Aircraft Reciprocating Engines

Learning objectives

1.00 The principle of heat engines

• External - combustion engines
• Internal – combustion engines

1.10. Internal-Combustion Engine Theory and Performance

• Science Fundamentals
• Engine Operating Fundamentals
• Valve Timing and Engine Firing Order
• The Two-Stroke Cycle
• Rotary-Cycle Engine
• Power Calculations
• Engine Efficiency
• Factors Affecting Performance

2.00 Engine Design and Classification

• Cylinder Arrangement
• Early Designations
• Classification or Designation by Cylinder
• Arrangement and Displacement
• Engine Classification by Cooling Method

3.00 Reciprocating-Engine Construction and Nomenclature

• The Crankcase
• Bearings
• The Crankshaft
• Connecting-Rod Assemblies
• Pistons
• Cylinders
• Valves and Associated Parts
• The Accessory Section
• Propeller Reduction Gears

4.00 References

• Crane, D. (2010). Aviation Maintenance Technician Series: Power plant (2 nd Edition) Newcastle, Washington.
Aviation Supplies &Academics, Inc.,

• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) & Safety Research Corporation of America (SRCA) U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airmen Testing Standards Branch. (2018).Aviation Maintenance
Technician Handbook– Power plant Volume 1 (3rd Edition) Oklahoma City. Author

• Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) & Safety Research Corporation of America (SRCA) U.S. Department of
Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airmen Testing Standards Branch (2018).Aviation Maintenance
Technician Handbook– Power plant Volume 2 (3rd Edition). Oklahoma City, Author

• Sanderson, J (2011) A&P Technician Power plant Textbook (6th Edition) Oxford England. Oxford Aviation
Training
 • Sanderson, J. (2001). Oxford Aviation Training: Theoretical Knowledge Manual, Power plant. Oxford England.
Oxford Aviation Training
1.00 Defns: Heat Engine – A mechanical device that converts chemical energy in a fuel into heat energy
and then mechanical energy.
In heat engines, the source of energy is the fuel that is burned to develop heat. The heat, in
turn, is converted to power (the rate of doing work) by means of the engine.
There are two basic types of heat engines:
• External combustion engine
• Internal combustion engine

Internal combustion engine – a form of heat engine in which the fuel and air mixture is burned
inside the engine – eg reciprocating engines ,gas turbine
engines.

External combustion engine - a form of heat engine in which the fuel releases its energy outside
of the engine.
Nb: Reciprocating engine and the gas-turbine engine(gte) are termed heat engines because they utilize
heat energy to produce the power for propulsion

1.01 Power plant requirements

Aircraft power plants must meet exacting requirements for dependability and endurance. Requirements
imposed on aircraft power plants in an effort to obtain engines suitable for aircraft include
• Fuel Economy
• Durability and Reliability
• Operating Flexibility
• Compactness

• Fuel Economy
The basic parameter for describing the fuel economy of aircraft engines is usually specific fuel
consumption.

Specific fuel consumption

Specific fuel consumption for Aircraft power plant
• gas turbines is the fuel flow measured in (lb/hr) divided by thrust (lb), and for
• reciprocating engines the fuel flow (lb/hr) divided by brake horsepower.
These are called thrust-specific fuel consumption and brake specific fuel consumption, respectively.
NB: At low speed, the reciprocating and turboprop engines have better economy than the pure turbojet or
turbofan engines

• Durability and Reliability

Reliability
An aircraft engine is reliable when it can perform at the specified ratings in widely varying flight attitudes
and in extreme weather conditions.
The engine manufacturer ensures the reliability of the product by design, research, and testing. Close
control of manufacturing and assembly procedures is maintained, and each engine is tested before it
leaves the factory.
Durability
Durability is the amount of engine life obtained while maintaining the desired reliability
The time between overhauls (TBO) varies with the operating conditions, such as engine temperatures,
amount of time the engine is operated at high-power settings, and the maintenance received.
Recommended TBOs are specified by the engine manufacturer.
Reliability and durability are built into the engine by the manufacturer, but the continued reliability of the
engine is determined by the maintenance, overhaul, and operating personnel.

• Operating Flexibility
Operating flexibility is the ability of an engine to run smoothly and give desired performance at all speeds from
idling to full-power output. The aircraft engine must also function efficiently through all the variations in
atmospheric conditions encountered in widespread operations.

• Compactness
To affect proper streamlining and balancing of an aircraft, the shape and size of the engine must be as
compact as possible.
In single-engine aircraft, the shape and size of the engine also affect the view of the pilot, making a
smaller engine better from this standpoint, in addition to reducing the drag created by a large frontal area.
Weight limitations, naturally, are closely related to the compactness requirement. The more elongated and
spread out an engine is, the more difficult it becomes to keep the specific weight within the allowable
limits.

1.10The principle of heat engines – Chemical energy stored in the fuel is released as heat energy that
causes air to expand. The expansion of this air is what performs
useful work, driving either a piston or a turbine

The reciprocating engine uses the heat to expand a combination of gases (air and the products of fuel
combustion) and thus to create a pressure against a piston in a cylinder. The piston, being connected
to a crankshaft, causes the crankshaft to rotate, thus producing power and doing work

2.00 SSCIENCE FUNDAMENTALS

2.10 Conversion of Heat Energy to Mechanical Energy (review)

I Energy is the capacity for doing work. There are two kinds of energy: kinetic and potential.

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion, such as that possessed by a moving cannon ball, falling water, or
a strong wind.
Potential energy, or stored energy, is the energy of position. A coiled spring has potential energy.
Likewise, the water behind the dam of a reservoir has potential energy, and gasoline
has potential energy.

Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy cannot be created, but it can be transformed from one
kind to another.

2.20 Boyle's Law and Charles' Law

Boyle's law states that the volume of any dry gas varies inversely with the absolute pressure sustained by
it, the temperature remaining constant.
In other words, increasing the pressure on a volume of confined gas reduces its volume correspondingly.
Thus, doubling the pressure reduces the volume of the gas to one-half, trebling the pressure reduces the
volume to one-third, etc. The formula for Boyle's law is
V1/V2 = P2/P1
Charles' law states that the pressure of a confined gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature.
Therefore, as the temperature of the gas is increased, the pressure is also increased as long as the volume
remains constant. The formula for Charles' law is
V1/V2 = T1/T2
These laws may be used to explain the operation of an engine. The mixture of fuel and air burns when it is
ignited and produces heat. The heat is absorbed by the gases in the cylinder, and they tend to expand. The
increase in pressure, acting on the head of the piston, forces it to move, and the motion is transmitted to
the crankshaft through the connecting rod.

3.00 Engine Operating Fundamentals

3.10 General: A cycle is a complete sequence of events returning to the original state. That is, a cycle is
an interval of time occupied by one round, or course, of events repeated in the same order in a series-such
as the cycle of the seasons, with spring, summer, autumn, and winter following each other and then
recurring.

3.20 An engine cycle is the series of events that an internal combustion engine goes through while it is
operating and delivering power.
In a four-stroke five-event cycle these events are:
• intake,
• compression,
• ignition,
• combustion, and
• exhaust.

3.21 An internal-combustion engine, whether it be a piston-type or gas-turbine engine, is so called

because the fuel is burned inside the engine rather than externally, as with a steam engine.

Since the events in a piston engine occur in a certain sequence and at precise intervals of time,
they are said to be timed.
Most piston-type engines operate on the four-stroke five event- cycle principle originally developed by
August Otto in Germany.
There are four strokes of the piston in each cylinder, two in each direction, for each engine operating
cycle. The five events of the cycle consist of these strokes plus the ignition event. The four-stroke five-
event cycle is called the Otto cycle.

Cycles for heat engines - Other cycles for heat engines are the:
• Carnot cycle,named after Nicolas-Leonard-Sadi Camot, a young French engineer;
• Diesel cycle, named after Dr. Rudolf Diesel, a German scientist; and
• Brayton cycle, named for George B. Brayton, a U.S. engineer mentioned.

