid-African Craton and the Laurentian Shield of Canada.
Younger land masses may have been welded onto their edges
to create units of a continental scale.

16
1.3 Crustal plates: volcanoes and earthquake zones

The Himalayan mountain chain (Mount Everest is towards the left) that lies along the convergent boundary between the Indian and Eurasian plates.

Uplifted oceanic crust is formed of basaltic lavas

and dykes that fill the gap created by the plate
divergence; it lies above sea level on the volcanic pile
of excess material that has formed Iceland.

Conical composite volcanoes made of andesite lavas

Divergent plate boundaries are mainly on ocean floors, but the Mid-Atlantic and tephra form an island chain along an active Basaltic pillow lavas extruded underwater
Ridge lies across Iceland. This fissure in old basalt lavas is slowly widening and convergent boundary where one oceanic plate is form oceanic crust exposed on land in a zone
steam rises from a water-table pool in the geothermally warmed zone. being subducted beneath another. of major tectonic uplift (n.b. scale person).

18
 1.3 Crustal plates: volcanoes and earthquake zones

Very old metamorphosed ironstones that were

strongly folded within an orogenic belt.
Three stages in the progressive erosion of mountain chains.
[top] Young orogenic mountains of the Karakoram form a range of
high jagged peaks with thousands of metres of local relief.
[above] Older orogenic mountains in eastern Scotland have been
Continental crust of granitic rocks forms this basement of eroded down to create a more subdued upland landscape.
high-grade gneiss, part of the Laurentian Shield. [below] Very old orogenic rocks in Western Australia have been worn
down to form a shield with low relief and at low altitude.

[above] Between the Pacific and American plates,

slow, transform fault creep on a branch of the San
Andreas Fault deforms this street without causing
any major earthquakes.
[left] Astride the main San Andreas Fault, this
fence was offset by the sudden movement that
caused the 1906 earthquake in San Francisco.

19
 tors formed by
corestones formed by
weathering where
weathering where joints
joints are widely
are closely spaced
spaced
block field
(felsenmeer, clitter) upper part of flow is
highly weathered and
stone runs obscured moderately weak
by hummocky ground thin topsoil

wind farm
strong coarse-grained GRANITE two individual flows
(amygdaloidal in upper part) of
very strong columnar jointed
xenoliths of more BASALT separated by a weak
basic composition ‘red bole’ ancient weathered
horizon rich in smectite clay
fine-grained chilled
moderately strong
margin of very strong
to strong silty
MICROGRANITE
SANDSTONE
moderately weak to
penetration moderately strong shaly
of weathering pyritic MUDSTONE (highly
beneath resistant weathered and very weak
metamorphic rocks close to ground level)

inner zone of aureole: mudstone completely

recrystallized to HORNFELS, sandstone
to QUARTZITE; both rock types extremely
strong and abrasive with closely-spaced
joints and veins of pyrite and quartz

outer zone of aureole: sedimentary rocks feeder dyke of strong DOLERITE

slightly strengthened, with some development following fault zone
of secondary quartz cement in sandstones and
appearance of discrete pyrite cubes in mudstones; weak brecciated BASALT in volcanic neck;
jointing pattern similar to that in unaltered rocks, ferromagnesian minerals entirely converted to
but some joints infilled with chlorite green smectites clay by hydrothermal activity

inclined dyke of very strong contact metamorphic aureole

MICRODIORITE – ANDESITE strong GABBRO with stoped
with well-developed medium- blocks of altered country rock
spaced subvertical joints alluvial deposits in
small buried valley

Figure 1.4 Igneous rock associations.

20
 1.4 Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks (Figure 1.4) Extrusive igneous rocks and all dykes may act as feeders for surface lava flows or
Volcanoes produce extrusive rocks, but intrusive rocks also subsurface sills. Most dykes are of a basaltic composition
Igneous rocks are formed when hot molten rock (magma) so- and they may be multiple or composite if they are formed
lidifies. Magma consists of hot solutions of several liquid rock solidify inside and beneath them. When the underlying magma
is rich in silica and viscous with a high gas pressure, volcanic by two or more injections of magma at different times.
phases, the most common of which is invariably a complex They can be up to tens of metres wide, but are usually less
silicate. Hence igneous rocks are mainly composed of silicate eruptions are usually spasmodic, violent and explosive. Silica-
poor magmas are very fluid and create quiet eruptions of more than 5 m wide. They may bake the host rock into which
minerals. Primary magma is generated by local heating and they are intruded (in zones a metre or so wide) and may
melting of rocks within the Earth’s crust and upper mantle basic lavas. There is a range of igneous rocks between these
two extremes. Pyroclastic rocks are extrusive rocks created have ‘chilled’ margins themselves. Unweathered dykes are
(see Figure 1.3). Depending on their composition, rocks typically strong rocks, but are often jointed, forming good
melt at temperatures between about 500 and 1500°C. The when fine, fragmented material (tephra) is thrown into the air
by explosive activity within the volcano. Much of this tephra is foundations and construction rock in fill, armour and
temperature of melting also depends on the pressure, which masonry.
is largely related to the depth at which melting occurs, and cooled in flight and lands as various types of pyroclastic rock,
the water content. Differentiation into separate magmas the names of which depend on the grain size and range from • Sills, like dykes, are generally thin and parallel-sided
and, ultimately, different rock types occurs when different ash (fine-grained) to tuffs and agglomerates (coarse-grained). intrusions and they usually occur over extensive areas.
minerals within the melt crystallize at different temperatures. Hot tephra erupted under high temperature conditions may However, their thickness can be very large – up to several
When crystals form at high temperatures, the composition form pyroclastic flows, which can roll down the flanks of hundred metres. Unlike dykes, they are injected in a
of the remaining liquid magma is changed and so a process volcanoes and coalesce into welded tuffs (Francis, 1993). roughly horizontal direction, but, if subsequently folded,
of fractional crystallization occurs. This produces a series their attitude takes the form of the fold. Like dykes, they
Intrusive igneous rocks may bake the host rock into which they are intruded over
of rocks that are different from the original magma. Acidic
Not all igneous rocks are produced from volcanic activity. a small distance and have ‘cooled’ margins themselves.
(granitic) and basic (basaltic) or ultrabasic lavas, and many
Major intrusions include plutonic (deep-seated) batholiths, Unweathered sills have engineering characteristics similar
others between these extremes, can be formed. For further
stocks and bosses, which are very large and are generally to dykes.
discussion, see Bibliography, Group A books, and Francis
composed of granite and related rocks. For example, the Coast
(1993). Much more could be written on the mineralogy, form and en-
Range Batholith of Alaska and adjacent Canada is exposed
When the magma cools, it solidifies into a crystal mosaic of gineering characteristics of dykes, sills and their many related
over a length of 1000 km and is between 130 and 190 km in
minerals to form an igneous rock. The form and occurrence of forms (e.g. laccoliths and phacoliths) and on the many types
width. Batholiths are associated with orogenic belts along
igneous rocks depend on their structure in or on the ground. of volcano and volcanic rocks (e.g. shield volcanoes, cinder
convergent plate boundaries. They are more or less stratified,
Acidic and basic lavas may cool over hours or days, whereas a cones, pahoehoe lava), but such a specialist study is not ap-
but are not bottomless and may bake their host country rocks
granite batholith may take millions of years to crystallize. The propriate for this book. For further reading, see Bibliography,
for some distance from the edge of the intrusion to form an
chemical composition of igneous rocks is determined by the Group A books, and Francis (1993).
aureole of contact metamorphic rocks (Figure 1.4; see also
melt forming the original magma. The crystal size and degree Figure 1.5).
of interlocking largely relate to the rate of cooling (the slower
Igneous intrusions are named by their geometric form,
the cooling, the larger the crystals) and ultimately determine
especially minor intrusions such as dykes and sills.
the strength of the rocks.
• Dykes are discordant intrusions – that is, they cut their
There are several different classification systems for
host rock at a high angle and are therefore steeply dipping,
igneous rocks, but this discussion is left to more specialized
often vertical. As a consequence, their surface outcrop is
textbooks. Essentially, igneous rocks can be classified as either
little affected by topography and they usually strike in a
extrusive or intrusive. Intrusive rocks crystallize underground
more or less straight line, e.g. the Cleveland Dyke in the
within the Earth’s crust, whereas extrusive rocks are formed
north of England, which can be traced across the country
when the magma solidifies at the surface.
for about 200 km. Large dykes may have irregular offshoots

21
1.4 Igneous rocks

[above] The Shiprock plug, in New Mexico, was a volcanic

vent and now stands 500m tall due to faster erosion of the
weaker surrounding rocks; a thin radial dyke from it now
forms a wall of strong dolerite.
Small intrusions of dolerite. [above] The Whin Sill in northern England
intruded as a sheet into sedimentary rocks. [below] A swarm of dark dykes [below] A quarry in a granite batholith has faces cut by
intruded into pink granite in a tectonic zone of tension; face is 15m high. wire saws to extract stone that is free of joints.

A Strombolian eruption from an active

vent, and a dolerite plug that solidified
within the vent of an ancient volcano.

22
 1.4 Igneous rocks

[above left] A pyroclastic flow rolls down the flank of a

volcano, and [centre] the deposits left by earlier flows.
[above right] The ruins of Pompeii that have been
excavated from the flow deposits that buried the city in
the ad79 eruption of Vesuvius (in the distance).

A dome of black andesite lava lies steaming in the crater of a large volcano On Hawaii, a new lava becomes pahoehoe as its
ten years after its eruption, with a similar conical volcano beyond. skin cools and wrinkles [above], and an old black
pahoehoe flow lies on top of a red aa flow [below].
Columnar joints formed by cooling shrinkage in a basalt lava 5 m thick.

Variation in basaltic ground, in a road cut in Hawaii,

with a solid, strong lava overlying a weaker lava with a
rubbly aa top and an open lava tube inside it.

23
 GRANITE
batholith

MINERALIZATION AND
ALTERATION RESULTING FROM
LATE-STAGE PNEUNMATOLYSIS
AND HYDROTHERMAL ACTIVITY
– metallic and gangue minerals,
tourmalinization, greisening and
kaolinization

outer zone of
aureole containing
spotted rocks

competent
SANDSTONE
bed with
refracted
cleavage

Figure 1.5 Metamorphic rock associations in a wet temperate climate (after Fookes 1997a).

24
 1.5 Metamorphic rocks

Metamorphic rocks (Figure 1.5) Fracture cleavage (shear cleavage) occurs where the cleavage if there is sufficient mica in the original sandstone. Quartzites
planes are not controlled by mineral particles in parallel orien- may have strained molecular lattices and these rocks may be
Metamorphic rocks are derived from pre-existing rocks tation. Refractured cleavage refers to the change in orientation alkali silica aggressive in concrete (see Figures 5.6 and 5.7).
that have undergone mineralogical, textural and structural of the cleavage planes as they pass through beds of different Carbonate rocks simply recrystallize to marbles; if the original
changes. These changes have been brought about within the rock types. Slaty cleavage develops in fine-grained rocks as rock was dolomitic (a calcium/magnesium carbonates), then
physical and chemical environment in which the original a result of intense deformation causing the partial recrystal- these marbles are usually yellowish or buff (see Figure 1.9).
rocks evolved by progressive transformation in the solid state. lization of platey minerals (mainly micas) parallel to the axial Basic rocks (e.g. basalt) are converted into strong greenstones
Changes in temperature and/or pressure are the primary planes of folds – that is, perpendicular to compressive forces. or weaker greenschists; at higher metamorphic grades they
agents causing metamorphic changes. Individual minerals are Flow cleavage is a further development of slaty cleavage, finally first form strong amphibolites, then granulites and, finally,
only stable over limited temperature and pressure ranges and, leading to schistosity when no trace of the original bedding eclogites under very high temperatures and pressures.
when these limits are exceeded, mineralogical adjustments remains. Foliated rocks tend to split preferentially along the Thermal (contact) metamorphism only involves high tem-
are needed to establish new equilibrium conditions within foliation planes when loaded or unloaded; the geometry of the peratures and typically occurs in metamorphic aureoles up to
the new environment. The term ‘grade’ refers to the range of failure planes is therefore an important aspect of rock stability about 2 km wide surrounding large igneous intrusions. These
temperatures under which metamorphism occurs. in engineering. igneous intrusions bake the original country (host) rock into
Temperature increases to about 600°C and/or high • Non-foliated metamorphic rocks tend to be stronger. which they were intruded. Aureoles may be sequentially zoned
pressures up to around 500 MPa (conditions typically These rocks include: hornfels, which is formed by the as the temperature decreases away from the intrusive body,
occurring about 20 km below the ground surface) induce thermal metamorphism of clay without high pressure; producing strong rocks with few joints. Thermally metamor-
various changes, including the following. marble, a metamorphosed recrystallized limestone; and phosed limestones may form marbles, sandstones tend to
• The rocks may recrystallize to form a strong mineral granulite, a high-grade metamorphic rock with little or no have their quartz grains recrystallized to form quartzites and
mosaic. The rock becomes stronger as a result of the strong mica. Gneiss is a banded metamorphic rock that results igneous rocks are usually only affected by very high grades of
interlocking of the individual grains. from the separation of dark- and light-coloured minerals. metamorphism and tend to produce gneissic rocks.
• New minerals are grown at the expense of the original Dynamic dislocation or cataclastic metamorphism is,
minerals as these become less stable under the new con- Types of metamorphism arguably, not true metamorphism because it gives rise to
ditions of increased temperature and pressure. The most Regional metamorphism occurs over extensive areas in deformation rather than transformation to new rock types. It
important changes are in the clay minerals. These minerals mountain chains formed by collision along plate boundaries. is only produced on relatively small scales, is usually highly
first transform to micas and then to feldspars, together The rocks are subjected to both high temperatures and high localized and takes place in association with large faults or
with some mafic minerals (dark-coloured silicates), as the pressures and regional metamorphism takes place when thrust movements. On larger scales, it is associated with big
metamorphic grade rises. Micas are the most common the confining pressure is typically in excess of 200 MPa. folds. Such processes produce crushing of the country rocks,
minerals in metamorphic rocks and change to feldspars Lower pressures with high temperatures causes contact seen as brecciation, granulation, mylonization, changes in
and mafic minerals only at the highest grade of meta- metamorphism. The maximum temperatures in regional pressure solutions, partial melting and slight recrystallization.
morphism. Low-grade metamorphism usually produces metamorphism are about 800°C – most rocks melt above this In extreme cases the resulting crushed material may be fused
chlorites and epidotes, both of which are distinguished by temperature. to form a vitrified rock. Rock failures tend to occur preferen-
their green colour. Slates are the product of the low-grade regional meta- tially on the planes of crushing.
In high-pressure environments, structural changes and the morphism of clay-rich sediments. As the metamorphic grade For a fuller appreciation of this complex subject, see Bibli-
reorientation of minerals occur in relation to the regional increases, these slates change to phyllites and then to mica ography, Group A books. For the engineering characteristics
pressures. New minerals grow in the direction of least resist- schists, all of which are notable for their low shear strength of metamorphic rocks, see Bibliography, Group B books.
ance, perpendicular to the maximum compressive pressure, parallel to the cleavage or schistosity (beware of instability
to create a foliation or banding in the new rocks. Planes of in steeply dipping cuts in these rocks). Sandstones change to
weakness are created by the parallel alignment of minerals. strong and hard quartzites, but quartz mica schists are formed

25
1.5 Metamorphic rocks

High-grade metamorphic rock. A folded, foliated and banded gneiss with zones of
paler migmatite, now forming the basement of an ancient shield.

[above] Metamorphic schists strongly folded

within an old orogenic belt.
[right] The giant heads of Mount Rushmore
carved into a granite with faint banding that
shows it has metamorphic origins.
[below] A stack of Welsh slates ready for use
on a roof, after each was split along its natural
cleavage to form the thin sheet, which was
then guillotined to correct size.

Best-quality slate being quarried in North Wales, where the cleavage is

nearly vertical and is crossed by at least three sets of fractures.

26
 1.5 Metamorphic rocks

Blocks of marble newly cut from a quarry face, where the mountain slopes of bare The base of a dolerite sill (at shoulder height on the person), with underlying shales (down to waist
rock beyond appear similar to terrains on any other strong limestone. height) thermally metamorphosed to dark hornfels, above pale, baked sandstone.

[above] Mineralised granite largely

altered to clay by reaction with steam
during low-grade metamorphism.
[left] Fumaroles within a geothermal
basin, where the steam is also altering A recent landslide in a mountain environment where metamorphic rocks
the rocks unseen within the ground. have failed on the steeply inclined weakness formed by their schistosity.

27
 sediment source transport corridor sediment sink

dunes partly stabilized

by vegetation: extent
of foredune erosion
controlled by storm
events and sediment
availability

active cliff recession

through landslide events
in glacial till (stiff sandy
silty clay with gravel
and cobbles) supplies
sediments to beach
(sand and gravel)

Figure 1.6 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: introduction and the coast.

28
 1.6 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: introduction and the coast

Sediments and sedimentary rocks: processes are less dominant, but include gravity, wind, ice physical and chemical systems control the final deposition of
introduction and the coast (Figure 1.6) and volcanoes. Gravity can result in landslides on slopes, sediments. Other examples of depositional situations include
producing materials such as slope colluvium (fine) and steep- river flood plains, mountain valleys and the snouts of glaciers.
This figure and Figures 1.7–1.9 all relate to sediments and sed- slope taluvium (coarse) (see Figure 3.9 and Appendix). Wind Quaternary changes in sea level have played an important part
imentary rocks. The figures have been arranged to introduce can move fine, dry particles up to sand size (see Figure 3.6). in the history of coastal evolution (see Introduction, Bibliog-
the common sediments, the deposition of sediments and the Ice is a powerful transporting agent, but is restricted to cold raphy, Group A books, and Fookes et al., 2005).
lithification processes that form coastal sedimentary rocks. environments (see Figures 3.1 and 3.2). Volcanoes can blast Beaches are stores of gravel and sand supplied from source
Similar stories can be told for other sedimentary depositional debris over the landscape (see Figure 1.4). areas on the adjacent coastline and offshore. They can be
environments, such as river terraces, deltas, under glaciers Some minerals are transported by solution in water and are viewed as part of a larger system, a coastal cell (or sediment
and within deserts. Soils (young sediments), which are very then precipitated in an appropriate chemical environment. The transport cell) within which a range of sediment transfers
important in engineering geology, play only a small part in main soluble mineral is calcite (calcium carbonate) and this takes place. Beach-building materials might be supplied from
Figures 1.6–1.9 and are discussed further in Figure 2.1, Parts 3 is widely deposited to form limestone. Evaporite sediments, the seabed, moved onto the shore by wave energy, or supplied
and 4 and the Appendix. including chlorides (rock salt) and sulphates (gypsum), are from the land by rivers and eroding cliffs. This material is
Sediments are mainly derived from the weathering and deposited under evaporating conditions. Organic sediments also then redistributed along the shoreline by waves (longshore
subsequent erosion of rocks, followed by redeposition on the contain carbonaceous materials; these may be formed in situ drift) unless prevented by barriers such as headlands or recent
surface of the Earth. When rocks are exposed to air and water, (e.g. peats) and also include algal muds and shell debris, which groynes and harbour works. Some of the material can be lost
they slowly break down to form soil, either in situ or after trans- eventually form different varieties of limestone (see Figure 1.9). from the cell around the seaward end of such barriers to be
portation (e.g. by wind, water or ice), and are subsequently Coastal longshore drift and onshore/offshore exchanges of later deposited further down the coast or in the deeper sea,
deposited. Natural transportation processes are dominated by coarser sediment are driven by wave energy. Storms arrive at particularly during large storms. This can result in a net loss
water, which sorts and selectively deposits its sediment load, infrequent and irregular intervals, removing material from of local beach-building materials. An example of such a loss
usually graded by grain size. Ultimately, nearly all sediments the upper beach berm and depositing it offshore in the form has occurred from Dawlish beach (Devon, UK), which once
are deposited in the sea as stratified layers or beds of sorted of bars. Subsequent smaller waves slowly sweep the material protected Brunel’s Victorian promenade and railway – these
material. They may be temporarily stored en route to the sea back onto the beach. Longshore drift generally occurs in are now subject to storm wave attack.
as, for example, alluvial river terraces. Loading on the loose pulses during and immediately after storms. Over the course
and unconsolidated material by subsequent deposits eventu- of a year, waves arrive at a beach from a range of directions
ally turns the sediments into sedimentary rocks. Other types and, as the wave approach angle changes, so the local direction
of sediments are made from organic materials or by chemical of the longshore drift changes.
processes.
Coastal cells. The shoreline consists of a series of inter-
Sediment transportation. The most abundant sediment linked systems within which sediment is moved along energy
is detrital (or clastic) material consisting of particles of clay, gradients from high-energy sources (e.g. eroding cliffs or
silt, sand and coarser debris, all derived from the weather- near-shore sandbanks) by sediment transportation pathways
ing and erosion of older rocks. Rivers move the majority of (e.g. beaches) to temporary low-energy sediment stores such
sediments on land, with the coarser debris being rolled along as sand dunes or offshore banks. The boundaries of sediment
the river bed and finer particles carried in suspension. The cells occur where there is a zone without breaking waves or
sediment is generally sorted into single sizes during transpor- where the angle of wave approach is parallel to the beach.
tation (i.e. mainly sands or mainly clays) by decreases in the These can be fixed, such as at headlands or river mouths, or
water velocity. Sediments are also moved in the sea, mainly free, as in energy convergence or divergence zones.
in coastal waters (Figure 1.6), where wave action and near-
Beaches. Figure 1.6 shows a common coastal depositional
shore currents can reach the shallow sea floor. Other transport
environment and introduces a typical situation in which local

29
1.6 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: introduction and the coast

Clay, siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate [across the top] are the
sedimentary rocks formed from mud, silt, sand and gravel [beneath];
[above] Eroding cliffs of weak sandstone in a temperate the clay and the mud have dried, and normally are wet and plastic.
environment; these are a major source of beach sediment.
[right] Weathering cliffs feed an active scree slope that adds to
the sediment load carried by the river out to the coast.

An arcuate delta is formed of sandy sediment that is deposited by a

river more rapidly than it can be carried away by wave action.

[above] These cliffs of weak glacial till on England’s east coast

retreat at an average of 2 metres per year by repeated small
landslides that are a major supply of beach sediment.
[right] Cusps are developed in beach sediment where the waves
approach at right angles, as in a sheltered bay. A beach stores sand that is eventually carried out to deeper water.

30
 1.6 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: introduction and the coast

Sandbanks fill an estuary where a river arrives at sea-level.

Longshore drift extends a barrier spit by carrying beach Coastal sand dunes are formed, and replenished, by
sediment and river alluvium across the mouth of a river. beach sand that is blown inland by the wind.
[left] Timber groynes
interrupt longshore
drift on a sandy beach
and a shingle storm
beach at its crest.
[right] Barrier islands
are transient offshore
sand ridges stabilised
by plants on a rising,
emergent coastline.

A tombolo formed where beach sand accumulated in the lee of an A Scottish salt marsh at high tide level,
island extends as a spit to connect to the same island. formed of sediment colonised by plants. Swamp is where a future coal seam is formed if later buried by sand.

31
 salt marsh
development (barrier islands and tidal
controlled by tidal coastal channels generally stable)
exchange of water alluvium lagoonal
relatively high influx of and sediment and tidal flat barrier
deposits transition
terrigenous sediment sands zone deposits

open marine
groundwater flow shelf deposits
facies
geome
try in a
(falling regressive s
sea lev horelin
el) e

lagoon barrier island: ends shaped by

(sheltered, possibly LWM storm and tidal action; multiple
alluvial coastal plain complex: brackish water) beach ridges develop around tidal
creek
meandering river alluvium, peaty channels; dunes may develop
swamps, sandy beach deposits M
LW
and aeolian dunes tidal flats
open marine shelf: soft,
thickly laminated terrigenous
infilled creek silty CLAY with marine fauna;
deposited below wave base

lagoonal and tidal flat complex:

soft, becoming firm to stiff with depth,
thinly interlaminated CLAY and
SILT, with some fine sand: ripples, erosion centre with over-wash
burrows and infilled cracks in tidal flat fans in lowest part of barrier
deposits; ripples and bioturbation in tra
lagoonal deposits ns
(ri gres longshore drift (movement of sediment)
sin s
g ive
se s
a ho tidal channel: complex deposits resulting from
le re
ve lin scouring and slumping; dominated by ebb tide
l) e

basal conglomerate

barrier island facies: medium dense well-sorted medium- transition zone: interlaminated SAND,
grained SAND; bedding generally dips gently seawards; SILT and CLAY with ripples and burrows;
locally dune-bedded; cross-bedded in tidal channels grain size decreases seawards

earlier sedimentary rocks

Figure 1.7 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a linear clastic barrier island beach on the edge of a shelf sea.

32
 1.7 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a linear clastic barrier island beach

Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a linear Examples of such beaches are the barrier chains on the eastern • Barrier islands (as shown in Figure 1.7) frequently occur
clastic barrier island beach (Figure 1.7) coast of the USA (e.g. North Carolina), which total over in chains parallel to the shore, commonly extending over
310 km in length. In the British Isles, Chesil Beach (Dorset) 100 km, with individual islands separated by tidal inlets,
Shallow shelf sea environments exist on the continental shelf and Slapton Sands (Devon) are good examples. e.g. Padre Island (Texas, USA), which is over 200 km long.
where sediments of cobbles, pebbles and sand of differing The forms of barrier beach vary with tidal range. • Back-barrier deposition is dependent on the presence
grades are deposited, together with various muds and calcare-
• Microtidal barriers (<2 m) are dominated by waves and of tidal inlets. Continuous barriers. Impeded drainage of
ous materials. Their behaviour during storms is of particular
tend to be long, narrow and continuous with a limited fresh water behind the barrier allows the development
significance to coastal engineering.
number of tidal inlets. The inlets may develop wash-over of lagoons infilled with land deposits, such as peats, e.g.
This figure continues the story started in Figure 1.6 sites during severe storms. Transgressive barriers occur Slapton Ley (Devon, UK).
and portrays a hypothetical barrier beach with a mesotidal where the beach deposits override any marsh sedimenta-
range of 2–3 m in a temperate climate. The figure models • Discontinuous barriers. These allow the free inflow of salt
tion. Regressive barriers allow only limited back-barrier water into the back-barrier. The sediments are a mixture of
a shallow coastal sea (on a continental shelf) showing the sediments to accumulate and marshes are built on these.
surface erosional and depositional activities and the way in marine-derived and terrestrially (land) derived sediments,
which deposits build up. It gives a fairly specific, but simpli- • Mesotidal barriers (2–4 m) have a mixed-energy regime including over-wash deposits, marine muds, sands and
fied, example of a coastal system (for further information, and tend to be segmented islands cut by frequent tidal peats (e.g. Chesil Beach and the Fleet Lagoon, UK).
see Bibliography, Group A books, and Fookes et al., 2007). inlets (e.g. the East Friesian Islands, Germany). Tidal flows
Figure 1.8 shows what this barrier beach could look like a few generate ebb and flood tide deltas around the inlets and
tens to hundreds of millions of years in the future when the multiple beach ridges occur at the ends of the islands.
sediments have been changed (lithified) to their equivalent There is a great diversity of barrier forms, although three main
sedimentary rocks, assuming that there is no disruption due types can be identified.
to plate tectonic activity. • Spits of sand or gravel attached to the mainland at one
Barrier beaches are free-standing linear sand or shingle end, with the far end in open water. These barriers form
features that tend to run parallel to the shoreline. They may because there is an energy gradient between the coast and
be topped by back-beach deposits, including dunes, and a section of the shoreline (e.g. an embayment) where wave
may extend from several hundreds of metres to well over refraction and divergence result in a lower wave energy
100 km in length. The barrier beach separates the open regime. Like other forms, they extend into deeper water
shelf environment from tidal flats, lagoons and salt marsh until a point is reached where the sediment supply is less
systems, which usually pass landward into coastal plains. than the rate of erosion (e.g. Farewell Spit, New Zealand
Barrier beaches are commonly associated with the following is 3 km long). Spits may have various curved forms (e.g.
conditions. Spurn Head at the mouth of the Humber, UK). Tombolos
• Generally moderate to low wave energy environments are sediment links from the mainland to offshore islands,
that are occasionally exposed to very high-energy events e.g. Chesil Beach, which links the mainland to the Isle of
(e.g. hurricanes and tropical storms), which may cause Portland.
catastrophic changes. • Welded barriers are attached to the mainland at both ends,
• High sediment availability during the development phase enclosing a lagoon, e.g. Martha’s Vineyard (south of Cape
(e.g. from adjacent rivers or eroding cliffs) and micro- Cod, Massachusetts, USA), or wetlands such as Slapton
to mesotidal conditions (tidal range <4 m). Sands (Devon, UK). They are common on microtidal
coasts where there is insufficient tidal energy to maintain
• Low angle offshore seabed slopes.
a tidal inlet.

33
 FORMER OPEN
FORMER TRANSITION ZONE
MARINE SHELF
FORMER BARRIER ISLAND

FORMER LAGOONAL AND TIDAL FLAT COMPLEX

glacial till
basal conglomerate

unconformity
moderately weak to earlier sedimentary
moderately strong thinly rocks
interlaminated and
lenticular MUDSTONE,
30 m
SILTSTONE and silty fine-
grained SANDSTONE
100 mm diameter
borehole core

burrow tidal creek infill

1m
LO
W
Q
AG UALI
GR TY
EG FLA
AT
E KY 100 mm diameter
borehole core principal
moderately strong, very thinly cross- rock types
bedded fine-grained SANDSTONE
with mica films on ripple surfaces groundwater
confined by mudstone
moderately weak thickly 1m
impermeable
laminated SILTSTONE mudstone
with some bioturbation and water-table
siltstone
collapse structures
M
QU ODE moderately strong, very 100 mm diameter tidal channel infill
AL RA thinly cross-bedded silty
ITY TE borehole core sandstone
AG Y G fine-grained SANDSTONE
GR OO
EG D
AT
E
3m
very strong thickly
bedded medium-grained Blocks A, B and C are examples of some of the different
SANDSTONE facies. They have been enlarged to illustrate the variety
HIG
HQ of small-scale sedimentary structures in the deposit
UA strong medium cross-bedded
LIT
YA fine-grained SANDSTONE
GG
RE
GA
TE

Figure 1.8 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a quarry in ancient sedimentary rocks – the lithified equivalent of the modern barrier beach sediments in Figure 1.7.

34
 1.8 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a quarry in ancient rocks

Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a quarry coarse-grained clastic sediment. All sedimentary rocks are stress. Such clays have a lower porosity and higher strength
in ancient rocks – the lithified equivalent of layered, although the layering may not be recognizable in as a result of the overconsolidated process and become ‘stiff ’.
a small exposure of thick-bedded (up to metres between Ultimately, claystones (very stiff clays with some cementa-
modern barrier beach sediments (Figure 1.8)
bedding planes) or ‘massive’ (without discontinuities) sedi- tion) and laminated shales may be formed under very high
Understanding the lithification of deposited sediments helps mentary rock. loads (see Appendix for engineering considerations related to
in the production of the initial model of the engineering site, For unconsolidated (i.e. as-deposited) sediments to overconsolidated).
in part because the extent of lithification is a major factor in be turned into a stronger sedimentary rock, they must be Sediments coarser than clays are composed of granular
determining the strength and mass of the rocks. Induration is lithified. Several lithification processes take place over short to material, mostly quartz, although mica, feldspar, rock
the process of hardening of sedimentary rocks over time. long periods of geological time depending on the conditions fragments and volcanic debris are relatively common. Organic
Figure 1.8 models the lithification (the transformation of and the original sediment type. The texture of a sedimentary debris is typically dominated by calcite (calcium carbonate)
sediments into rocks) of the modern barrier beach shown in rock refers to the shape, size and arrangement of its constitu- from marine or freshwater shell debris and forms a special
Figure 1.7 over a moderately long period of geological time ent particles, all of which can be described and measured case. It recrystallizes to form limestone and related rocks.
(commonly at least millions to tens of millions of years). The in the field or laboratory. The matrix of a sedimentary rock The following processes are common in lithification.
figure is again hypothetical and illustrates what may happen refers to the fine material trapped in the pore spaces between • Compaction. Restructuring to a tighter grain packing
to modern sediments deposited in a geological system. Only a coarser grains. Fine-grained sediments have a higher porosity with a decrease in the inter-grain volume as a result of the
small proportion of geological deposits are preserved as hard than those with coarser grains and can therefore undergo a burial load. An increase in strength occurs due to closer
rocks, and even less on land than in marine situations. Preser- greater amount of consolidation. Muds and clays may have grain-to-grain packing and the loss of water.
vation depends on whether the burial conditions are right; if original porosities of up to about 80%, compared with up to
• Cementation. The filling of inter-granular pore spaces
post-depositional erosion occurs, then the sediments will be about 50% in sands and silts. The amount of volume lost on
by deposits of a mineral cement (e.g. calcite) brought in
recycled (Bibliography, Group A books, and Selley, 1996). consolidation in sands and silts is usually low, but can be as
by circulating groundwater or derived from the partial
In general, only some of the sediments in a depositional high as 25%; in clays it may be up to 55% (see Appendix for
solution of the grains. A cement may subsequently be fully
environment will be preserved. Subsequent diagenetic (low further discussion).
or partially removed by leaching. The rock strength and
temperature and pressure) changes and new near-surface The consolidation of clays and silty clays generally refers colour are dependent on the type or types of cement. Silica
conditions influence the lithification processes, so it is usually to the increase in strength resulting from the restructuring is usually the strongest cement, followed by iron oxides
difficult for geologists to interpret the original depositional of particles to a denser configuration (individual particles and calcite, with clay the weakest. Siltstones, sandstones
conditions. The geological cycle ensures that near-surface becoming closely packed and even deformed), the loss of and conglomerates are typically lithified by cementation.
rocks will eventually be modified by the heat and pressure of water (originally trapped as the sediment was deposited) and
tectonic forces, often completely changing their characteris- • Recrystallization. The small-scale solution and redeposi-
reduced porosity. These processes are all caused by compac-
tics so that the original sediments may not be recognized. The tion of minerals. As some grains become smaller and others
tion under load. It can also include some cementation and
inevitable fate (typically over a very long period of geological become larger, a closer packing arrangement may produce
new mineral growth. Normally consolidated clays are those
time) of all crustal rocks is to become weathered and removed a stronger mosaic texture. This is the dominant process
which have never been under a higher load than that of their
by erosion, which makes them available for a new cycle of in carbonate rocks and accounts for the great strength of
existing overburden. Most young soils are in this condition.
deposition. many limestones. Metamorphism is an extreme state of
However, clays that have been under a higher load in their
alteration involving high temperatures and/or pressures
geological past (buried by sediments deposited later) become
Lithification overconsolidated when some or all of the covering rock is
and results in a much greater degree of recrystallization. It
There are two principal groups of sediments: clastic (particles is not considered to be a sedimentary lithification process
subsequently removed by erosion. Most bedrock clays fall
or grains) and non-clastic (produced by chemical or bio- (see Figure 1.5).
into this category (e.g. mid-Tertiary age London Clay). Some
chemical precipitation). Clastic sediments are composed of clays have become overconsolidated as a result of previous
fine (clay-sized) to much coarser grains. Gravel is a typical ice-loading or as a consequence of former horizontal tectonic

35
1.8 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a quarry in ancient rocks

Coal Measures are sequences of sandstones, commonly buff coloured, and shales (which are generally
grey and darker than the sandstones) with about 2% of thin black coal seams and thin grey seatearths.
[above] Alternating sequence of thinly bedded sandstones, shales and
siltstones uplifted tectonically but still almost horizontal.
[below] Horizontal flagstone, sandstone that breaks into thin flags, in
an old mine, with a roof support pillar made of waste flagstones.

[above] Strong, coarse sandstone may be known as

gritstone, and was widely cut into millstones.
[above right] This cross-bedded sandstone is a
lithified sand dune about 15 metres tall.
[right] Cross bedded sandstone that was formed on
the front of an advancing river delta.

36
 1.8 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: a quarry in ancient rocks

Three sandstones of varying strength, all exposed and eroded in semi-arid environments: [left], a poorly consolidated, weak
sandstone that is easily eroded into badlands; [middle], a medium strong sandstone that has been carved to create a giant
statue of Buddha; [right], a strong sandstone that stands in vertical cliffs hundreds of metres tall along a canyon.

[above] Dipping sandstones in beds of different thickness, all

degrading to form a footslope debris of blocks and loose sand.
[right] Two mudrocks of varying strength: above, a weak and
Crags of coarse, strong sandstone, known as gritstone, with poorly lithified clay that is easily eroded into badland terrain;
weathered cliff profiles that reflect variations in the mineral below, a strong, bedded mudstone that has been well lithified
cementation and erosional resistance of the rock. and folded before erosion into rock slabs.

37
 supratidal marsh:
sabkha with
evaporites (halite, high rates of
gypsum) may form evaporation in
in arid climates arid climates,
possible possible resulting in
low influx of
groundwater intrusion hypersaline
terrigenous
flow of saline conditions beach ridge (loose to medium dense
sediment
water mixed terrigenous and carbonate SAND)
contin
ental
platfo
intertidal flat: soft to firm silty CLAY rm
with desiccation cracks, algal mats
and sand-filled abandoned channels; shelf sea (neritic zone)
mangrove swamps may occur in
humid tropical climates (mixed
terrigenous and lagoonal mud)

lagoonal deposits (subtidal): Zone of lower

hydraulic energy: very soft, becoming firmer with
depth, laminated CARBONATE MUD (calcilutite) with
some burrows; some microcrystalline dolomite and
possibly other evaporites (e.g. anhydrite, halite)

Zone of higher hydraulic energy: pelletal PACKSTONE

(calcarenite) and WACKESTONE (calcilutite) with
some burrows; pisoliths locally
Strength and density vary with degree of cementation
and depth

barrier reef facies: (variously weak to moderately

strong with variable void contents)

back reef: GRAINSTONE (calcarenite), possibly cross-

apron fan
bedded, with some ooliths
reef core: BOUNDSTONE (biolithite) with a skeletal framework
of calcareous sponges, bryozoans, corals, etc
fore reef: talus slope CARBONATE SANDS and BRECCIA (calcarenite abyssal zone: basinal facies
and calcirudite) with carbonate mud matrix; slumping comprising soft thinly bedded
arbitrary limestone or laminated CARBONATE
bedrock overlying ancient MUD, possibly argillaceous or
crystalline rocks siliceous. with pelagic shells

fine reef front and

NB The environments depicted here may not all terrigenous debris carbonate turbidites may be deposited:
occur together at the present time, but may have characterized by graded bedding (and
occurred in the past (e.g. Permian, Texas) less commonly by a Bouma sequence),
scour marks, load casts, etc

Figure 1.9 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: carbonates in subtropical and tropical depositional environments.

38
 1.9 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: carbonates

Sediments and sedimentary rocks: carbonates currently depositing evaporites (e.g. the Dead Sea, the Caspian major islands on oceanic banks. The term ‘mud’ is preferred
(Figure 1.9) Sea and parts of the Arabian Gulf, including local sabkhas in to ‘clay’ (for clay-sized particles) in fine carbonate sediments
coastal environments) are relatively minor compared with the as these are primarily composed of fine carbonate particles
Figure 1.9 is an idealized pictorial block model of subtropical numerous ancient evaporating seas that occurred in earlier, and not clay minerals; ‘lime mud’ can be used for emphasis.
and tropical carbonate marine shelf facies (closely related rock hotter periods of the Earth’s history (e.g. the Permian). Today, Low-energy depositional sites typically produce strong, dense
types) and illustrates some of the most common environments there is insufficient evaporation of salt-containing waters for limestones, although this situation can be complicated by sub-
that produce mainly carbonate sediments and, eventually, any minerals other than carbonates to be precipitated. sequent recrystallization.
limestone rocks. This figure introduces some of the charac- All carbonate sediments have a similar basic chemistry, The engineering properties of older carbonate sediments
teristics of the extensive and complex carbonate family (for but the processes by which they are formed vary. Carbonate are influenced by the grain size and post-depositional changes
more detailed discussion, see Bibliography, Group A books, sediments include the following types. that bring about induration (hardening) and increase the
and Bell, 2000). strength of the rocks. Limestone is perhaps more prone to
• Material precipitated from water as a result of evaporation
Carbonate rocks and the concentration of the remaining solution, which pre- and post-consolidation changes than any other rock
eventually forms a rock or cement of chemical origin. type. After burial, limestones can be modified by chemical
By definition, carbonate sediments and rocks contain
• Particulate (clastic) materials, such as fragments of older changes to such an extent that their original characteristics
more than 50% carbonate minerals (minerals composed of
limestones that were transported and eventually cemented are obscured or even obliterated. The induration of carbonate
carbonate anions combined with one or more cations). The
to form a rock of mechanical origin (e.g. conglomerates sediments often starts during the early stages of deposition as
most common carbonate mineral is calcite (calcium carbonate,
and breccias). a result of cementation, which occurs where individual grains
CaCO3), which is the principal component of limestones. The
are in contact (e.g. many of the Tertiary limestones in Britain).
term carbonate can be used to describe all rocks and sediments • The skeletal remains of animal bodies made of carbon-
Cementation is therefore not solely dependent on the influence
composed principally of carbonates, including dolomites, ates, such as broken shells, coral reefs and similar organic
of denser packing resulting from an increase in overburden
dolostones and the other dolomitic rocks that contain high material, which eventually become cemented to form a
pressure. As induration can take place at the same time as
proportions of magnesium carbonate. Iron and other less rock of mainly biological origin.
deposition, this means that carbonate sediments can sustain
common carbonates can also be included. For basic clarifica- • The widespread white/cream rock of North America, high overburden pressures so that they become moderately
tions of mixed carbonate rocks see Tables 1.9.1 and 1.9.2. the Middle East and Europe, ‘chalk’, is predominately strong, yet still retain high porosities at considerable depths
Carbonate sediments are formed in many marine and composed of tiny deep-sea calcareous organisms (e.g. coc- (e.g. many Jurassic limestones in Britain). A layer of cemented
some terrestrial depositional environments, but are most colithophores and foraminifera), which fall to the sea floor grains may even overlie one that is poorly cemented. High
abundant on the floor of shallow tropical seas. Carbonate after death. overburden pressures, creep and recrystallization eventually
minerals precipitate from carbonate-saturated water by bio-
The engineering characteristics of young carbonate sediments produce a crystalline limestone with a very low porosity and
chemical or chemical processes and accumulate in many ways:
are related to their texture. The texture is directly related to the very high strength (e.g. Carboniferous limestones in Britain).
as the skeletal remains of organisms; as inorganic growths that
turbulence of the water in which the sediment was deposited. In summary, the engineering performance of a limestone
nucleate on fine mobile debris in shallow seas; as crusts within
In a particular sediment, the relative proportion of mud matrix cannot be judged only on its name as there are many variables
arid soils; as laminated precipitates on the walls of limestone
to cement is an index of the water turbulence or mechani- that influence the engineering characteristics of the limestone
caves; and on the ground around hot-springs. When a body of
cal energy. Depositional areas with higher energies produce family. These include the following variables.
water contains salts, these crystallize out as the water evapo-
clean, well-sorted, coarse-grained carbonate sediments, • Mineral composition. The different carbonate minerals
rates. The first salts to be deposited are carbonates, which are
whereas areas of lower energy are responsible for muddy include: calcite (CaCO3), the most common carbonate
less soluble than the other common evaporite minerals (e.g.
deposits. High-energy sites include beaches, surf zones, dunes material, which, on recrystallization, produces strong
sulphates, chlorides) deposited subsequently. Typical locations
and tidal channels. Fine-grained carbonate sediments, i.e. rocks; aragonite (CaCO3), which only occurs in younger,
of crystal deposition are narrow arms of the sea in the tropics,
muds, generally accumulate in calmer protected areas such weaker limestones; dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2), which
land-locked basins and hot desert lakes. The bodies of water
as lakes, lagoons, deep-sea basins and areas on the lee side of typically produces a stronger stone valued as an aggregate

39
1.9 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: carbonates

source; and siderite (FeCO3), which is an ironstone and Table 1.9.1 Classification of impure carbonate rocks (after Fookes, 1988).
is less common. Carbonates may be admixed with clay
minerals or quartz. percent carbonate percent carbonate
0 10 50 90 100 0 5 20 35 65 80 95 100
• Origin. This influences the rock strength. Carbonates

Conglo-
may be formed from shallow detrital (clastic) sediments,

merate
Carbonate Conglomeratic
by chemical precipitation, by reef-building organisms, or conglomerate limestone

Clayey marlstone
Limey marlstone
from deep-sea micro-fossils (e.g. chalk).

Marly limestone
Marly claystone
Siltstone Sandstone

Limestone

Limestone
Marlstone
Claystone
• Grain size and texture. These can both vary enormously. Carbonate Sandy
• Degree of induration. Recrystallization and the degree of sandstone limestone
induration (if any) both largely account for the dry rock
strength, which can range from weak to very strong. Note
Carbonate Silty
that the saturated strength is typically a little less than the
siltstone limestone
dry strength.
At any one site, limestones may grade horizontally and/ 100 95 80 65 35 20 5 0
or vertically into related sedimentary types – for example, percent clay
a pure limestone with an increasing clay content may grade Silt, sand and gravel carbonate rocks Clay carbonate rocks
into a limey marlstone, then a marlstone, clayey marlstone
and, finally, a pure claystone. A marl is a mixture of clay and
calcium carbonate (Tables 1.9.1 and 1.9.2). Table 1.9.2 Classification of mixed carbonate rocks in percentage carbonate and predominant grain size (after
Dearman, 1981).
percent carbonate
0 10 50 90 100
NON-LIMESTONE LIMESTONE

Carbonate Gravelly
Conglomerate Calcirudite
predominant grain size (mm)

conglomerate limestone
2
Carbonate Sandy
Sandstone Calcarenite

Limestone
sandstone limestone
0.06
Carbonate Silty
Siltstone Calcisiltite
Mudstone

siltstone limestone
0.002
Carbonate Clayey
Claystone claystone limestone Calcilutite
Marlstone

Note: (1) Non-carbonate constituents are rock fragments or quartz, micas, clay minerals (2) Predominant grain size implies over 50%.

40
1.9 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: carbonates

The environments of limestone formation in tropical seas around Fiji:

[above], a lagoon inside a coral reef, and [below], a reef-fringed shelf with
a central island that is essentially a sand mound of coral fragments.

Reef environments in warm waters where many

types of limestone originate: [above] numerous types
of hard coral form the calcite framework of a reef;
[above right] corals are just one part of the complex
life assemblage forming a reef in shallow water that is
clear and clean because it is free of any detrital sand
or mud derived from land.

[above] Polished face of a slab of limestone formed

almost entirely of shell fragments (the large dark
shell is 10 mm across).
A beach of white sand formed entirely of fragments of [left] A lagoon beach that is composed entirely of the
shell washed in by the waves from the sea bed. shells of a single species of bivalve cockle.

42
 1.9 Sediments and sedimentary rocks: carbonates

Chalk cliffs 70m high along the English coast; though A weak, chalky limestone is sawn by hand into blocks that
the chalk is a weak rock, the cliffs are kept vertical by case-harden by re-deposition of carbonate in the surface
rockfalls above marine toe erosion that is faster than layers after a few weeks of exposure and drying.
surface erosion where rainwater sinks underground.
[left]A giant salt pan on the Andean Altiplano; it
becomes a lake every winter, when new salt crystals
grow along desiccation cracks that formed in the
summer.
[below]A lens of strong, massive, unbedded limestone,
about 30 metres thick, originated as an algal reef within
a bedded sequence of tropical lagoonal limestones.