Nb: All the cycles include:

• the compression of air,
• the burning of fuel in the compressed air, and
• the conversion of the of the pressure and heat to power.

3.2.2 THE THEORETICAL 'OTTO' CYCLE.

Terms are used to explain the 'Otto' cycle -Piston engine works on a four stroke cycle
 A 'Stroke' is defined as the linear distance that the piston moves in the cylinder. When the piston is at
the top of the stroke it is said to be at Top Dead Centre (T.D.C), and when at the bottom of the stroke
'Bottom Dead Centre' (B.D.C.).
The piston is connected to a crankshaft. and as the piston moves from TDC to BDC the crankshaft rotates
180°. The complete cycle taking 720° ( 4 x 180) The 'Stroke' is equal to Twice the Crank-throw-
Figure 1below
AMENTAL

Fig 1-Terminology
The internal diameter of the cylinder is called the Bore. These terms are used to explain the 'Otto' cycle.
Piston and valve positions are related to degrees of crankshaft movement, and position in relation to TDC
and BDC.
3.2.1 The four strokes of the 'Otto' cycle are shown in figure 2.below
 Fig 2 - The Four Strokes of the Otto Cycle

3.2.2 Operation
The four strokes are 1. 'Induction'. 2 'Compression'. 3. 'Power' 4. 'Exhaust'.
When the piston is at TDC at the end of the compression stroke an electrical spark is produced at the
spark plug, and ignites the fuel air mixture. It should be appreciated that this does not result in an
explosion of the mixture, but is a controlled burning . This event is called 'Combustion'.
The combustion process takes place with the piston at TDC. The volume in the cylinder at that moment in
time is constant. Combustion is said to take place at Constant Volume

figure 2.4 The Theoretical Timing Diagram for the Otto Cycle

3.2.2.1 In the Otto cycle there are Five Events;

 • Induction,
• Compression,
• Combustion,
• Power,
• Exhaust.

These events can be shown graphically by a valve timing diagram. figure 2.4. The timing diagram shows
the relationship between the events, and degrees of crankshaft rotation. Each arc between TDC and BDC
represents 180 ° of crankshaft rotation.

3.30 THE OPERATION OF THE PRACTICAL OTTO CYCLE.

In practice the theoretical cycle proved to be inefficient and it was necessary to modify the times of valve
openings and closings and ignition. A typical practical timing diagram is shown in Figure 2.5 and the
reasons for the modified timings are discussed below

Figure 2.5. A Practical Valve and IgnitionTiming Diagram.

a) The Induction Stroke. Opening the inlet valve before T.D.C. ensures that the valve is fully open early
in the induction stroke, there is then no time-lag between the piston moving down and the mixture
flowing into the cylinder as would otherwise occur due to the inertia of the mixture. The inflowing
mixture can thus keep up with descending piston.
The momentum of the mixture increases as the induction stroke proceeds, and towards the end of the
stroke, it is such that the gases will continue to flow into the cylinder even though the piston has passed
B.D.C. and is moving upwards slightly. The closing of the inlet valve is therefore delayed until after
B.D.C. when the gas pressure in the cylinder approximately equals the gas pressure in the induction
manifold.

b) The Compression Stroke.

As the piston moves upwards, the inlet valve closes and the gas is compressed. By squeezing the g.as into
a smaller space the pressure that it will exert when burnt is proportionally increased

It should be noted that as the gas is compressed it becomes heated adiabatically1, in the same way that a
bicycle pump warms up in action, as well as by conduction from its hot surroundings, and the pressure
consequently rises to a higher value than that to be expected from the reduction in volume alone.

Adiabatic:- Without Joss or gain of heat, refers to the inability of present technology to compress or
expand a gas without gain or loss of heat

c) The Power Stroke.

Before the piston reaches T .D. C. on the compression stroke the gas is ignited by a spark, the momentum
of the moving parts carrying the piston past the
T.D.C. whilst the flame is spreading. As the flame spreads through the combustion chamber the intense
heat raises the pressure rapidly to a peak value which is reached
when combustion is complete, this coincides with the piston being at about 10° past T.D.C..

If the exhaust valve were not opened until B.D.C. the pressure of the gases remaining in the cylinder
would create a back pressure resisting the upward movement of the piston.
As the piston descends on the power stroke, the pressure falls rapidly and by 45° of crank angle after
T.D.C. is approximately half it's peak value, and by 90° of crank angle after T.D.C. most of the energy in
the gases has been converted into mechanical energy.
If the exhaust valve is now opened before B.D.C. the residual pressure will start the first stage of exhaust
scavenging, so that by B.D.C. there is no back pressure on the piston

This 'pressure scavenging' does not produce a significant loss of mechanical energy Because;

i) There is only a short distance left for downward movement of the piston after the exhaust valve is
opened.
ii) Relatively little pressure is still being exerted on the piston by the cooled xpanded gases.

d) The Exhaust Stroke.

Finally the piston moves upward forcing the remaining gases out of the cylinder. The exhaust valve is
left open after T.D.C. to permit the gases to scavenge the cylinder as completely as possible by their
momentum

About the position of T.D.C. and B.D.C., the distance the piston moves is very small compared to the
large angular movement of the crankshaft. This is called the Ineffective Crank Angle. figure 2.6. As there
is little change in the cylinder volume at these times, the weight of charge into the cylinder and the
exhaust of the burnt gases can be improved by opening the valves early and closing them late. These
changes to the valve timing are named ;
• Valve Lead,
 • Valve Lag and
• Valve Overlap

Valve Lead is when the valve opens before the theoretical opening time. e.g. Inlet valve opens before
T.D.C., exhaust valve opens before B.D.C .

Valve Lag is when the valve remains open after the theoretical closing time. e.g. Inlet valve remains
opens after B.D.C., exhaust valve remains open after T.D.C .
VE TIMING A
Valve Overlap is a period when both valves are partially open together. During this period the action of
the exhaust gases flowing out of the cylinder tends to reduce the gas pressure in the
cylinder below the gas pressure in the induction manifold. The mixture commences to
flow into the area of low pressure and assists in displacing the remaining burnt gases and
by doing so improves the volumetric efficiency of the engine by inducing a greater
weight of charge into the cylinder.

Ineffective Crank Angle.-

ND ENG fig 2.6 Ineffective Crank Angle

The valve timing for a particular engine is fixed, and does not vary with engine speed.
Control of power in the piston engine is achieved by varying the quantity of air which enters the cylinder,
this in turn will vary the pressure rise during combustion . The pilot controls a valve, the 'Throttle' to vary
the quantity of air.

4.0 Valve Timing and Engine Firing Order

Most modern aircraft engines of the piston type operate on the four-stroke-cycle principle. This means
that the piston makes four strokes during one cycle of operation.
During one cycle of the engine's operation, the crankshaft makes 2 rand the valves each perform one
operation. Therefore, the valve operating mechanism for an intake valve must make one operation for two
turns of the crankshaft. On an opposed or in-line engine which has single lobes on the camshaft, the
camshaft is geared to the crankshaft to produce 1 r
of the camshaft for 2 r of the crankshaft. The cam drive gear on the crankshaft has one-half the number of
teeth that the camshaft gear has, thus producing the 1:2 ratio.
On radial engines which utilize cam rings or cam plates to operate the valves, there may be three, four,
or five cam lobes on the cam ring. The ratio of crankshaft to cam-ring rotation is then 1:6, 1:8, or 1:10,
respectively.

4.1 Abbreviations for Valve Timing Positions

The abbreviations commonly used in describing crankshaft and piston positions for the timing of valve
opening and closing are as follows:
After bottom center – ABC Before top center - BTC
After top center -ATC Exhaust closes - EC
Before bottom centre -BBC Exhaust opens - EO
Bottom center BC Intake closes - CO
Bottom dead centre BDC Intake opens - IO
Top Centre -TC
Top Dead Centre TDC

4.1.1 Engine Timing Diagram

To provide a visual concept of the timing of valves for an aircraft engine, a valve timing diagram is used.
The diagram for the Continental model E-165 and E-185 engines is shown in Fig. 3-5. A study of this
diagram reveals the following specifications for the timing of the engine:
IO 150 BTC EO 550 BBC
0
IC 60 ABC EC 150 ATC

4.1.2 Reason suggests that the intake valve should open at TC and close at BC. Likewise, it seems that the
exhaust valve should open at BC and close at TC. This would be true except for the inertia of the moving
gases and the time required for the valves to open fully. Near the end of the exhaust stroke, the gases are
still rushing out the exhaust valve. The inertia of the gases causes a low-pressure condition in the cylinder
at this time.
Opening the intake valve a little before TC takes advantage of the low-pressure condition to start the flow
of fuel-air mixture into the cylinder, thus bringing a greater charge into the engine and improving
volumetric efficiency.
If the intake valve should open too early, exhaust gases would flow out into the intake manifold and ignite
the incoming fuel-air mixture. The result would be backfiring. Backfiring also occurs when an intake
valve sticks in the open position.
The exhaust valve closes shortly after the piston reaches TC and prevents reversal of the exhaust flow
back into the cylinder.
Valve overlap, or valve lap
The angular distance through which both valves are open is called valve overlap, or valve lap. When the
intake valve opens 15° BTC and the exhaust valve closes 15° ATC, the valve overlap is 30°.
Figure 3-5 shows two diagrams that may be used as guides for valve timing. Either one may be employed
to indicate the points in the cycle where each valve opens and closes. In the diagrams of Fig. 3-5below ,
the intake valve remains open 60°ABC. This is designed to take advantage of the inertia of the fuel-air
mixture rushing into the cylinder, because the mixture will continue to flow into the cylinder for a time
after the piston has passed BC. The total period during which the intake valve is open is designed to
permit the greatest possible charge of fuel-air mixture into the cylinder.
The exhaust valve opens before BC for two principal reasons:
• 1.more thorough scavenging of the cylinder and
• 2.better cooling of the engine.
Most of the energy of the burning fuel is expended by the time the crankshaft has moved 120° past TC on
the power stroke and the piston has moved almost to its lowest position. Opening the exhaust valve at this
time allows the hot gases to escape early, and less heat is transmitted to the cylinder walls than would be
the case if the exhaust valve remained closed until the piston reached BC. The exhaust valve is not closed
until ATC because the inertia of the gases aids in removing additional exhaust gas after the piston has
passed TC.
 Fig. 3-5 Diagram for valve timing.

Valve lag& valve lead

The opening or closing of the intake or exhaust valves after TC or BC is called valve lag.
The opening or closing of the intake or exhaust valves before BC or TC is called valve lead.
Both valve lag and valve lead are expressed in degrees of crankshaft travel.

For example, if the intake valve opens 15° BTC, the valve lead is 15°.

Note from the diagrams of Fig. 3-5 that the valve lead and valve lag are greater in relation to the BC
position than they are to the TC position. One reason for this is that the piston travel per degree of
crankshaft travel is less near BC than it is near TC. This is illustrated in Fig. 3-6. In this diagram, the
circle represents the path of the crank throw, point C represents the center of the crankshaft, TC is the
position of the piston pin at top center, and BC is the position of the piston pin at bottom center. The
numbers show the positions of the piston pin and the crank throw at different points through 180° of
crankshaft travel.
Firing Order

The firing order of an engine is the order in which the cylinders fire.
The firing order of in-line V-type and opposed engines is designed to provide for balance and to
eliminate vibration to the extent that this is possible.
The firing order is determined by the relative positions of the throws on the crankshaft and the positions
of the lobes on the camshaft.
Fig. 3-7 illustrates the cylinder arrangement and firing order for a six-cylinder opposed Lycoming engine.
The cylinder firing order in opposed engines can usually be listed in pairs of cylinders, because each pair
fires across the center main bearing.

The numbering of opposed-engine cylinders is by no means standard. Some manufacturers number their
cylinders from the rear and others from the front of the engine.
Single-row radial engine
The firing order of a single-row radial engine which operates on the four-stroke cycle must always be by
alternate cylinders, and the engine must have an odd number of cylinders.
.

Fig. 3-7 firing order for a six-cylinder opposed Lycoming engine

Twin-row radial engines are essentially two single- row engines joined together. This means that
alternate cylinders in each row must fire in sequence
For example, an 18-cylinder engine consists of two single-row nine-cylinder engines. The rear row of
cylinders has the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, and 17. Alternate cylinders in this row are 1, 5, 9,
13, 17, 3, 7, 11, and 15. The front row has the numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18, and the alternate
cylinders for this row are 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 4, 8, 12, and 16. Since the firing of the front and rear rows of
cylinders is started on opposite sides of the engine, the first cylinder to fire after no. 1 is no. 12. Starting
with the no. 12 cylinder, the front row firing sequence is then 12, 16, 2, 6, 10, 14, 18, 4, and 8.
By combining the rear-row firing with the front-row firing, we obtain the firing order for the complete
engine: 1, 12, 5, 16, 9, 2, 13, 6, 17, 10, 3, 14, 7, 18, 11, 4, 15, and 8.
. As an aid in remembering the firing order of large radial engines, technicians often use "magic"
numbers.
For a14-cylinder radial engine, the numbers are +9 and -5, and for an 18-cylinder engine, the numbers are
+11 and -7. To determine the firing order of a 14-cylinder engine, the technician starts with the number 1,
the first cylinder to fire. Adding 9 gives the number 10, the second cylinder to fire. Subtracting 5 from 10
gives 5, the third cylinder to fire. Adding 9 to 5 gives 14, the fourth cylinder to fire. Continuing the same
process will give the complete firing order. The same technique is used with an 18-cylinder engine by
applying the magic numbers +11 and-7.

Fig. 3-8 gives the firing orders for the majority of engine types
• Power Calculations
The area within the 'power' column represents work done on the piston during the power stroke and the
blue areas represent work done by the piston in compressing the charge and exhausting the cylinder
against back pressure. This results in an average reading of pressure on the piston during the working
cycle being available which is termed the Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (l.M.E.P.)
The pilot is not given a display in the cockpit of the IMEP but can be displayed manifold pressure which
is representative of cylinder pressure. This is displayed on the manifold pressure gauge.
Opening the throttle increases manifold pressure and closing the throttle will reduce it. The Manifold
Absolute Pressure gauge (MAP) is normally calibrated to read in inches of mercury.
Having found the pressure in the cylinder it is now possible by calculation using the known
• constants, area of piston,(bore ),
• distance moved ( stroke ),
• number of cylinders and
• time.
To calculate the Indicated Horse Power (I.H.P.) of the engine concerned, using the formula
IHP= PxLxAxNxE
33,000
Where:-
p = Indicated Mean Effective Pressure (lb/irr'),
L =Length of Stroke (ft.).
A= Area of cylinder (irr').
N =The number of cylinders
E =Effective working strokes/min. (RPM)

Power is defined as the rate of doing work. Work is done when a force is moved through a distance. A force acts on
the piston. (lbs) The piston moves through the distance of the stroke. (ft ) It does this so many time a minute. This
multiplies out as ft/lbs per minute

The inventor of the steam engine James Watt calculated that the average horse could move 1 lb, 33,00ft in 1
minute. ( 550 ft/lb/second) This is why PLANE is divided by the constant of 33,000, and the unit of power referred
to as Horse Power.
The SI unit of power is the Watt, and 750Watts is approximately equal to 1 Horse Power.

IHP is only a theoretical value of power. In moving the piston and turning the crankshaft power is used. This is
called 'Friction Horse power', (FHP) and must be deducted from the IHP. The power then left to do useful work
i.e. drive a propeller is called 'Brake Horse Power'. ( B.H.P.)