Horizontal, strong, bedded limestone forms the vertical

Thin bands of limestones interbedded with shales form the cliffs that rise more than 100 metres on each side of a
distinctive rock sequences of the Lias in England. narrow gorge lost from sight in deep shadow.

43
 oblique

Figure 1.10 Geological structures (after Fookes 1997a).

44
 1.10 Geological structures

Geological structures (Figure 1.10) Non-tectonic (diagenetic) structures are formed in • Strike-slip faults (transcurrent wrench or tear faults)
sediments during diagenesis changes at low temperatures and are those in which movement is essentially horizontal
The stresses generated by plate tectonics can be accommodated pressures after deposition and can include small-scale folding, parallel to the fault strike. The faults are either right-lat-
by extremely slow plastic flow and the deformation of rocks, jointing, faulting, fissuring and lithification. These features are eral (dextral) or left-lateral (sinistral) depending on the
or by fracturing. The structure of the rock and, consequently, particularly important in the behaviour of engineering soils. relative motion of the block on the opposite side of the
the rock mass is related to the regional and local geological fault. In earthquakes, active surface ruptures, which are
stress histories. An understanding of geological structures can Common structural features almost entirely secondary, are the results of near-surface
help to unravel the local or site-specific structural conditions Joints are minor tensile or very minor shear fractures within a deformation during earthquake vibrations. They can
and can be incorporated into the geomodel. The term ‘strata’, rock mass along which no significant movement has occurred. cause a zone, many kilometres wide, of ground-cracking
as used here, is applied to rocks that form layers or beds. For They can develop in nearly all rocks. The frequency or density and the bulging and tearing of near-surface materials. The
further discussion, see Bibliography, Group A books. of joints and their length can be extremely variable and these transform faults that form some plate boundaries are a
factors are the primary features that determine the strength of type of strike-slip fault.
Definitions
a rock mass. Joints commonly occur in distinct patterns related
The two dominant groups of features produced when strata are Sustained stress under high confining pressures below the
to the history of the region and can form sets of parallel joints,
deformed by movements of the Earth’s crust are folds, where ground surface can lead to a range of folded bedrock struc-
or joint systems involving several sets. Planes of weakness
the rocks have become buckled, and faults, where the rocks tures, from gentle tilting and doming to intense deformation
in foliated metamorphic rocks develop independent of the
fracture. A fold is produced when a more or less planar surface and crumpling (see Figure 1.10).
bedding, causing rock cleavage and schistosity (see Figure 1.5).
or rock unit is deformed to give a curved surface or feature. Most folds originate at depth and are formed slowly in geo-
In the UK, the word ‘discontinuity’ is used in engineering for
A fault represents a surface of discontinuity along which the logical time. Simple forms include anticlines (up-folds with
all forms of fracture, including joints; however, in the USA and
strata on either side have been displaced relative to each other. the oldest beds in the centre of the fold structure), synclines
Australia the word ‘defect’ is used. Discontinuities, including
The orientation of beds, bedding planes, folds, faults and any (down-folds with the youngest beds in the centre) and peri-
bedding, tend to be the dominant control in the stability of rock
other planar structures are described in geology by their ‘strike’ clines (dipping anticlines). These folds are symmetrical if the
slopes. A geomechanical survey of the discontinuities in a rock
and ‘dip’. The strike is the direction in which a horizontal line dips on the opposing flanks are the same, otherwise they are
slope is an important component in the evaluation of hazards
can be drawn on a dipping (inclined) planar surface. This term asymmetrical (e.g. over-folds, recumbent folds). Monoclines
from rock-falls and in pre- or post-slope failure construction
is also used in the same sense to indicate the general trend or are one-limbed folds; on either side of monoclines the strata
work on rock slopes.
run of the beds in an area. The true dip of a plane is the angle are horizontal or only gently dipping. Periclines are anticlines
Faults are discontinuities (fractures) on which movement that are folded so that they appear as very elongate domes in
that it makes below the horizontal, the angle being measured in
between the opposite faces of the fault has occurred (Figure 1.10). plan. Recumbent folds occur where rocks are overturned and
a direction perpendicular to the strike. The apparent dip is the
• Normal faults (or extensional faults) are those in which are the product of major horizontal compression; this may
angle measured in any other direction, usually on small, poorly
the hanging wall has moved downwards relative to the lead to shearing in the upper part of the fold so that a nappe is
exposed locations in the field.
foot wall. Ground ruptures can occur along multiple created above a thrust fault (a type of low angle reverse fault).
The hade is the angle between a fault plane and the vertical.
fault splays (series of small branching faults) across zones Folds near the ground surface and exposed by erosion
The hanging wall refers to the fault block that lies above any
several kilometres wide. can dominate the landscape with forms that mimic the fold
inclined fault surface, whereas the foot wall refers to the fault
block that lies below any inclined fault surface. The vertical • Reverse faults are those in which the hanging wall has moved pattern (e.g. the Zagros Mountains, Iran). Inverted relief
component of displacement along a fault plane is called the up relative to the foot wall. Fault traces typically form a occurs where long-term weathering and erosion have pref-
throw and the heave refers to the horizontal displacement. sinuous, discontinuous line across the ground surface. Such erentially removed the weaker or more fractured beds in the
Where the displacement along a fault includes a vertical fault movements commonly cause earthquakes associated core or flanks of the fold, leaving a valley along an anticline or
component, the down-throw and up-throw refer to the relative with compressional stresses. They can be repeated over geo- a ridge along a syncline.
movements of strata on opposite sides of the fault plane. These logical time and accumulate to form a broad zone of ground
terms are in common usage, especially in underground mining. deformation up to hundreds of metres wide.

45
1.10 Geological structures

[above] Angular anticline in limestone on a foreshore.

[below] Rounded anticline in sandstone in a riverbank.

[above] Anticline and syncline in a steeply folded

sequence of interbedded limestones and shales.
[right] Zig-zag of angular, recumbent folds in a
greywacke sequence, with a person for scale.
[below right] Half a metre of beds within a folded
evaporite sequence of gypsum and limestone .
[below] A glacial drag fold exposed in a sea cliff, and
formed where Pleistocene ice flowed from the right
over the thinly bedded chalk so that it rucked up the
upper layers of the frozen ground.

[left] A mountain formed by a limestone anticline.

46
 1.10 Geological structures

A metre-thick zone of fault breccia along an

inclined fault in dipping shale and sandstone.
A reverse fault in limestones, with a strong metre-thick
A normal fault with a shale sequence containing bands of white bed displaced to the left above the fault; thinner beds have
limestone, all displaced down to the left by about two metres. accommodated the compression by folding.
[right] Variation in
spacing of vertical joints
in a limestone.
[below] A rockslide due
to bedding-plane failure
in dipping limestone. The
location of the car would
be unsuitable in wet
weather when the next
slide could occur.

[left] A major unconformity with horizontal limestone above steeply Banded shales in tension, with a central
dipping greywacke. [right]Vertical joints in massive sandstone, with block that has dropped down between two
rockbolts placed to keep the rock tight, dry and stable in a road cutting. normal faults, exposed in a road cutting.

47
 pedological soil
formed from parent
rock weathering
products and decaying
vegetable matter with airborne
the assistance of soil pollutants rainfall
organisms (contains (SO2, NO2, CO2, pH 5–6 (clean) possible input of agricultural
humic acid, Ca, Mg, vegetation protects pH 4–5 (polluted) evapo-transpiration fertilizers (particularly NO3)
soil against erosion HCl, Pb, etc)
Fe, etc) and pesticides
caused by wind, W
raindrop impact, IN
D
surface runoff O horizon
and animals (humus layer)
A horizon: upper
part humus-stained;
SUB-AERIAL lower part, lighter

SOIL HORIZONS
solum

PEDOLOGICAL
ENVIRONMENT coloured and
leached (E horizon)

B horizon (zone
SUB-SURFACE of accumulation)
ENVIRONMENT
(possible C horizon:
perched water- weathered parent
tables omitted rock (saprolite)
for clarity)

PARENT ROCK
SUB-AQUEOUS
ENVIRONMENT
possible inflow of
leachate from waste
disposal sites

possible intrusion of
selective chemical weathering
saline water
(e.g. hydrolysis, hydration,
oxidation, solution) of
parent rock and removal of
weathering products as water Eh (redox potential) falls sharply
level rises and falls; dissolved as percolating water enters
iron may precipitate along reducing environment
joints where oxygen content of
water (i.e. Eh) remains high

roots reinforce soil and take pH may rise steadily in the direction
up water and nutrients of groundwater flow (e.g. pH 7–8
vegetation intercepts rainfall, or higher where conditions favour
thereby decreasing surface runoff concentration of bases on solution)
and increasing infiltration

Figure 2.1 Idealized soil block model: temperate zone.

48
 2.1 Basic soils and landscapes

Part 2. Near-surface ground changes

Basic soils and landscapes (Figure 2.1) the local weathering and erosion processes of past and present • Transported soils (e.g. alluvium, loess) are the products
climates. of the erosion of residual soils or bedrock that have been
Common surface conditions Earth surface systems can be used to describe how the transported and deposited elsewhere.
Ground materials consist of unweathered rock (bedrock), transfer of sediments and energy (e.g. down-slope creep, • Organic soils are formed in situ by the growth and decay of
which may be overlain by in situ weathered rock (saprolite) erosion along stream channels) produces the relationships vegetation – for example, peat, which forms in anaerobic
and/or soils. Engineers describe any non-lithified soils that between the landforms in an area (Fookes et al., 2007). Local conditions when the ground is waterlogged. Peat
overlie solid rock as overburden, although this is known to surface systems are primarily controlled by the geological formation is encouraged in areas of high rainfall and low
geologists and geomorphologists as regolith. Regolith may setting, the geographical location (including the climate zone; temperatures, stimulating further water-logging. About
consist of saprolite, alluvium, glacial till, wind-blown loess or see Figure 2.2) and the local ground materials. The geologi- 15% of Ireland is covered by blanket peat bog.
dune sand, volcanic dust and various other unconsolidated cal character of the local bedrock and its structure determine Three main weathering phases are recognized in engineering
materials. the broad-scale form of the local geomorphological landscape geology, starting from grade VI at ground level.
The nature of the bedrock underlying an area is the and its systems, relief and slope gradients. It also determines
• Weathering grades IV to VI (solum or ‘true’ soil to saprolite
product of its geological history. This includes the mode of the materials available for erosion and transport by surface
or chemically weathered rock), which form a continuum
deposition of the sedimentary rocks forming part or all of the processes.
of specific mineral soil development in increasing order of
bedrock and any post-depositional (diagenetic) changes in the Engineering soils are typically described in engineering weathering (see Figures 2.4 and 2.5).
sediments. These changes include compaction, lithification, terms according to their dominant particle size using, for
example, the Unified Soil Classification System (Norbury, • Grades II and III are increasing degrees of weathering
cementation and weathering changes related to the history of
2010; Bibliography, Group B books). Three main soil types are developed on the underlying fresh bedrock. Corestones
the area (see Figure 1.8). Tectonic activity (folding, faulting
recognized. are commonly present in grade III weathering, depending
and the emplacement of igneous and metamorphic rocks) is
on the original joint spacing.
not considered to be part of the diagenetic changes. Igneous • Residual soils are the product of the in situ weathering of
and metamorphic rocks may also form part or all of the local bedrock where the soil thickness and type are broadly as- • Grade I is unweathered fresh bedrock.
bedrock. sociated with the past and present climate and the intensity It is important to note that some ancient over-consolidated
The extent to which the bedrock geology of an area is of weathering (Figures 2.2–2.5, 3.6 and 3.8). A weathered bedrock clays – for example, the Tertiary London Clay and the
reflected in the landscape depends on whether the rocks are rock profile is created over fresh bedrock and distinctive Jurassic Oxford Clay in Britain, which are not lithified – are
covered by a significant thickness of regolith. The enormous zones (layers or horizons) can develop in response to vari- likely to be called ‘engineering clays’ by engineers.
range of combinations of rock types, rock structures, weath- ations in the intensity of weathering and the movement
of moisture and minerals. The upper layers contain rock Groundwater
ering and erosional history means that every terrain model
constructed during the early part of the site investigation debris that has been completely weathered to a soil. Lower Typical near-surface groundwater conditions are illustrated
is unique. In practical terms the observed materials within down the profile there are increasing amounts of unweath- in Figure 2.1, which is based on a temperate zone climate.
a system or in the ground are not necessarily predictable, ered and partly weathered rock (Figure 2.1). Tropical Permeability characteristics are given in Table 2.1.1 and 2.1.2.
so further investigations by boreholes, pits and geophysical residual soils are a special case of residual soil found in wet The rates of evapotranspiration and infiltration generally vary
surveys are required (see Parts 4 and 5). tropical areas. They exhibit distinctive engineering proper- seasonally and from year to year. They may also vary on shorter
ties and characteristics (Fookes, 1997b), ranging in grade timescales, perhaps in response to local major storms. It
In the longer term (e.g. hundreds to tens of thousands
VI weathering (see later) from fersiallitic to ferruginous to should be noted that conditions during the construction phase
of years), the rate and nature of local landscape changes are
ferrallitic soils formed by the increasing length of time of may differ significantly from those found during the ground
dependent on the mass characteristics of the rocks and soils,
weathering and the climate of the area. investigation.
mainly their intact strength, discontinuities and susceptibility to

49
 soft, open-structured 1700–1900 1100–1400 – –
typical, normally consolidated 1800–2200 1300–1900 – –
tills (boulder clays) 2000–2400 1700–2200 – –
Compared sandy clays – – 1800–2200 15–30
Tropical red clays 1700–2100 1300–1800 1400–2100 20–40
2.1 Basic soils and landscapes
* Assumes saturated or nearly saturated soil.

Table
Table2.1.1
7.6 Typical permeability
Typical permeability values.
values (after Casagrande and Fadum, 1940). • Where the annual infiltration exceeds the evapotranspira-
 Homogeneous Silts, fine sands, silty Clean sands, Clean tion, groundwater flows downwards from the surface. It
 clays below the sands, glacial till, sand and gravel gravels eventually reaches a zone of saturation within the capillary
 zone of stratified clays mixtures fringe, where it is held within the soil pores by surface
Soil types  weathering
 Fissured and weathered tension. Fine-grained soils within this zone will be either
 clays and clays modified partially or ‘fully’ saturated, even on slopes. Water may
 by the effects of vegetation descend further to the water-table (where water can seep
into the base of a borehole) and then flows as groundwa-
 1011 1010 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 1
 ter through an aquifer towards discharge points at lower
 m/sec elevations.
 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 1 10 100
 Excavation and underground works generally suffer
Coefficient  from water inflow and dewatering may lead to settlement
of permeability  cm/sec
as a result of the consolidation of fine soils or internal
(log scale)  1010 109 108 107 106 105 104 103 102 101 1
 erosion and the loss of fine particles from coarse soils.
 Such works need careful monitoring and management of
 ft/sec
 Practically water flows.
 Impermeable Very low Low Medium High Seasonal variations will lead to heave and the settlement
Drainage
conditions {
practically
impermeable Poor Good
of superficial clays and shallow foundations depending
on the conditions before construction. Vegetation is the
GFE-07.qxd 6/24/05 3:01 PM Page 165
Estimation of coefficient of permeability: for granular soils, the coefficient of permeability can be estimated
source of transpiration and its presence causes an increase
using Hazen’s formula: in soil suction and a decrease in water content. The devel-
k  c1D210 opment of tree-root systems (which need moisture) will
where k is the coefficient of permeability in m/s, D is the effective particle size in mm, and c1 is a factor varying
10 lead to shrinkage in clays and ground settlement as the
between 100 and 150. tree grows. The clearance of vegetation leads to swelling
ENGINEERING BEHAVIOUR OF SOILS AND ROCKS 165
of clays and heave of foundations. Seasonal variations
Table 2.1.2 Typical ranges of coefficient of permeability (k) for different types and conditions of rock. may also lead to complex groundwater conditions and
there may be different water pressures in permeable strata
separated by less permeable strata.
• Partially saturated soils, which locally occur to great
depths, may be subject to desiccation over a long period of
time. Plastic clays tend to heave on wetting when evapora-
tion is prevented by sealing of the ground surface (e.g. by
a new building or road). Soil suction can facilitate the con-
struction of temporary steep slopes, excavation and shafts.
However, the effects are short-lived and the long-term
protection of slopes from erosion is generally required.
• When the annual evapotranspiration exceeds infiltration,
water-tables are generally low and are controlled by local

Figure 7.17 Typical ranges of coefficient of permeability (k) for different types and conditions of rock.
50

the reduction in stress allows the fissures to open. Table 7.7 Typical values of shearing resistance of
 2.1 Basic soils and landscapes

stream levels and the presence of permeable strata. In hot,

dry areas without tree cover, the upward movement of
moisture and evaporation from the ground surface may
produce a chemically active zone at ground level. This may
lead to situations with aggressive evaporation conditions,
as in coastal sabkha or where duricrusts form on dryland
surfaces (see Figures 2.2, 2.5 and 3.6).
• Artesian groundwater pressure is driven by high water-
tables in adjacent high ground. It is common below the
floor of valleys in folded, bedded strata and in glaciofluvial
deposits beneath glacial till on the lower slopes of some
valleys. Lenticular aquifers may allow perched water-
tables to form on valley sides.

51
2.1 Basic soils and landscapes

Ground profile with a thin, brown, organic-rich soil developed over an

alluvial soil of transported sediment, which lies on the rockhead surface
beneath which there is little weathering of the dipping rocks. Soil developed in a temperate environment, by the complete breakdown
of the underlying shale, aided by plant roots that open fractures.
[right] Fersiallitic, smectite-rich residual soil, with a pale kaolin-rich horizon,
developed on young volcanic ash in a Mediterranean climate.

Profile exposed in a road cutting through dipping beds of pale

sandstones and darker shale; a valley in the hillside above has Terra rosa, a red soil of insoluble residues left after solution of limestone
been formed along the outcrop of the weaker shale, but the shale in the wet tropics, filling solution-enlarged fissures in the bedrock.
outcrop is hidden, beyond the first bush, by blocks of sandstone [left] A ferruginous, smectite-rich, black earth developed on young
fallen from the adjacent outcrops of the stronger rock. pyroclastic rocks in a wet tropical environment.

52
 2.1 Basic soils and landscapes

A zeugen (or mushroom rock) eroded by wind-driven

sand-blasting near ground level in a desert, with salt
[above] Deep contraction fissures formed by desiccation of crystallisation and physical weathering in a lower bed.
a clay-rich mud, with blocks about half a metre across.
[left] Variation in peat soils in temperate environments:
above; a thin peat soil beneath a wet grassland;
[middle] thick hill peat eroded into deep gullies;
[below] lowland or fen peat being extracted today for
fuel, with cut blocks of saturated peat thrown up onto the
bank to drain before being taken to storage, where a whole
summer is needed to dry them ready for the fire.

A sabkha of clay and silt sediments intergrown with Artesian groundwater rising through a borehole due to
gypsum along a desert coastline flooded at high tides. natural pressure in an underlying confined aquifer.

53
 Precipitation

Figure 2.2 Simple cross-section from pole to equator showing climate and rock weathering characteristics.

54
 2.2 Climate and rock weathering characteristics

Climate and rock weathering characteristics Contrast this with the semi-desert and desert zones.
The average annual temperature appears to be lower than An engineering geologist may have an input into
from the poles to the equator (Figure 2.2) land use studies for environmental and social impact
that in the rain forest zone, but the daytime temperatures
The climate, both now and in the past, has a strong influence are typically much higher and the night-time temperatures assessments and will need to be familiar with some of
on engineering design and construction, not only through are often much cooler. Rainfall is low and the net evapora- the pedological terms used in agriculture in order to
the production of weathered residual soils, but also on the tion is much higher than the rainfall. This keeps the ground be able to communicate effectively with specialists in
geomorphological processes that the engineer may expect relatively dry and the small amount of water that occasionally other disciplines (International Union of Soil Sciences
to encounter on and around a site. The overview of climate, penetrates the ground from storms is quickly lost again to the Working Group, 2006). For example, the residual soils
weathering and morphoclimatic regions around the world atmosphere as moisture. Such climatic conditions lead to very encountered on a project may include one or more of
provided by Figure 2.2 shows the general nature of the influ- slow overall weathering, with almost no chemical weathering the following FAO–UNESCO terms (Fookes, 1997b):
ences of the current climates that an engineer may encounter (i.e. very little development of residual soils), but there is more • ferralsols, deeply weathered red or yellow soils with
in any part of the world (see Figures 1.1 and 1.2 for descrip- mechanical weathering as a result of the large, rapid daily tem- low activity clays (these are equivalent to ferrallitic
tions and maps of the major global morphoclimatic zones). perature changes that physically split the rocks. soils with gibbsite or kaolinite);
Figure 2.2 is based on an original highly idealized figure The common processes in the different climatic zones are • nitosols, deep, well-drained red or red–brown soils
in Strakhov (1967). It shows simplified climatic zones from given below each soil profile in Figure 2.2, which also gives a containing kaolinite or (meta) halloysite clays (these
the poles to the equator and, with an exaggerated vertical simplification of the engineering soil terms. are broadly equivalent to fersiallitic soils);
scale, the weathering profiles of highly weathered soils from Figure 2.2 requires more explanation of the soil terms used • plinthosols, composed of ferruginous plinthite, pe-
the ground surface down to fresh bedrock. The engineering in the key than can be given here. They are directly related troplinthite or pisoliths (these include groundwater
details of the six weathering zones (I–VI) comprising this to the minerals produced within the soil profile by chemical laterites and ferricretes);
profile were introduced in Figure 2.1 and are shown in detail weathering and are described in specialist books on the
in Figures 2.3 and 2.4. For further discussion, see Fookes et al. • andosols, dark-coloured soils containing allophane
subject (e.g. Fookes, 1997b). The value of the figure is that it
(2005) and Bibliography, Group B books. clay, which typically develop on volcanic ash;
shows which type of residual soil can reasonably be expected
The key to the depth of weathering is indicated by the in the different climatic zones. There are many variations • vertisols, heavy clay soils with a high proportion
curves of the average annual temperature, the annual average depending on the rock type, the details of the climate, the local of smectite clays subject to swelling and shrinkage
precipitation (snow and rain), an approximation of the annual geomorphological systems and the site-specific patterns of (e.g. black cotton soils).
net evaporation and the length of time for which these con- erosion. A comprehensive terrain model as part of a thorough Other soil types that may occur include fluvisols on
ditions have existed. These all show considerable variation ground investigation of the project site would evaluate all of alluvial deposits, gleysols in wetlands, gypsols in arid
between the extremes at the poles and the equator. The these factors. regions and very shallow stony leptosols in mountains.
relationship between temperature, precipitation and evapora- For more on the ‘engineering soils’ shown in Figure 2.2, The major soil groups can be further subdivided
tion is the key to understanding Figure 2.2. For example, the see Figures 2.3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3 and 3.5 (arctic soils); Figures 2.3, using various prefixes and suffixes to qualify these
tropical forest zone has a high rainfall, warm temperatures 2.4, 2.5, 3.7 and 3.8 (residual soils, with increasing intensity terms.
(similar daytime and night-time temperatures, i.e. an equa- of weathering from fersiallitic, ferruginous, ferrisols – a tran-
torial climate) and evapotranspiration that is significantly sitional stage – to ferrallitic); and Figures 3.6 and 3.7 (desert
less than the rainfall. In other words, the ground remains soils).
warm and moist with only a small evaporative pull, which
is conducive to deep chemical weathering of the bedrock. A
thick residual soil profile is therefore produced above fresh
rock. Fresh rock is only encountered tens of metres below the
ground surface unless the residual soils are eroded away.

55
 weathering geographical void ratio in Situ Behaviour
grade weathering State term compreSS- Strength SeSquioxideS
iBility mainly referS to
(BS 5930, 1981)

boundary gradational; sequence may be locally confused, e.g. presence of weathered corestones with fresher material inside core

Figure 2.3 Conceptual geological and engineering changes in a weathering profile.

56
 2.3 Weathering profiles

Conceptual geological changes within a (the formation of an acid and a base from a salt by the Cold dry and hot dry climates favour mechanical
weathering profile (Figure 2.3) action of water), leaching and cation exchange. weathering (Figure 2.2). The shape of landforms in hot
The increase in iron and aluminium oxides and hy- deserts tends to be dominated by sandblasting, the type of
It must be emphasized that Figure 2.3 is a highly idealized rock and its susceptibility to sandblasting. In cold climates
droxides as the weathered soil develops is an indication
compilation of many weathering classifications given in various – such as those towards the poles and very high lands not
of its weathering maturity, as shown in Figure 2.3 by the
codes and standards (see Bibliography, Group B books; Figures covered by permanent ice, or where the ground is not per-
sesquioxide curve (Fe₂O3 and Al₂O3).
2.4 and 2.5). Figure 2.3 is shown here primarily to illustrate manently frozen – freeze–thaw processes tend to deform
the classical sequence of weathering grades I–VI. These are The precise type (or types) of clay mineral formed by
long-term weathering depends on the original rock, the the ground surface (Figures 3.1, 3.2 and 5.9). Repeated
assigned to different stages of weathering, from fresh rock (I) to cyclic freezing breaks off rock fragments, which then litter
fully developed residual soils (VI), together with the descriptive location, the climatic regime, biological influences and the
length of time over which the weathering has taken place. the landscape.
terms and in situ engineering behaviour commonly ascribed to • Biological weathering refers to those mechanical and
each of the weathering grades. The important concept of weath- Weathering happens slowly all the time, but it typically
takes many tens to hundreds of thousands of years to reach chemical changes that are directly associated with the activi-
ering profiles above fresh bedrock has already been noted in the ties of animals and plants. When present, microbial activity
Introduction and in Figures 1.1, 1.2, 2.1 and 2.2. See also text a mature state with a thick residual soil profile in equilib-
rium with the climate. Weathering tends to follow joints changes the chemistry of the ground. Burrowing animals
box on the weathering grade classification. may weaken the ground and the growth of tree roots can
and other fractures within the rock, developing from the
The identification and characterization of weathering con- prise apart blocks of rock, whereas a cover of low-growing
rock surface inwards. The net result of this at any stage of
ditions are described in detail in Norbury (2010), who also vegetation protects the ground from erosion. Vegetation
weathering is a highly irregular weathering front (Figure
gives a short history of the approaches to the classification increases the acidity of circulating rainwater because organic
2.4). Be aware of any boreholes indicating otherwise.
of weathering and background geological and engineering products derived from plants are broken down by the action
information, amply illustrated by photographs, tables and Not all rocks produce thick weathering profiles. The
climatic regime strongly influences the form, rate and of bacteria and fungi. In general, individual biotic weather-
references. For greater discussion of the various weathering ing effects are small, but, added together, they can have a
processes, see Bibliography, Group A books; the engineering depth of weathering. Warm wet climates favour chemical
weathering (Figure 2.2). Some rocks, in particular lime- significant effect on all aspects of weathering. Biological
aspects of weathering are discussed in the books in the Bibli- weathering tends to be more important in warm and wet
ography, Group B, especially Bell (2000). stones, weather by dissolution in wet climates, with the
formation of a karst landscape characterized by under- climates with abundant vegetation.
The land surface is continually modified by weathering
ground drainage, caves, sinkholes, dry valleys, thin soils
and erosion, with a net general lowering over short to long
and bare rock outcrops.
periods of geological time. This is called denudation. All
rocks exposed to the atmosphere undergo weathering and • Mechanical (physical) weathering is the disintegration
weathering processes are commonly divided into three main of rocks into smaller particles, particularly by the action
types. of large daily and seasonal temperature changes in areas
of low rainfall, and by the action of frost and ice. The
• Chemical weathering brings about decomposition by
processes of mechanical weathering include unloading
the breakdown of minerals and the formation of new
that creates stress relief, allowing fractures to open as
compounds, with some losses by solution. The main
the confining stresses of burial are removed by denu-
agency for this is water (both rainfall and groundwater)
dation. Also important are thermal changes, wetting/
and, in general, chemical processes accelerate at higher
drying and crystallization pressure caused by the growth
temperatures. The typical end-product of chemical weath-
of new minerals in the pores and fissures of a host rock.
ering is clay. The processes involved in weathering include
In addition, depending on the rock type, the impact of
solution, oxidation, reduction, hydration (the absorption
raindrops and abrasion from particles carried in the wind
of water molecules into the mineral structure), hydrolysis
can wear away the surface of rocks.

57
2.3 Weathering profiles

Weathering grade classification and its engineering application (after Hearn, 2011)

Weathering Grade VI
Residual soil: all rock material converted to soil; mass structure and material fabric destroyed; a soil matrix; combination of soil mechanics and rock mechanics principles to be applied
behaves as a soil; soil mechanics principles to be applied to excavation design; rippable to excavation and foundation design; typically rippable during excavation but potentially
during excavation; when excavated described as fine material; depending on soil charac- problematic due to presence of boulders/corestones within the soil matrix (blasting of large
teristics excavated materials treated as common fill (if suitable), treated fill (where removal, remnant blocks may be required to break them down to a size that can be excavated and trans-
mixing or blending is required to allow usage as fill) or unsuitable (cannot be used as fill due ported); when excavated, described as fine material with some (5–20%) or many (20–50%)
to sus­ceptibility to erosion (unless protection is provided), too high a clay content or too boulders or cobbles; may not be suitable as fill due to gap grading e.g., boulders in a fine
low a plasticity; moisture control required during placement. High plasticity clay soils are matrix. A ‘mixed fill’ category might be required.
not uncommon in tropical residual soil profiles and these will have low friction and may be
subject to long-term softening as a result of loss of effective cohesion. Failures on 10° slopes in Weathering Grade III
highly plastic residual clays have been recorded. Rock is moderately weathered: in situ rock framework controls mass strength and stiffness; in
excess of 50% of the material forms clasts that cannot be broken by hand but which may break
Weathering Grade V down/degrade over time; shear strength along joints is typically markedly lower than for
Rock is completely weathered: all rock material is decomposed and/or disintegrated to soil; slightly weathered rock; combination of rock mechanics and soil mech­anics principles to be
original mass structure still largely intact, failure may occur on joints; considerably weakened applied to excavation design; potential for kinematic failure may exist; combination of ripping
compared to weathering grade IV material; slakes when wet; weathering products and relict and blasting required for excavation depending on percentage of materials weathered to soils
structure control strength and stiffness; soil mechanics principles to be applied to excava- and joint pattern; when excavated described as boulders or cobbles, with some (5–20%) or
tion design, with a kinematic check required due to the relict structure (e.g. persistent at an much (20–50%) fines; behaves as a poor rockfill which requires careful screening of fines and
unfavourable attitude), rippable during exca­vation; when excavated described as fine material; moisture control during placement and compaction. Requires intensive investigation to get a
depending on soil characteristics excavated materials treated as common fill (if suitable), clear picture of sub-surface conditions. Boundaries with adjacent grades irregular.
treated fill (where removal, mixing or blending is required to allow usage as fill) or unsuitable
(cannot be used as fill due to susceptibility to erosion (unless protection is provided), too high Weathering Grade II
a clay content or too low a plasticity); moisture control required during placement; potential Rock is slightly weathered: there has been some loss of material strength; >90% of materials
for loss of structural strength during excavation, haulage, placement and compaction, and remain as competent rock; <10% of materials have soil properties; more weathered, weaker
potential for loss of strength on wetting. High plasticity clay soils are not uncommon in materials are located along joints; joint shear strength is typically markedly lower than
tropical residual soil profiles and these will have low friction and may be subject to long-term for joints in fresh rock; rock mechanics principles should be applied to excavation design;
softening as a result of loss of effective cohesion. potential for kinematic (joint-controlled) failure may exist; blasting required for excavation
(depending upon rock type and structure); excavated materials behave as clean, competent,
Weathering Grade IV essentially free-draining rockfill (depending upon rock type and structure).
Rock is highly weathered: in situ rock fabric or texture contributes to mass strength; matrix
or weathering products control stiffness; more than 50% of the material is decomposed or Weathering Grade I
disintegrated to soil; remainder forms clasts that cannot be broken by hand and do not readily Rock is fresh with no visible signs of rock material weathering.
disaggregate or slake when a dry sample is immersed in water, but which may break down/
degrade over time and are present as a discontinuous framework or corestones ‘floating’ in

58
 2.3 Weathering profiles

Norbury (2010) proposed five approaches to the de-

scription of weathering. His first approach forms the
basis of any classification and suggests that the infor-
mation to be recorded for engineering should include:
• the degree and extent of colour change
• the original strength of the soil or rock and any
changes in that strength associated with weather-
ing
• the fracture state of the weathering profile using
normally defined terms and measurements, with a
specific note of where the fractures are thought to
be due to weathering
• the presence and nature of any weathering products
described using appropriate soil or rock descriptive
terms and a quantification of their extent.
His second and third approaches are for the classifi-
cation of homogenous medium–strong and stronger
rocks and are based on the progressive weather-
ing of intact material. His fourth approach is for the
classification of heterogeneous weak rocks (e.g. the
Permo-Triassic Mercia Mudstone and the Jurassic
Oxford Clay in the UK); his fifth approach is for special
cases (e.g. ‘chalk’).

59
2.3 Weathering profiles

Chemical weathering of a dolerite with production of Chemical weathering of limestone as the entire rock is
weak clay minerals first along the open joints 0.5m apart. removed in solution by water in rills 30 mm wide.

A massive gabbro slowly weathering by chemical changes that

advance inwards from joint faces reached by air and water.

Mechanical weathering of limestone in temperate terrain

where frost shattering produces a veneer of broken rock.

Stress-relief fractures parallel to a cliff face.

Large-scale exfoliation dome in granite with concentric joints [left] Granite boulder split by repeated thermal
created by stress relief; note climbers on the ladder on the left. expansion and contraction in a hot semi-desert.

60
 2.3 Weathering profiles

Organic weathering, with a tree root Mechanical weathering with an outer shell of weathered rock breaking away,
forcing open a joint in limestone. left on a granite cliff face, and right on a sandstone tombstone.

A sequence of weathering zones in basalt lavas.

Zone V: completely weathered to a residual soil.
Zone IV: highly weathered, with corestones in a soil.
Zone II: slightly weathered, fractured bedrock.
Zone III is absent as its place is taken by a layer of fine- A shallow landslide that is just one consequence of
grained tephra that has weathered more than the lavas. long-term weathering of a hillside creating a soil that Weathered sandstone exposed on a building site; the upper three
Organic soil of Zone VI is just visible at the top left. becomes progressively thicker and weaker until it fails, metres have been removed so that the concrete column bases can
The profile does not reach down to fresh rock of Zone I. typically when saturated by a heavy rainfall event be cast in less-weathered, stronger rock beneath.

61
Figure 2.4 Models of tropical weathering: granitic weathering.

62
 2.4 Residual soils: an example of granitic rocks

Residual soils: an example of granitic rocks tions. In subtropical climates with a marked dry season, stage oxides give rise to laterites, a residual ferruginous material
(Figure 2.4) (i) is rarely exceeded; in a dry tropical climate development generally occurring as a hardened ferruginous crust,
stops at stage (ii) and it is only in humid equatorial climates which can make a good construction aggregate. The ratio
Model of development of residual soils that stage (iii) is reached (Duchaufour, 1982). The hotter the of silica to the sesquioxides of iron and aluminium tends to
location, the more the weathering progresses towards the control their characteristics. A ratio of <1.33 is indicative
Figure 2.4 shows the idealized development of tropical
end-stage (Figure 2.2). Broadly, the more mature the clay, of laterite soils, a ratio between 1.33 and 2.0 is indicative of
residual soils on two types of granite (see also Figure 3.8). The
the less silica and base elements it contains as a result of their lateritic soils, and a ratio >2.0 indicates a non-laterite soil.
model on the left of the diagram has minimal jointing down
removal by leaching during the weathering process. Table Such minerals tend to strongly influence the engineering
which weathering can penetrate. The right-hand model has a
2.4.2 gives guidance for field recording. behaviour (see Figure 2.5 and Fookes, 1997b).
greater density of joints, which allows weathering to progress
much further under the same weathering conditions, so the • Engineers commonly describe vertisols (swell/shrink Relict discontinuities from parent rocks can create
saprolith and regolith are thicker. Some idealized water flow clays) as ‘black cotton’ soils. They are formed under con- planes of low drained strength in the less mature residual
situations in the regolith are also shown. ditions of poor drainage in warmer climates, have a high soils of grades IV and V. They can also cause slope instabil-
plasticity and are typically expansive (usually due to the ity if their extent and inclination are critical. They can be
In situ residual soils have a wide range of clay mineral-
smectitic clays), with large volume changes on wetting and difficult to characterize during site investigation.
ogy, grading and plasticity, with consequent variations in
drying. Corestones of rock with little weathering (commonly
their engineering properties. These properties all depend on
the weathering processes and the stage of development of the • Widespread red-coloured soils are usually formed under within grade III) may cause problems in drilling, piling
weathering (see Figure 2.2). The grade of weathering is usually good drainage conditions and are very variable, although and excavation; one of the more difficult problems is that
dominated by the amount of unweathered quartz particles they commonly have a pronounced structure as a result they can be misinterpreted as the top of the bedrock.
present in silicate-rich (acidic) rocks, but this is not true in of the weathering process. Their clay mineral assemblage Porous soils with high void ratios are common in dry
basic (silicate-poor) weathered rocks. Kaolinitic clays are the usually includes kaolinite and they are dominated by the conditions and may collapse on wetting. Such soils have a
typical mineral of residual soils on granitic rocks; iron-rich ferruginous, ferrisol and ferrallitic residual soil groups. high degree of saturation with a low undrained strength
clays are typical of more basic rocks. Re-cementation of soils Their engineering properties depend more on their and a structure that is easily destroyed. Such soils are likely
may occur (see Figure 2.3). structure than on the grading and mineralogy and they to form from volcanic rocks (typically fersiallitic andosol
The soil fabric, texture and the presence of relict disconti- usually behave as if they are bonded, yielding at a certain clays) and can cause problems for operating plant during
nuities may dominate the behaviour of undisturbed material stress level. The strain and compressibility depend on this excavation and as filling materials because they may
in saprolites of weathering grades IV and V. Corestones are yield as much as on the density. It is difficult to obtain liquefy when disturbed.
usually well developed in granites of weathering grade III and undisturbed samples without destroying the structure.
Collapsing soils can occur in residual soils (see Figure
in other rocks with wide joint spacings. Table 2.4.1 is a useful Importantly, the mineralogy and engineering properties
2.3). These soils decrease in volume by rearrangements
guide for what to record on natural and man-made exposures. may be changed by drying and may even develop a ce-
of their particles with the addition of water with no
Weathered material will always be complicated and highly mentation.
change in load; this is a result of the destruction of their
variable making the ground model challenging. These soils are the typical products of weathering in weak cemented structure. The collapse potential can be
tropical environments and are characterized by the de-
evaluated by a flooding consolidation (oedometer) test.
Residual soils in general velopment of iron and aluminium oxides and hydroxides.
It should be noted that, in general, the red soils that contain
The type and content of clay minerals in residual soils These compounds, especially those containing iron, are
clay mineral groups with variable amounts of iron and
(weathering grades V and VI) progress from (i) fersiallitic responsible for the red, brown and yellow colours of the
aluminium sesquioxides can significantly affect the results
(dominated by 2:1 clays) to (ii) ferruginous (kaolinite and 2:1 soils, each colour reflecting the state of oxidation. They
of laboratory tests, either when dried in situ or in laboratory
clays) to ferrisol (a transitional stage, but not always present) may be fine-grained and may contain nodules or con-
to (iii) ferrallitic (kaolinite and gibbsite) groups, depending on testing (Fookes, 1997b; Head, 2006, 2011, 2014; Walker, 2012).
cretions that develop in the matrix when there are high
the maturity of the weathering process and the climatic condi- concentrations of oxides. The highest concentrations of This can occur as a result of the following processes.

63
2.4 Residual soils: an example of granitic rocks

Table 2.4.1 Summary of information to be recorded on exposures (after Norbury, 2010).

Location/ type of Information required Procedure/ Actions
exposure

General • Important to use a logging proforma because it contains the prompts so that all relevant information is recorded
Trial pits, trenches, • Dates of excavation and logging • F aces are logged by examination of the exposed faces, usually
natural exposures • Description of each stratum from the surface
• Depth of stratum changes • Materials are logged on arisings in the excavator bucket
• Log as many faces as needed to record variability • Logging in situ requires the excavation to be supported before
the faces can be cleaned of smeared and disturbed materials
• Sketch geology in each face unless they are all the same
• Samples are taken from selected strata (ensure samples large
• Stability of faces enough for proposed testing)
• Description and location of all discontinuities • Tests are carried out at required depths or in selected materials,
• Levels of water inflow, estimate of rate of flow, rest water levels if achieved either in situ or on arisings in the excavator bucket
• Details of any pumping carried out • Log faces or arisings, not the recovered samples
• Equipment in use including excavator • Photograph pit in two directions
• Subjective ease of excavation • Include visible scale in all photographs (hammer, ranging rod
• Weather or survey staff)
• Plan dimensions and orientation • Photograph spoil heap(s)
• Location of pit or survey marker
• Orientation of long axis of pit or trench
• Whether logged in situ or on arisings in excavator bucket
• Identify continuity around all four faces
• Depth and position of all samples taken
• Depth and position of all tests carried out
Foundation inspections •  easure and record size, depth and arrangement of foundations
M • A plan view is essential
• Record location in plan and section related to a grid or permanent markers • The location should be referenced to permanent features or
• Type of foundation construction, eg brick, concrete, wood site grid
• The presence and nature of any blinding layers or sealing materials • Sections should be drawn to show the various elements clearly
• The underlying and surrounding materials should be described • Dimensions should be included on plans and sections to
provide legibility and accuracy
• Describe structural features such as expansion joints, weep holes, ties,
damp proof course • Photograph the features revealed by the excavation
• Describe any defects or areas of poor quality construction • Photograph the location of the excavation
• Describe cracks and joints individually showing aperture and variation in
crack width along the length of the crack, infill, surface alteration/ staining.
• Note changes in brickwork colour which may indicate a change from
engineering bricks to standard type bricks

Large excavated or • Record disposition of different materials • C

 reate some form of grid to break face into regular units that
natural exposures • Record the material and mass characteristics of all strata can be mapped
• Record any evidence of natural processes affecting the ground or the site

64
 2.4 Residual soils: an example of granitic rocks

Table 2.4.2 Descriptive scheme for residual soil materials, after Fookes (1997b). • Aggregation of clay particles. On drying in the laboratory
or naturally under appropriate circumstances, aggregates
Parameter Classification Procedure
of silt and fine sand size (i.e. not clay-sized) particles can
Moisture State Dry = light colour, loose brittle
form that significantly coarsen the grade and reduce the
Moist = range of colours, neither wet nor dry
plasticity of the soil. This gives misleading test results
Wet = visible water films
compared with the in situ field properties.
Colour Use colour charts and describe as for other soils or rocks
• The disintegration of such aggregated soils should be
carried out with care in the laboratory so that the individ-
Strength Fine soil Describe consistency
ual particles are separated without crushing or splitting.
Coarse soil Describe density
Rock Describe rock strength
Weakly cemented soils may be disintegrated by finger
pressure, but more strongly cemented soils may need
Fabric Origin Orthic = formed in situ by soil forming processes, e.g. coatings, nodules, peds
Inherited = relicts of parent material, e.g. lithorelics
soaking overnight with or without a dispersant.
Voids Low, medium and high terms based on laboratory measurements of porosity • Irreversible variable changes in plasticity on drying. This can
Orientation Strong = most particles are sub parallel
occur, depending on the amount of drying, in soils that
Moderate = many particles are sub parallel become less plastic because stronger bonds are created
Weak = some particles are sub parallel between the particles so that they resist penetration by
None = no particles are sub parallel water.
Distribution Porphyritic = matrix is dense • Loss of in situ water of hydration on drying. This occurs
Agglomeritic = matrix loose or incomplete on oven-drying at 105°C (the standard oven temperature
Intertextic = grains embedded in porous matrix in laboratories in temperate climates) and changes the
Granular = no groundmass character of the materials. Lower oven temperatures are
Fissuring Orientation, spacing and character as the standard guidance required for residual soils in tropical climates (Walker,
Texture Grain size as the standard guidance 2012).

Density Low, moderate and high terms based on laboratory measurements of density
or relative density
Apparent behaviour Remoulded strength As density above
Durability Slakes, breaks, chips terms based on field tests
Plasticity Plasticity described as the standard guidance
Mineralogy Hand lens examination, carbonate content test

65
2.4 Residual soils: an example of granitic rocks

[across the top] Granites exposed in a semi-desert terrain:

[above left] laterite crust breaking away from fresh granite;
[above] a thick laterite formed over a granite outcrop;
[right] corestones of granite from weathering zone III left
behind after the intervening soil has been eroded away.

Spheroidal, “onion-skin” weathering in igneous rocks:

[above] with peeling shells each about 5 cm thick in granite;
[right] with shells each just a few millimetres thick in basalt.
[left] Deeply weathered granite exposed on a construction site
in a wet tropical environment; angular blocks of clean rock
remain between zones of red soil formed by weathering down
fractures; more highly weathered soils more than 10 metres
deep have already been removed.

66
 2.4 Residual soils: an example of granitic rocks

Granite, forming distant jagged frost-shattered peaks and A thick, red, residual, kaolinitic soil of
rounded boulders in front (grade III) where soil has been Two nearly spherical corestones of discoloured granite, formed beneath the weathering grade V, which is the remains of
washed away to leave the weathered corestones. surface before the weathered soil along the joints was washed away. a granite in a tropical environment.

Contrasting styles of weathering in rocks other than granite. [left] Sandstone, which breaks down to a mass of loose sand with small sandstone blocks, and ultimately to a soil of almost
pure sand. [middle] Sequences of basalt lavas commonly include horizons of red, fine-grained material a metre or so thick, known as boles; these were soils formed by weathering in the
intervals between successive lava flows. [right] A red, iron-rich soil produced by weathering of basaltic lavas with more iron minerals than in a granite.

67
 Mature profile of
weathering on granite

VI

V/VI

IV/III

III/II

Mature profile of
weathering on granite

VI

V/VI
Figure 2.5 Examples of valley and hill-slope models in tropically weathered terrains.