4.1 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION ( S.F.C)

The increase in energy given to the air comes from the heat released by burning the fuel. This in tum
produces power in the engine. The weight of fuel burnt, (lbs) for the power produced (B.H.P.) in unit time
(Hour) is called the 'Specific Fuel Consumption

Engine designer's strive to get as much power as possible from the engine, for the minimum weight of
fuel burnt. During operation a reduction in power for the same weight of fuel burnt, is defined as an
'Increase in Specific Fuel Consumption', and a reduction in fuel burnt for the same, or more power a
'Decrease in Specific Fuel Consumption'.

S.F .C is effected by engine design and Pilot Operation of the engine. Since the pilot has no control over
design, correct operation of the engine is essential if performance figures are to be attained.

4.2 ENGINE EFFICIENCIES

The term 'efficiency' means simply a comparison of what is got out of a system, with what is put in to the
system. The efficiency of any mechanical device must be less than unity, it is usual to express it as a ratio.
The engine is a machine that converts heat energy into mechanical energy. Sadly there are losses in this
transfer, engine design will try to reduce this these losses. As stated previously the IHP developed in the
engine is reduced by FHP, leaving BHP to do useful work.

Efficiency = Output x 100 %

Input Thus the Mechanical efficiency = BHP/ IHP x 1 00 %
A typical value of Mechanical efficiency would be in the region of 80 -85 %.

The efficiency at which the heat energy released by the combustion of the fuel is converted to work done
in the engine is known as the 'Thermal Efficiency'.

Thermal Efficiency = Heat Converted into Work x 100%

Heat Energy Available within the Fuel Thus the thermal efficiency=25 - 28 %.

. The power of the engine is determined by the maximum weight of mixture (charge )induced, and the
subsequent rise in pressure during combustion. Due to inertia and factors effecting the density of the
mixture, it is not possible to fill the cylinder completely during the induction stroke

'Volumetric Efficiency'
The ratio of the weight of mixture induced to that which would feel the cylinder under normal
temperatures and pressures, is called 'Volumetric Efficiency'.

Volumetric Efficiency =Weight of Mixture Actually Induced x 100 % Weight of Mixture which could
fill cylinder at normal temperatures and pressures.
The volumetric efficiency of the engine is indicative of how well the engine is 'breathing' this is effected
by design, i.e. valve lead, lag and overlap. It is also effected by variables such as, exhaust back pressure ,
resistance to flow and the force pushing the mixture into the cylinder. If the force is the difference in
pressure between atmospheric and the cylinder pressure during induction, the engine is said to be
'Normally Aspirated

A normally aspirated engine will have a volumetric efficiency of between 75-85 % maximum
One way to improve the Volumetric efficiency and hence power, is to increase the force pushing the
mixture into the cylinder. This is called 'Supercharging'.
4.3 COMPRESSION RATIO
The work done on the mixture by the piston during the compression stroke depends on the weight of
mixture induced and the pressure that it is raised to. The pressure rise will depend on the reduction in
volume. There are three volumes that need to be considered. They are defined below and illustrated in
figure 2.9

Total Volume is the volume above the piston ')'Then the piston is at B.D.C .Swept Volume is the volume
displaced by the piston during a single stroke.
Swept volume= cross sectional area of the cylinder X the stroke.

Clearance Volume is the volume above the piston crown when the piston is at T.D.C., this form the
combustion chamber. Total Volume= Swept Volume+ Clearance Volume The increase in pressure is
called the 'Compression Ratio' of the engine.

The Compression Ratio is the ratio of the total volume enclosed in the cylinder with piston at B.D.C., to
the volume at the end of the compression stroke with the piston at T.D.C .

Compression Ratio = Total Volume

Clearance Volume

EXAMPLE;- If the swept volume is equal to 1300 cc, and the clearance volume is equal to 200 cc the
compression ratio would be equal to:
Total Volume = Swept Volume + Clearance Volume
Total Volume = 1300 + 200
Compression Ratio = Total Volume
Clearance Volume
Compression Ratio = 1500/200 = 7.5:1
NOTE: That an increase in compression ratio will result in better fuel utilisation (hence greater Thermal
Efficiency) and a higher mean effective pressure provided the correct fuel is used.
This, however, will be at the expense of higher loading on the moving parts due to an increased working
pressure.

• Types of reciprocating Engines

Reciprocating engines are classified by the cylinder arrangement with respect to the crankshaft
• operating cycles,
• cylinder arrangement, or
• the method of thrust production.
Aircraft engines come in many different types, such as gas turbine based, reciprocating piston, rotary,
two or four cycle, spark ignition, diesel, and air or water cooled.
Reciprocating and gas turbine engines also have subdivisions based on the type of cylinder arrangement
(piston) (in line,V-type, radial, and opposed) or and speed range (gas turbine).

Cylinder arrangement

Method of cooling -according to the method of cooling (liquid cooled or air cooled

Inline Engines

This engine may be either liquid cooled or air cooled and has only one crank shaft, which is located
either above or below the cylinders. If the engine is designed to operate with the cylinders below the
crankshaft, it is called an inverted engine.
The inline engine has a small frontal area and is better adapted to streamlining.
When mounted with the cylinders in an inverted position, it offers the added advantages of a shorter
landing gear and greater pilot visibility. With increase in engine size, the air cooled, inline type offers
additional problems to provide proper cooling; therefore, this type of engine is confined to low- and
medium-horsepower engines used in very old light aircraft.
Opposed or O-Type Engines
The opposed-type engine has two banks of cylinders directly opposite each other with a crankshaft in the
center Fig. 1-1.
The pistons of both cylinder banks are connected to the single crankshaft. Although the engine can be
either liquid cooled or air cooled, the air-cooled version is used predominantly in aviation. It is generally
mounted with the cylinders in a horizontal position.

Advantages - The opposed-type engine has a:

• low weight-to horsepower ratio,
• Low vibration characteristics.
• its narrow silhouette makes it ideal for horizontal installation on the aircraft wings (twin engine
applications).

Fig. 1-1.-Horizontally opposed engine

V-Type Engines
In V-type engines, the cylinders are arranged in two in‑line banks generally set 60° apart. Most of the
engines have 12 cylinders, which are either liquid cooled or air cooled. The engines are designated by a V
followed by a dash and the piston displacement in cubic inches. For example, V-1710.This type of engine
was used mostly during the second World

Radial Engines
One type of radial engine has four rows arranged radially about a central crankcase.
The number of cylinders which make up a row may be three, five, seven, or nine. Some radial engines
have two rows of seven or nine cylinders arranged radially about the of engine has proven to be very
rugged and dependable of cylinders with seven cylinders in each row for a total of 28 cylinders. Radial
engines are still used in some older cargo planes, war birds, and crop spray planes. Although many of
these engines still exist, their use is limited.
The single-row, nine-cylinder radial engine is of relatively simple construction, having a one-piece nose
and a two-section main crankcase. The larger twin-row engines are of slightly more complex construction
than the single row engines.
 Radial engine
Engine Identification
Reciprocating engines are identified with a letter to indicate the cylinder arrangement, and a number to indicate
the piston displacement in cubic inches. This is followed by other letters to indicate characteristics of the specific
engine.
For example
An engine identified as a TSIO-520-C is a turbocharged (TS), fuel injected (I), horizontally opposed (0) engine with
520 cubic inches of piston displacement, and it is the third version (C) of this engine.