IV/III
68
III/II
 2.5 Weathered terrain

Valley, hill-slope and surface models in angles) extending from the base of steeper mountains. Massive The two-storey landscape model at the bottom of Figure
weathered terrain (Figure 2.5) granite outcrops typically provide strong, weathering-resistant, 2.5 (of similar appearance to hill-slope model D) displays
upstanding land with a variety of strong, but less resistant, rocks complex patterns of weathering resulting from uplift and
Models of valleys and hill-slopes remaining, mantled with debris even on slopes exceeding 35°. the ancient creation of two separate landforms: the newer
Figure 2.5 shows a variety of small simplified hill-slope and The characteristics of pediments are thus varied: some are uplifted plateau and the older lower landform. The surviving
valley models developed on granites and other strong rocks. thinly mantled and cut across various rock types and others fragments of the older landform have thicker protective
The models show how significant differences can occur over a are decomposed by their long history of weathering developed surface duricrusts and can often be correlated with continent-
period of geological time in a common set of geomorphologi- over less resistant rocks. The slope angles of true old pediments wide erosion surfaces.
cal and geological circumstances. Lateral variations in tropical seldom exceed 7°, but profiles on overlying debris, not
Duricrusts
residual soils result from two main factors: uncommon in present day savannas, may exceed 15°.
The ferricretes are members of the duricrust family, which are
• a spatial pattern of variable depths of weathering, some to Established relationships between climate and weathering
indurated (hardened) horizons at or near the ground surface.
many tens of metres, forming a covering mantle products (McFarlane, 1983) may be a poor guide to saprolite
Other members of the family include alcretes (or alucretes)
• catenas (repeated sequences of soil profiles developed on properties in deeply weathered mantled areas developed
which, like ferricretes, are formed by the relative accumulation
slopes) superimposed on this irregular, weathered mantle. in former, more humid environments. Many mantles are
of iron and/or aluminium oxides in the soil as more mobile
dominated by kaolinite clays (stable, not moisture-sensitive,
The individual model examples in Figure 2.5 should be suffi- compounds are leached out of the weathering profile. They
i.e. engineer-friendly) in the upper parts of the residual soil
cient to give an indication of the likely history of the landscape tend to be associated with hot, high rainfall climates. Silcretes
profiles, with micaceous and interstratified clay minerals
and of its previous and current climate settings. Colluvium (silica), calcretes (calcium carbonate), dolocretes (magnesium
increasing with depth. Smectite clays (with a high shrink-
(fine hill-slope debris) can also include taluvium (coarse slope carbonate) and weaker gypcrusts (gypsum) also form through
and-swell potential on changes in moisture content, i.e.
debris). Note the difference in the vertical and horizontal accumulation in the weathering profile. This accumulation may
engineer-unfriendly) are rarely developed beneath forests,
scales; there is much vertical exaggeration (Fookes, 1997b). occur as the result of capillary rise, downward percolation or the
but increase in favourable locations as the amount of rainfall
throughflow of solute-rich groundwater. These are considera-
Landforms and climates decreases. Kaolinite saprolites tend to characterise the upper
tions for geologists in the development of the project site model.
The small landforms are the products of long periods of devel- parts of free-draining slopes, but the lower and wetter valley
Duricrusts occur widely in today’s hot deserts and it
opment, typically up to millions of years. Their development is floor are typically smectites.
is important to evaluate them as the ground investigation
therefore spread over various climatic regimes and geomorpho- Seasonal tropical climates experiencing periods of intense
develops (Figure 3.6). Desert coasts tend to develop gypcrusts
logical influences on a predominantly stable shield (or craton). prolonged rainfall typically undergo shallow debris slides on
(with sulphates from seawater). Cretes (cf. ‘concretes’) are
This is an ancient landscape that is slowly being weathered steep slopes, and deeper landslides may be generated on flatter
generally stronger than the underlying materials (which may
and eroded down to low-level plains. The climates range from slopes in clay-rich saprolites. Debris flows and mudflows
be porous due to leaching) and hence tend to armour the
temperate Mediterranean to tropical (see Figures 1.1 and 1.2). are rarely recognized with certainty, but extensive sheets of
landscape by forming a hard cap (or carapace) to flat-topped
Most of the models are found in middle Africa, but also illus- colluvium on sloping ground between granite hills have been
hills and plateaus. They may be greater than 2 m thick and
trate slope development in other stable, continental landscapes, interpreted as mudflows and are important in evaluating en-
massive, although joints may be widened by solution; crusts
such as large parts of Australia, India and central southern USA. gineering projects. Debris fans also occur.
(cf. ‘pie crusts’) tend to be thinner and weaker and are often
They are not models for cold or very dry climates. A gradual decline in the water-tables through geological transient features. Cretes may have significant cost implications
The models are characteristic of residual landforms and time, commonly as a result of uplift, results in the hardening of for excavation operations and may be sources of construction
deposits commonly found in modern savannas (see Figure residual soils, often with the extensive development of nodules. stone and aggregate. Thicker, stronger cretes may be ripped
3.7) and adjacent areas. The savannas are typified by a sharp These become concentrated in the upper parts of vertical by heavy equipment, with a hammer on standby (Pettifer and
contrast between more or less bare bedrock outcrops and profiles as finer and less dense materials are washed down- Fookes, 1994); they may need blasting. Attention must be paid
rocks with mantled surfaces, and between steep hill-slopesand slope. Iron crusts, i.e. ferricretes, are widespread in wetter to the possibility of contamination by chloride and sulphate
shallow pediments (i.e. long concave upward slopes at low savannas, where they may be relicts of wetter, Tertiary climates. salts that are aggressive to engineered structures.

69
2.5 Weathered terrain

[above] A coarse talus slope of

blocks of strong sandstone that
have fallen from the cliff above.
[left] Talus slopes that have
grown large enough to coalesce A complex slope on dry high mountains, with rock faces weathering above active talus
into a wide apron of debris in a slopes that continue down into alluvial fans with shallower surface profiles.
temperate environment; bracken
cover in the central zone shows
that it is now less active than the
bare debris slopes on each side.
[below] A bajada is a foot-slope
of coalesced and often inactive
alluvial fans that is common in
semi-arid mountain terrains.

A large alluvial fan where a steep mountain valley reaches a lowland; the stream
deposits new sediment until it slips sideways repeatedly to newer radial courses.

70
 2.5 Weathered terrain

Two large mudflows within temperate environments: Duricrusts formed in semi-arid environments:
[above] on a steep hillside undercut by weathering and [above right] a calcrete that is effectively a case-
erosion of mudrocks beneath a strong sandstone cap; hardened surface layer on bedded limestone;
[below] on a clay slope repeatedly undercut by marine
[right] a conspicuous calcrete formed by lime-
erosion between stable cliffs in stronger sandstone.
saturated groundwater rising through a gravel
(note tyre tracks);
[below] silcrete cementing a surface layer, and
increasing the strength of a coarse gravel.

[right] A small bornhardt of granite in a savanna.

71
 arête

fluvioglacial deposits (loose fairly

well-sorted silty SAND with occasional
subrounded gravel)

lens of fluvioglacial deposits (medium dense poorly sorted

silty SAND and subangular GRAVEL)

glacial tills and fluvioglacial materials deposited

during earlier glacier advance

Figure 3.1 Glacial environments.

72
 3.1 Glacial environments

Part 3. Basic geological environments influencing engineering

Glacial environments (Figure 3.1) glacial processes (e.g. lodgement tills) may produce materials movement of glaciers or ice sheets as they advance and
with a high bulk density and a high shear strength even when retreat. Glacial erosion occurs as a direct consequence of
Although Figure 3.1 specifically shows a valley glacier, this text
the grading is highly variable. For further reading, see Bibliog- the melting and refreezing of glacial ice on the underly-
refers to glacial landscapes in general. At present, ice caps and
raphy, Groups A and B books. ing ground, with abrasion by particles carried on the ice
glaciers cover about 10% of the Earth’s surface and produce
The morphological forms of ice sheets are highly variable, and in the subglacial melt water streams. Glacially eroded
some of the most complex environments on the planet (see
ranging from small cirque glaciers to very extensive continental features vary in size from millimetre-scale striations and
Introduction, Figures 1.1 and 1.2; also Fookes et al., 2005, and
ice sheets. Large versions of the latter extended over the high- friction cracks to large bedforms such as channels, depres-
Bibliography, Group A books).
and mid-latitude regions of North America and Europe during sions and roches moutonnées on the 100 m scale.
The area covered by glaciers during the Quaternary fluctu-
the Quaternary glacial advances, although the ice sheets did The debris produced by glacial erosion may be incor-
ated between very extensive glaciations, covering as much as
not reach the maximum extent in all regions. As a result, char- porated into glacial ice sheets at or near the base of the
one-third of the Earth’s land surface, and limited glaciations
acteristic suites of glacial landforms and sediments dominate glacier as well as on its surface. Debris entrained in the ice
similar to present day conditions. Glacial landscapes, both
extensive areas of these regions. Many of the landforms were is deposited at the front of the glacier or at its base during
now and in the past, are essentially high-latitude and high-
produced subglacially beneath a thickness of several kilome- melting. Many attempts have been made to classify these
altitude environments. Glaciers affect adjacent (proglacial)
tres of glacial ice. Their internal structures and composition are till materials and the generally accepted classifications are
non-glaciated landscapes by controlling the nature of stream
typically complex and consist of tills (dumped by ice; see Table based on the mode of deposition and include lodgement
systems, lakes, coastal environments and wind systems.
3.1.1), glaciofluvial sediments (deposited by melt water streams till (deposited from the base of the ice), melt-out tills (un-
In high-latitude regions the glacial environment is within or on the surface or sides of the ice) and glaciolacustrine compacted debris) and flow tills (deposited from the ice
commonly bordered by tundra, a fragile mixture of bare sediments (formed in proglacial lakes that may have covered sheet by flow processes).
ground with varying degrees of lichen, moss and low bush large areas). Some of the till sheets were moulded by ice action • Glaciofluvial landforms are formed from debris deposited
cover, giving way to sparse tundra woodland and then to taiga into rounded, elongated mounds known as drumlins. by water draining through the glacial system, either on or
conifer forest and muskeg (bog soil, extensive in Canada).
Many landforms that originated in glacial and progla- beneath the ice. Glaciofluvial water is usually concentrated
Proglacial regions are progressively less affected by peren-
cial environments are named after their mode of formation, in channels eroded into the moving ice, making it difficult
nially frozen ground (permafrost) and by the wide range of
including kames and esker ridges (deposited from water), to identify the past or present courses of the melt waters
periglacial processes the further they are from glacial terrains
hummocky sheet moraines (depositions of rock debris and creating fundamental problems in reconstructing
(see Figures 1.1, 1.2, 3.2 and 5.9).
scraped from the land by glaciers) and kettle holes left where the glacial hydrology. Much of this sediment is carried
Glacial landforms blocks of ice, detached from a glacier, melted. The advancing to the proglacial environment, where it is deposited in
Valley glacier systems are highly variable and may include glacier front may have overridden or pushed previously braided channel systems that may form extensive outwash
glaciers mantled with debris, rock glaciers and hanging deposited sediments to form folds and faults within them. fans. Large areas of eastern England are covered by such
glaciers. Debris-mantled glaciers produce large lateral and Moraines and other glacial deposits tend to be heterogeneous sediments.
terminal (or recessional) moraines dumped by melting ice rubbly materials that include angular blocks of rock, boulders • Different types of glacial lakes and overflow channels are
(Figure 3.1). These glacial environments are characterized by and pebbles, and also rock that has been ground down to clay commonly associated with glacial environments. Subgla-
the presence of supraglacial, subglacial, proglacial, periglacial grade. Water-sorted deposits tend to be better sorted into cial lakes can occur under ice sheets, notably where the
and paraglacial ice-marginal sediments, which can be iden- gravels, sands and silts. The engineering characteristics largely ice overlies active volcanoes, such as in Iceland. Proglacial
tified in the landforms. The engineering characteristics of relate to grading and compaction. lakes form primarily behind terminal and lateral moraine
materials from these environments include variable grading, • The erosion, deposition and deformation of rocks and ridges and ice-dammed valleys. A complex assemblage
a low bulk density and a low shear strength, although some sediments occur as a consequence of the continuous of sediments may be deposited in these lakes, including

73
3.1 Glacial environments GLACIAL ENVIRONMENTS 353

deltas, turbidites and laminated deposits. Such deposits Table

Table 3.1.1
13.1 Some
Somecharacteristics andproperties
characteristics and propertiesofofdifferent
different types
types of till.
of till.
may slump and fault as the ice retreats. Thaw lakes occur
in periglacial zones. Till type Formation Particle size Mesofabric Microfabric Bulk Shear
distribution density strength
• Strong winds are associated with glaciated environments
because of the high-pressure systems that develop over Glaciotectonite Subglacially Poorly sorted Moderate Microshears Moderate Low
these regions. Such winds can reach very high velocities sheared
and are capable of moving surface sands and silts well sediment
and bedrock
beyond the glacier front, depositing them as metastable
Comminution Subglacially Poorly sorted Moderate Microshears Moderate Moderate
sheets of sand and loess (silt). Loess is especially extensive crushed and skewed
across much of northern continental Europe, North powdered towards fine
America and western China. local bedrock
Lodgement Subglacially Poorly sorted Strong Microshears High High
Engineering in glacial environments plastered glacial up-valley
From an engineering point of view, it is essential to distinguish debris on a rigid dip
between the modern glaciated terrain of active glaciers and or semi-rigid bed
Deformation Subglacially Poorly sorted Strong Microshears Moderate Moderate
the glaciated landscapes of former glaciations. In glacially
deformed to high to high
active terrains, the main types of glacial hazard are glaciers glacial sediment
that are expanding or surging and the outburst floods (known Meltout Glacial sediment Poorly sorted May be Microshears Low Low
as jökulhlaups) released from glacial lakes. Ice avalanches can deposited directly stratified
break off from glacier snouts, but rarely affect populated areas from melting ice
or infrastructure (see Table 3.1.2). Sublimation Glacial sediment Poorly sorted Preserves Microshears Low Low
In formerly glaciated terrains, the bulk properties of the deposited directly ice foliation
from sublimated ice
principal glacial and glaciofluvial sediments are very variable
Flow till* Sediment deposited Poorly sorted Downslope Few Low Low
on both large and small scales. Furthermore, their properties off the ice by debris
vary in response to their degree of alteration by processes flow processes
including weathering and mass movement, the hydrological
* This is classed as a debris flow rather than a till, but it is included here for comparison.
characteristics of the deposits and local variations between
erosional and depositional landforms. Construction projects
on glacial deposits require a model-making approach that properties that are essentially a function of the Europe during the glaciations of the Quaternary
attempts to understand the complexity of the terrain to facili- depositional environment. In particular, the plas- (Figure 13.1a). As a result, characteristic suites of
tate accurate ground investigations on the materials and their ticity and particle size of tills are critically depend- glacial landforms and sediments dominate exten-
forms (Trenter, 1999; see also Part 4). ent on the mode of deposition and the nature of the sive areas of these landscapes. Studies of the ice
terrain over which the glacier or ice sheet was sheets in Greenland and Antarctica have provided
active (Trenter, 1999). Predicting the vertical and some understanding of the nature of ice-sheet
lateral variability of the geotechnical properties is dynamics, although it is important to recognise
extremely difficult when a glacial deposit consists that these modern ice masses are not perfectly
of several types of till, as may be seen from the analogous to the larger Quaternary ice sheets
study of modern ice margins (Figure 13.8). that formerly covered much of the northern
hemisphere.
The variability in the environments produced
13.5 Contemporary glacial by the Quaternary ice sheets is illustrated in the
environments: landsystem
74 landsystems and lithofacies models shown in
models Figures 13.9 to 13.12. Many of these landforms
were produced subglacially beneath several
Ice sheets kilometres of glacial ice. Subglacial deposition
364 GEOMORPHOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS 3.1 Glacial environments

Table
Table 3.1.2
13.3 Types
Typesof
ofglacial
glacialand
and glacially relatedhazards
glacially related hazards(adapted
(adapted from
from Richardson
Richardson and and Reynolds,
Reynolds, 2000).
2000).

Category Hazard event Description Time scale

Glacier hazards Avalanche Slide or fall of large mass Minutes

of snow, ice and/or rock
Glacier outburst Catastrophic discharge of Hours
water under pressure from a glacier
Jökulhlaup Glacier outburst associated with Hours–days
sub-glacial volcanic activity
Glacier surge Rapid increase in rate of glacier flow Months–years
Glacier fluctuations Variations in ice front positions due to Years–decades
climatic change, etc.
Glacier hazards Glacier lake outburst Catastrophic outburst from a Hours
as above, plus: Floods (GLOFs) proglacial lake, typically moraine
dammed
Débâcle Outburst from a proglacial lake (French) Hours
Related hazards Lahars Catastrophic debris flow Hours
associated with volcanic activity
and snow fields
Water resource Water supply shortages, particularly Decades
problems during low flow conditions,
associated with wasting glaciers
and climate change etc.

exploration stages of the Brenig dam site on the

drumlins in the Denbigh Moors in North Wales
and the Kielder dam site on tills along the North
Tyne River, in northern England. He emphasised
the variability of sediment types and geotechnical
properties within the proposed dam sites.
Furthermore, he showed that microstructure of
tills may greatly influence the mechanical proper-
ties and loading characteristics (e.g. Boulton and
Paul 1976; McGown and Derbyshire 1977).
The geotechnical properties of glacial sediments
are usually a function of the depositional environ-
Figure 13.17 Aerial view northwards across the ter- ment (Table 13.1). Farrell et al. (1995) showed that
minal zone of the Hooker Glacier, the south island of weathering may also alter the geotechnical proper-
New Zealand, in 1974. The debris-covered glacier ties of tills (Figure 13.18). In particular, weathering
shows evidence of a complex hydrology. This includes
several supraglacial lakes (each sealed off from the
increases the fines content and the plasticity of till,
next, as indicated by the range of water levels); ice- reducing its density and shear strength. The typical
contact (proglacial) lake (foreground); supraglacial ranges of geotechnical properties for different tills
streams, englacial streams (lower left of photograph); are illustrated in Tables 13.4 and 13.5 and 75 Figure
subglacial and proglacial streams (right of photograph). 13.19. Hird et al. (1991) and Lehane and Faulkner
Parallel lateral moraine series on both side slopes of the
glacier (top and bottom of photograph) show varying
(1998) provide useful studies of the stiffness and
degrees of eroded incision with associated debris strength characteristics of tills.
3.1 Glacial environments

[above] Valley glaciers emerge from a small summit icefield,

and descend into larger valleys that were eroded between sharp
arête ridges during the Quaternary glaciations.
[above right] The deep U-shaped profile of a valley that carried
a powerful glacier during the Quaternary.
[left] Nunatak mountain tops that project through an ice sheet
where it is flowing into major outlet glaciers.
[left] Glacial striae scored by
ice-dragged boulders into a rock
outcrop 5 metres long.
[below] The montane hollow
was the site of a small cirque
glacier in the Quaternary, when
a distant ice sheet fed a glacier
along the valley below right.

A fiord – a deep glaciated valley now invaded by the post-

Medial moraines mark convergence of valley glaciers. glacial rise of the sea.

76
 3.1 Glacial environments

Proglacial lake inside a retreat moraine; [right] a succession about 2 metres thick of varved silts from a lake now drained.

Moraines in a Himalayan valley; the low debris

hills in the foreground are terminal moraines a few
hundred years old, and the great bank of debris
beyond is the lateral moraine from the last major
Quaternary glaciation.

Hills formed as glaciofluvial eskers inside a glacier and [right] exposed in a quarry, their sands and gravels draped over till.

Drumlins – formed of till that was remoulded beneath a moving ice sheet and [right] isolated erratics left behind by an ice sheet.
Till – unsorted glacial debris;
[left] on the top of a glacier
that is wasting away in the melt
zone near its snout;
Multiple retreat moraines left by a small glacier lobe [right] left by a Quaternary ice
that melted away in stages, towards the left, during sheet as an extensive and thick
the global climatic warming that ended the Little sheet moraine that lies over
Ice Age event a few hundred years ago. unexposed bedrock.

77
 VI
perennial oil/gas pipeline constructed
snowpatch above ground on vertical
with protalus supports piled through active
rampart around non-sorted palterned ground solifluction bench ice wedge
layer in order to resist
boulder sheets lower frost-shattered on debris-mantled slope. or terrace polygons
frost-jacking forces.
rock outcrops (raised centre type)
glacially
glacially- margins
large sorted stone
deflation terraces Zig-zag configuration allows
steepened
steepened debris cone nivation hollow rings on flat surface
niveo-aeolian pingo with for thermal expansion/contraction
rockwall
rock wall sand deposits crater (in short buried sections allow
stone pavement avalanche closed system)
with hummocks large animals to cross.
blockfield boulder tongue North
deflation migrating
talus large sorted stone thermokarst
surface LOCAL caribou
stripes on slope lake wind-
DOMINANT
wind WIND orientated
thaw lake ARCTIC OCEAN
rotational
slumps stripes DIRECTION
frost-
weathered
regolith
solifluction
sheets

solifuction
lobes TUNDRA
Limit
of co
ntin permanently unfrozen
u ou
s Pe
rmaf st ground within region of
fr o

ENGINEERING GEOMORPHOLOGY
soliflucted rost tarmac a permafrost:- commonly
erm
till road
n uo us p water-bearing (talik)
con ti polar frost rubble

pingo frost crack polygons

remnant
mudpit in surface
rock glacier st depression formed when
fr o
(ice-cemented
pe rm a earth
ice lens melted
angular boulders nuous ice wedge polygons
and finer debris) ploughing d is c o n ti hummocks
(depressed centre type)
block longitudinal hinge cracks in road base PERMAFROST
resulting from seasonal freeze-thaw Rock or soil that has remained
continuously frozen for at least
cryo- Building with stable foundations two years. Ice binds soil
pingo mound turbation Structure raised above ground level particles into a solid mass
BOREAL above small to minimize heat flow to underlying
CONIFEROUS (in open system) that has rock-like propertries
perennial ice lens frozen ground. Wooden pile foundations and a relatively high strength.
FOREST string bog placed in steamed or drilled holes
(TAIGA) Strength varies with soil
winter which typically penetrate permafrost composition, texture, ice
large perennial freezing to depths of 5-10m. content and temperature.
ice lens Strength increases with
frost table Failure of structure
bog with peat mounds decrease in temperature
(upper limit of
containing ice cores ACTIVE LAYER Frozen soil provides excellent bearing and increase in ice content.
permafrost or talik)
(palsa) (Summer thaw) for a structure but its strength Frozen sands which are
CONTINENTAL Unconsolidated Quaternary sediments: decreases sharply with increase in well-cemented by ice are
INTERIOR predominantly glacial clays, silts and fine sands, temperature. When fine-grained soils generally much stronger
South overlain by organic material on lower ground. with high ice contents thaw they turn to than finer-grained materials,
These materials are generally frost-susceptible slurry, resulting in large settlements. particularly at temperatures
and contain large amounts of ice when perennially In addition, heave occurs when close to thawing.
frozen. Moisture contents are extremely high in moisture moves to a freezing layer.
thawed silts and peats at the base of the active
layer overlying relatively impermeable permafrost,
necessitating drainage control.

Figure 38.3 Periglacial terrain model. Figure 3.2 Periglacial terrain model.

78
 3.2 Periglacial environments

Periglacial environments (Figure 3.2) Periglacial processes and landforms of vegetation. Movement is generally slow, although occasion-
Periglacial landscapes are an amalgam of forms created by ally rapid failure can take place through detachment slides of
The word periglacial was introduced to provide a term for the active layer.
the cold conditions that bordered Quaternary ice sheets. By processes uniquely related to periglacial conditions, including
freezing and thawing, mass wasting and nivation. More Solifluction was widespread during the Pleistocene and
general usage it has come to mean a much broader area in
normal geomorphological processes driven by wind, water affected all of Britain, so its effects today are relict. Such
which the temperature regime includes alternations between
and biological activity are also in evidence in the landscape, soliflucted material, known as head, can be reactivated with
ground freezing and thawing; these environments occur at
but even these forcing agents are usually modified to some further down-slope flow and is likely to have a lower bearing
either high latitudes or high altitudes, or both. About 35% of
extent by the periglacial environment. capacity and higher compressibility than the parent stratum.
the Earth’s land surface is affected by frost action and about
The importance of ground freeze–thaw oscillations derive It also commonly contains shear planes and is therefore prone
20% of the present day land area has permafrost beneath its
from the unique properties of water and its volume changes as to modern landslips when undercut.
surface.
it freezes and thaws. Freezing of the ground, associated with Other geomorphological processes, driven by wind and
Permafrost is ground ice and frozen ground beneath a
the formation of ground ice, leads to expansion of the soil. running water, are also active in periglacial regions. Water is es-
thin active surface layer in which summer thawing and winter
Thawing promotes liquefaction and contraction, leading to pecially abundant in the summer snowmelt season and typically
freezing occur. The temperature of the frozen ground has to
solifluction and subsidence. accumulates between the many hummocks that characterize
continuously remain below 0°C for more than two years to be
Frost action, a result of cyclic seasonal freezing and the surface before concentrating as surface flow and streams,
called ‘permafrost’. These conditions are of great significance
thawing, includes frost-wedging (shattering, scaling, splitting), and even as extensive flooding. For example, the Colville River
to engineering in both active and relict terrains. They lead to
frost-heaving, frost-creeping, frost-sorting, nivation and solif- (the largest in northern Alaska) carries about half of its total
many periglacial landforms, including patterned ground, frost
luction. Solifluction describes the down-slope movement of annual flow during a three- to four-week period. It is during
mounds and pingos, thermokarst, altiplanation terraces, block
saturated ground in general; gelifluction is the specific term such flooding that much of the fluvial activity in periglacial
fields and rock glaciers. This large and important subject for
when it is driven by freeze–thaw action. Frost-wedging is areas occurs. Thaw lakes can be common (aligned with the wind
ground engineering is dealt with further in Figures 3.5 and
commonly the main physical weathering process in cold direction) in the summer melting of the active layer.
5.9.
regions and involves the fracturing of rock as water freezes in Wind is highly variable in different periglacial regions and
Permafrost can be divided into four main categories:
its cracks and pores. Frost-heave is the displacement of rock or its effects depend on both the direction and duration of flow
subsea permafrost, alpine permafrost, continuous perma-
soil by water as it freezes in the ground. On freezing, there is a as well as the flow velocity. Most of the ground is protected
frost and discontinuous permafrost. Continuous permafrost
9% expansion in the volume of pore water in the soil, although by snow cover during deep winter, but the wind creates drifts
requires the mean temperature to be below –8°C and dis-
much heaving is due to the formation of lenses and flakes of and snow ridges; snow crystals become an effective erosive
continuous permafrost requires a temperature between –1°C
ice of varying thickness. tool. Wind erosion, transport and deposition are common
and –8°C. Continuous and subsea permafrost are currently
Solifluction (gelifluction) is the predominant form of peri- in snow-free periods. River bars, outwash plains and other
limited to high latitudes, but alpine permafrost is a feature of
glacial mass movement in modern periglacial areas and its non-vegetated areas become sources of sediment that is sub-
high altitudes throughout the world. During the glacial cold
products are evident in the more extensive former periglacial sequently redistributed by the wind into sand sheets and loess.
periods of the Quaternary, periglacial conditions, including
permafrost, extended much further from the polar regions areas, where it has left relict features of engineering signifi- Ground ice, a nearly ubiquitous phenomenon in per-
towards the equator than they do today. The former presence cance (Hutchinson, 1991). Although not limited to areas with iglacial areas, creates many engineering problems, especially
of periglacial conditions can be identified by patterned ground frozen ground, solifluction is widespread on even low slopes during periods of freeze and thaw, affecting buildings and
and numerous other features left in and on the ground. These because the frozen (and hence impermeable) subsurface infrastructure, particularly where permafrost is inadvertently
relict periglacial features extend over much of the high- and ensures a saturated upper layer that therefore remains with thawed. Except in thaw-stable gravels, conservation of the
mid-latitude countries (see Figures 3.5, 5.1 and 5.9). Such excess pore pressure in the thawing soil. This promotes the permafrost therefore has to be the key concern during both
features can significantly affect ground engineering. For back- downhill slope movement of soliflucted material. The rates construction and the life of the project. Buildings, roads and
ground reading, see Fookes et al. (2005) and Bibliography. of movement are affected by the degree of the slope, the soil pipelines are especially sensitive (see Figure 5.9 and Bibliogra-
texture, the depth of the thaw, the water content and the extent phy, Groups A and B books).

79
3.2 Periglacial environments

[left] The environment

of the tundra, with no
normal trees.
[above] Treeless tundra
across the Arctic Circle.
[above right] The taiga
environment with only a
scatter of black spruce.
[far left] Outwash plain
of glaciofluvial gravels
carried by meltwater
from a glacier out into
the periglacial zone that
surrounds the ice cover.
[left] The surface layer
of frost-shattered rock
fragments, widely
known as felsenmeer
[meaning stone sea], in
a mountain periglacial
zone.
[upper right] Frost-
shattered rock debris
accumulated as scree (or
talus).
[right] A rock glacier of
frost-shattered debris,
with interstitial ice that
lets it creep downhill.

80
 3.2 Periglacial environments

[above left] Patterned ground of stone polygons formed by Ice wedges that form large polygons within the active layer
annual re-growth of ice crystals heaving the larger stones are picked out by plant growth on their finer soil.
away from growth centres as the ground freezes.
[above] Stone stripes that are effectively stone polygons of
sorted debris greatly extended by downhill soil creep.

Summer canals over thawed ice wedges, beside a gravel pad

that conserves the permafrost beneath the buildings.

Timber piles that were placed through the active layer and
founded in permanently frozen stable ground; the wooden
A hillside blanketed by multiple solifluction lobes, each a few building on them was then burned down, since when 50
metres thick, that are developed by slow down-slope creep of years of solifluction and creep of the hillside soils have Ground subsidence over large ice wedges thawed when
annually thawed soils within the active layer. rotated the piles above their stable toes. invaded by warm summer drainage water from a road.

81
 rockfall
adding to
talus
rock
pavements
rock face

cliff

BASALT lava flow blanket bog peat-

may be wasting
slope
talus BASALT lava flow
taluvium
vial gully
collu e
colluvium slop

COLOUR SECTION
vegetated
alluvium in
valley with
ephemeral
stream
debris slides in
semi-arid climate weathered sandstone
semi-arid climate
shallow rotational
slides in weathered
shale
gently dipping sequence of
SANDSTONE, SILTSTONE taluvium and
and SHALE landslide debris
river terrace
gravels gently dipping
gently dipping sequence
of saNdstONe,
sequence of
siltstONe andSILTSONE
SANDSTONE, sHale
and SHALE
alluvium with
temperate climate
temperate climate lenses of peat
and gravel in
valley with
permanent
river

Figure 38.4 Semi-arid and temperate terrain models (after Fookes 1997)38.1.

Figure 3.3 Temperate environments.

VII
82
 3.3 Temperate environments

Temperate environments (Figure 3.3) • The first order of change involves large fluctuations in and how much variability occurs, as it originated under con-
the water balance and temperature brought about by the ditions that no longer exist. Thus there is no simple basis for
It is sometimes said rather light-heartedly that temperate changes from glacial to interglacial climates and vice versa. estimation in the development of the site geomodel. The range
landscapes are those left when the more distinctive hotter Each glacial/interglacial episode lasted for about 100,000 of deposits includes weathered material, colluvial, taluvial
or colder environments of the world have been identified. years and there were over 20 cycles during the important and fluvial materials originating from contemporary condi-
In modern usage, the term temperate has come to be used Pleistocene Period of the last two million or so years. The tions, together with marine, aeolian, glacial, periglacial and
to denote moderate climates with no great extremes of tem- Pleistocene, together with the current geological age, the tropical deposits that may still exist in significant amounts.
perature. Temperate environments, which include some of the Holocene (about the last 10,000 years; alternatively called The major problems associated with the interpretation of each
world’s most densely populated areas, have presented some the Recent), make up the Quaternary. Holocene glaciers type of deposit are indicated in Tables 3.3.1 and 3.4.1 and the
major design and construction challenges for engineers. These are now in retreat. Appendix.
challenges have resulted in research that has been successful in
temperate climates, but unsuccessful in other climatic regions • The second order of change is caused by shorter climatic
where the geomorphological processes, environmental condi- variations, such as glacial interstadials (i.e. minor retreats
tions and land use practices are different. This is an important occurring within the major glacial episodes), each lasting
point for engineers (Fookes et al., 2005). a few hundred to a few thousand years.
Today’s temperate environment consists of five major • The third order of change is a result of changes in the local
subdivisions based on current and relict conditions. The first geomorphology (e.g. major earthquakes in tectonic zones)
four subdivisions are forested, but these have been substan- or human activity (e.g. deforestation).
tially altered by human activities over the last few thousand • The fourth order of change is a result of events that may
years. The fifth subdivision includes the steppes and prairies. have persisted for only a few years (e.g. the effects of a
One of the larger forested subdivisions is the Mediterranean major flood or landslide).
environment (see Figure 3.4). The subdivisions are presented in To simplify, existing temperate landforms can be considered
Table 3.4.1. as broadly composed of three major components.
Relict landforms • Extensive plateau areas, now often dissected, are the
remains of landforms produced by pre-Quaternary
Present day temperate landscapes contain many relict
erosion, e.g. planation surfaces formed under tropical or
landforms remaining from former climates, thus the majority
subtropical conditions, affected by later processes such as
of temperate features and their deposits probably do not now
those occurring under glacial or periglacial conditions.
relate to contemporary environmental processes. Temperate
environments can be thought of as domains of rain and rivers • Major valleys that were the product of erosion and depo-
operating on a landscape that commonly contains the record sition within the Quaternary as a result of glacial and
of a variety of past environments. Domains, in this sense, interglacial episodes accompanied by major fluctuations
represent equilibrium relationships between active processes in sea level.
related to controlling parameters, such as the climate, the in- • The detailed development of erosion and deposition along
filtration rate, vegetation and land use. present river courses and valley floors during the current
The relict landscapes and local ground features that now postglacial time period.
lie within the temperate environment reflect the conditions As many of the soils covering today’s temperate areas are the
that existed during the Quaternary. Four conceptual orders of relicts of former climatic or environmental conditions, it can
change have been recognized. be difficult to deduce how extensive a particular deposit is,

83
3.3 Temperate environments

Table 3.3.1 Types of deposit that may occur in temperate areas, including those developed in past climates (see also Figure 3.4 and the Appendix for discussion of individual soils).

Type of deposit Common characteristics Associated engineering problems

Weathered and Typically up to medium-grained fine soil size, not usually deep, may Some lateral variation as a result of subsurface changes in material
colluvial have developed on top of fossil deposits, podzolized soils now on
surface
Fluvial (river) Range of grain sizes present, often incorporates remnants of earlier Small changes in river position can release new exposures of relict
deposits – frequent lateral and vertical changes sediments
Marine Range of grain sizes present, delivered by fluvial systems, may Deposits may also occur above the present sea level, marking former
incorporate earlier deposits from cliff-falls or from offshore shorelines now uplifted, or made by former higher sea levels
sediments
Aeolian Silts common in Vegetation Zone 5 (see Table 3.4.1) and also May mantle surfaces and may not be related to deposits of a very
in other areas where vegetation and field boundaries have been different character beneath
removed; former conditions had loess or water-sorted loess (‘brick
earth’ in Britain) cover or sand sheets, more common in Europe and
northern Asia
Relict deposits from former conditions (see Figures 2.3, 2.4, 3.1, 3.2, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8 and 3.9)
Glacial Till deposits, lake clays, glaciofluvial sands and gravels Distribution and character not easily deduced; rapid variations in
thickness
Periglacial Angular scree deposits, unsorted slope deposits, fine wind-blown Distribution localized, but character reflects locally available
deposits; relict solifluction lobes and active layer slides rock and soil types – may occur on slopes that are unstable when
modified by engineering
Tropical/ Clays that are remnants of deep weathering (remains of Tertiary age Localized, often on plateau sites, may be locally deep
subtropical climatic conditions)

84
3.3 Temperate environments

[above centre] The power of water to erode and transport increases by the cube of its velocity.
[above right] Interlocking spurs form on opposite sides of a stream that meanders while it cuts deeper.
[left] Large meanders are developed by a river with a very low gradient on a wide floodplain, and are enlarged
by erosion on the outside of the bends; the river cuts through meander necks to leave oxbow lakes; the insides of
the meanders are filled with crescentic scrolls of sediment deposited in slack water.
[below left] Seen in the dry season, a moulin, or deep pothole, cut into bedrock by swirling water in a plunge
pool at the foot of a waterfall; massive annual floods at this site scour the whole width of the bare rock.
[below right] Seen from the air, an alluvial fan is formed by a stream emerging from a steep gorge (here in deep
shadow) and dropping its sediment load as it loses velocity over a wider and flatter basin floor.

86
 3.3 Temperate environments

Peat bogs dissected by small streams on a moorland plateau.

An old stone bridge that was largely destroyed when A road has to lie along a river bank in a narrow valley, so
it was overtopped by a short-lived flood flow that has a gabion wall to prevent fluvial erosion undermining
was too large to pass through its arches. it during predictable high flood flows.

Alluvial sands and gravels in a floodplain quarry 10 m deep.

Gravel deposits on a slip-off slope inside the bend of a river. A road undermined by multiple failures of hillside soils and artificial fill after a heavy rain storm event.

87
 volcano

snow on highest peaks from limestone

November to March (N. Hemisphere) karst hills

terraces related to
phases of uplift and
erosion
Mediterranean
sea
slightly weathered strong GRANITE

talus

fresh very strong

GRANITE with widely-
spaced irregular joints shallow mudflow in
taluvium (loose angular weathered
granite boulders with a mudstone
sparse matrix of sand
and silt)
moderately weak to
terra rossa (residual
terra ferruginous
rossa (residual moderately strong
clay fromferroginous
solution of clay
limestone)
from Miocene MUDSTONE
solution of limestone)
solution doline thick layer of very strong hard CHERT

doline karst (class IV) with cave thrust fault with very strong MYLONITE
system remaining when groundwater
level fell piedmont
piedmontdebris
debrisfan
fanremanié
remainédeposit
deposit consisting of
comprising
all sizes ofall sized
rock of rock fragments
fragments derived from present and
black cotton soil (residual smectitic clay derived from present and former outcropsfine sand and
former outcrops mixed with wind-blown
from weathering of dolerite) mixed with wind blown fine sand
silt (finest material winnowed outand
by silt
sheet floods)
variously weathered DOLERITE (finest material winnowed out by sheet floods)
terraces related to phases of uplift and erosion traditional systems to collect and conserve water for
agriculture (e.g. terraces, small dams, irrigation channels,
ephemeral
ephemeralriver
riverchannel
channelutilized
utilisedby
byflood
flooddischarge
discharge aqueducts, wells and quanats to intersect groundwater
in debris fans, aljibe to collect and store surface runoff)
cave system with travertine deposits moderately strong calcareous SANDSTONE
water-filled conduits (lowered groundwater level) open sink hole
river disappears underground
down sink hole during summer drought
thin sandy fersiallitic soil
moderately strong to strong Cretaceous LIMESTONE
sinkhole blocked by
soil and rock fragments
Class III karst with major solution along
many discontinuities above lowest
former groundwater level

Figure 38.5 Mediterranean terrain model.

Figure 3.4 Temperate environment: Mediterranean climate.

88
 3.4 Temperate environments: the Mediterranean

Temperate environments: the Mediterranean Table 3.4.1 Subdivisions of the boreal forest temperate environments (modified after Tricart, 1957; Alexander, 1999). Under
(Figure 3.4) natural conditions Zones 1–4 would be forested, but these zones have been substantially transformed by human activity.
Zones 1 and 5 are transitional to the other zones. This table applies to Figures 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.9, 5.9 and Table 3.3.1.
Figure 3.4 is based on land on the north shore of the Medi-
terranean Sea. However, the Mediterranean climate is Vegetation Zone Climate Processes and features Major hazards
characteristic of the western margins of continents in the 1: Forest on old Severe winters, Transitional to the modern periglacial zone, local Wildfires, frost or ice storms,
world’s warm temperate climates, typically between latitudes Pleistocene permafrost may be associated permanently frozen ground beneath the land surface may snowstorms, wind storms;
(deciduous trees such with high-altitude be continuous or discontinuous and is residual from the modification of ground surface
30° and 40°. It is one of the five subdivisions of the temperate as larch, birch and periglacial areas Pleistocene and not forming at present, hence ‘temperate’ with attendant problems
environment briefly discussed in Figure 3.3 and presented aspen)
in Table 3.4.1. It is typified by hot, dry, sunny summers 2: Forested zone of Maritime without Chemical erosion limited by moderate temperatures, some Accelerated erosion; frost heave
and warm, moist winters. In the summer the climate is middle latitudes, mild severe winters; frost action, but penetration rarely reaches bedrock; high- and collapse; floods; landslides
dominated by subtropical anticyclones and in the winter by (deciduous broadleaf no large seasonal angle slopes can be stable where still covered by forest.
woodland) variations in Landslides on devegetated slopes.
depressions. Within the Mediterranean basin itself, various temperature or
temperate subdivisions are recognizable, depending on the humidity Flooding may increase downstream of vegetation changes.
distance from the Atlantic, but elsewhere in the world at this 3: Forested zone of Severe winters Heavy showers and snowmelt can produce higher peak Drought; severe thunderstorms;
latitude the Mediterranean climate is restricted to narrower middle latitudes, cold and seasonally streamflow rates than in Zone 2; mechanical processes hailstorms; snowstorms;
coastal margins commonly backed by topographic barriers, (evergreen conifers distributed more important as frost penetration is great and can reach landslides, especially
such as the coastal plain of central Chile backed by the such as spruce, fir and precipitation bedrock; slopes can be steep, up to 20° to 35°, and covered when vegetation removed;
pine) in slope debris; chemical erosion limited by winter frost downstream flooding increases
Andes. after vegetation changes
Mediterranean temperate areas adjacent to coasts 4: Mediterranean Seasonal Alternations of wet and dry conditions exert major Soil erosion; floods with high
also contain relict landforms of Quaternary climates (see forested zone of middle precipitation, mild influences, such as inducing landslides; seasonal streamflow spatial and temporal variability;
Figure 3.3), notably anomalous buried channels or valleys. latitudes (evergreen winters, warm/hot regime can give high seasonal discharges that transport high river sediment yields;
These were formed during glacial periods when the sea oaks, pine) summers; frost coarse debris; rapid dissection and gullying where landslides, sheet erosion where
uncommon at low vegetation removed or degraded vegetation removed; increased
levels were lower than those of today because oceanic elevations flooding downstream
water was held in the continental ice sheets (see Introduc-
5: Sub-desert steppes Summer Transitional to savannas and deserts with some frost action Drought; tornadoes; soil erosion.
tion, Figures 3.1 and 3.2). Today these features may be and prairies rainstorms, dry in winter; wind action, occasional sheet wash and gullying Deflation and gullying encouraged
steep-sided and flat-floored and may contain no drainage cold winters by removal of vegetation.
at all. Mediterranean environments (Zone 4 in Table 3.4.1)
were once well forested, but have now largely been cleared • Expansive soils. Often, but not always, a residual weathered Problems resulting from human activities include the following.
by humans. Many landscapes have been changed signifi- soil. Swelling/shrinkage with moisture changes, especially • Groundwater. Groundwater rise due to the creation of res-
cantly by various historical and modern forms of human in areas where smectite clays have developed. ervoirs, with a consequent increase in pore pressure and
activity. • Consolidation. Differential amounts of settlement as a slope failure.
Problems in the engineering characteristics of temperate result of variations within relict and bedrock deposits and • Piping. Land use practices (including deforestation,
deposits resulting from historical and current climate-related in their stratigraphy. over-use and poor management of agricultural land and
changes include the following. • Drainage. Settlement of deposits that can give substantial, population pressure) that lead to surface erosion, sub-
• A weathered ground profile. A reduction in shear strength commonly irregular, lowering of surface elevation and so surface piping and the possibility of collapse and gully
that may lead to slope failure, including failure on relict increase the risk of flooding. Formation of desiccation development.
discontinuity planes; loss of bearing capacity; irregular cracks that may provide locations for slumps or gulley The characteristics of soils found within temperate envi-
bedrock profile. development. ronments are discussed further in the Appendix.

89
3.4 Temperate environments: the Mediterranean

Within the Mediterranean terrains, strong limestones form A deep and straight U-shaped valley is a relict of Wide river terraces, formed of alluvial gravels, sands
many of the bare crags and hill features because they are more Pleistocene glaciations, features from which are silts and clays, are especially common in areas that were
resistant to erosion in the mild pluvial conditions. characteristic of the Mediterranean environments. subjected to episodic uplift in Alpine orogenies.
[left] In pluvial terrains, gully erosion causes long-term
dissection of sloping ground, where streams cut down
through old unconsolidated slope sediments and into
weaker bedrock beneath; remnants of the earlier slope
profiles form benches that are suitable for cultivation.
[below] The end-product of gully erosion in weak and
cohesive rocks can be a landscape of tall pinnacles.

Short-term gully erosion can be extremely

destructive of good agicultural land on
steep slopes, sometimes with major features
developing during single storm events.

90
 3.4 Temperate environments: the Mediterranean

[left] Loess is one of the materials most prone to piping;

cavities are created along sub-surface drainage routes by
mechanical removal of first the fines and then headward
ersoion that carries the larger soil particles out through
the downstream end of the expanding pipe.
[below] Sinkhole collapse at the top end of a soil pipe.

A limestone plateau with a valley cut largely by Pleistocene periglacial erosion.

[above] Subsidence sinkholes can form in any soil

that covers cavernous rock, in this case gypsum,
and are notably frequent after rain events on
agricultural land where the natural drainage has
been modified.
On the larger limestone plateaus, the extensive dendritic systems of dry [right] A river at its normal level in a period of stable
valleys were largely formed by stream erosion when the ground was weather, and at flood level where it is constrained by an
frozen and impermeable during cold stages of the Pleistocene. artificial levee built to protect an urban area.

91
 Structure-less
Structurelessremoulded
remoulded CHALK
CHALK (V)(V)

II
(with involutions
(with involutions beneath
beneath the
the dry
dry valley)
valley)
Cryoturbation
in clay-with-flints
North Rubbly partly weathered CHALK, with and infilled
very closely spaced open infilled joints (IV) solution pipes
Stripes on slope Rubbly to blocky unweathered CHALK
with closely spaced slightly open joints (III)
Recent hillwash
Blocky medium hard CHALK, with in dry valley
Frost polygons widely spaced tight joints (II)
linking ice wedges Beech wood
Blocky hard brittle CHALK with
on flat ground widely spaced tight joints (I)
Tumulus
Clayey plateau Coombe
gravels V
Evidence of former IV
mass movement in III
solifluction lobe II
Ice-
wedge
cast
Solifluction head
Frost
shattered
rockhead

MIDDLE
CHALK

ENGINEERING GEOMORPHOLOGY
Solifuction head
LOWER
Loess (brickearth) Loess CHALK
Shallow rotational Ancient fault
Recent alluvium
slide in head (failure
surface extends into Spongy
Spongy General level of
underlying weathered peat
peat MID-PLEISTOCENE
mudstones) Pingo
Pingo
groundwater

Cryoturbated JURASSIC
Small fault induced by cambering
mudstone degraded to clay

Gull with collapsed roof

Cavity

PALAEOZOIC sedimentary rocks Cambered blocks of JURASSIC limestone

Gull infilled with head passing up into loess

Gull infilled with head passing up into loses

Terrace gravels with ice-wedge casts

Cryoturbated sand and gravel and other cryoturbation features

Ancient fault Buried channels infilled with gravels, sands,

silts and clays, with evidence of deposition
by braided streams at times
Truncated ice-wedge casts
Valley bulge
N.B. Various Mesozoic strata
are juxtaposed in order
to illustrate a range of
Quaternary periglacial features

Figure
Figure 2.6 Relict periglacial terrain model in southern England (after3.5 A relict
Fookes 1997)periglacial
2.13.
terrain: southern Britain.

92
 3.5 Relict periglacial terrain

Relict periglacial terrain: southern Britain Table 3.5.1 Examples of geomorphological problems found in former periglacial terrains.
(Figure 3.5) Problem Effects Examples
In vast areas that are no longer subject to periglacial condi- Near-surface disturbances
tions, the observed surface and subsurface forms and soil Involutions Surface sediment diversity and disruption Common over much of Britain and elsewhere
characteristics commonly reflect former periglacial processes (cryoturbations)
and forms. Evidence of these forms includes involutions, Frost-shattering Weakened rock profiles, liable to failure; scree (talus)-covered Near-surface features on rocks such as chalk
slopes
solifluction, valley bulging, cambering, frost mounds, peat
Solifluction Reactivation of slip surfaces below solifluction lobes Mass movements during road construction, e.g. major
deposits, pingo craters, ice-wedge casts and crop (ice-wedge) problems in Sevenoaks bypass, Kent, UK
polygons (see Figures 3.2 and 5.9). Hutchinson (1991) writes
Ice wedges Fine material filling cracks likely to pose ground stability Collapse of trench walls during, for example, gas pipe laying,
that, in Britain, ‘the reactivation of relic clayey solifluction problems differential settlement
mantles by ill-advised earthworks probably constitutes at Deeper seated disturbances
present the most frequent and costly type of failure … having
Cambering and valley Down-slope movement of competent rock over weaker, more Widespread in limestones and sandstones that overlie clays
a periglacial origin’. Solifluction mantles (commonly called bulging ductile rocks; formation of large cracks (‘gulls’) of (for example) south-eastern Britain; gulls can be a serious
head) typically contain pre-existing shear planes that are problem in new housing developments
easily missed in logging borehole cores. Pits must be dug to Fossil pingos Shallow craters buried by sand and gravel; common in Cause of serious foundation problems, e.g. Battersea power
lowlands where groundwater froze during periglacial station, London, UK
investigate fully and to develop the site model. Modern slope conditions
failures commonly utilize the shear planes.
Loess and cover sands
Although Figure 3.5 has been modelled on southern
Deep loess Lower density, high porosity, highly permeable metastable Major problems of slope instability in urban areas, e.g. notably
Britain, all of the relict features can be found elsewhere in material, often hundreds of metres thick (not in Britain), prone Gansu, China; Germany; Poland
areas of former periglacial activity, especially across large to sliding and surface gullying
parts of northern Britain, North America, Siberia and north- Cover sands Thinner, but can be easily eroded, may be metastable Fine silt eroded from thin cover sand deposits, e.g. affects
western Europe. Air photography reveals many periglacial urban water supply treatment in southern Pennines, UK
forms and patterns throughout these areas – for example,
several hundred fossil ice wedges have been identified from retreating glaciers. These may extend far beyond the areas of and lack stratification. The ambient natural moisture of loess is
the air in Denmark, with more in the Netherlands and Poland. Pleistocene permafrost. Loess landforms vary from extensive broadly controlled by the local climate regime. In general, the
plateaus to small hills and are frequently cut by deep, vertical- shear strength of loess increases when the moisture content
These relict periglacial features are of significant concern
sided gullies; vertical fissures within the loess dominate its decreases and there is an increase in bulk density. The bearing
to civil engineering because they may represent sudden and
permeability characteristics. Areas with thick layers of loess capacity increases consistently with depth, except that higher
usually unexpected replacement of one material by another,
are subject to various forms of landslides and erosion. Figure values occur locally in clay-enriched materials (i.e. palaeosols,
perhaps with inferior geotechnical properties (Table 3.5.1).
3.5 shows a small amount of thin loess (commonly called ancient buried soils).
Relict features are especially important for shallow foundations,
brick earth in Britain) on a shallow valley side. Huge areas When loess is put under a load (e.g. from engineering
roads, runways and canals. Near-surface features invariably
with loess mantles up to tens of metres thick occur in the USA constructions), it consolidates in the normal manner for a silt
make interpretation by cable and tool rigs (commonly referred
and across northern Europe through Russia to China, but do with a high void ratio, but, if wetted under the new load, it will
to, in Britain, as ‘shell-and-auger’) and similar light percussion
not occur in Britain (Derbyshire and Meng, 1995). suddenly collapse when close to saturation. This potentially
boring techniques difficult or impossible. Pits and trenches are
needed to produce more reliable interpretations and samples. The dominant mineral in most of the world’s loess is quartz. dangerous metastable behaviour should be investigated by
Significant amounts of feldspars and mica may also be present laboratory tests (e.g. a flooded oedometer) before construc-
Loess and minor carbonate and clay minerals may locally constitute tion. Hydrocompaction occurs when porous loess, wetted
Many of the former periglaciated areas are covered in wind- a cement. Because the quartz grains are deposited by air-fall, naturally, collapses.
blown silt (loess) that was derived from the outwash plains of they are typically loosely packed, moderate to poorly sorted

93
3.5 Relict periglacial terrain CHALK LANDSCAPES 731

Chalk Table 26.1

Table 3.5.2 Basic English
English ChalkChalk stratigraphy
stratigraphy (after Rawson
(after Rawson et al.,
et al., 2001 and2001 and Mortimore
Mortimore et al., 2001).
et al., 2001).
Figure 3.5 shows faulted Cretaceous chalk (see Table 3.5.2) Southern area Northern area
overlying various Jurassic sediments, common in southern
Britain. Chalk also occurs extensively across Europe and Old units Stage Sub-group Formation Member Formation Member
North America. It is a weak, fine-grained, white or grey
Portsdown Chalk Rowe Chalk
porous limestone of marine origin formed by pelagic shells
deposited in a tropical shelf sea in Cretaceous times. It varies Campanian Spetisbury Chalk
in hardness and strength; some ‘hard’ beds, each up to about Culver Chalk
Tarrant Chalk
2 m thick, occur within the chalk sequence, which totals Flamborough
several hundred metres. The chalk outcrop normally forms Upper Newhaven Chalk
Chalk
a prominent escarpment with the hard bands forming inter- Chalk Santonian White
Chalk Seaford Chalk
mediate escarpments. Chalk in England generally gives rise to
Coniacian Burnham Chalk
distinctive rolling country known as ‘the Downs’. It typically
has a trellis pattern of drainage with valleys that are mostly Lewes Nodular
dry or which may contain ephemeral streams (i.e. ‘winter Chalk
bournes’) and coombes (bowl-shaped hollows that occur on Turonian
the flanks of dry valleys). These were developed when the New Pit Chalk
landscape was frozen during the Pleistocene and were cut by Middle Welton Chalk
water during the summer melts. Chalk Holywell Nodular
Chalk Plenus Marls Plenus
During periglacial conditions, chalk was typically
Marls
weathered by freeze–thaw action (including frost-shattering)
down to several tens of metres (see Table 5.1.1 and discussion Zig/Zag Chalk
Lower Cenomanian Grey Chalk Ferriby Chalk
in Figure 5.1). This has lent itself to a classification of chalk Chalk West Melbury
weathering from fresh chalk (Grade I) to a structure-less Marly Chalk
remoulded chalk (Grade V). Other common periglacial con-
ditions include dissolution features, sink holes and small cave
systems. These are commonly back-filled with loess, fine sand Chalk forming intermediate escarpments. The Some patches of clay-with-flints may be over 10 m
and sludge deposits. Streams flowing on impermeable Tertiary Chalk escarpment and dip slopes represent the in thickness. As the name implies, flints and clay
sediments (or glacial till) often disappear down swallow holes surviving remnants of a sub-Palaeogene erosion constitute the bulk of the material but some gravel,
surface that has been modified by late Tertiary and sand and silt may be present at some localities.
on encountering the chalk, e.g. at Farnham, Surrey, UK.
Quaternary geomorphological processes. It may be Clay-with-flints generally has been considered as
Chalk generally provides a satisfactory foundation material,
that the crest of the Chalk escarpment was nearing having been derived from the Chalk, it being a
but investigation must evaluate the presence or otherwise of
its present position by the end of Tertiary times and residual product left after chalk was dissolved.
periglacial features that are important in engineering, e.g. sink
has undergone little further retreat subsequently. However, in some localities in the Weald of south-
holes (see Figure 3.5; Bell and Culshaw, 2005). In places, superficial deposits rest directly on east England it would appear to have been derived
See also Figure 5.1 case history on periglacial areas of the Chalk. For example, tills of Anglian and from Tertiary beds. It tends to be brownish in
southern Britain. Devensian age are found on the west and east colour and may darken with depth. The deposit was
flanks of the Lincolnshire Wolds respectively. more widely distributed than it is at present and has
Similarly, in East Anglia much of the Chalk is cov- been dissected by valleys that now are dry. Angular
ered with tills, primarily of Anglian age. These tills flint gravel occurs on the higher parts of the down-
contain fragments of chalk of varying size, some of lands, notably in south Dorset and the Isle of
which may be several cubic metres in volume. Wight. This consists of an accumulation of unworn
94
Another superficial deposit, which is associated and sometimes fragmentary flints in a matrix of
with the Chalk of southern England, is clay-with- quartz sand or chalk rubble. It is thought to have a
flints. These deposits tend to occur scattered in similar derivation to that of clay-with-flints.
3.5 Relict periglacial terrain

A low ridge around a depression is the former cover of

soil that slipped off a pingo, which then melted away; so
the pingo hill became an ‘ognip’ hollow.
Many large landslides were initiated during periglacial times, but are
features of de-glaciation where over-steepened hillsides failed due to
loss of support by ice that had filled the valleys.

Ramparts of talus (scree) of frost-shattered debris,

formed largely in periglacial conditions, are less active
and grass over in the current warmer climate.
[above] The thin soil over a limestone plateau in the
Tors of granite in situ, with residual blocks that were
Pennines is largely formed of periglacial loess blown in
probably exposed in a periglacial environment after
from outwash plains in the Irish Sea basin.
deep weathering down joints in warmer climates.
[below] Loess in Britain is minimal compared with the
hugely thick and extensive loess in central Asia.

A raised beach, and an old sea

cliff behind it, formed before
the depressed land rose by
isostatic uplift when the
loading of a Quaternary ice
sheet was lost by melting.
[left] Sands and gravels
forming a raised beach on
an old wave-cut platform
are typically variable, both
laterally and vertically.

96
 3.5 Relict periglacial terrain

A camber fold over soft clay has open gulls in limestone

that is sliding towards an adjacent valley off to the right.

[above] A quarried section exposes about two metres of

broken limestone that was frost shattered in periglacial
conditions of the Quaternary, beneath which fresh rock
forms a stable roof over a gallery in an old stone mine.
[above left] Terracettes on a limestone hillside have been
formed by long-term creep of the thin soil cover.
[left] A coastal cliff exposes frost-shattered chalk beside
a buried valley filled with inclined layers of soliflucted
‘coombe rock’ of rubbly chalk debris that accumulated
under the periglacial conditions of the Quaternary. A cryoturbated interface between chalk and a residual clay
[below left] Dry valleys, coombes, formed by surface soil formed by periglacial ground ice heave that has been
drainage and solifluction when underlying chalk was complicated by later dissolution of the chalk.
rendered impermeable by its permafrost ground ice.

‘Rubble chalk’, the

weak, angular rock
debris that was formed
by weathering and
frost action reaching
as much as 10 metres
deep under periglacial
conditions during cold
Quaternary stages. A doline in soil-covered chalk formed by dissolution of
ground originally disturbed by periglacial permafrost.

97
Figure 3.6 Hot desert environments: drylands.

98
 3.6 Hot desert environments: drylands

Hot desert environments: drylands (Figure 3.6) ing semi-arid or humid and arid conditions. However, the pediments and extensive coarse alluvial fans. Relict forms
important characteristic of desert environments is the marked may also be present. Pediments are gently sloping surfaces
Hot drylands cover about one-third of the Earth’s surface and contrast between the long-term stability of many former developed in the bedrock and commonly cutting across
can be distinguished through their aridity index P/ETP, where and current upland landforms, including escarpments and a range of rock types. Alluvial fans are complex cones
P is the annual precipitation and ETP is the mean annual pediments, and the current and past dynamic geomorpho- of poorly sorted sediments laid down where a channel
potential evapotranspiration. As the aridity increases, the P/ logical activity of lowland landforms, such as alluvial plains, emerged from an upland area onto a plain; the bed load is
ETP ratio decreases. UNESCO (1979) defines four zones of sand seas and alluvial fans. spread out over a growing fan during rainstorms. Routing
aridity: sub-humid, semi-arid, arid and hyper-arid, with P/ across fans therefore has to be investigated and planned
Most desert soils are granular and the grading is broadly
ETP values of 0.50–0.75, 0.20–0.50, 0.03–0.20 and <0.03, re- carefully. This zone provides construction materials for
related to the distance from the upland sources: coarser
spectively. roads and concrete.
sediments closer to the mountains are moved by water and
Most hot drylands are centred on the tropics where the finer material further away is transported by water or wind. • Zone III: plains. This is normally a wide zone with a net
stable descending air of the Subtropical High Pressure Zone Most fine sediments are stored in topographic lows or on deposition of sediments supplied by erosion of the adjacent
maintains aridity throughout the year (see Figures 1.1 and base-level plains, where the high water-tables with saline upland and foot slopes. It typically has three subzones: alluvial
1.2). Another important factor controlling the distribution of groundwater can create engineering problems as a result of sediments, wind-blown sediments and stone-covered rocky
arid zones is the presence of large land masses that disrupt salt weathering. Potentially metastable wind-blown dust surfaces. These very gentle slopes may overlie a consider-
the zonal pattern of global pressure systems (e.g. the Sahara (loess) accumulated across many desert landscapes during the able thickness of water-borne material. Fluvial and aeolian
Desert). Mountain barriers generate rain shadows (e.g. the Quaternary. processes generate the main geohazards and dominate en-
Mohave Desert) and cold oceans bordering hot lands prevent For engineering geomorphological purposes the key to hot gineering issues. Sand for construction purposes is supplied
condensation and rainfall from inshore winds (e.g. the dryland issues can be related to a number of distinct terrain by this zone.
Atacama Desert); the same happens on the eastern margins of units characteristic of desert environments, albeit in varying • Zone IV: base-level plains. This zone is characterized by the
warm oceans (e.g. the Namib Desert) (Lee and Fookes, 2005; combinations. Four main zones can be recognized from the effects of near-surface groundwater and salt accumulation,
Walker, 2012). uplands down to the base-level plains (the level below which usually in soils dominated by wind-blown and water-de-
The amount of rainfall displays extreme spatial variability no further erosion will occur), each with typical surface posited silts and sands. Coastal sabkhas and inland playas
and local variations in intensity can be considerable; within features and with different engineering behaviours. Potential – salt-rich areas aggressive to engineering – commonly
the same storm some areas can receive 20 times more rainfall engineering problems encountered in drylands include: occur. Two subzones are recognized: enclosed basins and
than sites a few kilometres away. Cloudbursts are a character- surface erosion and instability; difficult excavation, especially broad depressions. Fine-grained soils in areas of highly
istic feature of this climate type and are associated with almost in areas with a near-surface hardening of soils and rocks to saline groundwater have restricted load-bearing and other
instantaneous peaks in flood flows (flash floods) in stream form duricrusts (see Figure 2.5); the granular behaviour of engineering performance characteristics. Excavations may
channels (wadis, arroyos), typically followed by a long tail of desert soils; the availability of construction aggregates; water need to be dewatered, with filter protection against the
low intensity rain. and sediment movement problems, including flash floods; migration of fine-grained particles.
The popular notion is that barren hot drylands are flat wind-blown sand; and aggressive salty ground (see extensive
Calcrete duricrusts (e.g. carbonate-cemented sands) may
and dominated by sand dunes. However, the reality is rather discussion in Walker, 2012).
be present in layered sediments, especially in coastal sabkhas.
different and much more complex. There are two main types • Zone I: the uplands. Where mechanical weathering is The local salt regime may be complex and is likely to vary sea-
of desert landscape: shield and platform deserts, including dominant, the area is commonly characterized by bare sonally. Salts will contaminate fine and coarse aggregates and
inselberg–pediment landscapes and canyon–scarp–pediment rock and boulder-strewn slopes. Subzones include back lead to salt attacks on roads, structures and buildings. Each
landscapes, and basin and range deserts. slopes, scarp slopes and free faces, ramparts, talus slopes site needs to be investigated and then sampled and tested in-
Much of the detail of current desert landscapes is the and flat irons. dividually.
product of the major climatic changes experienced throughout • Zone II: foot slopes and fans. The terrain surrounding the
the Quaternary when there were many phases of alternat- uplands may consist of two contrasting terrain units: rock

99
3.6 Hot desert environments: drylands

Giant star dunes of blown sand, over 100 metres tall, were mostly formed
during the Quaternary by faster winds from variable directions (Zone III).
A rocky desert surface is stripped down to a layer of hard rock, with
sediment only in shallow wadis; remnants of a flat, earlier, higher
desert surface form the tops of mesas in the distance.

[above] A fluvial slot canyon cut

in desert rock by flash floods from
rainstorms on distant mountains.
[right] Linear dunes, formed by two
seasonal wind systems, are spaced
about 800 metres apart and extend for
tens of kilometres in Zone IV.

Desert pavement evolves as a

layer of gravel-sized stones:
[far left] wind-polished pebbles,
known as ventifacts, still have
sand remaining between them;
[near left] all the sand has been
An incised wadi in Zone II carries occasional flash floods that removed by the wind, and only
transport and deposit large amounts of coarse, clastic debris; the bank pebbles remain to create the
on the right exposes similar stratified debris, where the wadi was cut armoured desert surface.
deeper by erosion in a wetter climate a few thousand years ago. Black disc 70mm across; both images.

100
 3.6 Hot desert environments: drylands

[left] Barchans are

small sand dunes that
migrate a few metres
per year, here from
right to left, due to
wind from a single
direction in Zone III.
[right] The side of a
single large barchan
that has swept over a
road, necessitating its
re-routing.

Playa floor (Zone IV) of dry mud on lake bed in a desert basin; Desert basin lake, with salt forming the floor of the shallows and Polygonal pressure ridges in a salt floor, formed over
classic profile of footslope and steeper uplands (II/I) on skyline. the distant flats beyond low banks of gypsum and clay. cracks during desiccation phases (Zone IV).

Desert road conditions: [from left] transverse corrugations on sand; flash flood through a desert town; flood erosion of a road embankment along a wadi, and a new track up its floor.

101
 X
DRIER SAVANNA (with relict semi-arid features) WETTER SAVANNA (with relict tropical rain forest soils)
ephemeral surface runoff in rounded granite inselberg
channel-less valley (dambo) pediment mantled by (bornhardt)-shape controlled
colluvium (predominantly by widely spaced suborthogonal
interfluve gravels loose crystal-sized joints and curved exfoliation joints
sand particles
sharp pediment angle
duricrusted
fossil linear dune terrace deposits
thin fersiallitic alluvial residual granite
red-yellow sandy conical residual colluvial corestones
fan
clay loam soil pan (playa) inselberg fill
developed on lower
colluvial slopes
smooth
pediment
angle

ENGINEERING GEOMORPHOLOGY
talus of
joint-controlled
granite BOULDERS
taluvium
(loose angular
granite deeply weathered to
granite BOULDERS
ferrallitic residual soil
with a variable
with kaolinite and gibbsite
matrix of clayey
(dense clayey silty SAND
sandy gravel)
with subangular granite,
relict duricrusted mesa gravel, cobbles and boulders)

ephemeral lake (playa)– fan or sheetwash deposits

regionally and globally important (medium dense angular GRAVEL
for wildlife conservation AND COBBLES in a matrix of
sand, silt and clay)

tall grass savanna on smectite-rich black

cotton soil (fersiallitic vertisol) developed on very strong unweathered GRANITE
weathered dolerite under impeded drainage with widely spaced joints
conditions: plastic and sticky in wet season;
deeply cracked in dry season landslide and debris flow deposits
(loose angular COBBLES AND BOULDERS
mudflow
with a variable matrix of sand and silt)
variable Quaternary river channel,
flood plain, terrace and buried mudflow deposits
continental facies MUDSTONES and SANDSTONES
ranging in strength from weak to strong
river subject to seasonal flooding fersiallitic brown soil
with smectite and accumulation
of silica and bases

Figure 38.7 Savannah terrain model.

Figure 3.7 Savanna environments.

102
 3.7 Savanna environments

Savanna environments (Figure 3.7) the various types of duricrust materials generally follows the tating on steeper hill-slopes, leading to numerous small debris
humidity of recent past climates as they varied between wet slides that can translate into mudflows down-slope.
Savanna terrains are generally regarded as environments of and dry conditions. For further discussion on the complexity Gully erosion is common on deep colluvium, often
the seasonal tropics (i.e. annual wet and relatively dry seasons) of savanna duricrusts, see Thomas (2005). triggered by cattle tracks and by uncontrolled run-off from
that lie beyond the range of wet (humid) tropical forests, but
Many hill-slopes have strong catenary relationships roads. Once gully incision has taken place, the hydraulic
without the extremes of deserts and steppes. Present day
(repeated sequences of soil profiles), which developed in gradient is greatly increased at the head-cut and groundwater
savanna vegetation consists of a variety of open deciduous
marked seasonal wet and dry climates, and related varying penetration through cracks is rapid. Piping (erosion by under-
woodland, woodland and grassland mosaics, and areas of
groundwater conditions (Figure 3.7; see also Figure 2.5 and ground water) occurs, enlarging cavities until roof collapses
open grassland. The transition to tropical rain forest occurs
Fookes, 1997). become common.
when the amount of rainfall approaches about 1500 mm/year
and the dry season is less than four months long. When the Implications for foundations and
dry season conditions become more extreme and the rainfall earthworks
decreases to <80 mm/year, the deciduous broadleaved species The conditions for shallow foundations are reasonably good
give way to acacia thorn woodland and semi-arid steppe. in most savanna terrains. The allowable bearing capacities
The largest areas of savanna coincide with the extensive tend to decrease with increasing clay content. Problems that
plateau (platform) surfaces of the ancient southern Gondwana may be encountered include the excessive settlement of col-
continents, planated in the late Mesozoic or early Cenozoic lapsible soils or heave in expansive soils. Useful introductions
Eras. The savannas are largely cratonic areas underlain by to these soils have been provided by the American Society of
ancient Archaean rocks and are typically covered by younger Civil Engineers (1982) and Blight (1997).
undeformed platform sediments. These ancient land surfaces Undermining by erosion beneath duricrusts leads to the
are dominated by poor leached soils, commonly underlain by possibility of local ground subsidence or building settlement.
deep saprolites (see Figures 2.2–2.4), which may be capped Piling for heavy structures can be problematic as a result of the
by duricrusts (see Figure 2.5). They are also characterized by variability of the ground characteristics, both horizontally and
groups of inselbergs, typically prominent rocky hills of granite vertically, with the potential for zones of fairly strong materials
that are domed in profile. Important areas of basic volcanic to be underlain by more weathered and/or weaker ground.
rocks can also occur, notably the Deccan Plateau of India and Laterites form a large part of the upper weathered profile and
the area adjacent to the East African rift zone. consist of gravelly varieties commonly used as construction
The climatic history has created many complexities in materials for roads (see Figure 2.5; Walker, 2012).
the ground profile of savanna landscapes, particularly where During the wet season, tropical savannas share rainfall
prolonged weathering has reached great depths, in places characteristics with more humid zones, but experience pre-
more than 100 m deep. Importantly, the geotechnical charac- cipitation for a shorter period of time, generally less than six
teristics of this weathering mantle may vary greatly depending months of the year. Rainfall often occurs as intense downpours,
on the parent rocks and the complex hydrological history. The perhaps delivering more than 100 mm in a single storm lasting
soil mantle is often characterized by a widespread cover of two to three hours. In drier areas, a characteristic monsoon
surface or near-surface resistant duricrusts. These duricrusts climate occurs (one annual windy and very wet period several
were first formed in the saprolites or near-surface sediments months long). Dry periods often produce fires. The restricted
by the precipitation of hydrated oxides of aluminium, iron amount of groundwater across much of the savanna environ-
and silicon, or sometimes as calcium carbonate or calcium ment appears to limit the potential for deep-seated landslides.
sulphate, often followed by modification. The formation of Nevertheless, the impact of large, intense storms can be devas-

103
 VI

IV tropical ferruginous soil

(with kaolinite)
V
IVIII
III VI II
II I I

Figure 3.8 Hot wet tropical environments.

104
 3.8 Hot wet tropical environments

Hot wet tropical environments (Figure 3.8) Table 3.8.1 Principal types of wet/humid tropical rain forests and their engineering implications.
The term ‘hot wet tropical’ is used here to include all hot, Forest type Forest characteristics(after Prance, 2002) Geomorphological implications for engineering
high rainfall regions. These are sometimes called the ‘hot Cloud forest High-altitude closed forest with many gaps, trees Commonly associated with upland peat soils that take hundreds of
wetlands’. The high temperature and humidity of wet tropical rarely over 2 m; often gnarled, numerous lianas, tree years to develop and with little depth to unweathered bedrock; highly
ferns, herbs, shrubs, epiphytes and mosses susceptible to instability when earthworks undertaken; sensitive to
lands support a dense, diverse forest cover and continuous expansion of temperate crop cultivation and hill resorts; rapid erosion
biological activity, commonly called ‘tropical rain forest’. follows the removal of cloud forest
The apparent uniformity of the humid tropical rain forest is Montane rain forest Few trees exceeding 3 m; palms and tree ferns Often on steep slopes with considerable amounts of surface organic
deceptive. There are wide variations in forest type (Table 3.8.1) common in undergrowth; ground layer rich in herbs matter as a result of slower decomposition in cooler conditions,
and mosses, epiphytes common but with shallow soils and shallow root systems; often in exposed
and in the associated engineering soils, rocks and landforms areas subject to windthrow or cyclone damage; variable foundation
beneath the forest. This diversity must be evaluated individu- conditions; abundant landslides
ally because engineering experience in one part of this region Lowland rain forest Multi-layered, many trees exceeding 3 m in height, Predominant forest type in areas subject to agricultural, urban and
cannot necessarily be translated to another (Douglas, 2005; closed canopy with sparse undergrowth; frequent industrial development; removal leads to accelerated erosion, slope
large lianas; relatively scarce epiphytes instability and increased run-off unless pre-planned protective
see Figure 2.2). measures are undertaken
The wet tropics embrace diverse landscapes: the tectoni- Alluvial forest Grows in seasonally inundated areas along river Widespread in Amazonia; seasonal flooding disrupts mobility and
cally active mountains of the equatorial parts of the Pacific banks; multi-layered, closed forest with numerous restricts use of heavy machinery; complex soil shrink–swell and
Rim of Fire; the volcanic landscapes of Java and central gaps, buttresses and stilt roots; palms; herbaceous bearing problems may arise; major impacts on aquatic life
undergrowth; epiphytes and lianas common
America; the old plateau of the northern part of the Brazilian
Swamp forest Forest on permanently wet areas; buttresses, stilt roots Often traversed by black water streams with pH values as low as 3.0
Shield and the flooded forests and freshwater swamp forests and pneumatophores common; palms, ferns and herbs (corrosive to concrete and metals); these forests often overlie former
of the lower parts of the Amazon and Congo basins, eastern abundant distributary channel systems, the coarse sands and gravels of which
Sumatra and southern Borneo. The tectonically active areas may pose problems of stability and water retention when canals and
embankments are constructed
tend to have younger rocks, which weather and break up more
Peat forest Forest over deep peat deposits in nutrient-poor soils; These lowland peats are likely to shrink on drainage and develop
rapidly than the older and stronger rocks of the ancient, more rarely above 2 m in height; ground cover mostly ferns aggressive sulphate soil conditions and moisture-sensitive clay with
stable areas. Earthquakes often trigger landslides, which help shrink–swell characteristics; low pH (acid) conditions may result in
corrosion of structures
to remove near-surface decomposing rocks and supply large
amounts of sediments to rivers (see Figure 3.9). Mangrove forest Single layered forests up to 3 m in height growing in Associated with marine clays and silts, but often conceal lenses of sand
intertidal zones in salt water throughout tropics and derived from former river channels; greatly modified for aquaculture,
The rates of chemical weathering in the wet tropics are subtropics; evergreen stilt roots and pneumatophores port development and tourist resorts; major installations usually
high, leading to the development of residual soils (see Figures common; little ground vegetation; few epiphytes require deep piling unless substantial layers of stiff clay occur; potential
for disruption of natural sediment fluxes and natural coastal protection
2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and Table 3.8.2). The decomposition of rock causing harbour siltation or coastal erosion
material and the rate of removal by eroding agents are deter-
mined by a combination of the tectonic conditions, the rock Implications for engineering High mountain areas in the tropics were also subject to
types, the climate history, the relief and the vegetation. If slope Many humid tropical land surfaces are very old and have deep shifts in climate and vegetation belts during the Quaternary,
erosion processes work faster than the weathering processes weathering profiles. However, younger and thinner regolith when a variety of landforms and soils may have developed.
on hillsides, then erosion is limited by the rate at which the profiles can occur on steep and unstable slopes. Particular High river flows, large landslides and rock-falls tend to happen
rock is weathered. However, if the rate of weathering exceeds problems may be associated with specific rock types, such as more often than elsewhere in similar terrains as a result of the
the rate at which transportation processes operate, deeper buried karst features in limestone areas. The legacy of the past is high volume and intensity of rainfall.
weathering profiles with residual soils are produced and can less well understood for humid tropical areas than for most other Lowland areas were affected by the changes in sea level
reach depths in excess of 100 m. places and planned projects therefore require careful iterative of the Quaternary and therefore relict buried river channels
development of the site model and cautious investigation. and relict deposits of irregular spreads of peats, silts, sands

105
3.8 Hot wet tropical environments

GFE-18.qxd
Table 3.8.2
Table 18.6 Summary of of
Summary Duchaufour tropical
Duchaufour soilsoil
tropical phases, location
phases, andand
location climate (from
climate Fookes,
(from 1997a).
Fookes, 1997b).

482
Factor/conditions: Mineralogy Climate needed to Typical locations of FAO/UNESCO equivalents

GEOMORPHOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

5/9/05
Soil phase reach the phase the phase (USA — Soil survey)

1. Fersiallitic Upper soils undergo decalcification Mean annual temperature (C) Mediterranean, subtropical Cambisols, calcisols,
and weathering of primary minerals. 13–20 luvisols, alisols, andosols

10:38 AM
Quartz, alkali feldspars and muscovite (alfisols, inceptisols)
not affected. Free iron usually 60% Annual rainfall (m)
of total iron. Main clay mineral formed 0.5–1.0
is 2:1 smectite; 1:1 kaolinite may
appear in older well drained surfaces.

Page 482
With recent volcanic ashes porous Dry season — Yes
andosol soils formed which are
eventually replaced by 1:1 halloysites.
2. Ferruginous More strongly weathered soils form Mean annual temperature (C) Subtropical Luvisols, nitosols, alisols,
(ferrisols- but orthoclase and muscovite typically 20–25 acrisols, lixisols, plintha
transitional) remain unaltered. sols (alfisols,
ultisols, oxisols)
Kaolinite is the dominant clay mineral; Annual rainfall (m)
2:1 minerals are subordinate and 1.0–1.5
gibbsite usually absent.
On older land surfaces and more Dry season — Sometimes
permeable and base rich parent material,
ferrisols transitional to phase 3. Partial
alteration to gibbsite may occur.
3. Ferrallitic All primary minerals except quartz are Mean annual temperature (C) Tropical
weathered by hydrolysis and much of  25
the silica and bases removed by solution. Can occur in modern savanna
Remaining silica combines to form Annual rainfall (m) from previous wetter climate.
kaolinite but with excess aluminium  1.5 Conversely, some currently
gibbsite is usually formed. Depending hot wet areas are still only in
on the balance between iron and Dry season — No the ferruginous phase (e.g. by
aluminium, iron oxide or aluminium climate change or by
oxide will predominate. Soils currently rejuvenation of slopes).
take 104 or more years to form.

106
 3.8 Hot wet tropical environments

and gravels and former coastal features are widespread. These

require detailed intrusive investigation after an initial site
model has been created.

Climate and vegetation

The wet tropics are considered to be a challenging environ-
ment because they are particularly vulnerable to climate
hazards, including floods, coastal surges, cyclones and land-
slides. Aggregate may be difficult to source in some localities.
The problems of engineering soils and geomorphology
cannot be separated from those of the climate and vegetation
(Table 3.8.1). Rain forests play a critical part in soil formation
and landform stability in the hydrological cycle. Intense
rainfall is a feature of the equatorial tropics. Depending on
the type of forest, about 10–25% of the annual rainfall may
be intercepted by foliage and returned to the atmosphere. The
mean annual rainfall erosion may be 25 times greater than
in humid temperate latitudes – for example, in Malaysia, the
mean annual erosive power of rainfall is >25 kJ m–2, whereas
in western Britain it is just over 1.3 kJ m–2. As elsewhere,
rainfall varies with elevation and aspect. In areas prone to
tropical cyclones, rainfall intensities can exceed 10 mm/h for
several hours at a time and rapidly rising, long-lasting floods
are common.

107
3.8 Hot wet tropical environments

To link villages, forest dwellers

use rot-proof ironwood to build
raised walkways, because any
A tropical rain forest typically has a canopy of tall trees that rise heavy use turns a ground-level Mangrove swamps thrive in salty water and muddy soils in hot, wet, coastal
above wetland, which becomes a swamp on level ground. footpath into a mud quagmire. regions, and are distinguished by their networks of aerial roots.

An “Irish crossing”, or a flat bridge, across a flood-prone river The density of equatorial rain forest precludes
Frequent flood events leave gravel and cobbles along river floor in low-flow conditions; it was built with no parapets so that detailed prior ground investigation for any road or
channels, creating strips of more stable, coarse sediments within it causes minimal encroachment into the channel and frequent pipeline driven through it, and the necessary tree
the fine-grained soils that typify rain-forest wetlands. floods can pass over it with no damage to its structure. clearance turns the site into a mudbath.

108
 3.8. Hot wet tropical environments

Shrink-swell “black cotton” soils dominate in huge areas of flat

ground that is poorly drained within the wet tropical regions.

Deeply weathered bedrock, and red, residual soils that thicken down- Red laterite and pale bauxite are
slope and into valleys, are typical of hot and wet tropical terrains. residual, leached soils formed by
weathering in the wet tropics.

Limestone towers, rising above plains with thin alluvial soils over
limestone bedrock, characterise karst in some wet tropical regions.

[above] Traditional flights of terraces provide strips of flat land for

cultivation and have the added benefit of curtailing soil erosion in tropical Pinnacle karst with tall, sharp blades
environments characterised by frequent heavy rainfall events. of limestone forms terrain that is
[left] A modern equivalent in slope stabilisation is the planting of shrubs to nearly uncrossable in some hot and
hold the soil on a steep slope newly excavated on a construction site. wet environments.

109
 XII
LOW
LOW HIMALAYAglacial
HIMALAYA: – and
HIGH HIMALAYA
periglacial
glacial andterrain/climate
periglacial
generally stable terrain/climate
free rock face
DEGRADED MIDDLE SLOPES colluvial slope
and associated
AND ANCIENT VALLEY FLOORS-
debris slopes
rounded spurs, degraded side slopes of the
ancient river valley, and gently sloping former
ROUTE CORRIDOR
erosion surfaces or terraces covered with
residual soil or rock debris
generally stable
colluvial slope
MONSOONAL CLIMATE
monsoonal ONon
climate
MIDDLEmiddle
AND LOWER SLOPES
and lower slopes small debris slide
associated with local
tributary
erosion and saturation
valley
boulder
rock old field
principal
fall debris
slide through
PHYLLITE valley
talus
small debris

ENGINEERING GEOMORPHOLOGY
slide
rock cliff incised
gully
incised valley, resulting from
uplift, stream erosion and
possible glacial erosion colluvium
ACTIVE LOWER CATACLASTIC
SLOPES – QUARTZITE and
steep, wet; frequently unstable, PHYLLONITE in
particularly where the dip of the zone of intense
dominant discontinuities is unfavourable shearing (mylonite)
mudslide
METAQUARTZITE

small debris slide in lenticular sill of AMPHIBOLITE

taluvium overlying quasi-rotational slide
weathered bedrock
residual soil over weathered rock
taluvium taluvium
colluvium debris slide
outwash fan rapids
rockslide
braided channel with bar deposits thrust (older rocks overlying younger rocks)
alluvium
VALLEY FLOOR – flood plain and river terrace deposits
fan

Figure 38.9 Mountain terrain model: Himalayas (after Fookes 1997)38.1.

Figure 3.9 Mountain environments.

110
 3.9 Mountain environments

Mountain environments (Figure 3.9) no longer present. (Introduction Table 1 gives stratigraphical possible to use spurs or ridges, it is desirable for the route to
age names.) climb or descend steep slopes by tight hairpin stacks within
A great variety of classification systems has been developed a narrow zone that lies normal to the contours and, where
to capture the distinctiveness of mountain environments: the Mountain model (based on the Himalayas) possible, by selecting horizontal and vertical alignments
simplest are based on relative relief (e.g. hill <700 m, highland Figure 3.9 represents an active, young fold mountain and is that minimize the amounts of cut and fill. These measures
and upland 700–1000 m and mountain >1000 m). Mountains based on cycles of high activity (driven by periods of relatively minimize the exposure to landslide hazards (Figure 3.9).
provide challenging environments for engineers, agricultur- rapid uplift) that initiate periods of intense erosion as rivers
ists and the development of urban infrastructure (see the • Catastrophic landslide events in mountain regions are
cut down to lower base levels and produce steep-sided valleys.
photographs). often large and always destructive, with rapid initial rock
Many of these are very unstable, with the immature weathered
displacement and very long run-out of debris (up to many
About one-third of the Earth’s land surface is covered by surfaces continually being eroded. Hillslopes are typically
tens of kilometres). The 1970 Huascaran disaster, for
mountains, highlands and hills. Around 10% of the world’s mantled with colluvium and/or taluvium which is unstable
example, destroyed the town of Yungay, Peru, and killed at
population live in mountain regions and >40% are believed when undercut. Screes form at the base of steep cliffs. In the
least 20,000 people. Such landslides are of low probability,
to be dependent on mountain resources, the most valuable intervening periods of low activity (with relatively slow uplift),
but high consequence. Hazard assessment and avoidance
resource being water. Mountains are extremely dynamic continuing landslide events eventually produce shallower,
of landslides are therefore the most effective means of
and sensitive environments, reflecting the combination of more stable slopes. As erosion is less in these periods, a
managing risk, together with monitoring vulnerable slopes
steep slopes, high altitudes and relative relief, together with weathered mantle of residual soil develops to produce friable
with links to early warning systems.
the presence of numerous relict landforms inherited from and easily erodible soils to await the next uplift. Repeated
previous advances of glaciation. This landscape sensitivity events may create a stepped landscape. • Debris flows and torrents consisting of a slurry of fine and
is easily disrupted by deforestation, changes in land use and coarse material mixed with varying amounts of water are
In this dynamic environment, rural management pro-
construction projects, commonly leading to dramatic impacts common. The mixture moves down-slope, typically along
grammes or new engineering projects (e.g. roads or hill
on the scale and intensity of landslide activity and soil erosion pre-existing drainage paths, in surges induced by gravity
irrigation canals) require careful evaluation of landslide or
(Charman and Lee, 2005). Large climatic variations occur and channel bank collapse. They are especially common
erosion hazards, which are particularly likely during periods of
depending on vertical height and horizontal location. and highly destructive features when earthquakes, heavy
intense rainfall (see Figure 1.3 and Table 1.3.1).
Many mountains have been formed in the relatively recent rainfall or snowmelt mobilize new surface debris under
geological past, originating in the Tertiary Alpine orogeny; Common engineering problems a thin soil cover. Observed velocities are in the range
uplift is still continuing over large areas, most notably in the Many of the hazards faced in mountain areas are complex, 0.5–20 m/s.
Karakoram Mountains. The main active mountain belts today with earthquakes, snowmelt and heavy rainfall providing • Natural variations related to marked diurnal fluctua-
are the Alpine–Himalayan chain (extending from Borneo triggers for landslides, debris flows and flooding, which can tions in discharge are especially common in mountain
through northern India into Iran, Turkey and southern Europe) cause widespread damage (see Table 3.9.1). streams, reflecting both day/night changes in snowmelt
and the circum-Pacific belt, including the Andes, the Rocky • Access and routing in steep dissected terrains present and interruptions in melting conditions during periods
Mountains and the island arcs of the western Pacific. Their extreme difficulties in providing safe and maintained of cloud cover or snowfall. Rain-triggered flash floods
relative immaturity is reflected by their high relative relief, steep through routes and local access to villages, construction are also common, especially during the latter part of the
slopes and high rates of weathering and erosion (see Figure 1.3). sites, and locations of borrow areas or spoil disposal. snowmelt season. Hazards include landslide dams (e.g.
Mountain belts formed in earlier orogenic episodes (prin- Fookes and Marsh (1981a and b), Fookes et al. (1985) and from large rock avalanches), which subsequently fail or
cipally the Caledonian Orogeny of the Lower Palaeozoic and Hearn (2011) provide useful guides to design, construction are over-topped and then rapidly eroded, in both instances
the Variscan, also known as the Armorican, of the Upper Pal- and maintenance in the humid tropics and subtropics. The releasing major floods from the impounded lake, possibly
aeozoic) still exist (e.g. in Cornwall, south-western UK), but most efficient routing approach to minimize risk involves long after the landslide event. Floods can also emanate
their longer history of erosion has worn them down and the adopting ‘ridge and spine’ or ‘ridge and spur’ alignments from glacial lake outbursts and snow avalanches and are a
extreme relative relief characteristics of the Alpine belts are wherever possible to avoid landslides. Where it is not widespread winter hazard (Charman and Lee, 2005).

111
3.9 Mountain environments

Construction materials are generally available from the Table 3.9.1 Main factors controlling the stability of rock and soil slopes (after Hearn, 2011)
metamorphic rocks that dominate many mountain areas.
Rock slopes Soil slopes
Good quarry sites are usually difficult to find. Such rocks
typically show considerable variation in strength and durabil- Conditioning factors Triggering factors Conditioning factors Triggering factors
ity. Natural rock fragments and crushed aggregates may have Slope angle and height Toe erosion by streams and rivers Slope angle and height Prolonged/heavy rainfall leading
Rock structure orientation, removing lateral support, or Soil depth and the presence of to a rise in groundwater level and
flaky and elongate shapes reflecting their metamorphic fabric. vertical support if undercut reduction in strength
including discontinuity patterns, any adversely orientated relict
This factor may limit the quality of stone masonry, gabion and in relation to topography (slope When degree of weathering, structures that are derived from Intense (usually short-term)
rock-fill, resulting in difficulties for fill compaction and in direction and angle – kinematic particularly along discontinuities, the original rock fabric (if in rainfall leading to saturation of
concrete and road aggregates. Hillside and alluvial particles in feasibility) reaches a critical level (strength) situ weathered soil) or previous surface soil layers and reduction
Rock mass strength and Earthquake acceleration, leading failure surfaces (if taluvium/ in strength
these areas commonly reflect the flaky nature of metamorphic weathering grade and rate of to increased driving forces colluvium) Toe erosion by streams and rivers
rocks and usually produce poor coarse concrete aggregate and weathering Heavy and/or prolonged rainfall. Presence of a distinct soil layer/ removing lateral support
roadstone. Mica in sand used as aggregate may reduce the Presence of weak horizons within Increased water pressure along rockhead boundary along which Earthquake acceleration, leading
the rock mass, either more discontinuities failure takes place to increased driving forces
strength of concrete.
closely jointed or weaker (more External influences including Soil composition and strength, Deforestation and other land use
Important quarries, roadwork cuts, tunnels and other clayey) layers excavations, fills and spoil a function of grain size, particle changes can lead to increased
engineering works should always have boreholes in the GI Presence of rock horizons/layers dumps, drainage changes arrangement and mineralogy, surface water runoff, erosion and
of varying permeability creating density and moisture content slope instability
phase of the investigation and possibly earlier and/or later as
perched water tables Presence of weak horizons and External influences, including
required. Good core recovery is usually difficult if not impos- permanent groundwater seepages excavations, fills and spoil
sible in tectonized (shattered) rock common in mountains. dumps, drainage changes
Table 3.9.2 (after Norbury, 2010) gives practical guidance.
Ground model making is difficult.

112
 3.9 Mountain environments

Table 3.9.2 Scheme for recording low core recoveries. Note: Examples from Britain (after Norbury, 2010).
Indicative core recovery Suggested approach Descriptive format
75 – 100% Record TCR, SCR, RQD and If as defined Carry out full description in accordance with standards.
Assess zones of core loss (AZCL) and assign depth ranges If core loss exceeds say 10% include statement such as ‘Core
loss presumed to be more weathered materials’ or ‘...weaker
materials...’ or ‘...mudstone layers …’ as appropriate

50 – 75% Record TCR, SCR, RQD and If as defined, i.e. percentages Suggested descriptive wording:
of full run length, not recovery ‘Recovery is of stronger materials, weaker materials not
Assess zones of core loss (AZCL) and assign depth ranges recovered.’
if possible. Where this is not possible, emphasise loss and ‘Recovered material is extremely weak low density white
uncertainty as to in situ conditions. CHALK. Occasional flints.
(Structured SEAFORD CHALK)’
25 – 50% Record TCR, SCR and RQD as defined, i.e. percentages of Suggested descriptive wording:
full run length, not recovery. ‘Partial recovery. Core loss presumed to be more weathered
Record where sensibly possible material.’
The identification of the depth of any AZCL is unlikely to ‘Recovered core comprises medium strong grey coarse
be possible grained SANDSTONE. Sand and gravel size fragments
recovered. Heavy discolouration on discontinuity surfaces,
penetrating up to 3 mm. (Probably Weathered COAL
MEASURES SANDSTONE)’

< 25% Record TCR Suggested descriptive wording:

Leave SCR, RQD, If columns all blank. Report lengths of ‘Minimal recovery. Core loss presumed to be more weathered
core sticks recovered material.
The identification of the depth of any AZCL is almost Recovered core comprises GRAVEL and COBBLE size
certainly not possible fragments of strong red coarse grained granite.
(Possibly weathered PETERHEAD GRANITE)’

Key:
TCR – total core recovery
SCR – solid core recovery
RQD – rock quality designation
If – fracture spacing or index

113
3.9 Mountain environments

[left] Mountain terrain with houses and terraced fields on a spur amid slopes too steep for any development.
[above centre] Road built with hairpins up a steep slope to keep it on a spur between two landslide-prone gullies.
[above right] ‘Ridge-and-spine’ road that stays above unstable slopes and has attracted subsequent development.
[below left] Road temporaily blocked by a rockfall of hard, but fractured, metamorphic rock from a mountain spur.
[below centre] Cut into solid rock along a gorge wall, a road is very stable but is prone to small-scale stone-fall.
[below right] A road that suffers frequent closure due to inevitable debris falls in an active mountain environment.

Montane basin with thick sediments deposited prior to

repeated tectonic uplift, rejuvenation and river incision.

114
 3.9 Mountain environments

[above left] Large failure of deeply weathered rock with a

debris slide that undermined a hillside road.
[above centre] Mountain road cut into stable bedrock
beneath a veneer of talluvium that hides any outcrop.
[right] A debris flow that reached the valley floor far
below its source as a small hillside failure.
[far right] Scar of rockslide that failed on stress-relief
fractures and landed in the fiord, where it created a
tsunami that destroyed part of the foreground village.
[left] Debris slide from a steep forested slope that
buried a road just beside its rock shelter, which was
built to protect the site where the landslide hazard had
previously been considered to be the greatest.
[below] Debris from this large rockslide, which was [below centre] Engineered channel through a town,
triggered by an earthquake, formed a barrier in the designed to carry frequent floods from the adjacent
valley, thereby creating the foreground lake. mountains; normal flow is just in the central gully.