Some of the most commonly used identifying letters are:

R - Radial
0- Opposed
A - Aerobatic
G - Geared nose section
H - Horizontal, for helicopter
I - Fuel-injected
L -Left-hand engine rotation
S - Supercharged
T or TS - Turbocharged *
V - Vertical for helicopter

6.00 Piston Engine Construction

In the head of each cylinder are the valves and spark plugs. One of the valves is in a passage leading
from the induction system; the other is in a passage leading to the exhaust system. Inside each cylinder is
a movable piston connected to a crankshaft by a connecting rod. One of the valves is in a passage leading
from the induction system; the other is in a passage leading to the exhaust system. Inside each cylinder is
a movable piston connected to a crankshaft by a connecting rod

The basic major components of a reciprocating engine are;

• the crankcase,
• cylinders, pistons,
• connecting rods,
• valves,
• valve-operating mechanism, and
• crankshaft.
 Piston Engine sections
6.10 Crankcase- The crankcase of an engine is the housing that encloses the various mechanisms surrounding the
 crankshaft; therefore, it is the foundation of the engine. Cast or forged aluminum alloy is generally used for
crankcase construction because it is light and strong.

Fig.10 The crankcase

6.20 FUNCTIONS - The functions of the crankcase are as follows:
• it must support itself,
• it contains the bearings in which the crankshaft revolves,
• it provides a tight enclosure for the lubricating oil,
• it supports various internal and external mechanisms of the power-plant,
• it provides mountings for attachment to the airplane,
• it provides support for the attachment of the cylinders, and
• by reason of its strength and rigidity, it prevents the misalignment of the crankshaft and its bearings.
• To ensure that internal pressures are approximately equal to the surrounding atmospheric pressure, a
crankcase breather is fitted.
 Fig. the camshaft shaft positioned on one half of the crankcase

6.21Sizes
Crankcases come in many sizes and shapes and may be of one-piece or multipiece construction.
Most aircraft engine crankcases are made of forged aluminum alloys b’se they are both light and
strong
Although the variety of crankcase designs makes any attempt at classification difficult, they may be
divided into three broad groups:
• opposed-engine crankcases,
• radial-engine crankcases, and
• in-line and V-type engine crankcases

Crankcase for a twin-row radial engine

6.22 Bearings
A bearing is any surface that supports or is supported by another surface. It is a part in which a
journal, pivot, pin, shaft, or similar device turns or revolves.
The bearings used in aircraft engines are designed to produce minimum friction and maximum wear
resistance.

6.23 Bearing characteristics

A good bearing has two broad characteristics:
• it must be made of a material that is strong enough to withstand the pressure imposed on it.
• It must permit the other surface to move with a minimum of wear and friction, and
• the parts must be held in position within very close tolerances to provide quiet and efficient
operation and at the same time permit freedom of motion.
Bearings must reduce the friction of moving parts and also take thrust loads, radial loads, or
combinations of thrust and radial loads.
Nb; Those which are designed primarily to take thrust loads are called thrust bearings.

6.4 Plain Bearings

These bearings are usually designed to take radial loads; however, plain bearings with flanges are
often used as thrust bearings in opposed aircraft engines.

Application
Plain bearings are used for connecting rods, crankshafts, and camshafts of low-power aircraft
engines.
Bearing materials
The metal used for plain bearings may be silver, lead, an alloy (such as bronze or babbitt), or a
combination of metals.
Bronze withstands high compressive pressures but offers more friction than babbitt. Conversely,
Babbitt, a soft bearing alloy, silver in color and composed of tin, copper, and antimony, offers less
friction but cannot withstand high compressive pressures as well as bronze. Silver withstands
compressive pressures is an excellent conductor of heat, but its frictional qualities are not
dependable.

Plain bearings
Materials
Plain bearings are made with a variety of metal combinations. Some bearings in common use are
steel-backed with silver or silver-bronze on the steel and a thin layer of lead then applied for the
actual bearing surface.
Other bearings are bronze-backed and have a lead or Babbitt surface.

Roller Bearings
The roller bearings are one of the two types known as "antifriction" bearings because the rollers
eliminate friction to a large extent. These bearings are made in a variety of shapes and sizes and can
be adapted to both radial and thrust loads
Straight roller bearings are generally used only for radial loads; however, tapered roller bearings
will support both radial and thrust loads.
The bearing race is the guide or channel along which the rollers travel. In a roller bearing, the roller
is situated between an inner and an outer race, both of which are made of case-hardened steel.
When a roller is tapered, it rolls on a cone-shaped race inside an outer race the correct bearing
pullers and installing tools be employed when the bearings are removed or installed

Ball-bearing assembly
6.30 Crankshaft- It is a shaft composed of one or more cranks located at definite places between the
ends These cranks, sometimes called throws, are formed by forging offsets into a shaft before it is
machined.

Function
Crankshaft functions to change the reciprocating motion of the piston and connecting rod into rotary
motion for turning the propeller.
Internal passages supply oil under pressure to all the bearings through oil-ways drilled in the main
journals and crankpins.
A crankshaft consists of three main parts:
• a main journal,
• a crankpin journal, and
• a crankweb. – including the counterweights and dampers

Crankshaft throws
The number of throws classifies the crankshaft. A throw consists of two crankwebs and a crankpin. The
length of the piston stroke equals the length of 2 crank webs. There are as many crank throws on a
crankshaft as there are cylinders.

Journals
The main bearing journals hold the crankshaft bearings, which in turn support the crankshaft. The
bearings are usually plain, soft metal shell bearings(Babbitt, white metal) and are easily replaced when
worn .
Counterweights
To dampen the torsional vibrations, counterweights are normally fitted to some of the crank webs.
Purposes
The purpose of the counterweight is to provide static balance for a crankshaft. If a crankshaft has more
than two throws, it does not always require counterweights because the throws, being arranged
symmetrically opposite each other, balance each other. A single-throw crankshaft, such as that used in a
single-row radial engine, must have counterbalances to offset the weight of the single throw and the
connecting-rod and piston assembly attached to it. This type of crankshaft is illustrated in Fig. 2-8.

Fig. 2-8 Crankshaft

Material
Since the crankshaft is the backbone of an internal-combustion engine, it is subjected to all the
forces developed within the engine and must be of very strong construction. It is usually forged
from some extremely strong steel alloy, such as chromium-nickel-molybdenum steel (SAE 4340).
A crankshaft may be constructed of one or more pieces.

Typical crankshaft nomenclature

Regardless of whether it is of one-piece or multi-piece construction, the corresponding parts of
all crankshafts have the same names and functions.
 .

Fig.2-7 The nomenclature of a typical crankshaft

a) Main Journal
The main journal is the part of the crankshaft that is supported by and rotates in a main bearing.
this it is a main-bearing journal. This journal is the center of rotation of the crankshaft and
serves to keep the crankshaft in alignment under all normal conditions of operation. The main
journal is surface-hardened by nitriding for a depth of 0.015 to 0.025 in [0.381 to 0.635 (mm)]
to reduce wear.

b) Crankpin(con rod journal)

The crankpin can also be called a connecting-rod bearing journal simply because it is the
journal for a connecting rod bearing. Since the crankpin is off center from the main journals, it is
sometimes called a throw. The crankshaft will rotate when a force is applied to the crankpin in
any direction other than parallel to a line directly through the centerline of the crankshaft.

The crankpin is usually hollow for three reasons:

• it reduces the total weight of the crankshaft,
• it provides a passage for the lubricating oil, and
• it serves as a chamber(sludge chamber) for collecting carbon deposits, sludge, and other
foreign substances which are thrown by centrifugal force to the outside of the chamber
where they will not reach the connecting-rod bearing surface.
Nb. On some engines a drilled passage from the sludge chamber to an opening on the exterior surface of
the connecting rod makes it possible to spray clean oil on the cylinder walls.

c) Lubrication
Lubrication of the crankpin bearings is accomplished by oil taken through drilled passages from the main
journals.
The oil reaches the main journals through drilled passages in the crankcase and in the crankcase webs
which support the main bearings..

d) Crank Cheek
The crank cheek, (crank arm), is the part of the crankshaft which connects the crankpin to the main
journal. It must be constructed to maintain rigidity between the journal and the crankpin. On many
engines, the crank cheek extends beyond the main journal and supports a counterweight used to balance
the crankshaft.
Crank cheeks are usually provided with drilled oil passages through which lubricating oil passes from the
main journals to the crankpins

FIG. 2-11 Three types of crankshafts

Single-Throw Crankshaft
The type of crankshaft and the number of crankpins it contains correspond in every case to the engine
cylinder arrangement.
The position of a crank on any crankshaft in relation to other cranks on the same shaft is given in degrees.
The single-throw, or 360°, crankshaft is used in single-row radial engines. It may be of single- or two-
piece construction with two main bearings, one on each end. A single-piece crankshaft is shown in Fig. 2-
12. This crankshaft must be used with a master rod which has the large end split.