A terrace of alluvium and lake sediments along a valley floor upstream

of a constriction formed by an ancient landslide.

115
ANTICIPATED
GEOLOGY
Local knowledge and Desk study Site walk-over
 previous experience

Preliminary report
and initial models

100% Specification of field

work

Field work including

Geology Topographic survey geo-mapping, trial pits
well done and trenches

Geology less Boreholes and in situ

Collect samples
well done testing

Geophysical survey
(maybe at an earlier Laboratory testing
stage)

Typical Factual report on

geotechnical ground investigation
data acquisition


STAGE Interpretative report
Desk study Walkover, Main ground Supplementary and geotechnical
mapping and investigation investigation and design report
trial pits observations during
construction
}

Initial site appraisal

Table 4.1.1 Example of a simple flow chart for a basic ground investigation.
Large or complex projects will have several stages of investigation.

Figure 4.1 Increase in site knowledge during the

basic stages of a ground investigation.

116
 4.1 Increase in knowledge during ground investigations

Part 4. Ground investigations

Increase in site knowledge during the different terrain model (see Figure 4.2). This becomes the initial site sized that the percentages given in the figure are approximate
stages of the ground investigation (Figure 4.1) geomodel on which the investigation is then based, together and will vary considerably between sites.
with a knowledge of the structure to be built. As informa- An experienced engineering geologist working with
The principle of any investigation of the ground has to be that tion on the site increases, improvements are made to the site geomorphologists and other specialists almost anywhere in
it is continued until the conditions are known and understood geomodel, which lead to changes, as necessary, in the conduct the world should be able to make an initial geomodel of the
well enough for the civil engineering work to proceed safely of the site investigation. The initial terrain model therefore site from the desk study. In developed countries such as the
and economically with a minimal risk of nasty surprises. A develops to become a more factual, detailed geological/geo- UK, there may be significantly more information available at
possible alternative to this, the ‘observational method’, is morphological site model as the investigation proceeds. the desk stage than in remote areas elsewhere in the world.
outlined in Figure 4.6. Field staff must always communicate
Part 4 is illustrated by block models indicating how much We consider that it is reasonable (for an extensively mapped
with designers and vice versa – this cannot be emphasized too
information is gathered at each stage of the investigation (see country) to anticipate at least 50% of the potential geologi-
strongly.
Figures 4.2–4.6). The aim of each stage is given with a simple cal/geomorphological conditions within the desk study (see
Part 4 is devoted entirely to evaluating the increase in approach to the gathering of information at the particular Figure 4.2). If a walkover survey is now added, then at least
knowledge (information) gained about the site while inves- stage. It is not suggested that investigations have to produce 65% of the conditions should be identified. It is self-evident
tigating the site conditions in a staged (phased) manner as block models similar to the figures in this part – far from it. that this is a relatively cheap way of obtaining the initial infor-
seen through the eyes of site models. It is not the intention The term ‘model’ in the text is used to mean any way of visually mation. Expense comes with the subsequent stages. The costs
here to elaborate on the field and laboratory techniques of portraying the subsurface and surface information, including given in Table 4.2.1 are based on experience and judgement
investigation because much has been written with authority the well-known techniques of displaying information as geo- of many examples, not on rigorously costed specific investiga-
on these in Codes of Practice and Standards, and also in the logical maps and cross-sections, computer simulations and tions.
many textbooks that put flesh on the bare bones of these codes geographical information systems. At the end of the ground investigation, with the informed
and standards (e.g. Clayton et al., 1995; Simons et al., 2002;
The maximum value of the geomodel is in the earlier use of boreholes, trenches, pits, geophysics and any other ap-
Norbury, 2010).
stages of the study as it enhances the quality of the design and propriate methods, a minimum of about 95% of the geology/
The progress of on-land ground investigations (the field improves the data from the main ground investigation. The geomorphology should be known. If it is correct that a
and laboratory part of the broader term ‘site investigation’) accuracy of the model improves as the investigation progress- knowledge of the geology equates with the identification of
has been the subject of numerous flow charts. In Part 4 we do es and the decisions based on the model change to become potential problems, then at least 95% of the potential problems
not elaborate on the many activities and ramifications of flow more quantitative. Decisions affecting the costs of the inves- should have been identified. It would be ideal to reach 100%,
charts (see Table 4.1.1), but instead use five basic stages of com- tigation are probably better made at the end of each stage as but this may not be achieved on many sites until the strata
prehensive investigations. The first stage is a desk study; this is the investigation must be as flexible as possible. As knowledge are revealed in large-scale excavations. Contracts and designs
followed by a walkover survey, preceded or perhaps followed about the site increases, so the cost of gaining more marginal should have some built-in flexibility to allow for unforeseen
by a geophysical survey, although this is not always carried out. information increases. There is therefore a realistic cut-off circumstances, with consideration given to the use of reference
The next stage is the main ground investigation, which involves point that has to be decided for each ground investigation. conditions (see Figure 4.2) and/or the use of the observational
intrusive investigations, such as boreholes and pits, to ascertain method.
or confirm unseen subsurface conditions. The ground investi- The Figure
gation may be followed by supplementary investigations if the Figure 4.1 is based on the experience of the authors and as
previous stages have revealed specific problems. such is more generic than factual. It is an indicative graphical
Each site requires its own dedicated investigation, designed judgement of the information accrued about the site at each
for that specific site. Our view is that this starts with a basic of the five basic stages of the investigation. It must be empha-

117
 topographic map shows rock outcrops; aerial
photos show these to be tors, with large
topographic map shows rock
loose blocks on the gentle hillside below
geological map outcrops; aerial photos suggest
indicates granite the outcrops form a degraded
scarp-like feature
aerial photos
indicate possible
rock outcrops
geological maps and memoir
wind farm indicate basalt lava flow which
post-dates granite intrusion

position of sandstone
beds conjectured from
topographic features

memoir suggests that the country rock

adjacent to the granite intrusion is
likely to be metamorphosed

topographic map shows rock outcrop; aerial

photos indicate scree development on the GIVES AN INDICATION OF THE PRINCIPAL
steep slope below the outcrop ROCK TYPES, THEIR FIELD RELATIONSHIPS
AND THE HYDROLOGICAL REGIME
geological map indicates alluvium in valley
Large-scale topographic and geological maps
consulted, together with local geological memoir,
geological map and memoir indicate steeply published papers and stereo pairs of aerial photos
dipping shales with minor sandstone beds

Figure 4.2 Stage 1: desk study.

118
 4.2 Stage 1: desk study

Stage 1: desk study (Figure 4.2) local libraries); mining records, where they exist and are in Part 4). The published map indicates superficial deposits
confirmed to be accurate; aerial photographs, including other overlying limestones; previously published work suggests
The basic initial site model is conceived at the desk study forms of remote sensing; and web- and computer-based minor solution along discontinuities in limestone and,
stage. It is valuable for recognizing potential geohazards information. possibly, minor karst; at this stage judged to be only class kI/
and designing an investigation that is both practical and kII (Waltham and Fookes, 2003).
Table 4.2.1 is a simple guide to the estimated relative costs
reactive. The objectives of the model must be outlined
and benefits in each of the five basic stages of the ground in-
at this stage, questions identified and the subsequent
vestigation. Table 4.2.2 gives what Hearn (2011) considers can
activities designed with these in mind. The assembled geo-
be learnt from ‘traditional desk study sources’ for mountain
technical team must be capable of defining the objectives,
roads.
asking the questions and determining the ground-related
activities. The following stages must be capable of deliver- Typical changes in the perception of
ing the answers and identifying where uncertainties remain. ground conditions as an investigation
Knowledge of the structure to be built must play a part in the proceeds
design of the site investigation procedures and techniques
• Desk study stage. Field staff should set up a close working
required.
relationship with designers to understand the concept of
An experienced geologist should be able to visualize, for the project and its engineering outline.
example, a green field site, along the lines indicated in Figure
• First stage of the ground investigation. To consider all the
4.2, especially when geological mapping is available. For sites
available information relevant to the geology, geomor-
in areas where plenty of subsurface ground data already exist,
phology, hydrology and ground conditions of the area of
it should be possible to picture the geology to at least a pre-
interest.
liminary ground investigation stage.
Sources of information are listed in many publications • Increase in knowledge during desk study stage. A systematic
(e.g. Perry and West, 1996; Simons et al., 2002). Such infor- overview of the geology, geomorphology and hydrology of
mation varies with the type, size and location of the site and the area of interest. The initial qualitative terrain model is
formulated, leading to the initial geological/geomorpho-
between countries. Britain, for example, has a greater variety
logical site model.
of historical and recorded data than most countries. Study of
even the smallest site should include, at a very early stage, the • Probable effects on the overall success of an engineering
examination of maps (e.g. topographical, geological, soils). If project. This is an essential first step in any investigation of
there are only very small-scale preliminary maps, or perhaps the ground conditions and allows the selection of the most
none at all, then an examination of remote sensing images suitable geological site(s) or corridor(s) for further study.
and manipulation of Google Earth images are invaluable. In The influence of the geology on the conceptual engineer-
many parts of the world, specialist hydrological and seismic ing design is considered.
risk studies are required. • Possible important increase in information obtained in
Basic sources of information include: data from govern- geomorphologically and geologically varied and structurally
ments and other authorities (e.g. published and unpublished complex terrains. This gives an indication of the principal
maps, data indices, enquiry desks, libraries, published landforms, rock types, their field relationships and the hy-
relevant refereed papers in professional and other relevant drological regime.
journals); local sources (e.g. residents, farmers, local societies, Example: interpretation of ground conditions at this stage
museums, universities, local government records and staff, in karstic terrains (see Figures 5.7 and 5.8; also other figures

119
4.2 Stage 1: desk study

Table 4.2.1 Estimated relative costs and benefits of ground investigation.

Typical
Approx. Order of benefit
Activity Relative cost (C) Information gained comparative
stage (B)
B/C ratio a
1 Detailed desk study Low Initial knowledge of the site, avoidance of Very high 2.7
obvious problems
2 Site walkover Low to medium Visualization of the site and recognition Very high 2.7–1.6
of possible problems
3 Preliminary ground investigation Medium to high Initial physical evaluation of the site Depends on the 2.3–0.4 b
(mainly field observation and conditions, estimation of properties, accuracy of the
in situ methods; can include recognition and confirmation of possible results and can be
geophysics) problems either high or low
4 Main ground investigation Very high Main quantitative information for High to very high 1.0
(emphasis on intrusive activities, engineering design
sampling and testing)
4 Laboratory testing Low to medium Detailed evaluation of properties depends High/medium 2.3–1.0 b
on ground conditions
5 Supplementary ground Low to medium Increased confidence in ground High 2.3–1.4 b
investigation conditions and particular suites of
properties
5 Further or special testing Low Increased confidence in the physical/ High 2.3 b
chemical properties tested and existing
results
a
Obtained by ascribing the following arbitrary scores to the qualitative descriptions of costs and benefits: very high, 80; high, 70; medium, 50; low, 30. These
scores are then compared with the main ground investigation arbitrary score of 1.0.
b
In many examples, the need for essential items of information would override an unfavourable B/C ratio.

120
 4.2 Stage 1: desk study

Table 4.2.2 Data typically derived from traditional desk study sources (after Hearn, 2011)

For General Engineering For Landslide Identification and Assessment

Topographical mapping Geological mapping Stereo aerial photographs Topographical mapping Geological mapping Stereo aerial
photographs
Review of route Locations of major Review of some corridor Few topographical maps Few published Identification of
corridor options in geological features options in terms of show landslides, though geological maps show landslides and taluvium
terms of topography. (faults, shear zones, overall topography. some may show major landslide areas. deposits.
Identification of steep etc.). Identification of steep erosion areas. Potential instability can Identification of areas of
terrain. Locations of weak terrain. Contour patterns may sometimes be inferred slope erosion and river
Locations of rivers and rocks and unstable rock Location of rivers and indicate landslide from rock structure and scour.
potential river crossing structures. potential river crossing morphology. rock types. Tones and hues in
points. Potential for points. Most maps indicate the photography can
Locations of towns and construction material Location of towns bedding, foliation and allow wet areas to be
villages and existing sources to be identified and villages and some joint orientations, identified, potentially
infrastructure. (for example Fookes & land use and existing useful for preliminary relevant to landslide
Marsh, 1981). infrastructure. slope stability studies.
assessment. Structural geology
lineaments, bedding
and major discontinuity
sets may be interpreted
and linked to landslide
potential.
Repeated aerial
photography can
provide information on
rates of change.

121
 any exposures of contact
metamorphic rocks obscured
by granite stone runs and
strong pink and grey coarse-grained GRANITE, with widely hummocky topsoil, but
spaced open joints (discontinuity orientations measured) occasional angular fragments
of extremely strong dark
grey–brown HORNFELS with
specks of pyrite and grey–white very strong dark grey BASALT with
medium-grained QUARTZITE closely spaced subvertical open
noted in stream bed joints (discontinuity orientations
measured, specimen collected for
wind farm
petrographic examination); locally
underlain by strong, fractured,
baked mudstone (BM) and
quartzitic sandstone (QS)

relatively massive granite assumed

to continue below ground level

relatively closely jointed granite

anticipated away from the outcrops

very strong medium grey RELATIVELY SIMPLE ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL

BASALT or ANDESITE UNITS SUGGESTED BY EXISTING ROCK OUTCROPS
with closely spaced AND OTHER LANDSCAPE FEATURES
subvertical joints infilled
with chlorite (discontinuity The walkover survey was carried out after the desk
orientations measured, study information had been considered. Observations
specimens collected for at rock outcrops followed BS 5930 (1981)
petrographic examination);
field relationships unclear: scree slope appears
In an area with no existing geological maps or
possibly related to basalt to be stable
memoirs (e.g. many places overseas) the base
flow, possibly a sill or dyke observations hindered
map for the walkover survey would be an existing
by dense undergrowth
topographic map or a map compiled from aerial photos

Figure 4.3 Stage 2: walkover survey.

122
 4.3 Stage 2: walkover survey

Stage 2: walkover survey (Figure 4.3) ditions; distress in existing engineering or building structures; the absence of exposures of suspected weak rocks and fault
landslips; ground and surface water hydrology (e.g. sink holes, zones). Engineering geological/geomorphological units
The walkover survey is an essential part of the preliminary springs, solution features, seepages, stream levels, potential are recognized and a semi-quantitative (judgemental plus
evaluation of the site. It should ideally be made in combina- river flood plain erosion, avulsion); and, where relevant, the simple index tests) evaluation of the engineering proper-
tion with the desk study and may be carried out by a single potential for seismic and volcanic activity. ties can be made. The main ground investigation and any
geologist or several members of a team, including designers, geophysical investigation can then be designed in detail.
depending on the nature and size of the project. It must be Terrain evaluation Construction of the geotechnical model is started.
well planned in advance and must include the evaluation of The technique of terrain evaluation has a precise role in prelim-
possible hazards; back-up plans should be made. • Likely effects on the overall success of an engineering project.
inary studies, depending on the location and circumstances.
It is necessary to obtain a feel for the site and to recognize
Fortunately, Britain is very well served with existing geo- Terrain evaluation (or analysis) is a scientific interpretation of
the main engineering difficulties. This phase establishes the
logical and other maps and memoirs. These are valuable in the landforms, vegetation and soils of a given area in relation
requirements and optimum techniques for further investi-
developing the initial model and even more so when they are to the uses to which it may be put.
gations. Significant facts about the structure of the ground
supplemented by aerial photography, remote sensing images This should help progress towards an initial understand- and the properties of the materials may not be revealed
and the walkover survey. The walkover survey becomes more ing of the natural features in the landscape by dividing it into and therefore there is a possibility of unforeseen ground
important in remoter parts of the world if there is limited avail- meaningful distinct homogeneous units. The recognition of conditions, construction problems and claims without
ability of geological maps. In these instances, drive-over and/ such terrain units, at whatever scale is considered, implies that further study. Conceptual designs should be improved in
or fly-over surveys may be necessary (see Figures 5.1–5.4). there is a genetic relationship between the landforms and the the light of observations made during the walkover.
The initial site model at this preliminary stage is the processes and materials involved in their development (Grant,
basis on which the main ground investigation is planned to • Make special note of ‘lumpy ground’. The processes or situ-
1968; Lawrance, 1972; Lawrance et al., 1993). It is essentially
be the most cost-effective. The footprint of the engineering ations that lead to the formation of lumpy ground include
the same approach as that used in the initial photo-interpre-
structure(s) should be broadly known and, if possible, there sink holes, old mines, old landslides, solifluction activity,
tation, mapping or drive-over/walkover of any site. Its value is
should be sufficient freedom for this to be moved to take moraines and other glacial features and mine or quarry
highest in remote locations with few or no existing maps (see
advantage of an alternative site with more favourable ground waste. Such situations are likely to require a specially
also Figure 4.5).
conditions (e.g. the location of a tunnel or a large bridge to designed specific and focussed investigation.
cross a valley). Typical changes in the perception of • Possible increase in mapping and imagery information in
Such a situation does not always develop satisfacto- ground conditions as the investigation geologically varied and structurally complex terrains. Rela-
rily when investigations are planned on the basis of a routine proceeds tively simple engineering geological/geomorphological
layout of boreholes on a grid pattern, or at set intervals on a • Requirements of the walkover stage. This is the second observations can be made on existing rock outcrops and
road centreline. All too often inefficient planning of the inves- stage of the preliminary ground investigation and is used other landscape features.
tigation does not take account of the surface geology and fails to obtain information on the engineering geology of the Example: interpretation of ground conditions at this stage in
to appreciate that the location of subsurface investigations can site and to establish whether further investigations are karstic terrains continued from Figure 4.2 (see also Figures
be used to maximize the subsurface information obtained. required. It may also include limited subsurface explora- 5.7 and 5.8). Occasional sink holes observed; simple probe
A geological walkover survey should cover, as a minimum: tion and the acquisition of local knowledge (e.g. talking drilling indicates major local solution along discontinuities;
a correlation of the ground features with existing geologi- to farmers). at this stage judged to be class kII/kIII; changes made to con-
cal, topographic and other maps; an examination of local • Increase in knowledge during the walkover stage. This ceptual engineering.
exposures (artificial and natural); the terrain units; land use; involves the confirmation or initial prediction of the ground
natural physical features (e.g. escarpments, moraines, terraces conditions likely to be encountered during construction or
or flood plains); breaks in slope; ‘lumpy ground’, which, in development. Potential problems such as slope instability
nearly all instances, is indicative of unfavourable ground con- can be identified and any gaps in knowledge recorded (e.g.

123
4.3 Stage 2: walkover survey

Horizontal scars and terraces identify a series of sedimentary

rocks with alternating weak shales and strong limestones.

[above] At outcrop, the top metre of nearly vertical slates has been A cut face exposes completely weathered
buckled where the hillside’s surface zone is creeping downslope. granite beneath a thick layer of residual
[left] Gently dipping chalk forms a rounded escarpment with its soil that is largely ferricrete and therefore
scarp face overlooking lowland formed on an underlying clay. more resistant than the rock beneath.

[left] An inclined fault forms the boundary between pale, weathered volcanics and darker, fresher basalt.
[above] An active fault still forms a fresh scar 20 years after causing an earthquake when it moved 5 metres.
[above right] Tension cracks in a road are caused by a small fault reactivated during coal mining subsidence.

124
 4.3 Stage 2: walkover survey

The entire foreground, crossed by and lying left of the road, is large-scale lumpy
ground that identifies a complex of landslide forms and debris that are still moving.

“Lumpy ground” is a terrain feature that is readily identified on a walkover survey, and is generally
indicative of some variety of difficult ground conditions; at this site the hollows are backfilled, open
or inadequately capped shafts, and the hillocks are unconsolidated mine debris.
[below left] Old mine workings along two veins are recognisable by the lines of shadowed pits.
[below middle] A walkover survey in dense rain forest is severely limited, but is still invaluable.
Lumpy ground can be formed by sinkholes in the soil cover on limestone karst.

A walkover at this site should recognise the low, rounded mounds of glacial till on
the right, the single, steeper hill that is a colliery tip-heap on the left, and the central
area of flat, wet ground that is a peat bog; rockhead beneath the peat was breached
by a rising mine heading, causing a catastrophic inrush of saturated soil debris.

125
 geophysical boundary of basalt flow clarified (using
traverse magnetic and seismic techniques)

wind farm

fault zone and dyke of basic

extent of contact metamorphosed
igneous rocks indicated
sedimentary rocks clarified

presence of fine-grained chilled

margin to granite indicated approximate boundary of volume of
ground which will contain the foundations
presence of perched for a proposed dam and hydroelectric
groundwater indicated power station (design allows for installing
thick concrete raft and piles)
basalt/andesite proved to occupy
an inclined dyke (using magnetic
and seismic techniques)

thickness of scree indicated

INDICATES THAT GROUND CONDITIONS
AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE ARE
presence of buried valley revealed deep soil and weathered MORE COMPLEX THAN PREVIOUSLY
but full depth and nature of infill rock in possible dyke, fault THOUGHT
could not be determined zone or volcanic neck
The geophysical survey was planned using
the results of the desk study and walkover

Figure 4.4 Stage 3: shallow geophysical survey.

126
 4.4 Stage 3: shallow geophysical surveys

Stage 3: shallow geophysical surveys (Figure 4.4) • Seismic surveys use shock waves produced by hammer initial calculations of the amounts of materials made and
blows or explosions; these are reflected or refracted at the initial site geomodel updated.
Shallow geophysical techniques are constantly improving and geological boundaries (essential in oil exploration) and are
can offer increased benefits as part of geotechnical investiga- • Likely effects on the overall success of an engineering project.
applicable to ground investigations as the signals relate to Geophysical surveys reduce uncertainty in the predicted
tions in civil engineering projects. They are not always used in the strength of the rock mass or soil.
ground investigations, but they should always be considered ground conditions and may therefore improve confidence
as a potential tool. Geophysics can give a valuable overall • Magnetic surveys record distortions of the Earth’s magnetic in design decisions; they should be used to help optimize
picture, but these techniques do need ground truthing i.e. field and are notably successful in locating old mine the location and depth of boreholes.
confirmation on the ground in conjunction with boreholes, shafts. • Possible increase in information obtained in geologi-
pits and other intrusive techniques to help calibrate the sub- • Gravity surveys record minute variations in the Earth’s cally varied and structurally complex terrains. Geophysical
surface profiles or to test-drill specific identified anomalies gravitational force and therefore identify low-strength surveys can indicate whether the ground conditions and
(Bibliography, Group B books; Waltham, 2009). porous rocks and natural or artificial ground cavities. geological structures are more (or less) complex than pre-
Geophysical surveys have two main uses in ground investi- • Electrical surveys include many methods and are widely viously thought. Changes to the conceptual design and/or
gations: (1) searching a large area for anomalies before drilling applied successfully in mineral exploration; they can cover further investigation can then be considered.
and (2) correlating the strata between boreholes. large areas to identify anomalies or contrasts that require Example: interpretation of ground conditions at this stage in
Geophysical surveys are relatively low cost compared with further investigation. karstic terrains, continued from Figure 4.3 (see also Figures
multiple boreholes and can be cost-effective in site investiga- • Electromagnetic surveys create an electromagnetic field in 5.7 and 5.8). An extensive geophysical survey of the whole site
tions of difficult ground situations where a specific type of the ground and measure differences in the magnetic prop- indicates the position of the water-table and suggests a locally
survey might be appropriate. There is no single geophysical erties of ground materials, yielding data similar to that deep overburden; however, further interpretation of the results
survey that is applicable to all problems. Geophysical tech- from electrical surveys. is inconclusive. Possibly class kIII. Identifies a requirement to
niques can now be applied effectively to particular situations increase the density of intrusive subsurface investigation tech-
• Ground-probing radar is a special type of electro-magnetic
– for example, using magnetic surveys to search for suspected niques.
survey that has a limited depth of penetration, but can be
mine shafts. All geophysical surveys require discussion with useful in shallow investigations.
independent geophysical scientists to obtain advice before and
during discussions, and with specialist geophysical ground in- Typical changes in the perception of
vestigation contractors to interpret the results. ground conditions as the investigation
Geophysical exploration techniques involve the remote proceeds
sensing of some physical property of the ground, either using • Requirements of the geophysics stage. Simple shallow geo-
instruments that remain on or near the ground surface, or physical techniques may be used during the preliminary
instruments that are inserted into boreholes during drilling. investigation, or more detailed surveys may form part of
Aerial surveys can be carried out, but are usually reserved for the following main investigation. These are used to obtain
extremely large or linear remote sites. Passive methods ac- basic information on the subsurface geology relatively
curately measure the ground properties and search for small easily and quickly.
anomalies (distortions) within the overall pattern. These
include gravity and magnetic surveys. Induction methods • Increase in knowledge during investigation stage. Geo-
send a signal into the ground and pick it up again nearby. These physical surveys extends our knowledge of the subsurface
include seismic, electrical, electromagnetic and radar surveys. geology provided that the techniques used are appropriate
for the terrain. The results must be interpreted carefully
Modern techniques fall into broad groups and each
and must be verified by drilling and pitting. Features such
technique can have its uses in specific ground investigations.
as buried valleys may be identified, predictions modified,

127
 dip trenches used to reveal succession of
sedimentary rocks for correlation with borehole
information; they may also allow discontinuities to be
measured and weathering effects to be investigated

wind farm

microgranite
inclined boreholes used to
investigate steeply dipping
fault/dyke features

approximate boundary of
volume of ground which will
contain the foundations for
the dam and power station

inclined boreholes used to

investigate steeply dipping
CONFIRMS COMPLEX GEOLOGY. DATA
contact, bedding and dyke
OBTAINED ON THE PROPERTIES OF THE
features
VARIOUS ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL UNITS
important areas where the
ground conditions are not The results of this stage of the investigation
known in sufficient detail have been used to refine the geophysical
for design of power house interpretation. Thin sections of various rock types
foundations have been examined to facilitate correlation and
to identify any potentially deleterious minerals
(e.g. pyrite in the mudstones)

Figure 4.5 Stage 4: main ground investigation.

128
 4.5 Stage 4: main ground investigation

Stage 4: main ground investigation (Figure 4.5) Table 4.5.1 Function of the reference conditions, adapted to incorporate geological and geomorphological information.

The function of the model during the main investigation is to Aim: to document the range of ground conditions that can reasonably be foreseen for contract purposes, especially design
and payment
ensure that the geological situation is understood as complete-
ly as possible and that no major surprises will be discovered at 1 Formally define and describe the components of the site model (including surface processes, materials and
landforms). This will most likely involve erecting and defining geological and geomorphological reference
the subsequent stages of design or construction. It is therefore conditions within the contract by grouping together terrain units (Figure 4.3) with similar engineering
necessary for a comprehensive understanding to be obtained characteristics
of the geological and geomorphological processes occurring at 2 Simplify the geomorphological processes into a series of events that define the basis for design (e.g. the 1 in 100-
the site and even beyond its boundaries. Geological mapping year flood; a landslide event of a particular size and intensity)
and remote sensing interpretation are key initial components Use of reference conditions can:
of this understanding, especially for large or linear project 1 Allow a reduction in the overall laboratory testing schedule as only representative and extreme samples from
each reference condition have to be tested, rather than testing all the terrain units encountered
sites.
2 Allow the incorporation of knowledge from similar terrain units that occur outside the project area to be
Ideally, the objectives identified in the earlier stages should usefully correlated with the reference conditions
be achieved and crucial questions answered. At this stage, or
3 Be of practical help during construction in anticipating ground conditions and predicting equipment
preferably earlier, it should be decided whether enough infor- performance and capability
mation has been obtained or could safely be assumed to be
obtainable. This information provides the geological and geo- The typical equipment in current use is generated by the need require specialist input e.g. Hearn (2011) shows in Table 4.5.2
morphological basis for rational design, including the use of for soil or rock penetration, core recovery and sampling. The what he considers may be needed for a mountain road.
the design events and reference conditions (Table 4.5.1) within need for high-quality observations (e.g. the logging of cores, The geomodel is also particularly useful in establishing the
the contract (Baynes et al., 2005). The reference conditions pits and samples) remains paramount, in addition to the likely presence of small-scale subsurface geological features
approach is particularly helpful for very large or linear projects skilled use of site instrumentation such as piezometry and (see Figures 4.7 and 4.8, and Part 5), which may have a geo-
and provides a template for defining unforeseen/unforeseeable measurements of settlement, strain and pressure. Develop- metrical relationship with the overall geology and may be
conditions (Fookes, 1997a). Another approach would be to use ments in investigation techniques over the last three decades crucial in the design – for example, the orientation of slick
the observation method (see Figure 4.6). include cone penetration and other systems of determining discontinuities. Figures 1.8 and 1.9 give pictorial block models
soil and rock properties in situ. Good textbooks (e.g. Clayton of such geological features.
Ground investigation techniques et al., 1995; Simons et al., 2002; Norbury, 2010) are fairly ex-
Much has been written about the many site investigation tech- haustive on these subjects, but can never be completely up to Typical changes in the perception of
niques used for different ground situations and the various date. The trilogy of extremely comprehensive manuals on soil ground conditions as the investigation
problems that can occur. We will summarize these simply, and laboratory testing (Head, 2006; Head and Epps, 2011, 2014) proceeds
will also briefly explore the use of the geomodel in investigating should be a first reference for any laboratory testing based on • Requirements of the ground investigation stage. Intrusive
the various features of a site. British Standards. techniques (e.g. boring, drilling and digging) are used
A full geological understanding allied to the planning The ability to conceive geomodels to illustrate various along with in situ and laboratory testing to define the
and layout of ground investigations often receives only scant points concerned with the relatively large-scale geometry ground conditions and to obtain accurate data with which
attention. Figures 4.7 and 4.8 will help in the design of the of the overall geology and geomorphology is effectively to calculate the design parameters.
layout and planning of investigations, but it is essential to be endless. It is worth saying again (to emphasize what every • Increase in ground knowledge during the investigation stage.
mindful of the model developed by this stage and the local good ground investigator knows) that each site deserves its This stage further extends and refines the engineering data
environment (see Parts 1, 2 and 3). own specifically designed investigation, dependent on the generated for the design. The results of earlier stages are
Codes and standards concentrate on the instruments, in- proposed engineering structures and the anticipated geologi- reconsidered and the characteristics of the engineering
strumentation and machinery of drilling, boring and pitting. cal conditions of the site. Larger and more complex sites may geological/geomorphological units are updated. The engi-

129
4.5 Stage 4: main ground investigation

neering properties are quantified and detailed calculations

are made of the amounts of materials; the site geomodel
and geotechnical model are thus improved. The investiga-
tion is modified as an increase in the knowledge of the
ground is obtained.
• Probable effects on the overall success of an engineering
project. The selection of the most appropriate techniques
and high standards of logging, testing and interpretation
will contribute to the selection of reliable design param-
eters and enable cost and time schedules to be estimated
with reasonable accuracy.
• Possible increase in information obtained in geologically
varied and structurally complex terrains. This stage will
confirm the complex (or otherwise) subsurface geology.
Data obtained on the properties of the various engineer-
ing geological/geomorphological units may make changes
to earlier engineering designs necessary (see Figures 5.1
and 5.2).
Example: interpretation of ground conditions at this stage in
karstic terrains continued from Figure 4.4 (see also Figures 5.7
and 5.8). Drilling confirms the presence of infilled dolines and
locates several cavities above and below the water-table: class
kIII/kIV. This represents a significant worsening of the sub-
surface conditions envisaged in the early stages of the model
production.

130
 4.5 Stage 4: main ground investigation

Table 4.5.2 Common specialist skills for the assessment of terrain and slope stability and the design of mountain roads (Hearn, 2011).

Slope stability
Terrain Identifying areas of
Specialist Landslide mapping Ground investigation assessment and Design of engineering works
classification future instability
analysis

sensing and field

Retaining walls
stabilisation &
From remote

From remote

stabilisation
Interpreting
observation

observation

Supervising

Earthworks
Rock slopes

Alignment

Rock slope
From field

Soil slopes

protection

protection
Drainage
Soil slope
Planning

Erosion
sensing
Geologist

Geomorphologist

Engineering geologist

Geotechnical engineer

Civil engineer
(roads and structures)

Drainage engineer

Bioengineer/forester

main skill fields

some skills likely
some skills possibly
skills unlikely

131
 construction of dam and
reservoir in progress

wind farm

depth of residual soil in volcanic

scree feature investigated further
neck proved; presence of smectites
in weak brecciated basalt revealed
during subsequent laboratory
investigations

full depth of buried valley and

variable character of infilling
materials revealed
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION REVEALED BY
A DETAILED INVESTIGATION OF GROUND
CONDITIONS IN A PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT AREA
lateral extent of gabbro stock
known more accurately Following ground clearance and final design decisions,
further drilling and laboratory investigations for the
power house were carried out after dam construction
work had commenced

Figure 4.6 Stage 5: additional ground investigations.

132
 4.6 Stage 5: additional ground investigations

Stage 5: additional ground investigations Table 4.6.1 Sequence of important features of the obser- Typical changes in the perception of
(Figure 4.6) vational method to be used during construction (after ground conditions as the investigation
Nicholson et al., 1999; Baynes et al., 2005). proceeds
Additional ground investigations are not always carried out.
The site may be sufficiently understood not to require further 1 Exploration sufficient to establish at least the general nature, • Requirements of the additional investigation stage. This
pattern and properties of the deposits, but not necessarily the stage aims to remove the uncertainty resulting from in-
investigation, or it may not be possible to remobilize a drilling detail
rig, or there may be compelling cost or contractual reasons complete or suspect data, to confirm the proposed course
2 Assessment of the most probable conditions and the most
not to do so. Contracts for major projects can be written so unfavourable conceivable deviations from these conditions; in
of action, or to support design changes. It will also warn of
that extensions to the main ground investigation can easily this assessment, geology often plays a major part special studies that may be required during the construc-
be carried out if required, or the main investigation may be 3 Establishment of the design based on a working hypothesis of tion or development of the site – for example, intensive
designed to be modified and extended as more subsurface behaviour anticipated under the most probable conditions targeted drilling, a study of excavations, full-scale field
information is obtained during the early stages of the ground 4 Selection of quantities to be observed as construction proceeds trials or laboratory investigations.
and calculation of their anticipated values on the basis of the • Increase in knowledge during the additional investigation
investigation. Examples of complex ground are illustrated in working hypothesis
Figures 4.8, 5.2, 5.6 and 5.9. stage. This stage completes the site model, perhaps with one
5 Calculation of values of the same quantities under the most
The layout of subsurface investigation techniques is unfavourable conditions compatible with the available data or more additional specialized geological/geomorphologi-
described further in Figures 4.7 and 4.8. These have been concerning the subsurface conditions cal models of all or a particular part of the site. It monitors
drawn to illustrate the relation between subsurface techniques 6 Selection in advance of a course of action or modification the performance of slopes, foundations and structures and
of design for every foreseeable significant deviation of the reveals more precisely the amounts of materials and the
and the spatial distribution of geological features within the observational findings from those predicted on the basis of the
model. working hypothesis accuracy of the predictions of the design parameters, in
The aim of the completed ground investigation, as always, 7 Measurement of quantities to be observed and an ongoing addition to improving the geotechnical model.
is to maximize the collection of data and to be cost-effective. evaluation of the actual conditions • Probable effects on the overall success of an engineer-
The density of boreholes and pits could be increased if the 8 Modification of design to suit the actual conditions ing project. Redesigning structures or foundations may
findings indicate that further investigation is necessary. In increase the contract time and costs, but may also increase
variable ground, a balance has to be struck between the cost important to monitor the stability of earthworks, particularly the service life and reduce long-term remedial and main-
of additional investigations and the value to the designer cut slopes, at regular intervals following completion of the tenance costs.
and constructor of the information that it is likely to yield. works. • Possible increase in information obtained in geologi-
The more variable the ground, the less useful informa- Concern is often expressed about delays and the escalat- cally varied and structurally complex terrains. Additional,
tion might be obtained from any one borehole or test pit ing costs of construction, not only in Britain, but also in other possibly unexpected, information may be revealed by a
and therefore there will not necessarily be an improvement parts of the world, and suggestions, however justified, of ad- detailed investigation of the ground conditions in a par-
in the ability to extrapolate strata from adjacent boreholes ditional investigations may be frowned upon. Delays are often ticularly important area (see Figures 5.1 and 5.2).
or pits. Geophysical techniques improve extrapolation attributed to inadequate site and ground investigation. Simons Example: interpretation of ground conditions at this stage in
and the geological model will certainly help in achieving et al. (2002) attribute the primary causes of these shortcom- karstic terrains, continued from Figure 4.4 (see also Figures
this. ings in the ground investigation to include the following: 5.7 and 5.8). Major development of dolines and extensive
Alternatively, it may be decided that an observational unfair or unsuitable methods of competition; inappropriate cave system revealed in an area of particular interest: now
method (Table 4.6.1) would be the most appropriate way of conditions of the contract; insufficient and inadequate super- class kIV.
solving potential design and construction problems based vision; inadequate and unenforceable specification of work;
on inadequate geotechnical information, or because further, lack of client awareness; inadequate finance; insufficient time
but better, experience and/or time-consuming investigation to carry out a proper investigation; and a lack of geotechnical
has little chance of improving the information available. It is expertise.

133
 GROUND INVESTIGATION FOR LOW-RISE HOUSING
GROUND INVESTIGATION FOR SAND AND GRAVEL EXTRACTION
on level ground above potentially unstable ground, but the
presence of any frost wedges and disturbance or softening any solifluction lobes, cryoturbation features or infilled river channels must
of the mudstone (e.g. leaching of carbonate cement) must be identified – consists of light cable percussion, hollow-stem auger or
be identified – consists of trial pits possibly supplemented reversed circulation drilling supplemented by trial pits above the water table
by a few shallow light cable percussion boreholes (with
coring capability) to prove thickness of mudstone
GROUND INVESTIGATIONS FOR SANDSTONE QUARRY
consists of a few rotary-cored boreholes supplemented by
trial pits and rotary-percussive (blast hole) drilling
moderately weak porous
SANDSTONE contains colliery spoil tip environmental requirements may include monitoring the
groundwater perched on quantity and quality (e.g. pH, iron, sulphate, suspended
underlying band of very solids) of water draining from the site
weak MUDSTONE

strong medium- to coarse-grained

feldspathic SANDSTONE
solifluction deposit
COAL

moderately weak to moderately

strong MUDSTONE
economic sand and
gravel deposit moderately strong to strong silty
fine-grained SANDSTONE

fault
back-filled adit with perched groundwater
flooded former sand and gravel workings issuing from flooded workings

old room and pillar coal workings

buried valley infilled with very stiff collapse of coal pillar and sandstone roof
GLACIAL TILL (boulder clay), stiff causing crown hole at ground level
friable sandy CLAY (colluvium), soft
to firm alluvial SILT and CLAY, firm
PEAT and saturated medium dense
SAND and GRAVEL (the deepest thick GROUND INVESTIGATION FOR A COAL-FIRED POWER STATION
deposits may contain groundwater peat consists of many deep rotary cored and light cable percussion
under artesian pressure) lens earlier boreholes, including inclined cored holes to intersect features such
glacial as faults, and supplemented by trial pits and geophysics – particular
till later
attention given to the character and variability of buried valley
glacial
deposits and to the extent and condition of old shallow coal workings
till fault (e.g. by using rotary-percussive ‘mine probing’)
well-jointed sandstone piezometers installed to monitor groundwater levels
NB Ideally a preliminary contains groundwater
ground investigation should under artesian pressure
precede the main ground which may rise to higher
investigation OD levels via fault zones

Figure 4.7 Idealized layout of ground investigations in gently dipping strata.

134
 4.7 Ground investigations in gently dipping strata

Idealized layout of ground investigations in Deeper unsupported trial pits are used solely to
gently dipping strata (Figure 4.7) obtain composite bulk samples of potential construction
materials above the water-table and not for close inspec-
Figures 4.7 and 4.8 are simple examples of composite pictorial tion of the in situ strata. They are very cost-effective.
block models showing fairly normal subsurface situations • The topography should be considered. For example,
which, although generally applicable, could be from Britain exploratory trenches or pits dug parallel in a downhill
or many other temperate environments (see Figures 1.1, 1.2, sequence not only reveal the lateral and vertical variabil-
3.3 and 3.4). It is emphasized that these are only hypothetical ity of the superficial deposits, but also indicate in detail
basic models and many such models of different geological the vertical variability and weathering of the underlying
associations could be quickly sketched. The examples have bedrock.
been annotated to show conceptual ground investigations for
various engineering projects. • A sequence of trenches, dug parallel to one another and
normal to the direction of any suspected shallow buried
The Figure valleys, should be suitable for locating these valleys as
Figure 4.7 shows a stratified Coal Measure bedrock sequence well as for sampling the ground conditions. The spacing
of sandstones, shales and other sedimentary rocks, intersected of the trenches is dependent on the site and any success
by ancient faults and incised by a deep Quaternary buried in locating buried valleys depends on the thickness of the
valley infilled with glacial and fluvial deposits. valley-fill (i.e. colluvium or terrace alluvium). Boreholes
The following general points can be made about Figure 4.7. should replace trenches where the alluvium is thick. If the
However, any number of specific details could be developed. likely position of a buried valley is not known, a geophysi-
cal survey should be carried out in a grid pattern with a
• After the desk study and walkover survey, a small number
relatively wide and equal spacing of boreholes. These
of widely spaced boreholes of approximately equal spacing
could then highlight the areas that require additional in-
could be used to give the basic stratigraphic sequence and
vestigation. Buried valleys should always be considered
weathering profile of the bedrock. A geophysical survey
possible in any projects close to the sea and in glacial
should be considered (in this instance, a seismic survey)
terrains. Sequences of trenches/boreholes are also worth
to determine the depth of the bedrock using the boreholes
considering for locating shallow former mine sites, old
to aid interpretation. The seismic survey should be carried
waste dumps and back-filled mine shafts.
out on a grid plan, or at least between the borehole
locations. Additional boreholes could be sunk in areas of Figure 4.7 shows that vertical boreholes sunk in relatively
geophysical anomalies. flat-lying beds reveal the stratigraphy of the bedrock. The
depth and spacing are dependent on the site conditions and
• The use of exploratory pits and trenches is a relatively
the type of engineering project, as indicated in the specific
cheap and quick method of retrieving information from
projects annotated on the model. As a general rule, in flat-
shallow depths; at these depths, they may be more effective
lying strata the boreholes can be fairly widely spaced. They
than boreholes. Success depends on the type of material,
should be drilled to a depth below that of the engineering
the groundwater conditions, the depth of the bedrock and
foundations. This allows the stratigraphic horizons to be cor-
the variability of the superficial deposits. Costs increase
related between boreholes and exploration of the groundwater
for pits or trenches >1.5 m deep because of the need for
conditions below the foundations.
internal support (which may inhibit logging) and extra
supervisory staff.

135
4.7 Ground investigations in gently dipping strata

[upper right] A back-filled mine shaft 3 metres

in diameter, recognisable by the darker fill
where colliery waste about a metre deep had
been stripped from the site, after the shaft was
located by trenching through the cover across
the area where it was suspected to lie.
[middle right] The end of a house that
collapsed into an old mine shaft when its
backfill had run into the deeper workings;
when the houses were built, the filled shaft had
unfortunately been obscured by colliery waste
during site restoration.
[lower right] Part of the store of old mine plans
Coal Measures in an opencast mine, with horizontal, dark grey mudstones held by the UK Coal Authority Mining Records
and buff sandstones above a coal seam at floor level; this method of mining is Office; old shafts are a major hazard in the
economical where overburden is less than about 20 times the seam thickness. coalfields, and though the data are known to
[below left] A truck-mounted hydraulic drill at a ground investigation, coring be incomplete, a search of them is the best first
bedrock beneath a few metres of cased hole through overburden. stage in any investigation of mined ground.

[right] Rockhead
exposed in the bank
of a small river, with
gently dipping dark
grey shales beneath
just a few metres
of colluvium and
poorly sorted alluvial
sediments.
[right] Exposed
in a cut face along
the alignment of a
new road, a minor
fault in horizontal
Coal Measure
rocks displaces
the buff and rusty
sandstones, the dark
grey shales and the
single coal seam
that lies at floor level
beyond the fault.

136
 4.7 Ground investigations in gently dipping strata

[above left] Microgravity survey searching for

negative anomalies that indicate the presence of
mined cavities at shallow depth in sandstone.
[above middle left] Probing with a hand-held drill
can reach 6 metres deep in searches for mined or
natural cavities.
[above middle right] Rotary coring to depths of
50 metres in strong limestone to identify ground
conditions along the line of a proposed tunnel.
[above far right] Drill core is logged on site, and is
then boxed for later recording and sampling.
[near right] A trial pit provides the best information
on the top few metres of the soil profile, but a pit
requires support struts if it is taken any deeper.
[far right] The problem with a trial pit in rain forest
is that it is likely to fill with water, even before the
deeper parts of its walls can be inspected.

137
 high water table during prolonged wet periods:
granite joints and granular weathering products
contain groundwater which issues at the boundary GROUND INVESTIGATION FOR
with less permeable contact metamorphosed rocks TRUNK ROAD CUTTING
consists of many rotary-cored GROUND INVESTIGATION
boreholes (e.g. 100 m centres FOR WIND FARM EXTENSION
initially) supplemented by trial pits consists of a few rotary-cored
and possibly by geophysics and boreholes supplemented by
light cable percussion drilling trial pits

wind farm

GROUND INVESTIGATION FOR RAILWAY TUNNEL

consists of many rotary-cored boreholes (e.g. 50 m
centres initially), including inclined holes to intersect
major discontinuities, possibly supplemented by
a geophysical survey – piezometers installed to
monitor groundwater levels if appropriate

GROUND INVESTIGATION FOR DAM AND

HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION
consists of very many deep rotary-cored
boreholes, including inclined holes to intersect
strata boundaries, joint planes, steeply inclined
dykes and subvertical volcanic necks
supplemented by long-dip trenches, trial pits,
a borehole-controlled geophysical survey, and
light cable percussion drilling in superficial
NB Ideally a preliminary ground investigation should deposits – piezometers installed to monitor
precede the main ground investigation groundwater levels

Figure 4.8 Idealized layout of ground investigations in steeply dipping tectonized strata.