FIG. 2-12 Single-piece crankshaft

Propeller Shafts
Aircraft engines are equipped with one of three types of propeller mounting shafts:
• taper shafts,
• spline shafts, or
• flange shafts.

Taper shafts
Low-power engines are often equipped with tapered propeller shafts. The propeller shaft is an integral part of the c/s.
The tapered end of the shaft forward of the main bearing is milled to receive a key which positions the propeller in the
correct location on the shaft. The shaft is threaded at the forward end to receive the propeller retaining nut.
Spline propeller
Crankshafts with spline propeller shafts is shown in Figs.2-15. The splines are rectangular grooves machined in the shaft
to mate with grooves inside the propeller hub. One spline groove may be blocked with a screw to ensure that the propeller
will be installed in the correct position.

FIG. 2-15 Crankshaft for a six-cylinder opposed engine with a splined propeller shaft.

A wide groove inside the propeller hub receives the blocked, or "blind," spline. The propeller is mounted on the spline
shaft with front and rear cones to ensure correct positioning both longitudinally and radially. A retaining nut on the
threaded front portion of the shaft holds the propeller firmly in place when the nuts are properly torqued.

Spline propeller shafts are made in several sizes, depending on engine horsepower. These sizes are identified as SAE
20, 30, 40, 50, 60, and 70. High-power engines have shafts from SAE 50 to SAE 70, and low-power engines are
equipped with shaft sizes from SAE 20 to SAE 40.

Flange shafts
Flange-type shafts are used with many modern opposed engines with power ratings up to 450 hp [335.57
kW]. Fig. 2-16 shows a shaft of this type.
 Fig. 2-16 Flange-type shafts

A short stub shaft extends forward of the flange to support and center the propeller hub. Six high-
strength bolts or studs are used to secure the propeller to the flange. In this type of installation, it is most
important that the bolts or studs be tightened in a sequence which will provide a uniform stress. It is also
necessary to use a torque wrench and to apply torque as specified in the manufacturer's service manual.
Some aircraft utilize propeller-shaft extensions to move the propeller forward, thus permitting a more
streamlined nose design. Special instructions are provided by the aircraft manufacturer for service of such
extensions.
Propeller-shaft loads are transmitted to the nose section of the engine by means of thrust bearings and
forward main bearings. On some opposed-type engines, the forward main bearing is flanged to serve as a
thrust bearing as well as a main bearing. The nose section of an engine either is a separate part or is
integral with the crankcase.

CONNECTING ROD
The connecting rod links the piston to the crankshaft and transmits the force of the power stroke from the
piston to the crankshaft.
The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a free floating piston or gudgeon pin to distribute the
wear around the pin and is referred to as the small end.
The crankpin end is referred to as the big end. The big end bearings are similar to the main bearings
with shell liners; whilst small end bearings may have a bronze insert.
The two piece bearing shell on a typical plain connecting rod fits tightly in the crankpin end of the
connecting rod. The bearing is held in place by pins or tangs that fit into slots cut into the cap and
connecting rod. The piston end of the connecting rod contains a bushing that is pressed into place.

Function - It furnishes the means of converting the reciprocating motion of the piston to a rotating
movement of the crankshaft in order to drive the propeller.
Materials
A tough steel alloy (SAE 4340) is the material used for manufacturing most connecting rods, but
aluminum alloys have been used for some low-power engines.

Construction
The cross sectional shape of the connecting rod is usually like either the letter H or the letter I, although
some have been made with a tubular cross section. The end of the rod which connects to the crankshaft is
called the large end, or crankpin end, and the end which connects to the piston pin is called the small
end, or piston-pin end. Connecting rods, other than tubular types, are manufactured by forging to provide
maximum strength.

Typical forged con rod for a horizontally opposed engines

Con rod Types
There are three principal types of connecting-rod assemblies:
• the plain type, shown in Fig. 2-18,
• the fork and-blade type, shown in Fig. 2-19, and
• the master and articulated type, shown in Fig. 2-20.

Plain Connecting Rod

The plain connecting rod is used in in-line engines and opposed engines. The small end of the rod usually has a
bronze bushing that serves as a bearing for the piston pin.

This bushing is pressed into place and then reamed to the proper dimension. The large end of the rod is made with a
cap, and a two-piece shell bearing is installed. The bearing is held in place by the cap. The outside of the bearing
flange bears against the sides of the crankpin journal when the rod assembly is installed on the crankshaft. The
bearing inserts are often made of steel and lined with a nonferrous bearing material, such as lead bronze, copper
lead, lead silver, or Babbitt. Another type of bearing insert is made of bronze and has lead plating for the bearing
surface against the crankpin.

The two-piece bearing shell fits snugly in the large end of the connecting rod and is prevented from turning by dowel pins
or by tangs which fit into slots cut into the cap and the connecting rod. The cap is usually secured on the end of the rod by
bolts; however, some rods have been manufactured with studs for holding the cap in place.
During inspection, maintenance, repair, and overhaul, the proper fit and balance of connecting rods are obtained by
always replacing the connecting rod in the same cylinder and in the same relative position as it was before removal.

The connecting rods and caps are usually stamped with numbers to indicate their positions in the engine. The rod assembly
for the no. l cylinder is marked with a l, the assembly for the no. 2 cylinder is marked with a 2, and so on. The caps are
also marked and must be assembled with the numbers aligned, as shown in Fig. 2-18.

Fork-and-Blade Connecting-Rod Assembly

The fork-and-blade connecting rod, illustrated in Fig. 2-19, is generally used in V-type engines. The forked rod is
split on the large end to provide space for the blade rod to fit between the prongs.
One two-piece bearing shell is fastened by lugs or dowel pins to the forked rod. Between the prongs of the forked
rod, the center area of the outer surface of this bearing shell is coated with a nonferrous bearing metal to act as a
journal for the blade rod and cap.
During overhaul or maintenance, the fork-and-blade connecting rods are always replaced on the crankshaft in the
same relative positions they occupied in their original installation. This ensures the proper fit and engine balance.

Master and Articulated Connecting-Rod Assembly

The master and articulated connecting-rod assembly is used primarily for radial engines, although some
V-type engines have employed this type of rod assembly.
The complete rod assembly for a seven-cylinder radial engine is shown in Fig. 2-20.below
 Fig 2-20 Master and articulated connecting-rod assembly
The master rod in a radial engine is subjected to some stresses not imposed on the plain connecting rod;
therefore, its design and construction must be of the highest quality.
It is made of an alloy-steel forging, machined and polished to final dimensions and heat-treated to
provide maximum strength and resistance to vibration and other stresses. The surface must be free of
nicks, scratches, or other surface damage which may produce stress concentrations and ultimate failure.
The master rod is similar to other connecting rods except that it is constructed to provide for the
attachment of the articulated rods (link rods) on the large end. The large end of the master rod may be a
two-piece type or a one-piece type, as shown in Fig. 2-21.

If the large end of the master rod is made of two pieces, the crankshaft is one solid piece. If the rod is one
piece, the crankshaft may be of either two- or three-piece construction.
Master rod bearings are generally of the plain type and consist of a split shell or a sleeve, depending on
whether the master rod is of the two- or one-piece type.
The bearing usually has a steel or bronze backing with a softer nonferrous material bonded to the backing
to serve as the actual bearing material.

The articulated rods (link rods) are hinged to the master rod flanges by means of steel knuckle pins. Each
articulated rod has a bushing of nonferrous metal, usually bronze, pressed or shrunk into place to serve as
a knuckle-pin bearing.
Aluminum-alloy link rods have been used successfully in some lower-power radial engines. With these
rods, it is
not necessary to provide bronze bushings at the ends of the rod because the aluminum alloy furnishes a
good bearing
surface for the piston pins and knuckle pins.
Articulated rods, when made of steel, are usually constructed in an I or H cross section. These
configurations give the greatest strength and resistance to distortion with the lightest weight.

Knuckle pin
The knuckle pin resembles a piston pin. It is usually made of nickel steel, hollowed for lightness and for
the passage of lubricating oil, and surface-hardened to reduce wear.

Articulated rod
The articulated rod is bored and supplied with bushings at each end. One end receives the piston pin, and
the other end receives the knuckle pin.
The knuckle-pin bore in the articulated rod includes a bushing of nonferrous metal, which is usually
bronze. It is pinned, pressed, shrunk, or spun into place. The bushing must be bored to precise dimension
and alignment.
Knuckle pins installed with a loose fit so that they can turn in the master rod flange holes and also turn in
the articulated rod bushings are called full-floating knuckle pins. Knuckle pins also may be installed so
that they are prevented from turning in the master rod by means of a tight press fit. In either type of
installation a lock plate on each side bears against the knuckle pin and prevents it from moving laterally
(sideways).
Fig. 2-22 above shows a knuckle-pin and lock-plate assembly for a full-floating arrangement,

Fig. 2-23 Stationary knuckle-pin and lock-plate assembly.

Master-And-Articulated Rod Assembly

Radial engines use a master-and-articulated rod assembly to connect the pistons to the crankshaft. In this type of
assembly, one piston in each row of cylinders is connected to the crankshaft by a master rod. The remaining pistons are
connected to the master rod with articulated rods.
For example, a nine-cylinder single-row engine has one master rod and eight articulating rods and a double-row 18-
cylinder engine has two master rods and 16 articulating rods.

Construction
Master rods are typically manufactured from a steel alloy forging that is machined and heat-treated for maximum strength
Articulated rods are constructed of a forged steel alloy with an I- or H- cross-sectional profile. Bronze bushings are
pressed into the bores in each end of the articulated rods.

Master rod
The master rod serves as the only link between all of the pistons and the crankpin. The piston end of a master rod
contains the piston pin bearing. The crankpin end of a master rod contains the crankpin hearing (master rod bearing). A
typical crankpin bearing must be able to withstand the radial loads placed on the rod assembly. A set of flange holes is
machined around the crankpin end of a master rod to provide an attachment point for the articulated rods. A master rod can
be one piece or multiple pieces. As a rule, a one-piece rod is used with a multiple-piece crankshaft, while a multiple-piece
(or split-type) master rod is used with a single-piece crankshaft.
 Connecting-rod assemblies

PISTON
The piston is a cylindrical plunger that moves back and forth or up and down within an engine cylinder barrel. It
transmits the force of the burning and expanding gases in the cylinder through the connecting rod to the engine
crankshaft.
Pistons perform two primary functions; in conjunction with the valves, pistons manage the fuel, air, and exhaust pressures
in the cylinder and they transmit the force of combustion through the connecting rod to the crankshaft.
Construction
The pistons are usually high-strength aluminium alloy forgings with the top of the piston being the crown. The sides
around the bottom are called the skirt. They have grooves machined around them to hold the rings. The compression and
oil control rings to form a sliding gas-tight plug in the cylinder. The rings nearest the piston crown are compression rings
and prevent the gases in the combustion chamber from leaking into the crankcase. Oil control rings are installed in the
lower grooves and regulate the thickness of the oil film on the cylinder wall. They are made of cast iron or alloy steel and
have an expansion gap
Operation
As the piston moves down (toward the crankshaft) in the cylinder during the intake stroke, it draws in the fuel-air
mixture. As it moves up (toward the cylinder head), it compresses the charge. Ignition takes place, and the
expanding gases cause the piston to move toward the crankshaft. On the next stroke (toward the head), the piston
forces the burned gases out of the combustion chamber.
To obtain maximum engine life, the piston must be able to withstand high operating temperatures and pressures.
Materials
Pistons are usually made of an aluminum alloy which may be either forged or cast. Aluminum alloy 4140 is often
used for forged pistons. Cast pistons may be made of Alcoa 132 alloy.
Aluminum alloys are used because they are lightweight, have high heat conductivity, and have excellent bearing
characteristics.

The sides form the skirt. The underside of the piston head often contains ribs or other means of presenting
maximum surface area for contact with the lubricating oil splashed on it. This oil carries away part of the heat
conducted through the piston head.
Some pistons are constructed with a slightly oval cross section. The diameter perpendicular to the piston pin is
greater, to allow for more wear of the piston due to additional side thrust against the cylinder walls and to provide a
better fit at operating temperatures. Such a piston is called a cam ground piston and is shown in Fig. 2-25.
 FIG.2-25 Cam ground piston
The oval shape of the piston will hold the piston square in the cylinder when the engine is cold. This will reduce
piston slap or the piston cocking in the cylinder during engine warm-up. As the piston reaches operating
temperature, the oval shape will become round, providing the proper piston-cylinder-wall fit. This results from the
greater mass of metal perpendicular to the piston pin.
Grooves are machined around the outer surface of the piston to provide support for the piston rings. The metal
between the grooves is called a groove land, or simply a land. The grooves must be accurately dimensioned and
concentric with the piston.
The piston and ring assembly must form as nearly as possible a perfect seal with the cylinder wall. It must slide
along the cylinder wall with very little friction.
 Components of a complete piston assembly

Piston and Cylinder-Wall Clearance

Piston rings are used as seals to prevent the loss of gases between the piston and cylinder wall during all strokes. It would be
desirable to eliminate piston rings by making pistons large enough to form a gastight seal with the cylinder wall, but in that case
the friction between the piston and the cylinder wall would be too great and there would be no allowance for expansion and
contraction of the metals.
The piston is actually made a few thousandths of an inch smaller than the cylinder, and the rings are installed in the pistons to
seal the space between the piston and cylinder wall. If the clearance between the piston and the cylinder wall became too great,
the piston could wobble, causing piston slap.

Types of Pistons
Pistons may be classified according to the type of piston head used. The types of heads are;
• flat, recessed, concave,
• convex, and truncated cone,
Pistons in modern engines are usually of the flat-head type. The skirt of the piston may be of the trunk
type, trunk type relieved at the piston pin, or slipper type.

Fig. 2-28.Typical pistons for modern engines.

Note that some pistons have the skirt cut out at the bottom to clear the crankshaft counterweights.
The horsepower ratings of engines of the same basic design are changed merely by the use of different
pistons. A domed piston increases the compression ratio and the brake mean effective pressure (bmep)
when the engine is operating at a given rpm.

Piston-Ring Construction
Piston rings are usually made of high-grade gray cast iron that provides the spring action necessary to
maintain a steady pressure against the cylinder wall, thus retaining the necessary seal. Cast-iron rings do not lose their
elasticity even when they are exposed to rather high temperatures. The rings are split so that they can be slipped over the
outside of the piston and into the ring grooves which are machined on the circumference of the piston. Some compression
rings are given a chromium-plated surface on the face of the ring. This type of ring must never be used in a chromium-
plated cylinder.
The piston-ring gap may be a plain butt joint, a step joint, or an angle joint, as shown in Fig. 2-29. The butt joint is
commonly used in modern aircraft engines. When a piston ring is installed in a cylinder, there must be a specified gap
clearance between the ends of the joint to allow for heat expansion during engine operation. This gap dimension is
given in the Table of Limits for the engine.
If a piston ring does not have sufficient gap clearance, the ring may seize against the wall of the cylinder during operation
and cause scoring of the cylinder or failure of the engine. The joints of the piston rings must be staggered around the
circumference of the piston in which they are installed at the time that the piston is installed in the cylinder. This
staggering is done to reduce blow-by-that is, to reduce the flow of gases from the combustion chamber past the pistons
and into the crankcase.