138
 4.8 Ground investigations in steeply dipping strata

Idealized layout of ground investigations in Small-scale geological features face geometry of the geology, especially in complex situations,
steeply dipping strata (Figure 4.8) The influence of small-scale geological features on geotech- as the investigation proceeds. If the tectonic events have been
nical characteristics is fairly well documented. Rowe (1972) severe – for example, producing metamorphic rock suites –
In the case of dipping beds, trenches and boreholes laid many of the earlier small-scale features will have disappeared,
pioneered much of this work by relating the soil fabric to a
out parallel to the dip direction of the beds can reveal the only to be replaced by small-scale metamorphic features (see
range of sampling and testing procedures in engineering
complete stratigraphic sequence of a site. In addition, Figure 1.5).
soils. Small-scale features in soils and sedimentary rocks
variations in the properties within particular dipping As an example of the interpretation of small-scale features,
are produced geologically by diagenesis (at and soon after
stratigraphic horizons with increasing depth below the Figure 1.8 shows a quarry in horizontally bedded sedimentary
the time of deposition, mainly during consolidation) and by
ground surface can be obtained by sampling the particular rocks. A trained and experienced geologist would know that
tectonic events in any rock of any age, especially during plate
horizon using a succession of down-dip boreholes. This the environment of deposition of these rocks before lithifica-
collisions. They are therefore potentially significant in tec-
can be achieved simply in unfaulted beds provided that the tion would have been along the lines shown in Figure 1.7. This
tonized, steeply dipping strata.
distance between the boreholes allows stratigraphic overlap geologist could therefore predict the probable occurrence of
For his work on sampling and testing, Rowe collected
of the recovered core to confirm the local stratigraphic the small-scale sedimentary details shown in insets A, B and
data from 35 sites, varying in age from the Ordovician to the
sequence. Boreholes positioned up-dip penetrate lower in C of Figure 1.8.
Holocene, where the fabric of the clay soils was related to field
older stratigraphic levels than boreholes drilled to a similar
and laboratory behaviour. These examples illustrated the in-
depth but located down-dip – that is, information about
adequacy of conventional site investigations. Rowe advocated
lower stratigraphic levels can be obtained at reduced drilling
the description and recording of fabrics, and the use of these
costs by locating the drill hole up-dip rather than down-dip,
details and a knowledge of the overall geology and water levels
providing that there is confidence in the extrapolation of this
in relation to the engineering problem, to decide the location,
information.
quality and size of specimens for fundamental laboratory
Trenches laid out parallel to the strike of a bed can reveal
tests. It was thus shown that it is not enough to simply use
lateral variations in the engineering properties along that bed.
index tests alone for classification.
In addition, the vertical variation of the bed can be obtained
Advances in sampling and testing have developed in the
by sampling from the top to the bottom of the bed at several
last few decades, as exemplified by Vaughan (1994) in his
locations. Where the dipping beds appear to be repeated on the
Rankine Lecture, in which he stressed the links between the
basis of data obtained from two boreholes, a third borehole,
ground model behaviour and reality. Atkinson (2000), in his
or more, should be sunk to help interpret and correlate the
work on engineering soils, emphasized the value of carefully
sequence unless there is clear evidence of a fault causing the
selected and well-designed laboratory work.
repetition of beds.
The significance of small-scale geological features,
The correlation and interpretation of folded rocks may
including texture and soil fabric, reaches beyond sampling
prove difficult with limited borehole information. Therefore
and testing in the hands of a geologically skilled practitioner.
observations should be made of the outcrop, noting any
Predictions can be made about the probable variability, char-
changes in dip or repetition/mirroring of the rock types.
acteristics and engineering properties of the material (soils
Again, supplementary boreholes sunk between two other
and rocks), the characteristics of discontinuities, the origin of
boreholes where the same bed has different dips may aid in
the material, the changes it has undergone and the probable
the interpretation of the structure. There are many varia-
suites of adjacent rocks and soils. Such features should be built
tions in these examples depending on the complexity of the
into the initial geological and geotechnical site models. This
geology.
will help in the interpretation and correlation of the subsur-

139
 (a)

(a) TERRACE SAND

and GRAVEL
sandy
thin topsoil LIMESTONE
TERRACE SAND CLAY
and GRAVEL approximate limit of
sandy
thin topsoil LIMESTONE highly weathered rock
CLAY
interbedded CLAY
approximate limit of ALLUVIUM: buried
and SILT
highly weathered rock valley deposits (mainly
solifluction silty clay overlying
interbedded CLAY head
ALLUVIUM: buried interbedded sand and gravel)
and SILT
valley deposits (mainly CLAY, SAND
solifluction silty clay overlying and SILT
head interbedded sand and gravel) MUDSTONE
CLAY, SAND stream
and SILT
MUDSTONE
stream

(a) Some potential misinterpretations of

the geology of (b) from borehole evidence.
(b)

involutions in TERRACE
(b) SAND and GRAVEL
thin topsoil overlying silty CLAY
sandy limestone
involutions in TERRACE bed displaced by
SAND and GRAVEL old rotational slide
thin topsoil overlying silty CLAY
sandy limestone ALLUVIUM: recent
bed displaced by alluvium overlying
old rotational slide solifluction head
buried valley deposits
infilling gulls
ALLUVIUM: recent (lenticular beds of sand
alluvium overlying competent limestone and gravel, silty clay,
solifluction head affected by cambering silt and peat)
buried valley deposits
infilling gulls
(lenticular beds of sand
competent limestone and gravel, silty clay, involutions
affected by cambering silt and peat) stream

involutions
stream

(b) Actual geology broadly modelled on

Lower-Middle Jurassic of East Midlands.

cavity beneath incompetent

collapsed roof mudstone affected GLACIAL TILL
by valley bulging with limestone
cavity beneath boulders
incompetent
collapsed roof mudstone affected GLACIAL TILL
Figure 5.1 Problems in interpreting ground investigation information from the relict periglacial areas of southern Britain.
by valley bulging with limestone
boulders

140
 5.1 Periglacial areas of southern Britain

Part 5. Case histories and some basic ground characteristics and properties
Problems in interpreting information from fieldwork and data interpretation have all been carried out by • The formation of gulls (very large cracks that open more
ground investigations in the periglacial areas experienced engineering geologists (Norbury, 2010). widely near the ground surface) in cambered (downwards
of southern Britain (Figure 5.1) Figure 5.1b shows the ‘true’ or ‘as-found’ geology, which bending or draping) ground primarily related to perigla-
includes relict periglacial involutions, rotational sliding, cial conditions.
Figure 5.1 is in two parts and shows some potential misin- limestone strata displaced by cambering, and boulder glacial • The deposition of alluvial and other stratified superficial
terpretations of the geology in the ‘soft’ rocks (usually weak till beneath a varied sequence of buried alluvial deposits. It soils, including metastable wind-blown loess (‘brick earth’
to moderately strong sedimentary rocks, but can be outside is likely that many of these features could have been revealed in Britain) and cover sands, both of which can be metasta-
these classifications) that occur in the southern parts of using a greater number of deeper boreholes, possibly ble and locally extensive.
Britain. These are typically deposits of Jurassic and younger including rotary-percussive probing, combined with trial pits,
(Cretaceous and Tertiary) age. In Britain, these rocks have There were long periods of hot and wet climates in Britain in
trenches and the use of geophysical techniques. Each uniden- the geological past, particularly during the Tertiary, leading
been subjected to periglacial activity at various times within tified feature may adversely affect construction operations
the Quaternary. This activity has disturbed the near-surface to a residual soil by weathering of the upper few metres of the
and result in claims by the contractor for ‘unforeseen’ ground ground. The results of such weathering may still be preserved
strata (see Figures 2.1, 3.2, 3.5 and 5.9). In addition, these conditions.
rocks may also have been disturbed in their upper parts by and can be locally relatively common, especially in south-west
Some important properties of the near-surface geology Britain. During the Tertiary period (and before), ‘Britain’
creep and other slope movements not necessarily related to
may only be revealed in excavations (e.g. pilot cuttings) was south of where it is now and slowly moved northwards
periglacial activity and by warm temperate/subtropical forms
during construction, whereas the deeper geology may through a hotter and wetter climatic belt to its present cooler
of weathering (see Figures 2.2–2.5 and Bibliography).
never be completely known. Ideally, it will be the engineer- location.
In Britain, rocks of Jurassic and younger age have not been ing geologist who interpreted the conditions at the ground
strongly disturbed by orogenic activity, although the distant investigation stage who has responsibility for updating
effects of the Tertiary Alpine collisions have disturbed the the geological geomodel. If the observational method was
rocks in the southernmost parts of Britain by folding and built into the contract (Nicholson et al., 1999), any required
faulting. However, there has been neither intense folding design modification can be implemented as construction
nor metamorphism. Tertiary igneous activity was restricted proceeds.
mainly to northern Britain in association with the mid-Atlan-
Examples of periglacial activity and other forms of near-
tic divergence (see Figures 1.2 and 1.3).
surface disturbance include the following.
Figure 5.1a shows what might be interpreted at the
• Frost action, including cryoturbation and other forms of
main ground investigation stage from the careful logging of
slight to severe churning of the ground, particularly ice
boreholes, combined with limited field mapping, at a project
wedges and pingos. These are all generally related to the
site in a relatively simple structural (i.e. beds not dipping)
active layer (see Figure 5.9). Chalk is especially susceptible
area of southern Britain. In this particular example, a similar
to this kind of activity. Table 5.1.1 (after Bell and Culshaw,
interpretation might have been achieved by the following in-
2005) describes the chalk weathering grades, which differ
vestigations: a study of local geological maps, memoirs and
significantly from ‘normal’ weathering grades (see Figure
aerial photographs; a thorough walkover survey of the site and
2.3).
surrounding area; detailed engineering geological and geo-
morphological mapping; and the construction of large-scale • Solifluction flows and other forms of mass movement of
geological cross-sections. It is assumed that borehole logging, slope debris previously related to the active layer.

141
5.1 Periglacial areas of southern Britain

Table 5.1.1 Description and grading of the Middle and Upper Chalk for engineering purposes.
Definitions of grade Typical features of grade
Colloquial description of
Grade Structure Comminuted chalk Coarser fragments Weathering of coarser Strength of coarser Word order for description
grade
matrix (%) (%) fragments fragments
cVI Putty chalk with small >35 <65 Moderately, highly or Very weak or weak Structureless chalk: soil strength of
lumps completely weathered matrix; colour of matrix; nature of matrix
material; amount of fragments; presence
and nature of flints; other features (Grade
VI)
Structureless chalk, bedding and
cV jointing absent (cVI, cV) Chalk lumps in <35 >65 Moderately or highly Very weak or weak Structureless chalk: angularity and
comminuted matrix weathered size of fragments; colour of fragments;
weathering of fragments; strength of
fragments; amount of matrix; nature of
matrix material; presence and nature of
flints; other features (Grade V)
Fracture spacing Colour: rock material, weathering chalk
Fracture width (mm) Material weathering Material strength
(mm)
cIV Rubbly chalk Extremely closely to Open or infilled >5 Moderately or highly Very weak or weak Rock material; strength; discontinuity
very closely spaced weathered type; discontinuity spacing; discontinuity
<60 width and nature of infill if appropriate;
discontinuity orientations (in situ
cIII Rubbly to blocky chalk Closely spaced Open or infilled <3 Slightly or Weak or moderately
In situ structured chalk, with observations only); presence and nature of
60–200 moderately weak
bedding and jointing (cIV, cIII, flints; other features (give Grade)
weathered
cII, cI)
cII Blocky chalk At least medium Tight and clean Fresh or slightly Weak or moderately
spaced >200 weathered weak
cI Brittle and massive chalk At least medium Tight and clean Fresh or slightly Moderately weak or
spaced >200 weathered moderately strong

142
 (a)

possible
weathered
chilled
GRANITE possible thin
margin
contact topsoil
(a)
aureole outcrop of
SCHIST
possible possible
weathered
chilled outcrop of transgressive
GRANITE possible thin
margin MARBLE sill
contact topsoil
LIMESTONE
aureole outcrop of exposed
SCHIST thick drift
BASALT
possible deposits LIMESTONE
exposed
outcrop of transgressive proved
MARBLE sill
LIMESTONE
exposed
BASALT thick drift
exposed deposits LIMESTONE
proved

(a) Some potential misinterpretation of the

(b) geology of (b) from borehole evidence.

GRANITE
with irregular
HORNFELS in SCHIST and
rockhead increasing grade of regional
(b) contact aureole GNEISS
metamorphism and disturbance
augen ptygmatic
folding
GRANITE SLATE BASALT lava flow
with irregular MARBLE contemporaneous with
HORNFELS in SCHIST and
rockhead increasing grade of regional exposed deposition of sediments
contact aureole GNEISS
metamorphism and disturbance crumpling
augen ptygmatic LIMESTONE exposed
in shales
folding BASALT exposed
SLATE BASALT lava flow
LIMESTONE with class IV
MARBLE contemporaneous with
karstic solution features
exposed deposition of sediments
crumpling
LIMESTONE exposed
in shales
BASALT exposed
LIMESTONE with class IV
(b) Actual geology (not modelled on a karstic solution features
particular area but all of the conditions
depicted can occur in Britain).

graben
boudinage in DOLERITE–
SHALES with lenticular
sandstone bed BASALT dyke
beds of SANDSTONE
angular unconformity

graben earlier sequence of SHALES

boudinage in DOLERITE– and SANDSTONES
SHALES with lenticular
sandstone bed BASALT dyke
Figure 5.2 Problems in interpreting ground investigation information in structurally complex regions.
beds of SANDSTONE
angular unconformity
earlier sequence of SHALES
and SANDSTONES144
 5.2 Structurally complex regions

Problems in interpreting information from were distinguished from laterally equivalent unmetamor- or ‘unloading’ fractures and are typically subparallel to the
ground investigations in structurally complex phosed shales, sandstones and an upper thin limestone bed. ground surface (whether flat ground or a mountainside). In
A basic igneous intrusion of unknown form has been revealed the short term, similar fractures can develop inside a rock face
regions (Figure 5.2)
and the presence of thick Quaternary deposits (alluvium created by excavation or quarrying. Although drilling aims
Figure 5.2 is also in two parts and is of a region that is rela- and colluvium) recognized on the valley floor on the right- for 100% core recovery, faults may have sheared or gouged
tively complex structurally. Figure 5.2a shows some potential hand side of the figure. It is possible that a broadly similar the rock to produce weak zones that are difficult to recover
misinterpretations that might occur during a ground investi- interpretation of the upper weathered strata could have been as core. Deep weathering under warmer and wetter condi-
gation and Figure 5.2b shows the actual geology found during achieved from a desk study, walkover and field mapping, but tions may also have produced weaker, more weathered rocks
excavations. the changes in rock type and structure with depth could not overlain by stronger rock. During the course of its geological
When fresh, rocks in these complex regions are typically have been predicted. history, the top of the bedrock below the overburden may well
moderately to extremely strong (see Table 5.3.1), although ex- Figure 5.2b shows the ‘true’ or ‘as found’ geology, which is have become convoluted (e.g. by tectonism). The late-stage
ceptions do exist. Such rock is loosely called ‘hard’ (meaning significantly more complicated than the model produced at the geomodel must aim to include all of these features.
strong). Logging needs to be carried out by experienced en- main ground investigation stage. The granite, which has been
gineering geologists (Norbury, 2010). Structurally complex subject to warm climate weathering during the Tertiary, has
ground typically occurs in the northern and western areas a very irregular rockhead with large corestones. The aureole
of Britain and in many other locations around the world. is composed of hornfels, typically a very strong, brittle rock,
Such rocks in Britain are of Permo-Triassic age or older and and the regionally metamorphosed strata beyond it include
have been through at least one important orogenic event. slates at depth and minor structural features such as augen,
Older rocks are more likely to have been affected by several ptygmatic folding and boudinage. The sedimentary sequence
orogenic episodes and hence be structurally very complex. contains lenticular sandstones and a lava flow. There is also
Rocks in Britain can be as old as the Precambrian. During an a subvertical basic igneous dyke. Very importantly, a graben
orogenic episode, the original rocks may have been heated structure on the valley floor consists of preserved limestone
and subjected to pressure, producing metamorphic rocks, that has been subjected to significant karstic solution.
and may also have been subject to strong folding, faulting and Although a more intensive ground investigation would
shearing without necessarily being metamorphosed. They have disclosed more of the underlying geology, some
may also have been invaded, at any time, by igneous magma important near-surface characteristics would probably only
and therefore may include volcanic sequences, small intru- have been revealed in excavations during construction. The
sions and possibly plutonic emplacements. Igneous activity importance of using the observational method to refine the
last occurred in Britain during the Tertiary (mainly northern geological model and to make design modifications as con-
Britain) (see Figures 1.4, 1.5, 1.10 and 2.2). struction proceeds is again emphasized.
Figure 5.2a shows what might be interpreted from the The features shown in Figure 5.2 are examples of some of
careful logging of boreholes combined with limited field the basic situations that may arise, but there are many more
mapping at the project site by experienced engineering that also require interpretation by an experienced geologist. In
geologists at the main ground investigation stage. This inter- addition to the changes shown, such ‘hard’ rock areas usually
pretation recognized important features such as the granite display increased rock fracturing towards the ground surface
intrusion (perhaps part of a batholith) on the left-hand side, as a result of glacial and periglacial action, or perhaps daily
with a possible contact aureole of country rocks baked by hot/cold temperature changes. The removal of overburden
heat during emplacement of the granite. Regionally meta- by erosion creates additional rock fractures when the rock
morphosed gneisses, schists and marble beyond the aureole relaxes after confinement. These are known as ‘stress relief ’

145
5.2 Structurally complex regions

A horizontal sequence of sedimentary

An escarpment formed by a gently dipping bed A steep mountain face is formed in structurally complex metamorphic gneiss with rocks forms the upper half of a cliff, above
of strong limestone has a steep scarp face rising dipping banding and foliation, but the rock is strong enough to require no support within an unconformity on top of structurally
above extensive, active scree slopes. the road tunnel, mainly because it has a very low density of fractures. complex basement rocks.

A massive landslide came away from the steep mountain face that was formed of steeply folded
limestone overlying a major thrust plane; failure was aided by glacial over-steepening of the face, Multiple landslides have left a complex bank of rotated slices of rock that
mining of coal beneath its toe and input of water when ground ice thawed in the spring. underlie the chaotic topography below the cliff formed by the back scar.

146
 5.2 Structurally complex regions

Boudinage formed in the upper, older, dolerite

dyke as it was stretched and “necked” by plastic
Multiple phases of tight folding in metamorphic rocks can be on all deformation at high pressure and temperature, so the
scales, so this view could be centimetres or hundreds of metres across. intrusion now varies from thick to negligibly thin.

[above] Complex folding of thinly bedded shales and

limestones includes sections where beds are nearly
vertical, all of which would be very difficult to interpret
from just a few boreholes and would require field
mapping for a full assessment.
A banded sequence of easily eroded clay has zig-zag [left] Within a mountain fold belt, a cliff face more
folds clearly exposed at outcrop, but very difficult to than 200 metres high exposes major faults through
identify just from a set of widely spaced boreholes. complex folds with vertical and horizontal beds.

147
 north-east
roches moutonnées with
rock exposed by ice-
plucking on lee side
orientation of joints may be unfavourable
movement of Irish for stability of rock slope in the cutting
Sea ice sheet

glacial till
preserved in
NE–SW Caledonian
hollow
structural trend

Lower Palaeozoic
acid volcanic rocks

Tertiary dolerite
Upper Palaeozoic dyke (possibly
sedimentary rocks following fault zone)
ROCK OUTCROPS:
Lower
this topsoil overlying very strong,
Palaeozoic
grey slightly weathered fine-
granite
grained VOLCANIC ROCK,
intrusion
with medium spaced tight joints
occasionally infilled with chlorite

HOLLOWS:
glacial till overlying moderately
strong grey–brown moderately
major fault to highly weathered fine-
grained VOLCANIC ROCK
with closely spaced open
joints infilled with clay

Figure 5.3 Conceptual route of new road in hilly terrain and the underlying relations between landforms and geology: walkover 1, rocks.

148
 5.3 New road in hilly terrain: rocks

Route of a new road in hilly terrain: walkover predict from surface observations. All of these judgements Table 5.3.1 Classification of rock strength.
1, rocks (Figure 5.3) require verification during the intrusive and laboratory stages
Strength Field strength Field properties
of the ground investigation and, as previously noted, the (MPa)
Figure 5.3 and its companion Figure 5.4 should be worked geology may only be revealed fully when construction begins. Very weak 1–5 Crushes between fingers
together. They are both idealized views loosely based on a real There are many schemes for the description of soils and
case study in Britain, although there have been some altera- Weak 5–25 Breaks easily by hand
rocks (Norbury, 2010). These descriptions are often based on
tions in the preparation of the pictorial block diagrams. Figures the particle size and plasticity of soils or the crystal structure
Medium strong 25–50 Breaks with a single hammer
blow
5.3 and 5.4 are the results of separate walkover surveys by two and other mass characteristics of rocks. They generally contain
different engineering geologists, each working for a construc- Strong 50–100 Requires more than one hammer
information on some or all of the following characteristics, as blow to break
tion contractor bidding for a road contract in hilly, generally
appropriate: Very strong 100–250 Chipped by heavy hammering
rocky, terrain. The geologists each prepared a small desk
• the field strength or compactness; Extremely strong >250 Rings when hammered
study and then walked or drove over the proposed route; the
ground investigation data issued to all the bidding contractors • the structure (e.g. bedding, folding, shearing, discontinui-
ties) and state of weathering; Table 5.3.2 Shapes of joints and bedding-bound natural
was made available to both geologists. The figures illustrate
blocks.
the interpretations that each geologist made of the subsur- • the colour;
face characteristics of the ground, which were important in • the particle or crystal shape and composition; Shape Dimensions
helping the contractors to decide the method of excavation Blocky Equidimensional
• the soil name, based on particle size, and the rock
for the cuttings. The geologist of Figure 5.4 overestimated the Tabular Thickness much less than length or width
name, based on the rock type; and
amount of very strong rock in the cuttings; the geologist of Columnar Columnar and elongated; largest dimension greater
Figure 5.3 estimated a lesser amount of strong rock because • reference to inclusions and any other observations. than twice any of the others
significant weathering was spotted. The contractor of Figure Tables 5.3.1–5.3.3 give common examples of the sort of Irregular No axes of similar length
5.3 chose to rip and hammer, whereas the contractor of Figure field observations that engineering geologists make in rocky Flaggy Smallest dimension 20–60 mm; other dimensions at
5.4 chose to blast – a bigger bid price was therefore put in and terrains. Reference should also be made to more comprehen- least twice that of smallest
the contract was lost. sive textbooks and codes of practice (see Bibliography, Group Slaty or shaly Smallest dimension <20 mm; other dimensions at
B books; Ulusay and Hudson, 2007; Norbury, 2010). These least twice that of smallest
Walkover survey: rock tables will be subject to frequent updating/changes when
The figures in Part 4 illustrate studies for large ground inves- codes are revised; when reporting fieldwork, the particular Table 5.3.3 Basic spacing of discontinuities.
tigations and Figure 4.3, in particular, discusses the walkover reference to the classification used must be given. Description Spacing
survey stage. Throughout the ground investigation, soil and
Table 5.3.4 gives some typical properties of common rocks Very widely spaced >2 m
rock descriptions are made during the walkover from natural
for which an experienced engineering geologist or geotech- Widely spaced 2 m to 600 mm
exposures, from cuttings and excavations, and from disturbed
nical engineer would have a good working understanding. Medium spaced 600–200 mm
and undisturbed samples taken from pits and boreholes.
Again, there are many more properties of significance to design
Trained and experienced engineering geologists (and geo- Closely spaced 200 60 mm
and performance that could be evaluated, if required, in the
technical engineers) make continual judgements as they walk Very closely spaced 60–20 mm
laboratory and by field tests. Such tests would also verify the
or drive around a proposed site. Good practitioners may well Extremely closely spaced <20 mm
geologist’s field estimates; see Head (2006) and Head and Epps
get right, or nearly right, most of their judgements of the en-
(2011, 2014) for detailed descriptions of laboratory testing.
gineering characteristics of soils and their distribution from
It is worth emphasizing that the rock characteristics and weathering and fracturing (e.g. joints and faults). These are
these observations, including the characteristics and con-
probable foundation performance vary significantly within taken into account by competent experienced practitioners
figurations of the near-surface rocks. Groundwater conditions
one rock type, depending on the mineralogy and the state of (see Figures 1.10 and 2.3).
and the subsurface geological structures are more difficult to

149
5.3 New road in hilly terrain: rocks

Table 5.3.4. Typical mechanical properties of some common rocks.

Rock type Dry density (t/m3) Porosity (%) Dry UCS (MPa) Saturated UCS Modulus Tensile Shear strength Friction angle
(MPa) b of elasticity strength (MPa) (F°)
Range a Mean
(GPa) (MPa)
Igneous/plutonic rocks
Basalt 2.9 2 100–350 250 90 15 40 50
Granite 2.7 1 50–350 200 75 15 35 55

Metamorphic rocks
Hornfels 2.7 1 200–350 250 80 40
Marble 2.6 1 60–200 100 60 10 32 35
Gneiss 2.7 1 50–200 150 45 10 30 30
Schist 2.7 3 20–100 c 60 20 2 25
Slate 2.7 1 20–250 c 90 30 10 25

Clastic rocks
Greywacke 2.6 3 100–200 180 160 60 15 30 45
Carboniferous sandstone 2.2 12 30–100 70 50 30 5 15 45
Triassic sandstone 1.9 25 5–40 20 10 4 1 4 40

Carbonate rocks
Carboniferous limestone 26 3 50–150 100 90 60 10 30 35
Jurassic limestone 2.3 15 15–70 25 15 15 2 5 35
Chalk 1.8 30 5–30 15 5 6 0.3 3 25

Mudrocks
Carboniferous mudstone 2.3 10 10–50 40 20 10 1 30
Carboniferous shale 2.3 15 5–30 20 5 2 0.5 25
Cretaceous clay 1.8 30 1–4 2 0.2 0.2 0.7 20

Organic
Bituminous coal 1.4 3 3–30 20 5 2

Evaporites
Gypsum (sulphate) 2.2 5 20–30 25 20 1 30
Salt (chloride) 2.1 5 5–20 12 5

a
Probably contains results from weathered and unweathered rocks and rocks with incipient cracks, i.e. a large spread of results.
b
Samples from dried-out core can give significantly different results from rock with in situ moisture.
c
Will contain results from samples tested parallel, or normal, to the natural planes of weakness, i.e. a large spread of results.

150
5.3 North Wales Coast Road

Rebuiding the North Wales Coast Road was a major engineering project that had
some innovative and successful features of engineering geology and geotechnics.
These images do not relate to the text or features shown in the block diagrams on the
adjacent pages, but show engineering works carried out on broadly similar terrain.

Parts of the coastal strip were an undercliff formed by the toes of landslides, and one area
was stabilised by placing the road immediately behind a massive sea wall that was sufficiently
massive to form an anchor weight over the rising part of the slip surface.

Early excavation work shows the very constricted site, with the live railway below.

The tunnel under the River Conway is a submerged tube that has approaches in deep cuttings
with retaining walls; a thickened concrete base was made with a dense aggregate to hold the
At Towyn, sea defences have 4-tonne blocks of limestone placed individually by a grab. structure down and prevent it floating upwards where it lies beneath the water table.

152
 5.3 North Wales Coast Road

[above] The Pen y Clip Tunnel required massive steel arches for roof
support through zones of fractured and deeply weathered rock.
[left] The Penmaenbach Tunnel has rock anchors in the exposed face
above the portal to prevent fractures opening by stress relief.
[right] Parts of the Rhuallt cutting had individual designs of anchors,
rock bolts and dental masonry in dipping and faulted greywackes.

[left] Approaches to the

Pen y Clip Tunnel have
steep cut faces, where the
unstable nature of the strong
but densely fractured rock
required continuous support by
top-down construction of rows
of anchored concrete panels.

[right] Split carriageways that

contour round steep hillsides
above the shoreline are each
supported by vertical retaining
walls; these are held in place by
rock anchors, some of which
had to be 40 metres long to
reach through the weathered
rock into stable ground.

153
 north-east
roches moutonnées
with rock exposed by
orientation of joints may be
ice-plucking on lee side
unfavourable for stability of
rock slope in the cutting
movement of Irish
Sea ice sheet
glacial till
preserved
NE–SW Caledonian in hollow
structural trend

Lower Palaeozoic
acid volcanic rocks

Tertiary dolerite dyke

(possibly following
Upper Palaeozoic fault zone)
sedimentary rocks Lower Palaeozoic
granite intrusion

moderately strong to very strong grey–

major fault
brown or grey slightly to moderately
weathered fine-grained VOLCANIC ROCK,
with closely to medium spaced joints

Figure 5.4 Conceptual route of new road in hilly terrain and the underlying relations between landforms and geology: walkover 2, soils.

154
 5.4 New road in hilly terrain: soils

Route of new road in hilly terrain: walkover Table 5.4.1 Unified Soil Classification: some basic character- tan F. Normal stress (stress is the force that produces deforma-
2, soils (Figure 5.4) istics. tion in a body) is critical to the shear strength, but the pore
water pressure (pore water is the water in the space between
Figure 5.4 should be worked with Figure 5.3. Both figures Group Symbol Grain size Typical values
(mm) particles) carries part of the overburden load on the soil and
are of walkover surveys of the same site by two engineering LL PI F therefore subtracting the pore water pressure from the normal
geologists, each working for a separate contractor. The text of Gravel G 2–60 – – >32 stress leaves the effective stress. The concept of effective stress
Figure 5.3 for convenience discusses the strong rocks, whereas Sand S 0.06–2 40 – >32 is of vital importance in soil mechanics, in particular where
the text of Figure 5.4 discusses the superficial materials and Silt (low plasticity) ML <0.002–0.06 60 15 32 structures are stressed over long periods (e.g. ground slope
engineering soils. Clayey silt MH <0.002–0.06 35 30 25
instability) (see Bibliography, Group B books; Head, 2006;
Clay (low plasticity) CL <0.002 70 20 28
Head and Epps, 2011, 2014). The drainage progress of a
Walkover survey: soils Plastic clay CH <0.002 45 19
loaded clay (i.e. one forming the foundation to a structure) is
Tables 5.4.1–5.4.3 are examples of the basic field observations Organic O – <10
critical because any increase in pore water pressure may lead
that engineering geologists and geotechnical engineers might
of pre-existing rocks than for cohesive soils (e.g. clays). In to failure. This is particularly significant in new excavations
make on superficial materials and engineering soils and, if
cohesive soils, F is synonymous with the angle of shearing and embankments that change the drainage arrangements.
appropriate, weak sedimentary rocks. There are considerably
resistance. Table 5.4.3 gives the common field identification and
more selected characteristics than given here and reference
Natural clays are typically plastic. With varying water strength characteristics of loose to densely packed sands.
should be made to more comprehensive textbooks and Codes
contents, a clayey soil may be solid, plastic or liquid, as These properties are variable and will need to be confirmed in
of practice (see Bibliography, Group B books; Norbury, 2010).
measured by its Atterberg limits. These are index tests carried the laboratory. Sand and gravel soils have no cohesion except
These tables will need to be updated/changed when codes are
out on remoulded samples in which the natural fabric of the that derived from any clay matrix or mineral cement between
revised.
soil has been destroyed. The plastic limit (PL) is the minimum the grains and from water suction. Sands can stand as steep
The figures in Part 4 develop a staged sequence of studies
moisture content needed to roll the soil into a cylinder of 3 mm slopes when moist as a result of the negative pore pressure
for a large ground investigation. Figure 4.3 discusses the
diameter. Soil at its PL has a shear strength of about 100 kPa. (critical in building sandcastles), but will not stand when dry
walkover survey stage. The figures in Part 2 discuss near-
The liquid limit (LL) is the minimum moisture content at or saturated. The strength, slope stability and bearing capacity
surface weathering and other changes that have a strong
which the soil flows under its own weight. The important plas- all derive from internal friction and F for granular soils
influence on the engineering performance of the soils (and
ticity index (PI) (where PI = LL – PL) is the change in water ranges from about 30 to 45°. This angle increases with coarser
rocks) encountered. Figures 4.7 and 4.8 give further examples
content required to increase the strength 100 times and is the grades, the packing density and grain angularity. Settlement
of common ground in the UK, including superficial and en-
range of water contents at which the soil behaviour is plastic in sands is typically small and rapid and is not usually consid-
gineering soils.
or sticky. Soils with a high PI are generally less stable and have ered, except on very loose sands and artificial fills. Properties
Table 5.4.1 is a much simplified presentation of the are commonly estimated in the field from the standard pen-
principal Unified Soil Classification Soil Groups and the range a large swelling potential.
etration test (SPT N values) made with a percussion boring
of sizes for each group (BS 5930:1999; Norbury, 2010, espe- Table 5.4.2 gives some basic cohesive soil properties for
rig during the preliminary or main investigations. When
cially Chapters 2–8). The basic angle of internal friction (F) design and construction, allied to simple, but very important,
using a 64 kg hammer dropped 760 mm to drive a standard
and the Atterberg properties are also given to help understand field observations. All soils fail in shear; the shear strength
tube 300 mm, N is given by the number of blows required.
the probable field and design behaviour. It is emphasized that is a combination of the cohesion and the internal friction
Frequently derived basic properties from the corrected blow
the values quoted are only ‘typical’ and that significant vari- expressed by the Coulomb failure envelope. This is a subject
count N are the relative density and the value of F.
ations could occur and would be found by good laboratory for discussion in more specialized textbooks (see Bibliography,
testing. The angle of internal friction F is a result of the struc- Group B books). Cohesion, derived from molecular attraction
tural roughness between grains and is higher for cohesionless forming inter-particle bonds, is significant in clays, but zero in
clastic soils (e.g. silts, sands, gravels) composed of fragments clean sands. The shear strength = (cohesion + normal stress) 3

155
5.4 New road in hilly terrain: soils

Table 5.4.2 Some typical properties of cohesive fine soils.

Examples State Consistency of Liquidity SPT, N CPT Cohesion Mv (m2/ ABP (kN/
clays (MPa) (kPa) MN) m2)
Alluvial clays, Very soft Fingers easily 0 <2 – 0–20 – –
Tills pushed in up to
Cainozoic 25 mm
and Mesozoic
Engineering Soft Finger pushed in >0.5 2–4 0.3–0.5 20–40 >1.0 <75
Clays (e.g. up to 10 mm
London Clay, Firm Thumb makes 0.2–0.5 4–8 0.5–1 40–75 0.3–1.0 75–150
Oxford Clay) impression
easily
Stiff Indented slightly –0.1 to 0.2 8–15 1–2 75–150 0.1–0.3 150–300
by thumb
Very stiff Indented by –0.4 to 15–30 2–4 150–300 0.05–0.1 300–600
thumbnail –0.1
Hard Scratched by Less than >30 >4 >300 <0.005 >600
thumb nail –0.4
Cohesion c is equivalent to short-term shear strength.
APB = allowable bearing pressure; CPT = cone penetration test; Mv = coefficient of compressibility.
F varies with density in cohesionless soils (Table 5.4.3).

156
 5.4 New road in hilly terrain: soils

Table 5.4.3 Typical properties of sands.

Packing Identification RD SPT CPT F SBP

Very loose – <0.2 <4 <2 <30 <30

Loose Can be dug by spade, 50 mm peg 0.2–0.4 4–10 2–4 30–32 30–80
easily driven in
Medium dense – 0.4–0.6 11–30 4–12 32–36 80–300
Dense Needs pick for excavation, 50 mm 0.6–0.8 31–50 12–20 36–40 300–500
peg hard to drive in
Very dense – >0.8 $50 ≥20 $40 $500
Slightly dense Visual examination; pick removes >0.8 >50 Depends on cementing
soil in lumps that can be abraded
RD = relative density; SPT = N values; CPT = end resistance in MPa; F = angle of internal friction; SBP (safe bearing) in kPa for
foundations 3 m wide with settlements <25 mm.

157
 conjectured trend of
fault (from published
sand and gravel geological information) bridge piers to be
(kame terrace) located in this area

rockhead at ground level

taluvium
MILLSTONE GRIT sink hole
depression rockhead at ground level

MILLSTONE GRIT

present water table

CARBONIFEROUS
LIMESTONE

LIMESTONE
SHALES
mid-Pleistocene
groundwater level

bedding plane
some discontinuities enlarged
by solution (corresponds to
karst class I/II) joint
taluvium

glacial outwash sands major solution along

and gravels discontinuities within
alluvial silt and clay fault zone and below
interpretation of rockhead valley floor
configuration based highly fractured rock
on borehole evidence within fault zone
(corresponds to karst
class II/III)

Figure 5.5 Foundation conditions in limestone bedrock interpreted from the ground investigation for a river crossing.

158
 5.5 Karst conditions interpreted from the ground investigations

Karst conditions in limestone bedrock thinner beds, a wider development of interstitial karst and The investigation of karstic terrain always causes problems.
interpreted from the ground investigations for a great number of connecting pipes. However, these rocks Geophysical techniques are commonly not successful and
a river crossing (Figure 5.5) do not develop to the cone or tower karst stage (see Figure therefore should be carried out under the guidance of a con-
5.6). Gypsum and other sulphates are dissolved more quickly sultant geophysicist. Drilling techniques often have difficulty
Figure 5.5 should be worked with Figure 5.6. Both figures than the carbonate family and are commonly associated in core recovery as a result of the sudden occurrence of un-
are loosely based on a real case history in Britain of a large with arid or semi-arid regions. The solution of gypsum is predictable voids of varying sizes, commonly (but not always)
bridge crossing in limestone terrain with karstic features. An usually relatively fast and can even occur over engineering t filled with loose or poorly consolidated carbonate sediments
opportunity has been taken in the figures to review briefly the ime. (see the ground investigation column in Table 5.6.1; each
subsurface ground alterations created by limestone solution investigation in this column is directly related to the class of
(karst). Engineering hazards karst).
Karst develops where the solution of rocks predominates Engineering hazards on karst terrain can include the following. A commentary is given in the text of Figures 4.2–4.6 and
over any other weathering and erosion processes. The key • Problem foundation conditions. These may occur in areas outlines the five key stages of a ground investigation, as an
surface features of karst terrain include dry valleys and closed with highly irregular, pinnacled rockhead relief and example of how the karst class was estimated at each stage.
depressions (sink holes or dolines) of varying sizes, pinnacled adjacent boreholes may reach rock at depths varying by This indicates the level of investigation needed as the ground
rockhead, bare limestone pavement in colder regions, and 2 m or more. It is important to explore the area thoroughly investigation proceeds through each of its five stages.
cones and towers in tropical karst, together with small-scale before constructing end-bearing piles.
solution sculpting of exposed rock anywhere. Near-surface • Ground voids. These are caves and fissures that are empty,
karst types include bare or soil-covered rock where the water-filled or filled with ‘soft’ sediments. They can cause
rockhead is less than 1 or 2 m below the surface. Mantled rare, isolated ground collapses under structural loads
karst with solution-eroded topography is covered by 10 m or if not previously identified by diligent investigation in
more of unconsolidated deposits. These deposits may include critical locations.
the insoluble residues of dissolved limestone or the insoluble
• Sink hole collapses. These are formed by the down-washing
remains of strata that once overlaid the limestone (Waltham
of the soil cover infilling an existing sink hole into fissures
and Fookes, 2003).
and caves. These are the most widespread geohazards in
Underground drainage is channelled into caves, conduits soil-covered karst. All new sink hole collapses are the
(pipes) or fissures formed by solution. Diffuse flow through result of influxes of water, so they may be caused by rain-
fractures and smaller voids can occur in chalks, but evolves storms or fractured pipelines, although it is considered
into conduit flow in the stronger limestones. Such terrains that most are caused by modified or uncontrolled surface
are of considerable significance to load-bearing engineering drainage on construction projects and are therefore largely
structures and in the understanding of local drainage systems avoidable. In Britain, this all too often results in houses
for engineering projects. on new developments rapidly falling into new sink hole
Carbonates (principally calcium carbonate, such as lime- collapses.
stones) are easily the most common of the soluble rocks that
• Reservoir leakage. This is only remedied by grouting on a
form karst. The largest caves and the most rugged surface
massive scale. In China, for example, one-third of the 5000
karst landforms are formed in older, stronger limestones
reservoirs impounded on limestone karst suffer from sig-
and also in the less common, but stronger, dolomitic rocks
nificant continual leakage. The rapid solution of gypsum
(magnesium carbonates) and take hundreds of thousands of
means that reservoirs are generally not practicable on
years to form. Other soluble rocks that form karst features
gypsum karst.
include gypsum (calcium sulphate), which typically has

159
5.5 Karst conditions interpreted from the ground investigations

Limestone pinnacles exposed on a building site in class kIV karst, before digging out the
clay soil, breaking off the pinnacle tops and filling the fissures with broken rock.
[below right] A large subsidence sinkhole in glacial till 10 metres thick, with limestone
An abandoned quarry in strong limestone, with sawn faces that revealed the extent of solution exposed where a small stream now drains into the site. Formed in a long series of small
fissures, both open and filled with brown, terra rosa clay, in a karst of class kIII. events, a slice of soil on the far side had recently slumped into the open fissure below.
[below left] A road cutting five metres high exposing buried sinkholes filled with clay in karst of class kII.
[below middle] A small subsidence sinkhole in karst of class kII, recently re-activated during a rain storm.

160
 5.5 Karst conditions interpreted from the ground investigations

[left] Tall limestone

towers are the classic
features of karst of class
kV developed in wet
tropical terrains.
[top right] Doline karst
of class kIII is a terrain
of sinkholes that
evolved to leave a net of
low polygonal ridges.
[middle right] Conical
hills with a variable
degree of rounding
are typical of mature
tropical karst; all the
drainage sinks into
the floors of dolines
between the hills.
[bottom right] A polje
is a large, flat-floored
valley in mature karst;
its drainage is entirely
underground and it is
normally flooded in the
winter or wet season;
its margins typically
Travertine, or tufa, is a strong calcite crust formed in some have many solution
karst streams; it may overlie weak sediment and can then be cavities.
confused with rockhead if not properly assessed.
[left] Upward migration
of a cave passage by the
progressive, but slow,
stoping failure of thin beds
of limestone in the roof; the
greater threat to structures
on the surface is normally
from imposed load on a
rock roof with a thickness
that is significantly less
than the width of a cave at
shallow depth.

161
 final locations of bridge piers

present water table

mid-Pleistocene groundwater level

localized major solution along

discontinuities (corresponds to
karst class II/III)

actual trend of fault

development of major karstic solution

features, including a doline partly
infilled with a variety of sediments
(e.g. soft clay), in highly fractured development of major karstic solution features in
rock within fault zone (karst class IV) highly fractured rock within fault zone (karst class IV)

excavation for the bridge piers revealed a very extensive

actual pinnacle rockhead configuration development of infilled karstic features in the normally
(corresponds to karst class III/IV) fractured limestone below the valley floor

Figure 5.6 Foundation conditions in limestone bedrock for a river crossing as found during construction.

162
 5.6 Karst conditions found during construction

Karst conditions in limestone foundations for potential sink hole locations. In non-cohesive sandy soils, limestone cover thickness is less than about 0.7 times the cave
a river crossing as found during construction the surface typically subsides slowly. In cohesive clay soils, width. Small individual cavities may allow punching failure
a cavity forms first at the rockhead, then grows in size until and can threaten the integrity of individual piles or column
(Figure 5.6)
the soil arch fails, causing a sudden dropout collapse of the s bases. Statistically, most caves are deep enough to have no
Figure 5.6 shows the actual conditions found during construc- urface. direct influence on surface engineering.
tion and should be compared with Figure 5.5, which shows
the conditions anticipated from the ground investigation. Foundations on limestone
Table 5.6.1 gives some types of karst landscapes. The most important single measure to prevent new subsid- Table 5.6.1 Types of karst landscape
Given the difficulties in obtaining a good subsurface ence sink holes forming during and after construction is to
picture of any karst situation, Table 5.6.2 is helpful in diag- control the drainage over or into soils above limestone. Broad types of karst terrain are primarily influenced by
climate; these below are in sequence from cold mountains
nosing the class of karst in the area under investigation. The • Driven piles. These may lose integrity where they bear on to wet tropics, but local variations are numerous and
initial classification of karst at a site is based on geomorpho- rock over a cave or they may be deflected as a result of complicated, and scales vary enormously. Ground
logical and geological observations/mapping in the area, the conditions for engineering works are generally more
meeting a pinnacled rockhead. They may also be founded difficult in the mature karsts developed in the warmer
published literature and discussions with local authorities on loose blocks (floaters) incapable of taking the full pile environments.
and residents, engineers, geologists and caving societies. This load, or on unstable pinnacles within the soil. Glaciokarst: with extensive bare rock and limestone
preliminary fieldwork and desk study should be carried out pavements: easily assessed for engineering works except
before the main ground investigation; see Figures 4.2–4.6 for • Ground beams. These may be aligned or extended to bear where cover of glacial till masks open fissures and
a guide to the subsequent staged investigation of the karst in a on rock pinnacles that have been proved sound; stone- potential sinkhole sites.
project. Realistic ground investigations of karst areas require filled pads stiffened with geogrids may act in the same way Fluviokarst: dominated by dry valleys formed in
and avoid loading the intervening soil. Stiff grout can be periglacial conditions but dry since because water now
geologists and geomorphologists with special training and/or sinks into unfrozen ground; active caves may be at shallow
experience. injected to strengthen soils over limestone and prevent depth.
Many boreholes are needed in the ground investigation to suffusion into fissures, but the injection of a fluid grout
Doline karst: with landscape dominated by sinkholes (also
map the pinnacled rockhead and buried sink holes and many can incur large losses into adjacent caves before sealing known as dolines) between polygonal net of ridges (so
rock probes are required to prove solid rock without caves. the karstic fissures. also known as polygonal karst); subsidence potential on
sinkhole floors.
The local and site history are the best guides to cave and sink • Strip or raft foundations. These can be designed to span
Cone karst: numerous small stream sinks in large
hole hazards. Boundaries between limestone and slate and any small failures that may develop during or after con- sinkholes between conical or hemispherical hills; large
the line of faults may have concentrated the development struction. caves are likely to exist beneath the sinkhole floors and
of sink holes and caves. Deep probes should prove bedrock beneath the conical hills; also known as kegelkarst, cockpit
Fissures are opened by dissolution until they take all the surface karst and fengcong.
to depths at least 0.7 times the probable cave width; the site
drainage underground. They can then evolve into an infinite Tower karst: with isolated steep-sided towers scattered
may require inclined borings to prove that the pinnacles are
diversity of cave passages and chambers. In many limestones, across a karst plain, where limestone is beneath alluvial
sound. cover; new sinkholes are common in the alluviated plains
most caves are <10 m across, but some tropical areas have
Subsidence sink holes are believed to account for >90% when local drainage is disturbed; also known as turmkarst
cave chambers >100 m wide. Bedding planes, changes in rock and fenglin.
of ground collapses in limestone. They form in soil cover,
above cavernous rock, as a result of the down-washing types and discontinuities influence the shape of most cave Pinnacle karst: dominated by sharp-edged limestone
(also known as suffusion or ravelling) of soil into bedrock passages. Cave locations within limestone are unpredictable pinnacles; large pinnacles make very inhospitable terrain
and commonly have no surface indication. Although isolated for any development; small pinnacles may be buried to
fissures. Sinkholes may be 1–100 m across. In field investi- create very uneven pinnacled rockhead.
gations, their potential location is unpredictable, but they cavities cannot exist, their entrances may lie hidden beneath
are most common in soils 2–15 m thick. Extensive drilling soil cover or may be only small tortuous fissures. Cave roof
and probing may help to find caves or cavities lying below collapse is only likely under structural loading where the

163
5.6 Karst conditions found during construction

Table 5.6.2 An engineering classification of karst (work this table with the text examples given in Figures 4.2–4.6).
Karst Location Sink holes Rockhead Fissuring Caves Ground Foundations
class investigation
Class kI, Only in deserts Rare, NSH a Almost Minimal; low Rare and small; Conventional Conventional,
juvenile and periglacial <0.001 uniform; secondary some isolated with
zones, or minor permeability relict features consideration
on impure fissures given to provision
carbonates in the contract for
the observational
method (see
Figure 4.6)
Class kII, The minimum Small suffusion Many small Widespread in Many small Mainly Grout open
youthful in temperate or dropout sink fissures the few metres caves, most conventional; fissures; control
regions holes; open nearest to the <3 m across probe rock drainage
stream sinks; surface to 3 m, check
NSH 0.001–0.05 fissures in
rockhead
Class kIII, Common in Many suffusion Extensive Extensive Many <5 m Probe to Rafts or ground
mature temperate and dropout fissuring; secondary across at rockhead; probe beams; consider
regions; the sink holes; large relief of opening of multiple levels rock to 4 m; geogrids; driven
minimum in dissolution sink <5 m; loose most fissures microgravity piles to rockhead;
the wet tropics holes; small blocks in survey control drainage
collapse and cover soil
buried sink holes;
NSH 0.05–1.0
Class kIV, Localized in Many large Pinnacled; Extensive large Many >5 m Probe to Bored piles to
complex temperate dissolution sink relief of dissolution across at rockhead; probe rockhead or
regions; holes; numerous 5–20 m; openings on multiple levels rock to 5 m with cap grouting at
normal in subsidence sink loose pillars and away from splayed probes; rockhead; control
tropical holes; scattered major fissures microgravity drainage and
regions collapse and survey abstraction
buried sink holes;
NSH 0.5–2.0
Class kV, Only in wet Very large sink Tall Abundant and Numerous Make individual Reinforce soils
extreme tropics holes of all types; pinnacles; very complex complex three- ground with geogrid;
remnant arches; relief >20 m; dissolution dimensional investigation for load on proved
soil compaction loose pillars cavities cave systems every pile site pinnacles or
in buried sink undercut with galleries use deep bored
holes; NSH >1 between deep and chambers piles; control
soil fissures >15 m across all drainage
and control
abstraction
a
NSH = approximate rate of formation of new sink holes per km2 per year.

164
5.6 Karst conditions found during construction

Road cutting with breached caves that have been closed by

masonry except for access openings; the road was built on an
impermeable base to avoid disturbing ground drainage.
[above right] Pipeline that has been left suspended over a new
sinkhole, which formed in the soil cover where the drainage
Catastrophic sinkhole collapse in gypsum karst, at a site undermined by a had been disturbed by excavation of the pipeline trench.
breccia pipe forming in the gypsum beneath 15 metres of soil cover. [below right] Viaduct pier that was relocated after an
unpredicted cave (now beneath the grassy slope) was exposed
only during excavation for the footing because it had been
missed by all the investigation boreholes in karst of class kII.

Road destroyed by a new sinkhole where the underlying soil was lost into
karst limestone of class kIII when inflow and suffusion were increased by A new subsidence sinkhole in soil that overlies chalk, formed
water-table decline due to pumped drainage of a nearby quarry. immediately after a water main had burst nearby.

166
 5.6 Karst conditions found during construction

Buildings and infrastructure on the alluvial flats between the towers in karst of class kV may require foundations down to The casing of a bored pile that was
stable underlying bedrock or risk failure by development of new subsidence sinkholes within the alluvium. constructed through a cave to reach
footing on intact limestone beneath.

A building placed on a reinforced concrete slab that

is supported entirely on adjacent pinnacles of strong A rare benefit of mature cavernous karst in strong limestone,
Houses on a black steel frame that can be jacked up, on salt limestone in karst of class kIV, spanning a void that was where a railway could be constructed inside a large cave in
karst with slow subsidence exacerbated by brine pumping. filled with clay and is now exposed in the hillside. order to pass right through a high limestone ridge.

167
 brown weathered
rock: remains damp
during dry weather

heap of weathered rock

overburden of
consisting of blasted
boulder clay and
and rock-fall material
shallow weathered
Monday 9 am hollow in rockhead rock stripped off
excavated to the preferred mostly good quality grey rock
limit of the dozer direction (classified in ‘basalt’ trade group)
boundary of working
fence

30 m

areas remain damp

during dry weather:
appear to be caused
by water draining from
weathered rock on the access to lower bench from
upper bench this end of the berm

mostly good
quality grey rock

mostly good quality grey rock pocket of brown

(classified in ‘granite’ trade weathered rock on blast hole half barrels
group on the basis of arbitrary lower bench
mineralogical criteria)
good fragmentation poor fragmentation
on blasting on blasting

Figure 5.7 Idealized quarry face modelled on a quartz dolerite sill in Scotland as seen by a quarry manager.

168
 5.7 Quarry face as seen by quarry manager

Idealized quarry face modelled on a quarry in Table 5.7.1 Standard aggregate tests.
a quartz dolerite sill in Scotland as seen by a Range of value Requirements for
quarry manager (Figure 5.7) Aggregate property Test procedure (detailed in BS EN 932-5)
Very good Poor good roadstone
Figure 5.7 and its companion Figure 5.8 are presented to il- Aggregate impact value (AIV) Percentage fines lost by hammering on standard rig 5 35 <20
lustrate the differences that may arise between engineers Aggregate abrasion value Percentage loss by abrasion on standard test 1 25 <10
and geologists viewing the same situation. We believe that (AAV)
these differences can stem (at least in part) from their initial Polishing stone value (PSV) Frictional drag recorded on pendulum swing 70 30 >60
outlook, training, experience and their work description. As Aggregate crushing value Percentage fines lost by uniform load crushing on standard rig 5 35 –
(ACV)
a broad generalization, engineers tend to be more precise,
specific, analytical and quantitative, whereas geologists tend 10% fines value (10% FV) Load on standard ACV test rig to give 10% fines loss 400 20 >100
to be more empirical, indirect, rule-of-thumb, qualitative and Flakiness index Weight percentage particles with minimum thickness <60% mean 20 70 <40
intuitive (Fookes, 1997). Water absorption (CBR) Weight percentage increase after immersion in water for 24 hours 0.2 10 <2
Figure 5.7 is a diagram of a quarry in Scotland and was Frost heave (mm) Heave of air-cooled column of sample standing in water <12 18 <12
made after many years of working in quarries and many California bearing ratio Resistance to plunger penetration, compared with standard 100 60 >90
discussions with quarry managers. Figure 5.8 is based on a
visiting geologist’s field notebook compiled while working in
the Scottish quarry. The figures are self-explanatory. They do is usually defined by local standards or codes. Project-specific aggregates may be stronger than those produced by crushing
not claim to represent the views of quarry managers or engi- codes can be developed using experience from similar geo- the quarried weathered parent material. Some rounding of
neering geologists in general. environments. Careful testing and quality control is essential the particles will occur during transport. Where the natural
for successful aggregate production (Table 5.7.1). transport distances are short, the rounding of particles may
Quarries The characteristics of rock won from quarries for aggregate be less (e.g. in glaciofluvial environments, glaciers or alluvial
The worldwide quarrying industry for construction materials depend on the rock type, which should be strong and fresh fans) and impurities (e.g. coal or chalk fragments) may remain
is huge. In Britain, the demand for stone is around 200 million (i.e. unweathered) and not be heavily tectonized (i.e. not full in the deposit and reduce the quality of the prospective source.
tonnes per year. ‘Quarry’ is used here to mean an excavation of fractures). It should also be chemically unreactive with the Clay is preferentially carried away by flowing water (e.g. rivers
in rock and the term ‘pit’, meaning ‘open pit’, is used for ex- cement in concrete (see Figure 5.8) and should have good or wet screening) and is therefore typically fairly minor in
cavations in superficial and engineering soils, such as a sand adhesion with bitumen (typically basic rocks) and resistance fine and coarse gravel aggregates. Tables 5.8.1 and 5.8.2 in
pit. Large open metal mines (e.g. Bingham Canyon, USA) are to polishing if used as a road-wearing course. The shape of the next text give the characteristics of the various rock types
also called pits (Smith and Collis, 2001). The term ‘borrow the rock depends in part on its characteristics (e.g. foliated and potential aggregate and building stone materials, together
materials’ is used for materials won from the ground for civil metamorphic rocks do not produce cubic shapes, but granite with the likely sources of borrow materials, in various world
engineering construction purposes and include rock or soil does) and, in part, on the crushing technique (see Table 5.8.1 geo-environments.
suitable, with or without processing, for fills, pipeline padding, for natural rock characteristics).
embankments, breakwaters, roads or concrete and so on. The properties (e.g. shape) of alluvial sand and gravel
Aggregates in construction
Aggregate is the term for stone materials used for concrete depend on the rocks from which they were derived. Gravel Aggregates used in construction typically consist of coarse
and road pavements. Sources include superficial or alluvial is typically composed of several rock types, but sands are (gravel or crushed rock forming about 50% of the unit weight)
deposits (mainly river or glaciofluvial sands and gravels) and composed mainly of quartz or carbonates. After erosion from and fine (sand about 25% of the unit weight) aggregates,
strong rock (that requires blasting and crushing). Screening of the parent rock and subsequent natural transportation by together with cement and water, and additives that improve
the as-dug or as-crushed material is typically required to sort winds, rivers or coastal systems, weathered or otherwise weak performance and workability (about 25%). Good quality
the aggregate into standard sizes. The suitability of aggregate fragments tend to be selectively worn away. As a result, these aggregate for concrete has the following properties.

169
5.7 Quarry face as seen by quarry manager

• The unconfined compressive strength of the aggregate is • Wearing course. This surface layer is commonly bound
equal to or greater than that of the cement matrix (i.e. the with bitumen. The highest quality aggregates are required,
bonding material) and is therefore typically >80 MPa. with high strengths and the ability to resist polishing and
• It is free from deleterious (unsound) materials – that is, abrasion as well as the ability to bond with bitumen. Alter-
materials prone to volume changes or chemical reactions natively, wearing courses and road bases can be designed
(e.g. natural evaporite salts can initiate rusting of reinforc- as non-flexible and can be made of concrete.
ing bars or can react with cement to cause volume changes). The specifications of material for roads are increasingly
• It is clean and free from organic impurities – the particles onerous, from the sub-base upwards, notably on the particle
should not be coated by clay or dust and should have low shape and grading curve (see Table 5.7.1). All aggregates
absorption properties. must be strong and clean with limits on the soluble salts and
unsound materials. Most roadstone in the upper layers is
• It should have a good natural or crushed shape to establish
therefore produced from crushed rock because natural gravels
good interlocking between particles and should ideally not
tend to be too rounded, polished and with more impurities.
be too flaky or elongated as these factors introduce diffi-
The specifications for roads in Britain are given in the Specifi-
culties in workability and strength.
cations for Highways Work (Highways Agency, 2007, or latest
Road aggregates – for example, those for moderately to heavily edition) and various test procedures are given by, for example,
trafficked conditions with flexible pavements – commonly Smith and Collis (2001).
consist of four layers (i.e. they follow a California bearing ratio
(CBR) design).
• Sub-base. The unbound drainage layer at the bottom of the
road. This derives its strength from the interlocking and
compaction of well-graded, natural or processed aggre-
gates (i.e. not single-sized) and is placed on the formation
(grade in the USA) level, which is the prepared top of the
natural ground or embankment.
• Base course. This is the main load-bearing layer of the
road. Aggregate is typically processed and needs to have a
good strength. It should not be porous (to prevent changes
on wetting and drying) and should be non-plastic or of
low plasticity (PI < 6) with a reasonable shape and grading.
Some road bases are bound by cement, lime or bitumen,
others simply by good mechanical interlocking of the
particles and compaction.
• Road base. This distributes the traffic load from the
wearing course onto the base course and provides a highly
specified surface on which the wearing course is laid. It is
usually bitumen-bound and has very good quality crushed
aggregate of high strength and a close tolerance on grading
and shape.

170
5.7 Quarry face as seen by quarry manager

[top left] The upper bench of an aggregate quarry lies on

the top of the strong limestone, and the upper face is an
overburden of shales and glacial till that has to be cleared.
[middle left] A limestone quarry has shot holes drilled on its
main bench, below an upper face that has exposed a clay-filled
cave, a common hazard in limestone quarries.
[bottom left] Pumped drainage is a major cost in quarries
extending below the water table, especially in karst limestones.

A deep open mine on a vertical mineral vein,

with abandoned faces that are higher than
would be acceptable in any modern quarry.

[top] Multiple benches and a system of haul roads designed in

advance are essential in a deep open-pit copper mine. This large segment of wallrock subsided into
[above] Large dump-trucks and shovels provide the economies an abandoned vein mine, which has since been
of scale that are necessary in working a thick coal seam. backfilled to prevent wider ground failure.

172
 5.7 Quarry face as seen by quarry manager

[above] After blasting within a quarry in strong granite with widely

spaced fractures, large blocks are selected for cutting into dimension
stone, and all the remaining rock is crushed to produce aggregate.
[right]A quarry in uniform granite goes deep to avoid any weathered
material; its sawn blocks are cut and polished for cladding stone.
[top left] A pattern of shot holes, each 15 metres deep, is drilled in
preparation for blasting of a single bench in a large open-pit mine.
[middle left] Blasting that utilises delayed firing, so that the outer set of
holes are fired some milliseconds before the inner set of holes.
[bottom left] An efficient blast in a limestone quarry produces debris of
uniform size designed to fit the gape of the primary crusher.

[above] An old limestone mine had 80% extraction, but its narrow
pillars safely support a rock cover less than 10 metres thick.
[right] A granite quarry worked for dimension stone has an upper face
that was cut by line drilling, and a lower face cut by water jet.

173
 Before rock-fall:
orange–brown highly weathered medium-grained
Tuesday 6 pm QUARTZ DIORITE moderately weak to moderately
strong with strong corestones and closely spaced
Before stripping: joints (unsound as aggregate)

stiff orange–brown sandy silty CLAY, with much

subangular to subrounded gravel and cobbles dark grey slightly weathered fine- to medium-grained
and occasional boulders (GLACIAL TILL) QUARTZ DOLERITE, very strong to extremely strong,
with occasional secondary pyrite, a little microperthite
and closely interlocked texture (sound as aggregate)
outcrop of very strong dark ice-striated
grey QUARTZ DOLERITE rockhead outcrop (roche moutonnée)
of very strong dark grey
QUARTZ DOLERITE

30 m

possible
fault zone boundary of altered
quartz diorite

fault zone with three widely spaced

brecciated rock orthogonal joint sets, with
dominant subvertical pair

grey and pink fresh medium- to coarse-

grained QUARTZ DIORITE, very strong to
white and green–black medium-grained
extremely strong (sound as aggregate)
completely altered QUARTZ DIORITE,
weak and friable; consists largely of The sill is of Permo-Carboniferous age. Most of the
grey–green and pink-rimmed with kaolinite and chlorite–smectite clay rock is quartz dolerite but magmatic differentiation
white slightly weathered medium- minerals (unsound as aggregate) has resulted in the local development of less basic
grained altered QUARTZ DIORITE, quartzdiorite, which in turn has zones of intense
strong with abundant microperthite late-stage hydrothermal alteration.
moulded around plagioclase laths and
poorly interlocked texture (considered Weathering and strength grades as BS 5930, 1981
potentially unsound as aggregate)

Figure 5.8 Idealized quarry face modelled on a quartz dolerite sill in Scotland as seen by an engineering geologist.

174
 5.8 Quarry face as seen by engineering geologist

Idealized quarry face modelled on a quarry in Table 5.8.1 summarizes the probable construction charac- aggregate reaction (e.g. the alkali carbonate reaction) are less
a quartz dolerite sill in Scotland as seen by an teristics of the principal rock types, tabulated using the old common.
trade group classification BS 812 Part 1 (1975), which lists Dimension stone, including that which is polished for
engineering geologist (Figure 5.8)
together rocks of similar engineering behaviour when in their use in floors or cladding, is worked mainly without blasting
Figure 5.8 should be worked with Figure 5.7. Again, the figure fresh (unweathered) state. in quarries set up for wire-cutting, sawing or high-pressure
is self-explanatory and illustrates the view of the same quarry, The alkali silica reaction, the most common form of alkali water jets. Dimension stone is also quarried in underground
but now as seen by a visiting engineering geologist. The skill aggregate reaction, can be caused by some rock types in which mines (Smith, 1999).
in the management of the quarry layout and blasting arrange- an expansive reaction leads to the cracking of concrete. This Table 5.8.2 is based on the world’s geo-environments given
ments to a large extent dictates the as-blasted size of the rock, is a result of the reaction of alkaline solutions in the cement in earlier sections. It summarizes the typical locations where
which has to be suitable for the quarry’s processing flow path matrix with siliceous aggregates to form an alkali silica gel, borrow materials worked by pits, quarries or draglines under
and the size and type of crushing and screening equipment. which swells when it imbibes water. It can occur (depending water can be found.
Good quarry management leads to the cost-effective manu- on the local rock type) more or less anywhere in the world.
facture of standard aggregate sizes. The type of rock and the Britain has had expensive alkali silica reaction problems with
way it is crushed dictate its aggregate shape. some of its marine-dredged aggregates. Other forms of alkali

Table 5.8.1 Rock types and their potential aggregate and building stone characteristics.
Group Including Common characteristics Roadstone quality Concrete quality Building stone quality
Artificial Crushed brick, slag, calcined bauxite Man-made Varies, generally poor except in Varies, some good Typically poor, not suitable
lower parts of pavement
Basalt Dolerite, andesite, spilite, epidiorite Strong, fine-grained, basic igneous Typically good Typically good; beware andesite Typically good
alkali reactivity
Flint Chert Fine-grained silica, mostly as gravel; may be brittle Generally poor Generally good; beware alkali Generally good
reactivity
Gabbro Diorite, basic gneiss, amphibolite, norite, Strong, coarse-grained, basic igneous and Generally good Generally good Generally good
serpentinite metamorphic
Granite Gneiss, granodiorite, pegmatite, syenite Strong, coarse-grained, acid igneous and Typically good Typically good Good; large size commonly
metamorphic available
Gritstone Greywacke, grit, arkose, sandstone, lithified tuff Stronger, well-cemented sandstones Typically good Typically good Good; large size commonly
available
Hornfels Contact altered rock of all kinds, except marble Strong, fine-grained, acid igneous rocks Typically good Generally good Generally good
Limestone Marble, dolomite Stronger limestones and dolomites Good, except for wearing course as Typically good Generally good; large size
it polishes commonly available
Porphyry Aplite, dacite, felsite, rhyolite, trachyte Strong, fine-grained Generally good Generally good; beware alkali Generally good
activity
Quartzite Ganister, quartzitic sandstones, recrystallized Strong, metamorphosed sandstone Generally good; beware flaky types Generally good; beware alkali Generally good; large size available
quartzite activity
Schist Slate, phyllite, all severely sheared rocks Flaky, sheared or cleaved metamorphic rocks Poor, often too flaky Varies, often too flaky Varies, often too flaky
Others All weak sedimentary rocks (including chalk) Easily broken down or weathered Only lower parts of road (but Generally too poor Varies, often poor
commonly acceptable for gravel
roads)

175
5.8 Quarry face as seen by engineering geologist

Table 5.8.2 World morphoclimatic environments (Figures 1.1 and 1.2) and potential borrow sources.
Geo-environment Comment Landforms and materials
Glacial (Figure 3.1) Extremely variable, often unsorted; typically needs Till: unsorted material, unlikely to be potential aggregate source unless matrix is sandy; possible fill
processing with washing Hummocky drift: unsorted, low aggregate potential
Drumlins: may contain an upstanding core of solid rock: possible fill
Glacial outwash plains (glaciofluvial): melt water deposits, relatively good aggregate sources
Kames and eskers: ice-contact deposits, relatively good aggregate sources
Periglacial (Figure 3.2) Periglacial conditions produce little sand and gravel (except Screes and talus cones: provide a ready source of coarse aggregate, commonly poor quality due to
locally in river valleys), but may provide cobbles and weathering
boulders for crushing Rock fields and boulder streams: may provide rock suitable for crushing to aggregate; beware
environmental damage
Fluvial (any environment) Alluvium commonly a source of large volumes of dredged River terraces: useful sources of aggregate, but highly variable as a result of former channel
sand and gravel; relict Quaternary sources may lie beneath migration (evulsion)
contemporary flood plains; generally needs processing Alluvial fans: useful coarser sand and gravel deposits at the proximal (upstream) end; commonly
poorly sorted and interbedded with silts and clays
Hot drylands (Figure 3.6) Dominant upward leaching of salts causes aggressive ground Coastal sabkhas, inland salinas: surface crusts (e.g. sodium chloride, calcium and calcium–
conditions and contamination of materials; larger particles magnesium carbonates, calcium sulphate) commonly severely contaminate sands and gravels; high
may be weathered; coarser aggregate sources may be difficult quality, strong control essential; avoid if possible
to find, except in mountainous regions Coastal deposits: carbonate sands may be acceptable fine aggregates; generally require processing
(e.g. screening and washing)
Sand sheets and dunes: rounded single-sized particles can be used as concreting sands and for
embankments with careful mix design; possible contamination by wind-blown salts
Alluvial fans: source of poorly sorted sands and gravels around margins of uplands; may be salt-free
as a result of downward leaching during periodic floods
Ephemeral (occasional flow) rivers: limited amounts of sands and gravels, especially around margins
of uplands; ancient buried river deposits may exist under sands
Savanna (Figure 3.7) River and alluvial fan deposits, plus extensive duricrusts (e.g. Laterite and calcrete (and other): strong case-hardened material may be suitable on crushing for
laterite, calcrete, silcrete), can generally provide acceptable roadstone and can be used for concrete if clean, strong and not friable
materials; quarries in strong rock areas generally acceptable, Laterite and latosols (lateritic soils): may make excellent gravel roads and haul roads on wetting and
provided not too deeply weathered rolling and may stabilize fills
Hot wetlands (Figure 3.8) Deep tropical weathering results in limited coarse, strong Ancient strong duricrusts (e.g. ferricrete, silcrete): may be useful borrow materials which require
materials; bedrock quarries for crushed aggregates need crushing; beware enviromental damage
careful excavation of uncontaminated fresh rock; rivers may Volcanic deposits: may produce alluvium with suitable sands and gravels, although fragments may
provide a variety of borrow materials contain macro-voids

176
5.8 Quarry face as seen by engineering geologist

Armour stone of 5-tonne blocks of strong gneiss, Limestone rip-rap prevents erosion on a reservoir,
economically carried 700 km to site by sea. but is expensively carried 90 km to site by road.
Screening plant and stockpiles at a pit producing aggregate from alluvial gravel.
[below right] Screened and crushed, rounded gravel of mixed-rock-type at the same site.

A small quarry works high-quality roadstone aggregate from steeply dipping greywacke. The
site is constrained by a river on the far side, by the road in the foreground, and by adjacent slates
left and right, with the crushing plant and stockpiles on slate to the right. Water-cooled jig with multiple saw
[right] The primary cone crusher at the same roadstone quarry, with its boom-mounted hammer to reduce any oversize quarry-run blocks. blades cutting slabs of limestone.

178
 5.8 Quarry face as seen by engineering geologist

Concrete with deep cracks due to alkali-silica reactivity in marine Chemical attack on poor concrete, and subsequent corrosion of its steel
aggregate, in the wall and columns of a multi-storey car park. reinforcement bars, at the inter-tidal level of a marine structure.

[above] Poor quarry after-use; this bungalow was destroyed

by methane that filled it and exploded after flowing up-dip
through a porous sandstone from a nearby quarry, which had
Dredged marine shells used as road A concrete beam supporting a freeway, been filled with rubbish and then sealed beneath a clay cap.
aggregate; not widely acceptable as with its reinforcing bars exposed by [right] Good quarry after-use; a face that ended on a steep
the calcite shells polish too easily and spalling after corrosion of the steel in a bed of mudstone is preserved with a pair of dinosaur tracks,
offer little skid-resistance. concrete mixed with salty water. among others also of world class on the same bed.

179
Figure 5.9 Example of infrastructure development in a sensitive environment: the continuous permafrost zone.

180
 5.9 Continuous permafrost zone

Example of environmental impact and A gently undulating terraced landscape with meander- • Roads and railways are best constructed on 2–3 m of thaw-
infrastructure development in a sensitive ing rivers and numerous lakes has developed in marine and stable granular fill to contain seasonal thawing within the
freshwater sands, silts and clays of Pleistocene age, overlain embankment.
environment: the continuous permafrost zone
by Holocene peat and alluvium. Saline water derived from • Open spaces below buildings, raised utilidors and dry
(Figure 5.9) the marine sediments accumulates where the permafrost railway bridges allow cold air to circulate so that the
Figure 5.9 shows the characteristic periglacial features in the table is depressed and aids the formation of unfrozen ground ground can follow its normal annual temperature cycle.
zone of continuous permafrost encountered in the Arctic (taliks). Surface depressions become waterlogged in summer,
Many of these design solutions are very expensive to construct
regions of Alaska, Canada and Siberia (see Figures 1.1, 1.2, 2.2, favouring the formation of cryosols (previously frozen soils
and maintain. Suitable fill materials may have to be trans-
3.2 and 3.5; also Walker, 2005). The permafrost in these areas within 1 m of the ground surface) that have gleyed horizons,
ported considerable distances from hard rock quarries in the
extends to depths of 100–1000 m, averaging about 400 m. characterized by a low iron content, below a surface layer
northern Russian Urals and the Alaskan Brooks Range.
An upper (active) layer thaws during summer to depths of of peat. There are also many gullies formed both by natural
about 0.3 m in peaty soils and 1.3 m or more in sandy soils. processes and by poorly controlled run-off from artificial Climate change
Perennially frozen ground below the subsurface permafrost structures. Typical tundra vegetation of grasses, sedges, mosses Periglacial environments are very sensitive to climate change.
table has a very low permeability and typically contains ice and lichens, with dwarf willows and other shrubs in more The mean annual air temperatures in the Arctic have risen
wedges and lenses of massive ground ice, including those sheltered locations, provides breeding grounds for migratory by about 1.5°C over the last century and an additional rise of
that expand upwards to form pingos. Networks of actively wildfowl and summer pastures for the reindeer herds about 7°C could occur by 2100, a rate of warming at least twice
growing ice-wedge polygons have depressed centres that managed by nomadic people. It is difficult, but not impossi- the current global average (EMERCOM, 2013; Ria Novosti
usually contain water in summer, whereas networks of old ble, to reconcile traditional practices with modern industrial 2013). River ice in the Yamal Peninsula now forms later in the
degrading polygons have high centres bounded by wet linear development. year and breaks up earlier; the thickness of the active layer is
depressions. currently increasing by 2 cm a year. A further temperature rise
Temperature-change erosional processes interact to form a
Engineering problems
of 1.5°C in the Arctic could lead to extensive thawing of the
distinctive landscape surface of cryoplanation (i.e. dominated Most engineering problems in periglacial environments
upper permafrost layers, potentially releasing carbon dioxide
by frost action) with intervening thermokarst terrain of are related to freeze–thaw processes, particularly in poorly
and methane gases derived from decomposed plant material.
small hills and boggy depressions caused by melting of the drained fine-grained sediments. Permanently frozen soils
Some areas, such as Baffin Island in Canada (Miller et al.,
underlying ground ice. Cryogenic (freeze–thaw) failures are provide a good foundation for structures, but the soil strength
2013), may already be on the threshold of such changes. An
common and include slow gelifluction (cold-climate solifluc- within the active layer is substantially reduced. Many roads,
increase of about 2°C globally (i.e. at least 4°C in the Arctic)
tion) movement of soil in the active layer on slopes as gentle railways and airfields undergo some degree of thaw settlement
would result in temperatures similar to those during the Last
as 1–2°. Rapid active layer detachment slides and flows of in summer and frost-heave in winter; piles are vulnerable to
(Eemian) Interglacial Period 120,000 years ago, when the
saturated soil masses occur on steeper slopes. frost-jacking and weakening of the adfreeze bond.
global sea level was several metres higher than at present.
Figure 5.9 is based mainly on the Yamal Peninsula in • Active construction methods, where permafrost degrada-
Engineering problems are expected to become more
western Siberia, where thermo-erosion and thermokarst tion cannot be prevented, include thawing and compacting
widespread if the predicted global climate change occurs.
processes have been exacerbated in recent decades by or replacing unfavourable thaw-unstable formation/
Thermokarst development will accelerate as temperatures rise
exploration for oil and gas and the associated infrastruc- subgrade materials (e.g. fine soils and sediments) with
and the boundary between the discontinuous and continuous
ture development (Sidorchuk and Grigor’ev, 1998). The thaw-stable (e.g. coarse cohesionless soils and sediments).
permafrost will probably shift northwards (in the northern
mean annual air temperature in the southern half of the • Passive construction methods, widely used where founda- hemisphere) and ground conditions will therefore become
peninsula is –8°C, ranging from –24°C in the coldest month tion soils can be kept frozen (permafrost conservation), more unpredictable. Increasingly expensive construction
to +6°C in the warmest month. The mean annual ground include thermal piles, thermosyphons, ventilation, insu- techniques, including substantial retrofitting of existing struc-
temperature is –6°C and the permafrost is about 150 m lation and the use of crushed rock or natural gravel for tures, are likely to be required.
thick. thaw-stable embankments and pads.

181
5.9 Continuous permafrost zone

A large pingo rises 45 metres above an alluvial plain.

Thin soil and plant cover in the fragile Arctic environment. [above] Frost mounds are a widespread consequence of the
annual expansion of ground ice in the active layer.
[left] Periglacial rivers are distinguished by their wide
plains of gravel deposited by annual meltwater floods.
[below left] A lens of ground ice within alluvial sands,
exposed in an experimental tunnel into the permafrost.

In the wall of a tunnel 8 metres below ground level,

glaciofluvial sands (pale buff) containing 80% ice
(black) that was drag folded beneath an ice sheet.

Annual ice break-up on an Arctic river can temporarily halt

crossing traffic, between a winter ice bridge and a summer Thaw lakes form and then expand wherever the
ferry, and can damage permanent structures. vegetation cover is disturbed on a permafrost plain.

182
 5.9 Continuous permafrost zone

Linking houses elevated on piles, utilidors carry inbound water

Enabling cold winter air to circulate freely beneath warm buildings ensures conservation of the permafrost; [left] house and outbound waste inside insulated tunnels perched on timber
on wooden blocks on a gravel pad; [right] company building elevated on piles founded in ground ice. piles, to eliminate heat losses into the permafrost.

Steel ducts carry cold winter air through

a gravel pad to conserve the permafrost
This house subsided when its own heat loss thawed the beneath a large, warm strorage tank.
ground ice within unstable clay-rich alluvium.

Carrying warm oil, the Trans-Alaska Pipeline is supported on trestles with piles
into the frozen ground beneath the active layer; each pile has internal ammonia
refrigeration with rising gas and sinking liquid that transfers heat from the
ground to radiator fins above, and thereby conserves the permafrost.
[left] A sea of mud has been created when fragile vegetation cover was destroyed
by uncontrolled construction works on the active layer over permafrost.
[right] A road’s gravel bank provides insulation to conserve the permafrost.

183
Appendix

Appendix. Geotechnical problems associated with different types of engineering soils

Appendix. Geotechnical problems associated with different types of engineering soils (adapted and extended from Fookes, 1997a).
Soil type and related figures Typical properties and characteristics Ground investigation and testing problems Construction and materials problems
Transported alluvial and ‘engineering’
Strength typically decreases and compressibility increases with increasing fines content
soils (all Part 4 figures)
Gravels (Figures 1.6, 1.7, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, Can be gap-graded with voids only partially filled with fines, Difficult to investigate by boring; difficult to obtain Generally good foundations, full consolidation occurs during
3.4, 3.6, 3.9, 5.4) which may then migrate if hydraulic gradient is increased; representative samples from below water-table as fines are construction; large water flows into excavations; generally
strength high, compressibility low; densities vary widely washed out during drilling and sampling; thin layers of other good for use as ‘granular’ fill and coarse aggregates in
according to mode of deposition; permeability variable, often soils may not be detected; permeability best determined by concrete, but may contain chemical impurities that react with
very high, depending on grading and packing pumping tests cement minerals (e.g. pyrite); single-size gravels are self-
compacting when deposited in water, but fills choked with
silt and clay matrix can be difficult to compact when wet and
may not lose water readily under gravity drainage
Sands and silts (Figures 1.6, 1.7, 3.1, 3.2, Engineering properties usually improve with geological age; Often weakly bonded or with interlocking grains, although Sandy soils generally provide good foundations and
3.3, 3.4, 3.6, 3.7, 3.9, 5.4) densities vary widely according to mode of deposition; loose these characteristics are lost on disturbance; very difficult consolidate during construction; however, there are risks of
sands and silts are very susceptible to liquefaction during to obtain undisturbed samples as the ground at the base of base failures in excavations by piping, loss of soil through
earthquakes, can develop flow slides and may undergo large boreholes is often disturbed by water inflow when drilling sheet pile clutches, soil and water inflows into tunnels and
settlements when subject to vibration; permeability moderate below the water-table; SPT values may be low in sand as a high abrasion of tunnelling machines; generally good fill
to high; very erodible, with risk of surface erosion by water result of soil disturbance or high in silt as a result of pore material, but dry single-size sands have poor trafficking
and wind, and piping due to internal water flow; possibility pressure effects; thin interlayers of other soil types may not be characteristics; silty soils may not drain by gravity during
of collapse of dry sands on wetting, particularly if weathered; detected wet weather, resulting in poor compaction of fill, poor
silts and fine sands are susceptible to frost heave trafficability (bounce), inadequate subgrade for road and
increased fuel consumption of plant; low density loose
dumped moist sands and silts may collapse on inundation
Under-consolidated clays a (not yet Typically very soft clays, silts and muds with excess pore Access for drilling rigs may be restricted by soft ground and Ground surface still settling; excavations for ports and for cut
fully compressed under current stresses, pressures (e.g. estuarine deposits); very low undrained tidal inundation; very difficult to sample as a result of very low and cover tunnels are likely to be unstable; methods used to
due to rapid deposition or very recent strength and high compressibility relative to depth; may have strength; need to use piston sampling; good quality vane tests avoid large settlements include dig and replace, fill surcharge,
additional loading) (Figures 1.6, 1.7, 5.4) developed a dried surface crust may be useful geotextiles, wick drains, tyre bales and timber fascine rafts

Normally consolidated clays a (current Low undrained strength; high compressibility and secondary Sensitive clays difficult to sample without undue disturbance; Low allowable loading pressures under structures and
effective stress is the maximum to which compression (creep) that increase with plasticity; tendency need to use thin-walled tube sampling; in situ vane tests allow embankments; large post-construction settlements; base
the soil has been subjected) (Figures of clay-fill to swell or heave increases with plasticity; exposed measurement of loss of strength on remoulding (sensitivity); heave and failure in strutted excavations with high strut
2.1, 5.4) surfaces are usually over-consolidated by desiccation cone penetrometer testing can locate thin layers of silt and loads; down-drag on piles; low strength and difficult working
sand; potential sources of fill are assessed using in situ and conditions for plant during excavation; acceptability of fill
laboratory tests depends on water content and plasticity
Over-consolidated clays b (current Higher undrained strengths than for normally consolidated Test results may be affected by sampling disturbance, presence Mass strength of foundations commonly affected by fissuring.
effective stress is less than previous clays, but difficult to predict, and much lower compressibility; of fissures in older clays, etc.; rotary coring gives better samples Pre-existing shear surfaces, particularly in highly plastic
maximum; the pre-consolidation generally have low, sometimes negative, in situ pore pressures; than cable percussion drilling in heavily over-consolidated clays, may control slope stability. High in situ horizontal
pressure is commonly a result of permeability may be controlled by flow through extensive clay clays and is more likely to reveal rupture surfaces of deep- stresses in heavily over-consolidated clays can cause large
overlying sedimentary deposits fissures; if effective stresses due to engineering work exceed seated rotational slides; SPT tests often useful back-up to horizontal movements during and after excavation and high
subsequently removed by erosion over the pre-consolidation pressure, behaviour reverts to that of laboratory testing; specimens of material described in the field lateral stresses on buried structures; possibility of long-term
geological time, but sometimes resulting normally consolidated clay as hard clay or very weak mudstone may slake in water; degree swelling when used as fill; lightly over-consolidated clays are
from loading if ice sheets or tectonic of over-consolidation controls optimum water content for more likely to have acceptable properties
compression) (Figures 3.3, 3.7, 3.8, 5.4) compaction
a
The majority of clays (but not all) are deposited in the sea or modern estuaries; some young clays in the Quaternary were deposited in lakes (lacustrine clays), some in rivers (alluvial clays) and
some clays were derived from rock weathering (residual clays).
b
Mainly ancient bedrock clays in the Mesozoic (Permian, Triassic, Jurassic) and Tertiary, also some Quaternary tills.

184
 Appendix

Soil type and related figures Typical properties and characteristics Ground investigation and testing problems Construction and materials problems
Other transported sedimentary soils
Taluvium (coarse colluvium) (all Part 3 Heterogeneous slope gravity-moved coarse debris; typically Usually includes all sizes of material up to large boulders; very Cut and fill operations may reactivate landslide masses
figures) originates as permeable talus (scree) or rock avalanche difficult to drill and difficult to assess ‘average’ conditions; field at limiting equilibrium or initiate new movements; talus
deposits; as voids become infilled with slope-wash, air- mapping combined with trial pits may give a good indication deposits may develop avalanche or flow slide behaviour when
fall volcanic ash or loess, pore pressures increase and of ground conditions, but seasonal variations in the water- disturbed during excavation
shear strength is reduced; shallow debris slides, triggered table, pore pressure and shear strength may not be recognized
by seasonal rains or earthquakes, are common and often in tropical wet/dry climates
disintegrate into debris flows down-slope
Fine colluvium (including active Heterogeneous slope-wash fine debris; shallow debris or Deep-seated rotational slides often have rupture surfaces Major and minor landslides may be initiated or reactivated
solifluction deposits) (all Part 3 figures) earth slides over a bedrock surface are common in thin clayey marked by a thin colluvial clay layer of low residual strength by river erosion or excavations in side-long ground; slopes
colluvial soils on upper slopes saturated by prolonged rainfall that may be difficult to recognize in borehole samples; destabilized by toe erosion may take many decades to achieve
or snow melt; deep-seated slides in thicker deposits on lower properties measured during a ground investigation may differ limiting equilibrium after the cause of erosion has been
slopes may occasionally extend down into underlying strata; from those encountered during construction as a result of prevented; haul road surfaces become slippery for traffic in
groundwater pressure may be high in landslide toes seasonal changes in water content wet weather
Hot desert soils (not including coastal Generally granular and uniformly (mainly single-size) graded Engineering performance generally related to particle size Soils may be highly erodible once thin protective stone
sabkhas) (Figure 3.6) with little or no clay, but often large amounts of silt; wind- grading, in situ density and Atterberg limits; some in situ fine- pavements are removed or disturbed and engineering works
blown or coastal soils have low density; materials deposited grained soils have anomalously high strength because of high may need to be protected from sand storms; wind-blown silts
by ephemeral flows in wadis or fans are typically poorly suction pressures or weak cement; low-lying sites need careful or fine sands are liable to collapse on wetting and loading;
sorted (many different sizes) sands and gravels with angular investigation for possible high salinity groundwater and low salty low-lying ground is highly aggressive to structures and
particles; a near-surface water-table in low-lying areas causes bearing capacity salty soils road pavements, duricrusts and densely packed boulders
precipitation of evaporite salts in wadis may cause excavation difficulties, but are potential
sources of coarse aggregates; fine aggregates can be in short
supply and/or contaminated by salts
Glacial soils (Figures 3.1, 3.2, 5.3, 5.4) Often heterogeneous, both horizontally and vertically; grading Original landforms such as buried channels are obscured and Tills generally make good foundation materials, but can be
curve may be almost a straight line over a wide range of the interface with rock may be difficult to determine; severe strong when dry and difficult to excavate; boulders cause
particle sizes; alluvial lenses of laminated sand, silt and clay artesian pressures may exist below tills mantling valley slopes; problems in piling, tunnelling, excavation and filling; drag
give complex groundwater conditions, including artesian; boulders cause problems with drilling and sampling; pressure structures in weak rocks at the base of tills cause errors
density and strength depend mainly on mode of deposition, meter tests may be useful; properties are controlled by the in rock level estimation, problems with piles, etc.; high
not on stress history; dense materials may have a high amount of fine matrix and the presence of clay minerals permeability layers or lenses may cause water flows into
strength; clays may have low residual strength discontinuities excavations and short-term slope instability; problems with
(e.g. fissures and joints) as for alluvial clays embankment fill as for alluvial clays
Periglacial relict soils (can also be In temperate climates, relict landscape features that developed Valley slopes will be affected by strata disturbance and shearing Effects of cambering on slopes and valley bulging may
untransported) (Figures 2.6, 3.2, 3.5, 5.1, under former permafrost conditions may be present generally due to valley bulging and cambering; near-vertical fissures cause problems with foundations, excavations, tunnels and
5.3, 5.4) or locally; former ground freezing is likely to have produced and gulls difficult to locate by conventional drilling; relict groundwater flows; ice-wedge casts may cause local instability
extensive solifluction and colluvial deposits on slopes and to active layer detachment and solifluction slides are difficult to in cuttings; potential reactivation of relict periglacial slides
have fractured, brecciated and de-cemented parent soils and recognize in landscapes modified under present temperate formed on slopes as flat as 2–10°; haul road surfaces become
rocks; ground often contorted by freeze–thaw features, e.g. climatic conditions (only about the last c. 12,000 years in slippery for traffic in wet weather
cryoturbation and ice wedges Britain)
Organic peaty soils (generally Highly compressible and subject to severe long-term creep; Most methods of sampling and testing not suitable for Very large settlements of foundations and embankments
untransported) (Figures 2.1, 3.2, all Parts commonly very low unit weight; methane gas may be present; highly organic peaty materials, particularly when fibrous; requiring digging out and replacing with suitable fill, use of
4 and 5 figures) sudden bog-bursts may occur in saturated peat on very gentle compressibility usually more important than strength and best lightweight fills, piling or pre-compression by surcharging
slopes; acid near-surface water measured using large Rowe cells or, for shallow deposits, by and draining; slope stability problems as a result of low
large-scale in situ loading tests (plate-bearing, skip test, trial passive resistance; non-saturated peat deposits may float when
embankment, etc.) flooded; exposed peats waste and contract on drying; usually
difficult to run plant on organic soils and to handle them as
spoil; organic acid attack on concrete around ground level

185
Appendix

Soil type and related figures Typical properties and characteristics Ground investigation and testing problems Construction and materials problems
Volcanic soils (can also be Properties differ significantly from those of sedimentary Layered and complex deposition including buried former Low particle density makes embankment fills very susceptible
untransported) (Figures 1.4, all Part 4 soils as a result of the porosity and crushability of silt- and weathered surfaces, palaeosols and thin ash layers weathered to to erosion; volcanic soils may soften with compaction and are
figures) sand-sized particles; in situ moisture content unusually high; clay that are difficult to identify during fieldwork; investigation easily damaged by earth-moving machinery, leading to loss
increase in stress gives marked reduction in strength, but by cone testing shows both loose and dense volcanic soils of trafficability and sometimes to soil flow; drying produces
smaller reduction in compressibility; fine soils often have high can have similar behaviour to loose quartz sand as a result of non-reversible improvement; addition of quicklime can be
plasticity due to smectite or allophane clay minerals, but have crushing of soil grains; compaction curves may have no clear effective; weak layers encountered during construction may
higher strength than similar sedimentary soils peak destabilize cut-slopes
Untransported (formed in situ) soils
Residual soils (Figures 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, Wide-ranging grading, plasticity, mineralogy and other Corestones of unweathered rock within the weathered Corestones cause problems in piling and may influence open-
3.7, 3.8) properties depending primarily on weathering process and profile cause problems in drilling; rapidly varying rockhead cut excavation methods; persistent unfavourably orientated
the amount of remaining unweathered quartz particles; re- levels, relict discontinuities from the parent rock, commonly weak relict discontinuities can cause cut-slope instability;
cementation of soils may occur; highly plastic ‘black’ soils containing iron and manganese oxides, form planes of low heavy rain causes severe gullying in erodible soils; structural
formed in poorly drained areas exhibit large volume changes drained strength; landslide rupture surfaces are difficult disturbance and wetting of dry porous soils may substantially
on wetting and drying; no volume change on wetting/drying to locate during ground investigations; difficult to obtain reduce their strength and permeability so that they collapse
of ‘red’ soils formed in better-drained areas; often have ‘undisturbed’ samples without destroying the soil structure; and consolidate rapidly, causing problems in plant operation,
a pronounced structure related to weathering processes; porous soils, particularly those derived from volcanic rocks, cut-slope instability and poor compaction of embankment
strength and compressibility depend more on structure than may become sensitive and de-structured at high water contents, fill; general properties of fill are similar to those of alluvial
on grading, density and mineralogy; bonded structure of soils giving low undrained strengths on remoulding; the mineralogy clays that have similar grading and mineralogy; shallow earth
usually gives high in situ permeability, but yields at a certain of residual soils is often very different from that of non-residual slides and flows triggered by heavy rainfall on cut-slopes may
stress level; gneisses and granites in stable cratons in the tropics clays; mineralogy and properties can change on drying and block access roads and impede construction work; aggregated
have weathered over tens of millions of years to form residual can give anomalous results in laboratory testing; aggregated fine particles may behave as clays on disturbance (e.g. piling,
soils that can be 100 m or more thick particles of clay and silt may give sand grading until disturbed tunnelling)
when they revert to their clay/silt character
Man-made fills
Heterogeneous made-ground (all Parts 4 Very variable; may contain toxic and organic materials, Old non-engineered fills are likely to be heterogeneous and Infilled quarries are likely to have had steep sides and
and 5 figures) materials subject to decay, voids associated with human difficult to investigate; original topography obscured by tipping; openwork talus on quarry floor, giving a rapid transition
artefacts, remains of old constructions and sludge lagoons compressible and weak organic and alluvial soils may be buried between natural ground and deep-fill material; waste
from sewage, agricultural and industrial processes; original locally; usually investigated by trial pits using simple in situ materials such as mine tailings, mine stone and pulverized
topography obscured by subsequent back-fill, building tests, or by boreholes, testing as for organic soils but including fuel ash may be useful as engineered fills, particularly
or vegetation; site history is very important; may contain tests for chemical leachates; old mineral workings may be back- where a relatively low density is required, but may contain
significant amounts of methane filled with local overburden and spoil materials that are difficult deleterious chemicals; buried streams and ponds may contain
to differentiate from in situ strata compressible weak alluvial and organic soils
‘Cohesive’ clay-fill (all Parts 4 and 5 Bonded structure of parent clay usually destroyed during Potential sources of clay-fill are identified during the desk Early compaction and profiling of clay seals surface and
figures) excavation and fill placing; laminated and varved clays are study stage of ground investigation; there may be local reduces infiltration and softening by rain; drying prior to
usually mixed to produce a low permeability fill; degree of knowledge from previous projects; performance of fill largely placement requires reliable warm dry weather; compaction
saturation is important; low plasticity clays lose significant determined by initial water content, plasticity and compaction using smooth drum rollers may create horizontal surfaces
undrained strength with small increases in water content characteristics; trafficability, fill layer thickness and stability of low strength, so that sheeps-foot rollers are preferred.
in wet weather; rutting of wet plastic clay fills under traffic during construction are controlled by remoulded undrained Long-term strength and stability of embankment fills largely
produces shear surfaces that reduce bulk strength strength; haul road surfaces become too slippery for traffic in governed by drained strength and pore pressures resulting
wet weather from rainfall infiltration; deep-seated failures may be
governed by short-term undrained strength

186
 References

References surface. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Fookes, P.G. and Marsh, A.H. (1981a) Some characteristics of
Hydrogeology, 38, 231–284. construction materials in the low to moderate metamorphic
Alexander, D. 1999. Natural hazards. In: Alexander, D.E. grade rocks of the Lower Himalayas of East Nepal. 1:
Dearman, W. R. 1981. General Report, Session I; Engineering
& Fairbridge, R.W. (eds). Encyclopedia of Environmental Occurrence and geological features. Proceedings of the
Properties of Carbonate Rocks. Symp. on Eng. Geol.
Science. Kluwer Academic Press, Dordrecht, pp. 42–425. Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1 70, 123–138.
Problems of Construction on Soluble Rocks, Aachen/Essen.
Allen, D.J., Darling, W.G., Davies, J., Newell, A.J., Gooddy, Bulletin of the International Association of Engineering Fookes, P.G. and Marsh, A.H. (1981b) Some characteristics of
D.C. & Collins, A.L. 2014. Groundwater conceptual models: Geology, 24, 3–17. construction materials in the low to moderate metamorphic
implications for evaluating diffuse pollution mitigation grade rocks of the Lower Himalayas of East Nepal. 2:
Derbyshire, E. & Meng, X.M. 1995. The landslide hazard
measures. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Engineering characteristics. Proceedings of the Institution of
in North China: characteristics and remedial measures
Hydrogeology, 47, 65–80. Civil Engineers, Part 1, 70, 139–162.
at the Jiaoshuwan and Taishanmiao slides in Tian Shui
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) 1982. Engineering city, Gansu Province. In: McGregor, D.F.M. & Thompson, Fookes, P.G., Baynes, F.K. & Hutchinson, J.N. 2000. Total
and Construction in Tropical and Residual Soils. ASCE, New D.A. (eds). Geomorphology and Land Management geological history: a model approach to the anticipation,
York, 735 pp. in a Changing Environment. Wiley, Chichester, observation and understanding of site conditions. In:
Atkinson, J.H. 2000. Non-linear soil stiffness in routine design. pp. 89–104. GeoEng 2000, an International Conference on Geotechnical
Géotechnique, 50, 487–508. Douglas, I. 2005. Hot wetlands. In: Fookes, P.G., Lee, E.M. & and Geological Engineering, Vol. 1, pp. 370–460.
Baynes, F.J., Fookes, P.G. & Kennedy, J.F. 2005. The total Milligan, G. (eds). Geormorphology for Engineers. Whittles Fookes, P.G., Lee, E.M. & Milligan, G. (eds). 2005.
engineering geology approach applied to railways in the Publishing, Dunbeath, pp. 473–500. Geomorphology for Engineers. Whittles Publishing,
Pilbara, Western Australia. Bulletin of Engineering Geology Duchaufour, P. 1982. Pedology, Pedogenesis and Classification Dunbeath, 851 pp.
and the Environment, 64, 67–94. (English translation by T.R. Paton). George, Allen and Fookes, P.G., Lee, E.M. & Griffiths, J.S. 2007. Engineering
Bell, F.G. 2000. Engineering Properties of Soils and Rocks, 4th Unwin, London, 448 pp. Geomorphology. Theory and Practice. Whittles Publishing,
edn. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 482 pp. EMERCOM 2013. Annual Report of the Antistikhiya Centre. Dunbeath, 279 pp.
Bell, F. & Culshaw, C. 2005. Chalk landscapes. In: Fookes, Ministry of Emergency Situations, Moscow. Francis, P. 1993. Volcanoes. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 443 pp.
P.G., Lee, E.M. & Milligan, G. (eds). Geomorphology for Fookes, P. G. 1988. The geology of carbonate soils and rocks Grant, K. (ed). 1968. Proceedings of Study Tour and Symposium
Engineers. Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath, pp. 729–756. and their engineering characteristics and description. on Terrain Evaluation for Engineering. Division of Applied
Blight, G.E. (ed). 1997. Mechanics of Residual Soils. Balkema, In: Jewell, R. J. & Khorshid, M. S. (eds). Engineering for Geomechanics, CSIRO, Victoria, 101 pp.
Rotterdam, 248 pp. Calcareous Sediments. Balkema, Vol. 2, pp, 789–806. Head, K.H. 2006. Manual of Soil Laboratory Testing, Vol. 1, 3rd
BS 812: 101–106 1984–94. Testing Aggregates. British Standards Fookes, P.G. 1997a. First Glossop Lecture: Geology edn. Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath, 424 pp.
Institution, London (replaced by BS EN 932: 932-1 to 932-6: for Engineers: the geological model, prediction and Head, K.H. and Epps, R. 2011. Manual of Soil Laboratory
1997–2000. Tests for General Properties of Aggregates). performance. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology, 30, Testing, Vol. 2, 3rd edn. Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath, 510
BS 5930 1999 (+A2.2010) Code of Practice for Site Investigations. 293–424. pp.
British Standards Institution, London, 207 pp. Fookes, P.G. (ed). 1997b. Tropical Residual Soils. Engineering Head, K.H. and Epps, R. 2014. Manual of Soil Laboratory
Charman, J. & Lee, M. 2005. Mountain environments. In: Group Working Party Revised Report, Geological Society Testing, Vol. 3, 3rd edn. Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath, 426
Fookes, P.G., Lee, E.M. & Milligan, G. (eds). Geomorphology Professional Handbooks. Geological Society, London, pp.
for Engineers. Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath, pp. 501–533. 184 pp.
Hearn, G.J. (ed). 2011. Slope Engineering for Mountain Roads.
Clayton, C.R.I., Matthews, M.C. & Simons, N.E. 1995. Site Fookes, P.G., Sweeney, M., Manby, C.N.D. & Martin, R.P. Engineering Geology Special Publication No. 24. Geological
Investigation, 2nd edn. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 584 pp. 1985. Geological and geotechnical engineering aspects of Society, London, 301 pp.
Culshaw, M.G. 2005. From concept towards reality: developing low cost roads in mountainous terrain. Engineering Geology,
Highways Agency, 2007. Specification for Highways Works.
the attributed 3D geological model of the shallow sub 21, 1–152.
HMSO, London.

187
References

Hutchinson, J.N. 1991. Periglacial and slope processes. In: helpful list of latest relevant British Standards and Euro Smith, M.R. (ed). 1999. Stone: Building Stone, Rock Fill and
Forster, A., Culshaw, M.G., Cripps, J.C., Little, J.A. & Moon, Codes). Armourstone in Construction. Engineering Geology Special
C.F. (eds). Quaternary Engineering Geology. Engineering Parry, S., Baynes, F.J., Culshaw, M.G., Eggers, M., Keaton, Publication No. 16. Geological Society, London, 478 pp.
Geology Special Publication No. 7. Geological Society, J.R., Lentfer, K., Novotny, J. & Paul, D. 2014. Engineering Smith, M.R. & Collis, L. (eds). 2001. Aggregates: Sand, Gravel
London, pp. 283–331. geology models: an introduction. IAEG Commission 25. and Crushed Rock for Construction Purposes, 3rd edn.
International Union of Soil Sciences Working Group 2006. Bulletin of Engineering Geology and the Environment, 73, Revised by Fookes, P.G., Lay, J., Sims, I., Smith, M.R. &
World Reference Base for Soil Resources. World Resources 689–706. West, G (eds). Engineering Geology Special Publication No.
Reports No. 103. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the Perry, J. & West, G. 1996. Preliminary Sources of Information for 17. Geological Society, London, 339 pp.
United Nations, Geneva, 145 pp. Site Investigation in Britain. (Revision of TRL Report LR403). Stoddart, D. 1969. Climatic geomorphology: review and re-
Lawrance, C.J. 1972. Terrain Evaluation in West Malaysia, Part TRL Project Report 192. Transport Research Laboratory, assessment. Progress in Geography, 1, 159–222.
1. Report No. TRRL LR 506. Transport and Road Research Crowthorne, 47 pp. Strakhov, N.M. 1967. Principles of Lithogenesis, Vol. I. Oliver
Laboratory, Crowthorne, 32 pp. Pettifer, G.S. & Fookes, P.G. 1984. A revision of the graphical and Boyd, Edinburgh, 245 pp.
Lawrance, C.J., Byard, R.J. & Beaven, P.J. 1993. Terrain method of accessing the excavatability of rock. Quarterly Sweeney, M. (ed). 2004. Terrain and Geohazard Challenges
Evaluation Manual. Transport Research Laboratory State of Journal of Engineering Geology, 27, 145–164. facing Onshore Oil and Gas Pipelines. Thomas Telford.
the Art Review No. 7. HMSO, London, 285 pp. Prance, G.T. 2002. Tropical forests. In: Mooney, H.A. London. 735.
Lee, M. & Fookes, P. 2005. Hot drylands. In: Fookes, P.G., Lee, & Canadell, J.G. (eds). The Encyclopaedia of Global Thomas, M.F. 2005. Savanna. In: Fookes, P.G., Lee, E.M. &
E.M. & Milligan, G. (eds). Geomorphology for Engineers. Environmental Change: The Earth System – Biological and Milligan, G. (eds). Geomorphology for Engineers. Whittles
Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath, pp. 419–453. Ecological Dimensions of Global Environmental Change, Vol. Publishing, Dunbeath, pp. 454–473.
McFarlane, M.J. 1983. Laterites. In: Goudie, A.S. & Pye, K. 2. Wiley, Chichester, pp. 582–586.
Trenter, N.A. 1999. Engineering in Glacial Tills. CIRIA Report
(eds). Chemical Sediments and Geomorphology. Academic Rawson, P.F., Allen, P. & Gale, A. 2001. The Chalk Group – a C504. CIRIA, London, 259 pp.
Press, London, pp. 7–58. revised lithostratigraphy. Geoscientist, 11, 1, 21.
Tricart, J. 1957. Application du concept de zonalité à la
Miller, G.H., Lehman, S.J., Refsnider, K.A., Southon, J.R. & Ria Novosti 2013. Arctic temperatures to grow twice as fast – géomorphologie (in French). Tijdschrift van het koninklijk
Zhong, Y. 2013. Unprecedented recent summer warmth in Russian ministry (online). Available from: http://en.ria.ru/ Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap, 74, 422–434.
Arctic Canada. Geophysical Research Letters, 40, 5745–5751. russia/archive/20130320.
Tricart, J. & Cailleux, A. 1965. Introduction á la Géomorphologie
Morgenstern, N.R. & Cruden, D.M. 1997. Description Richardson, S. D. & Reynolds, J. M. 2000. An overview of Climatique (in French). SEDES, Paris, 306 pp.
and classification of geotechnical complexities. In: glacial hazards in the Himalayas. Quaternary International,
Proceedings of the International Symposium on the Ulusay, R. & Hudson, J.A. (eds). 2007. The Complete ISRM
65/66, 31–47.
Geotechnics of Structurally Complex Formations, Suggested Methods for Rock Characterisation, Testing and
Rowe, P.W. 1972. The relevance of soil fabric to site Monitoring: 1974–2006. International Society for Rock
2. Associazione Geotechnica Italiana, Rome,
investigation practice. Géotechnique, 22, 192–300. Mechanics, Lisbon, 628 pp.
pp. 195–204.
Selley, R.C. 1996. Ancient Sedimentary Environments and Vaughan, P.R. 1994. Thirty-fourth Rankine Lecture:
Mortimore, R. N., Wood, C. J. & Gakkois, R. W. 2001. British
their Sub-surface Diagnosis, 4th edn. Chapman and Hall, Assumption, prediction and reality in geotechnical
Upper Cretaceous Stratigraphy. Geological Conservation
London, 300 pp. engineering. Géotechnique, 44, 571–609.
Review Series No. 23. Nature Conservancy Committee,
Peterborough, 558 Sidorchuk, A. & Grigor’ev, V. 1998. Soil erosion on the Yamal Walker, H.J. 2005. Periglacial forms and processes. In: Fookes,
Peninsula (Russian Arctic) due to gas field exploitation. P.G., Lee, E.M. & Milligan, G. (eds). Geomorphology
Nicholson, D., Tse, C.M. & Penny, C. 1999. The Observational
Advances in GeoEcology, 31, 805–811. for Engineers. Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath, pp.
Method in Ground Engineering: Principles and Applications.
CIRIA Report R185, CIRIA, London, 214 pp. Simons, N., Menzies, B. & Matthews, M. 2002. A Short Course 377–399.
in Geotechnical Site Investigation. Thomas Telford, London, Walker, M.J. (ed). 2012. Hot Deserts: Engineering, Geology and
Norbury, D. 2010. Soil and Rock Description in Engineering
353 pp. Geomorphology. Engineering Group Working Party Report.
Practice. Whittles Publishing, Dunbeath, 288 pp (contains

188
 References

Geological Society Special Publication No. 25. Geological

Society, London, 425 pp.
Waltham, A.C. & Fookes, P.G. 2003. Engineering classification
of karst ground conditions. Quarterly Journal of Engineering
Geology and Hydrogeology, 36, 101–118.
Waltham, T. 2009. Foundations of Engineering Geology, 3rd
edn. Spon Press, London, 98 pp.

189
Bibliography

Bibliography ***Pettijohn, F.J. 1983. Sedimentary Rocks, 3rd edn. Harper * McClay, K.R. 1991. The Mapping of Geological Structures.
Collins, New York, 628 pp. Geological Society of London Professional Handbook
In addition to the textbooks listed in the references, the Series. Wiley, Chichester, 168 pp.
* Press, F. & Siever, R. 2001. Understanding Earth, 3rd edn.
following relevant books used by the authors in their pro-
W.H. Freeman, New York, 624 pp. * Price, D.G. 2009. Engineering Geology. Principles and
fessional work are given for background reading. These are
***Summerfield, M.A. 1991. Global Geomorphology. Practice. Edited and compiled by M.H. De Freitas. Springer,
subdivided into two groups (A and B). The list is not necessar- Berlin, 450 pp.
ily comprehensive, but is considered to be helpful for readers Longman, Harlow, 537 pp.
* Tarbuck, E.J. & Lutgens, F.K. 1996. Earth. An Introduction to * Radford, T.A. (ed). 2012. Earthworks in Europe. Engineering
of this book, either specifically or as general background
Physical Geology. Prentice Hall, NJ, 605 pp. Geology Special Publication No. 26. Geological Society,
knowledge.
London, 185 pp.
* Useful introduction; ** more specialized or detailed; *** * Toghill, P. 2000. The Geology of Britain. An Introduction.
relates to parts of this book. Swan Hill Press, Shrewsbury, 192 pp. * West, G. 1991. The Field Description of Engineering Soils
and Rocks. Geological Society of London Professional
* Tucker, M.E. 2001. Sedimentary Petrology: an Introduction
Group A: Introductory geology and geomorphology ** Handbook Series. Open University Press, Milton Keynes,
to the Origin of Sedimentary Rocks, 3rd edn. Blackwell
textbooks 129 pp.
Science, Oxford, 262 pp.
** Ballantyne, C.K. & Harris, C. 1994. The Periglaciation of Great
Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 330 pp. Group B: Engineering geology, engineering
geomorphology, geotechnical and site investigation
* Blyth, F.G.H. & De Freitas, M.H. 1984. A Geology for
Engineers, 7th edn. Edward Arnold, London, 325 pp. textbooks
** Anon. 1995. The description and classification of weathered
* Chernicoff, S. 1999. Geology. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, 640
rocks for engineering purposes. Engineering Group
pp.
Working Party Report. Quarterly Journal of Engineering
** Collinson, J.D. & Thompson, D.B. 1989. Sedimentary Geology and Hydrogeology, 28, 207–242.
Structures, 2nd edn. Unwin Hyman, London, 207 pp.
** Burland, J., Chapman, T., Skinner, H. & Brown, M. (eds).
** Cooke, R.U., Brunsden, D., Doornkamp, J.C. & Jones, 2012. ICE Manual of Geotechnical Engineering, Volume 1:
D.K.C. 1982. Urban Geomorphology in Drylands. Oxford Geotechnical Engineering Principles, Problematic Soils and
University Press, Oxford, 324 pp. Site Investigation. ICE Publishing, London, 650pp.
** Dott Jr. R.H. & Batten, R.L. 1988. Evolution of the Earth, 4th ** Burland, J., Chapman, T., Skinner, H. & Brown, M. (eds).
edn. McGraw-Hill, New York, 120 pp. 2012. ICE Manual of Geotechnical Engineering, Volume 2:
** Duff, P.McL.D. & Smith, A.J. 1992. Geology of England and Geotechnical Design, Construction and Verification. ICE
Wales. The Geological Society, London, 651 pp. Publishing, London, 750pp.
* Hamblin, W.K. & Christiansen, E.H. 1995. Earth’s Dynamic * Goudie, A.S. & Brunsden, D. 1994. The Environment of the
Systems, 7th edn. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, 710 pp. British Isles. An Atlas. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 184 pp.
* Huggett, R.J. 2007. Fundamentals of Geomorphology, 2nd ** Griffiths, J.S. (ed). 2001. Land Surface Evaluation for
edn. Routledge, Abingdon, 458 pp. Engineering Practice. Engineering Geology Special
* Kious, W.J. & Tilling, R.I. 1996. This Dynamic Earth: the Publication No. 18. Geological Society, London,
Story of Plate Tectonics. US Geological Survey, Denver, CO, 248 pp.
77 pp. ** Hearn, G.J. (ed). 2011. Slope Engineering for Mountain
** Mason, R. 1990. Petrology of the Metamorphic Rocks, 2nd Roads. Engineering Geology Special Publication No. 24.
edn. Unwin Hyman, London, 230 pp. Geological Society, London, 301 pp.

190
 Locations of photographs

Locations of photographs 3. Wadi Yutum, Aqaba, Dead Sea Rift, Jordan. 5. Lulworth Cove, Dorset, UK.
4. Buddoso, Nuoro, Sardinia, Italy. 6. Kvaenangen Sorfjord, Troms, Norway.
Photographs on each spread are numbered from left to right,
5. Karimsky volcano, Kamchtaka, Russia. 7. Wailua, Kauai, Hawaii, USA
and then from top to bottom, first on the left page, and then on
6. Mount Popa, Bagan, Myanmar. 8. Mawddach Estuary, Snowdonia, Wales, UK.
the right page; as in the example shown for section 1.6.
7. Soufrière Hills, Montserrat, West Indies. 9. River Axe, Seaton, South Devon, UK.
8. El Misti, Arequipa, Peru. 10. Vlamingh Head, Cape Range, Western Australia.
1-1 Morphoclimatic zones
9. Pompeii, Naples, Italy. 11. Bognor Regis, West Sussex, UK.
1. Torrel Land, Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway.
10. Avacha and Koryaksky, Kamchatka, Russia. 12. Hatteras Island, North Carolina, USA.
2. Ogilvie Mountains, Yukon, Canada.
11. Pu’u O’o, Kilauea, Kalapana, Hawaii, USA. 13. Taormina, Sicily, Italy.
3. Trent Valley, Nottingham, UK.
12. Aldeyarfoss, Iceland. 14. North Uist, Outer Hebrides, Scotland, UK.
4. Yosemite Valley, California, USA.
13. Kailua Kona, Big Island, Hawaii, USA 15. Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia and Florida, USA.
5. Trans-Alaska Oil Pipeline, Delta Junction, Alaska, USA.
14. Saddle, Mauna Kea, Hawaii, USA
6. Iya Valley, Niyodo, Shikoku, Japan.
1-8 Clastic sedimentary rocks
7. Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu, India.
1-5 Metamorphic rock associations 1. Capitol Reef, Utah, USA.
8. Death Valley, California, USA.
1. North Uist, Outer Hebrides, Scotland, UK. 2. Healy Mining District, Denali, Alaska, USA.
9. Pilar, Bicol, southern Luzon, Philippines.
2. Hammerfest, Finnmark, Norway. 3. Carperby flagstone mine, Wensleydale, Yorkshire, UK.
10. Amdo, Tibet, China.
3. Nantlle Quarry, Snowdonia, Wales, UK. 4. Stanage Edge, Peak District, Derbyshire, UK.
11. Island in the Sky, Canyonlands, Utah, USA.
4. Bethesda Quarry, Snowdonia, Wales, UK. 5. Monticello, Utah, USA.
12. Kikori Valley, Papua New Guinea.
5. Mount Rushmore, Keystone, South Dakota, USA. 6. Castle Rock, Nottingham, UK.
6. Monte Corchia, Carrara, Tuscany, Italy. 7. Zabriske Point, Death Valley, California, USA.
1-3 Crustal plate, volcanoes and earthquakes
7. Salisbury Crag, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. 8. Bingling Si, Lanzhou, Gansu, China.
1. Himalayas from Pang La, Tingri, Tibet.
8. El Tatio, Andes, Calama, Norte Grande, Chile. 9. The Narrows, Zion Canyon, Utah, USA.
2. Grjotagja, Myvatn, northeastern Iceland.
9. Hemerdon, Dartmoor, Devon, UK. 10, Brimham Rocks, Nidderdale, North Yorkshire, UK.
3. Breiddalur, eastern Iceland.
10. Darcha, Chenab Valley, Himachal Pradesh, India. 11. Torres del Paine, Patagonia, Chile.
4. Aleutian Islands, Alaska, USA.
12. Painted Desert, Holbrook, Arizona, USA.
5. Point Reyes Station, Marin, California, USA.
1-6 Clastic sediments 13. Torres del Paine, Patagonia, Chile.
6. Eqi, Disko Bay, western Greenland.
7. Hammersley Gorge, Pilbara, Western Australia.
1-9 Carbonate rocks
8. Karakoram, Kashmir, Pakistan.
1. South Beach, Mana Island, Viti Levu, Fiji.
9. Loch Tulla, Rannoch Moor, Scotland, UK.
2. Aqaba, Red Sea, Jordan.
10. Point Reyes, San Francisco, California, USA.
3. Hundred Islands, Lingayen Gulf, Luzon, Philippines.
11. Calaveras Fault, 6th Street, Hollister, California, USA.
4. Mamanuca Islands, Viti Levu, Fiji.
12. Great Sandy Desert, Broome, Western Australia.
5. Scaraster, South Harris, Outer Hebrides, Scotland, UK.
1. Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, UK. 6. Shell Beach, Shark Bay, Western Australia.
1-4 Igneous rock associations 2. Chenab Valley, Lahaul, Himachal Pradesh, India. 7. Muschelkalk Limestone, Baden Württemberg, Germany.
1. Whin Sill, Hadrian’s Wall, Northumbria, UK. 3. Specimens from UK. 8. Seven Sisters, South Downs, East Sussex, UK.
2. Shiprock, Farmington, New Mexico, USA. 4. Skipsea, Holderness, East Yorkshire, UK.

191
Locations of photographs

9. Gunung Sewu, Java, Indonesia. 2-3 Weathering processes 8. Whitecliffe Bay, Isle of Wight, UK.
10. Salar de Uyuni, Potosi, Bolivia. 1. Lüderitz, Namibia. 9. Panamint Valley, California, USA.
11. Lyme Regis, Dorset, UK. 2. Shiprock, Farmington, New Mexico, USA. 10. Khazzan Desert, Oman.
12. High Tor, Matlock Bath, Derbyshire, UK. 3. Limestone Gorge, Bullita, Northern Territory, Australia. 11. Iuiu, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
13. Gordale Scar, Malham, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 4. Half Dome, Yosemite, California, USA.
5. Kettlewell, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 3-1 Glaciated environments
1-10 Rock mass discontinuities 6. Tafraoute, Anti Atlas, Morocco. 1. Tingkya Himalayas, Tibet.
1. Castlemartin, Dyfed, Wales, UK. 7. Musandam Peninsula, Oman. 2. Trollstigen, Andalsnes, western Norway.
2. Stair Hole, Lulworth Cove, Purbeck, Dorset, UK. 8. Waimea Canyon, Kauai, Hawaii, USA. 3. East Greenland coastal mountains.
3. Millook Haven, Bude, Cornwall, UK. 9. Beggar’s Gate, Ingleborough, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 4. Alta, northern Norway.
4. Pang La, Tingri, Tibet. 10. Chenab Valley, Lahaul, Himachal Pradesh, India. 5. Meade Glacier, Juneau Icefield, Alaska, USA.
5. Blue Mountain, Dinosaur, Colorado, USA. 11. Zillertal, Tyrol, Austria. 6. Gryllefjord, Senja, northern, Norway.
6. Setwicks Bay, Flamborough Head, East Yorkshire, UK. 12. Nottingham, UK. 7. Lysefjord, Stavanger, Norway.
7. Pecos Valley, Carlsbad, New Mexico, USA. 8. Rongbuk Valley, southern Tibet.
8. Kemmerer, Utah, USA. 2-4 Granite weathering 9. Laguna Torre, Patagonia, Argentina.
9 and 10. Tsepelovon, Tymfi Oros, northern Greece. 1. Hammersley Ranges, Pilbara, Western Australia. 10. Karnali Valley, western Nepal.
11. Foredale Quarry, Horton, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 2. Wiluna, Western Australia. 11 and 12. Carstairs, Clyde Valley, Scotland, UK.
12. Stocksbridge, South Yorkshire, UK. 3. Fitzroy Crossing, Western Australia. 13. Ribblehead, Yorkshire Dales, UK.
13. Semail Pass, Nizwa, Oman. 4. Kowloon, Hong Kong. 14. Norber, Ingleborough, Yorkshire Dales, UK.
14. Long Scars, Ingleborough, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 5. Batad, Banaue, Luzon, Philippines. 15. Val Veni, Monte Bianco, Italy.
15. Jabal Qasyun, Damascus, Syria. 6. Salt River Canyon, Arizona, USA. 16. Miage Glacier, Monte Bianco, Italy.
7. Alabama Hills and Mount Whitney, California, USA. 17. Alport, Peak District, Derbyshire, UK.
2-1 Soils and soil models 8. Devil’s Marbles, Northern Territory, Australia.
1. Cache Creek, Colusa, California, USA. 9. Ipoh, Perak, Malaya, Malaysia. 3-2 Periglacial environments
2. Lipari, Aeolian Islands, Sicily, Italy. 10. Stanton, Peak District, Derbyshire, UK. 1. Ogilvie Mountains, Yukon, Canada.
3. Trent Valley, Nottinghamshire, UK. 11. Giant’s Causeway, County Antrim, Northern Ireland, UK. 2. Dempster Highway, Yukon, Canada.
4. Mexican Hat, Utah, USA. 12. Kakaha, Kauai, Hawaii, USA. 3. White Pass, Skagway, Alaska, USA.
5. Monteverde, Santa Elena, Costa Rica. 4. Columbia Icefield, Rocky Mountains, Alberta, Canada.
6. Moa, eastern Holguin, Cuba. 2-5 Slopes and valley sides 5. Pang La, Himalayas, Tibet.
7. Ross of Mull, Inner Hebrides, Scotland, UK 1. Capitol Reef, Torrey, Utah, USA. 6. Nara Lagna Pass, Himalayas, western Nepal.
8. Skeleton Coast, Namibia. 2. Sarchu, Zanskar, Ladakh, India. 7. Rainbow Mountain, Glenallen, Alaska, USA.
9. Arbol de Piedra, Siloli Desert, Potosi, Bolivia. 3. Wastwater, Lake District, Cumbria, UK. 8. Tangle Lakes, Denali Highway, Alaska, USA.
10. Kinder Scout, Peak District, Derbyshire, UK. 4. Jabal at-Tar, Palmyra, Syria. 9. Disko Island, western Greenland.
11. Barnatra, County Mayo, Ireland. 5. Adventdale, Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway. 10. Kapp Linné, Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway.
12. Tarif, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. 6. El Calafate, Patagonia, Argentina. 11. Ogilvie Mountains, Yukon, Canada.
13. Stockertown, Pennsylvania, USA. 7. Wadi al Hasa, Tafila, Jordan. 12. Longyearbyen, Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway.
13 and 14. Prudhoe Bay, northern Alaska.

192
 Locations of photographs

3-3 Temperate fluvial environments 10. Winspit, Purbeck, Dorset, UK. 3-9 Mountain environments
1. Kikori Valley, Papua New Guinea. 11. Pleasley, Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, UK. 1 and 2. Trisuli, Langtang Himalaya, Nepal.
2. Carrock Fell, Cumbria, UK. 12. Black Rock, Brighton, Sussex, UK. 3. Halsema Highway, Cordillera, Luzon, Philippines.
3. Southern Alberta, Canada. 13. Castle Lime Works, South Mimms, Hertfordshire, UK. 4. More Basin, Zanskar, Ladakh, Indian Himalayas.
4. Surprise Creek, Litchfield, Northern Territory, Australia. 14. White Horse Hill, Marlborough Downs, Wiltshire, UK. 5. Min Jiang valley, northern Sichuan, China.
5. Langtang Valley, Nepal. 15. Folkestone Warren, Kent, UK. 6. Spiti Valley, Himachel Pradesh, Indian Himalayas.
6. Birkdale, Swaledale, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 16. Devil’s Punchbowl, Brecklands, Norfolk, UK. 7. Karakoram Highway, northern Pakistan.
7. Whaw, Arkengarthdale, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 8. Halsema Highway, Cordillera, Luzon, Philippines.
8. Kylesku, Sutherland, Scotland, UK. 3-6 Hot desert environments 9. Lamayuru, Zanskar Range, Ladakh, India.
9. Hoveringham, Trent Valley, Nottinghamshire, UK. 1. Dakhla basin, Western Desert, Egypt. 10. Kali Gandaki Valley, Nepal Himalayas.
10. Lagan River, Islay, Inner Hebrides, Scotland, UK. 2. Antelope Canyon, Page, Arizona, USA. 11. Tafjord (1934 event), western Norway.
11. Na’ur, East Bank Plateau, Jordan. 3. Sossusvlei, Namib Desert, Namibia. 12. Taroko Gorge, Taiwan.
4. Jebel al Batra, southern Jordan. 13. Quake Lake (1959 event), Madison, Montana, USA.
3-4 Temperate Mediterranean 5. Simpson Desert, Northern Territory, Australia. 14. Elda, Alicante, Spain.
1. Peyrepertuse, Aude, France. 6. Dakhla basin, Western Desert, Egypt. 15. Hunza Valley and Rakaposi, Karakoram, Pakistan.
2. Vale do Zêzere, Sierra da Estrela, Portugal. 7. Death Valley, California, USA.
3. Irati Valley, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain. 8 and 9. Kharga basin, Western Desert, Egypt. 4-3 Walkover survey
4. Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil. 10. Panamint Valley, California, USA. 1. Cray, Wharfedale, Yorkshire Dales, UK.
5. Irati Valley, Pamplona, Navarra, Spain. 11 and 12. Lake Assal, Djibouti. 2. Colville, Washington, USA.
6. Ürgüp, Cappadocia, Nevsehir, Turkey. 13. Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia. 3. Kindia, Guinea.
7. Kashgar, Xinjiang, China. 14. Nizwa, Oman. 4. South Downs, Fulking, West Sussex, UK.
8. Métlaoui, Gafsa, Tunisia. 15. Todra Gorge, Tinerhir, Morroco. 5. Ethiopian Highlands, Ethiopia.
9. Tarn Gorge, Causse Mejean, Lozère, France. 6. Cabin Creek, Madison River Canyon, Montana, USA.
10. Laurac, Aude, France. 3-8 Hot wet tropical environments 7. Inkersall Green, Derbyshire, UK.
11. Imranli, Sivas, Turkey. 1. Boca San Carlos, Rio San Juan, Costa Rica. 8. Bonsall Moor, Matlock, Derbyshire, UK.
12. River Trent, Nottingham, UK. 2. Niah, Miri, Sarawak, Malaysia. 9. Mam Nick, Edale, Derbyshire Peak District, UK.
3. Cape Tribulation, Daintree, Queensland, Australia. 10. Widdale, Yorkshire Dales, UK.
3-5 Relict periglacial features in Britain 4. Melinau River, Gunung Mulu, Sarawak, Malyasia. 11. Cressbrook Dale, Derbyshire Peak District, UK.
1. Thieves Moss, Ingleborough, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 5. Nausori Highlands, Viti Levu, Fiji. 12. Kikori Valley, Papua New Guinea.
2. Quirang, Isle of Skye, Scotland, UK. 6. Kikori Valley, Papua New Guinea. 13. Knockshinnock Colliery (1950 event), Ayrshire, UK.
3. Walton Common, Swaffham, Norfolk, UK. 7. Thibodaux, Louisiana, USA.
4. Bracadale, Isle of Skye, Scotland, UK. 8. Babeldaob, Palau, Micronesia. 4-7 Ground investigation in gently dipping strata
5. Hawkswick Clowder, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 9. Clarendon Hills, Jamaica. 1. Temple Newsam, Leeds, Yorkshire, UK.
6. Houndstor, Dartmoor, Devon, UK. 10. Yangshuo, Guangxi, China. 2. Chesterfield, Derbyshire, UK.
7. Bruichladdich, Islay, Scotland, UK. 11. Aberdeen, Hong Kong. 3. Llanwrst, Clwyd, Wales, UK.
8. Lanzhou, Gansu, China. 12. Banaue, northern Luzon, Philippines. 4. Ashop Valley, Derbyshire Peak District, UK.
9. Long Dale, Peak District, Derbyshire, UK. 13. The Pinnacles, Gunung Mulu, Sarawak, Malaysia. 5. Walsall, West Midlands, UK.

193
Locations of photographs

6. Ilkeston, Derbyshire, UK. 5-6 Karst construction 10. Cal Orcko, Sucre, Bolivia.
7. Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, UK. 1. Ure Terrace, Ripon, North Yorkshire, UK. 11. Shell Road, Mississippi Delta, Louisiana, USA.
8 and 9. Nottingham, UK. 2. Divaĉa, Postojna, Slovenia. 12. New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
10 and 11. Jecheon, Korea. 3. Kutaisi, Georgia. 13. Loscoe (1986 event), Derbyshire, UK.
12. Khazzan Desert, Oman. 4. Brookwood, Stockertown, Pennsylvania, USA.
13. Trinidad, Caribbean. 5. Fontwell, West Sussex, UK. 5-9 Arctic environmental problems
6. Remouchamps Viaduct, Liége, Belgium. 1. Atigun Pass, Brooks Range, Alaska, USA.
5-2 Complex structures GI 7. Guilin, Guangxi, China. 2. Kapp Linné, Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway.
1. Eglwyseg Mountain, Clwyd, Wales, UK. 8. County Courthouse, Huntsville, Alabama, USA. 3. Ibyuk Pingo, Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories, Canada.
2. Sundalsvatnet, Rogaland, southern Norway. 9. Northwich, Cheshire, UK. 4. Thjorsa valley, central Iceland.
3. Grand Canyon below Mohave Point, Arizona, USA. 10. Sagada, northern Luzon, Philippines. 5. Ice cellar, Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories, Canada.
4. Turtle Mountain (1903 event), Frank, Alberta, Canada. 11. Natural Tunnel, Duffield, Virginia, USA. 6. Fox Tunnel, Fairbanks, Alaska, USA.
5. Quirang, Isle of Skye, Scotland, UK. 7. Djupivogur, southeast Iceland.
6. Glen Roy, Highland, Scotland, UK. 5-7 Quarry workings 8. Arctic Plain, Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, USA.
7. Skarvberget, Porsangerfjorden, Finnmark, Norway. 1. Alport, Derbyshire Peak District, UK. 9. Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories, Canada.
8. Lauterbrunnen, Bernese Oberland, Switzerland. 2. Bingham Canyon, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA. 10. Prudhoe Bay, Alaska, USA.
9. Xizi valley, Gilazi, Azerbaijan. 3. Moss Rake, Castleton, Derbyshire Peak District, UK. 11. Inuvik, Northwest Territories, Canada.
10. Sarchu, Zanskar Range, Ladakh, India. 4. Centurion, Johannesburg, South Africa. 12. Dawson, Yukon, Canada.
5. Black Thunder Mine, Gillette, Wyoming, USA. 13. Delta, Alaska, USA.
5-3 North Wales coast road 6. Stockertown, Pennsylvania, USA. 14. Inuvik, Northwest Territories, Canada.
All in Clwyd and Gwynedd, Wales, UK. 7. Hucklow Edge, Derbyshire Peak District, UK. 15. Dachnye, Mutnovsky, Kamchatka, Russia.
8. Bingham Canyon, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA. 16. Dalton Highway, Alaska, USA.
5-5 Karst 9. Shap Pink Quarry, Cumbria, UK.
1. Balikesir, western Turkey. 10. Rock of Ages Quarry, Barre, Vermont, USA. Photograph credits:
2. Shuicheng, Guizhou, China. 11. Mission Copper Mine, Tucson, Arizona, USA. 1.3.7 by Laurance Donnelly;
3. Huntsville, Alabama, USA. 12. Maltby, South Yorkshire, UK. 2.5.10, 4.7.12, 5.8.8 and 5.8.9 by Peter Fookes;
4. Blacklion, Cavan, Ireland. 13. Winspit Mines, Purbeck, Dorset, UK. 4.3.3, 4.3.5 and 4.7.13 by Geoff Pettifer;
5. Marble Pot, Ingleborough, Yorkshire Dales, UK. 14. Buddosso, Nuoro, Sardinia, Italy. 5.8.4 by Robin Gillespie.
6. Yangshuo, Guilin, Guangxi, China. All others by Tony Waltham.
7. Sinkhole Plain, Bowling Green, Kentucky, USA. 5-8 Quarry products
8. Dunn’s River Falls, Ocho Rios, Jamaica. 1. Mappleton (stone from Norway), Humberside, UK.
9. Chocolate Hills, Bohol, Philippines. 2. Empingham Reservoir, Rutland Water, Rutland, UK.
10. Ogof Agen Allwedd, Llangattock, Powys, Wales, UK. 3 and 6. Hemington, Trent Valley, Nottinghamshire, UK.
11. Popovo Polje, Trebinje, Bosnia and Herzegovina. 4 and 5. Ingleton, Yorkshire Dales, UK.
7. Langton Matravers, Purbeck, Dorset, UK.
8. Plymouth, Devon, UK.
9. Jakarta, Java, Indonesia.

194
 Index
Numbers in bold refer to pages of photographs
additional ground investigations 132, 133 proceeds 119, 123, 127, 129–130, 133 earthquake zones 18–19
changes in perception of ground conditions 133 chemical weathering 55, 57 engineering problems in
observational method 133 climate 4, 6, 54, 55, 107 drylands 99
aeolian soil 5 and vegetation 107 karst terrain 159
aggregate 34, 112, 169–170, 174, 176 change 4, 6, 181 mountain environments 111
in construction 169 considerations for geomodel 6 periglacial environments/permafrost 79, 181
road 170 climatic types 9 savanna 103
rock types 175 polar and tundra 9 temperate areas/deposits 84, 89
tests 169 temperate and Mediterranean 9 engineering soil 2, 7, 55
alkali silica reaction 175 tropical 9 geotechnical problems with 7, 184–186
alluvium 5, 49, 184 coastal cells 29 environmental impact 181
aridity 13 coastal longshore drift 29 in a sensitive environment 181
cohesive fine soils, properties 156
barrier beaches 33 faults 45, 47
colluvium 5, 185
lithified equivalent 34, 35, 36–37 normal 45
concrete aggregates in construction 169–170
mesotidal 33 reverse 45
convergent boundary 15
microtidal 33 strike-slip 45
core recovery procedures 113
barrier islands 33 fill 186
cryoturbation 141
basic soils and landscapes 52–53 flow chart for ground investigation 116
beaches 29 desert landscapes 99 folds 45, 46
biological weathering 57 desert soils 99, 185 anticline 45
borehole core recovery 113 desk study 2, 118, 119–121 monocline 45
borrow sources 176 changes in perception of ground conditions 119 recumbent 45
brick earth 84, 93, 141 costs and benefits 120 syncline 45
building stone characteristics 175 data derived from 121 foundation conditions interpreted from ground investigations 158,
sources of information 119 162, 163
carbonate rocks 38, 39–40, 42–43
discontinuous barriers 33 foundations on limestone 163
classification 40
divergent boundary 15 frost action 13
composition 39
dolomites 39
engineering properties 39 geological pictorial models iii, 1
drylands 98, 99, 100–101
formation 39–40 geological structures 44, 45, 46–47
zones 99
mixed, classification 40 discontinuities 45
duricrusts 56, 69, 99
types 39 faults 45
alcretes 69
case histories 148–155 folds 45
calcretes 69
new road in hilly terrain 148, 154 joints 45
dolocretes 69
North Wales coast road 152–153 geological time 2, 3
gypcretes 69
chalk 94 geomodel iii, 1, 4, 6, 117, 129
silcretes 69
basic English stratigraphy 94 geophysics survey 126, 127
dykes 21
changes in perception of ground conditions as ground investigation geoteam 1
dynamic metamorphism 25

195
Index

geotechnical model 1 karst stability of rock and slopes 112

geotechnical problems and engineering soils 184–186 conditions 159, 160–161, 163, 166–167
new road in hilly terrain 148, 154
glacial deposits 73, 74, 185 engineering classification 164
relations between landform and geology 154
engineering characteristics 73, 185 engineering hazards 159
normally consolidated clays 184
glacial environments 72, 73–75, 76–77 foundations 159, 163
North Wales coast road 152–153
engineering in 74 ground voids 159
hazards 75 landscape, types 163 observational method 133
glacial landforms 73 reservoir leakage 159 oceanic crust 15, 16
types of till 5, 74 sink hole collapses 159 organic soils 49, 185–186
glaciers, types of 73 overburden 2, 39
landscape 6
glaciofluvial 5, 73 over-consolidated clays 184
impact of engineering 6
global morphoclimatic zones 8, 9, 10–11
limestones 38, 39–40, 42–43 peaty soils 185
granitic weathering 62, 63–65, 66–67
classification 40 periglacial environments 79, 80–81
gravels 184
composition 39 periglacial
ground investigations 2, 116, 117, 119, 122, 128
engineering properties 39 areas of Southern Britain 141
additional 132, 133
formation 39–40 processes and landforms 79
desk study 2, 118, 119–121
mixed, classification 40 relict soils 92, 93–94, 96–97, 185
flow chart 116
types 39 terrain model 78
in gently dipping strata 134, 135, 136–137
lithification 35 permafrost 79, 180, 181, 182–183
in steeply dipping tectonized strata 138, 139
processes 35 permeability 50
main 128, 129–131
loess 93 coefficient of, ranges 50
problems interpreting information 140, 141, 144, 145
behaviour under load 93 typical values 50
relative costs and benefits 120
pictorial models 1
shallow geophysical survey 126, 127 made ground 186
pits and trenches 135, 139
site knowledge 116 main ground investigation 128, 129–131
polar climate 9
stages 119 changes in perception of ground conditions 129–130
walkover survey 122, 123, 124–125 reference conditions 129 quarries 168, 169–170, 172–173, 174, 175–176, 178–179
ground model 1, 117–140 techniques 129 Quaternary 3, 4, 76–77, 83, 96–97
groundwater 49–51, 99 mechanical weathering 57 climates 3, 4, 89
Mediterranean climate 88, 89, 90–91
hot desert environments 98, 99, 100–101 recording exposures 64
metamorphic rocks 4, 25, 26–27
hot wet tropical environments 104, 105–107, 108–109 reference conditions, for projects 129
associations 24
implications for engineering 105 relict landforms 83, 89
metamorphism 25
rate of chemical weathering 105 relict periglacial terrain 92, 93–94, 96–97
cataclastic 25
chalk 94
ice sheets 73 dynamic 25
geomorphological problems 93
igneous rocks 4, 21, 22–23 regional 25
loess 93
associations 20 thermal 25
regional metamorphism 25
extrusive 21 models in engineering geology 1
residual soils 2, 13, 49, 55, 63–65, 66–67
intrusive 21 morphoclimatic zones 8, 9, 10–11, 12–13
clay mineral content 63
infrastructure development 180, 181 mountain environments 110, 111–113, 114–115
descriptive scheme 65
interpreting information from ground investigations 140, 141, 144, common engineering problems 111
development 63
145 construction materials 112
road aggregates in construction 170
in periglacial areas 141 core recovery in 113
road in hilly terrain 148, 149
in structurally complex regions 145, 146–147 model 111

196
 Index

rock soils 2 till 73, 74

descriptions 149, 150 and landscapes 49–51, 52–53 properties 74
block shapes 149 cohesive fine, properties 156, 186 types 74
joints 149 desert 99, 185 total geology 2
mechanical properties 150 engineering, geotechnical problems 184–186 transform boundary 15
spacing of discontinuities 149 in situ, problems 186 transported soil 5, 49
stability 112 organic 49, 185 tropical environments, hot wet 104, 105–107, 108–109
strength 149 residual 49, 55, 63–65, 66–67, 186 tropical rain forests 105
types 4 transported 5, 49, 184–186 engineering implications 105
types, potential for aggregate 175 tropical 106 types 105
walkover survey 149 Unified Classification 155 tropical soil phases 106
rock weathering 54, 55 volcanic 186 tropical weathering 62
characteristics 54 walkover survey 155 tropically weathered terrain 68, 70–71
solifluction 79 valley and hill-slope models 68, 69
sands, typical properties 157, 184
deposits 5 tundra climate 9
savanna environments 102, 103
specialist skills 131
re. foundations and earthworks 103 under-consolidated clays 184
spits 33
savanna landscapes 103 Unified Soil Classification 155
stability of slopes 112
sediment lithification 35
factors controlling 112 valleys and hill-slopes 68, 69
sediment transportation 29
stratigraphic column 3 landforms 69
sedimentary rocks 4, 28, 29, 32, 34
stratigraphy 2 models 69
ancient 34, 35, 36–37
structurally complex regions 145, 146–147 volcanic activity 14
carbonates 38, 39–40, 42–43
structures, geological 44, 45, 46–47 volcanic regions 16
coastal 28, 30–31
subtropical and tropical depositional environments 38 characteristic features 16
linear clastic barrier island beach 32
surface volcanic soils 5, 186
sediments 28, 29, 30–31, 32, 33, 34, 35
conditions 49 volcanoes and earthquake zones 18–19
carbonates 38, 39–40, 42–43
processes 6
consolidation 35 walkover survey 122, 123, 124–125, 148
systems 49
lithification 35 case histories 148–155, 141–183
transportation 29 taluvium 185 changes in perception of ground conditions 123
seismo-tectonic regions 14, 16 tectonic plates 14, 15 rock 148, 149
characteristic features 16 convergent boundaries 15 soils 154, 155
geohazards 16 divergent boundaries 15 terrain evaluation 123
shallow geophysical survey 126, 127 movements 15 water 13, 29, 39, 49–51, 65, 73, 75, 79, 155
changes in perception of ground conditions 127 transform boundaries 15 weathered terrain 70–71
types of survey technique 127 temperate environments 82, 83–84, 86–87, 88, 89, 90–91 weathering description 59
sills 21 engineering problems 84, 89 weathering grades 49, 56, 58
silts 29, 184 Mediterranean 88, 89, 90–91 classification 58
site investigation 116, 117, 129 relict landforms 83 weathering processes 54, 57
site models 1–2 types of deposit 84 biological 57
slope stability 112 zones and hazards 89 chemical 57
skills required to assess 131 temperate zone 48 mechanical 57
small-scale geological features 139 terrain evaluation 123 weathering profiles 56, 57, 60–61
soil block model 48 terrain models 1 welded barriers 33
soil types 55 thermal metamorphism 25 wind action 13

197
198