Blow-by is evidenced by the emission of oil vapor and blue smoke from the engine breather. This same indication may
occur as a result of worn piston rings; in this case, it is caused by oil entering and burning in the combustion chamber,
and a part of the combustion gases blowing by the piston rings into the crankcase and out the breather. The greatest
wear in a reciprocating engine usually occurs between the piston rings and the cylinder walls; excessive emission of
blue smoke from the exhaust or from the engine breather indicates that repairs should be made.
The side clearances for the various rings are specified in the Table of Limits for the engine. Excessive side clearance
will allow the rings to cock in their grooves, subjecting the rings to considerable wear and possible breakage.

Functions of Piston Rings

The three principal functions of piston rings are:
• to provide a seal to hold the pressures in the combustion chamber,
• to prevent excessive oil from entering the combustion chamber, and
• to conduct the heat from the piston to the cylinder walls.

Types of Piston Rings

Piston rings in general may be of the same thickness throughout the circumference or they may vary, but aircraft
engine piston rings are almost always of the same thickness all the way around. Piston rings may be classified
according to function as;
• compression rings and
• oil rings.
The purpose of compression rings is to prevent gases from escaping past the piston during engine operation. The
compression rings are placed in the ring grooves immediately below the piston head. The number of compression
rings used on a piston is determined by the designer of the engine, but most aircraft engines have two or three
compression rings for each piston
The cross section of the compression ring may be rectangular, tapered, or wedge-shaped.
The rectangular cross section provides a straight bearing edge against the cylinder wall. The tapered and wedge-
shaped cross sections present a bearing edge which hastens the seating of a new ring against the hardened surface
of the cylinder wall.

Oil control ring

The principal purpose of oil rings is to control the quantity of lubricant supplied to the cylinder walls and to prevent
this oil from passing into the combustion chamber. The two types of oil rings are oil control rings and oil wiper
rings (sometimes called oil scraper rings).
Oil control rings are placed in the grooves immediately below the compression rings. There is generally only one oil
control ring on a piston. However, there may be one or two oil scraper rings.
The purpose of the oil control ring is to control the thickness of the oil film on the cylinder wall. The groove of the oil control
ring is often provided with holes drilled to the

Piston Pins
A piston pin, sometimes called a wrist pin, is used to attach the piston to the connecting rod. It is made of steel (AMS 6274 or
AMS 6322) hollowed for lightness and surface hardened or through-hardened to resist wear. The pin passes through the piston at
right angles to the skirt so that the piston can be anchored to the connecting-rod assembly. A means is provided to prevent the
piston pin from moving sideways in the piston and damaging the cylinder wall. The piston pin is mounted in bosses and bears
directly on the aluminum alloy of which the pistons are made. When the piston is made of an aluminum alloy, however, the
bosses may or may not be lined with some nonferrous (no iron or steel) metal, such as bronze. Fig. 2-32 shows a piston pin in a
piston-pin boss.
The piston pin passes through the piston bosses and through the small end of the connecting rod which rides on the
central part of the pin.
Classification - Piston pins are usually classified as;
• stationary (rigid),
• semi-floating, or
• full-floating piston pins.
The stationary(rigid), type is not free to move in any direction and is securely fastened in the boss by means of a setscrew.
The semifloating piston pin is securely held by means of a clamp screw in the end of the connecting rod and a half slot in the pin
itself.
The full-floating type is free to run or slide in both the connecting rod and the piston and is the most widely used in modern
aircraft engines.
Piston-Pin Retainers
The three devices used to prevent contact between the piston-pin ends and the cylinder wall is circlets, spring rings, and
nonferrous-metal plugs.
Circlets resemble piston rings and fit into grooves at the outside end of each piston boss. Spring rings are circular spring-steel
coils which fit into circular grooves cut into the outside end of each piston boss to prevent movement of the pin against the
cylinder wall.

Piston-pin plugs
Nonferrous-metal plugs, usually made of an aluminum alloy, are called piston-pin plugs and are used in most aircraft
engines. They are inserted in the open ends of a hollow piston pin to prevent the steel pin end from bearing against
the cylinder wall. The comparatively soft piston-pin plugs may bear against the cylinder walls without damage to either
the plug or the wall.
Piston pins are fitted into the pistons and the connecting rod with clearances of less than 0.001 in [0 .025 4 mm].
This is commonly called a "push fit" because the pin can be inserted in the piston boss by pushing with the palm of
the hand. The proper clearances for piston pins, bosses, and connecting rods are listed in the Table of Limits for any
particular engine

Cylinder Barrel

Alloy steel cylinder barrels provide a working surface for the piston rings. They must be strong enough to resist the
pressure of combustion and must quickly dissipate heat. Cooling fins are machined on the outside. providing an
increased surface area for cooling purposes.
For lightness and good heat dissipation, cylinder heads are usually made of aluminium alloy. They are usually
screwed and shrunk on to the top of the cylinder barrels. Like the barrels, they have fins to aid cooling, see fig.1.15
The cylinder head provides a mounting for the rocker arm assemblies, valves, valve guides, seat inserts, springs,
and sparking plugs.

The valves control the flow to and from the cylinder head via the intake and exhaust ports. Valve guides ensure the valves
move in one line of motion only, therefore preventing rocking. They are usually pressed into the cylinder head, whilst
valve seat inserts are ground to form a gas tight seal when the valves are closed. See fig. 1.16.
Valve springs ensure that the valves remain closed except when opened by the rocker mechanism.
Normally, there are two helical springs to each valve, coiled in opposite directions and of different
thickness and diameter to help eliminate valve bounce and for safety reasons. Split collars hold them
compressed between the cylinder head and the valve spring cap. See fig. 1.17. There are two threaded
holes for spark plugs in each cylinder head.

Valve Operation
A camshaft is driven at half engine speed, since the valves only operate once for every two revolutions of
the engine. As the camshaft rotates, the high point of the cam bears on the tappet.
This transmits vertical movement to a push rod that pushes up on the rocker arm causing it to bear down
on the valve, opening it against the valve springs. Further rotation of the camshaft relaxes the operating
mechanism and the springs close the valve. There is usually one cam lobe for each valve
A clearance must exist between the tappet and the push rod to ensure that the valve closes completely.
This tappet clearance causes noise and produces wear in the valve mechanism.
Should the tappet clearance be out of adjustment, the valve timing is affected. If the gap is too large, the
valves open late and close early, and vice versa. Fitting hydraulic tappets resolves this problem on most
current engines. These operate by using engine oil as a hydraulic fluid and automatically adjust the
tappet clearance, thus eliminating noise and wear, and reducing maintenance

• Sand casting.- A method of molding metal parts in a mold made of sand.

• Permanent-mold casting.- A casting made in a reusable metal mold. The walls of permanent-
mold castings can be made thinner than similar walls made by sand casting.
• Journal (bearing).A hardened and polished surface on a rotating shaft that rides in a plain bearing
• Honing (cylinder wall treatment). -Scratching the surface of the cylinder wall with an abrasive to
produce a series of grooves of microscopic depth and uniform pattern. The honed pattern holds
oil to lubricate the cylinder walls.
• Rms. Root mean square. A dimension that is the square root of the average of an infinite number
of varying values. An rms dimension is used to indicate the allowable
surface roughness of a reciprocating engine cylinder wall.
• Channel-chromed cylinders- Reciprocating engine cylinders with hard chromium plated walls.
The surface of this chrome plating forms a spider web of tiny stress
cracks. De-plating current enlarges the cracks and forms channels
that hold lubricating oil on the cylinder wall.
 • Nitriding. A method of case hardening steel. Steel is pIaced in a retort (a sealed, high-
temperature furnace), and heated to a specified temperature while surrounded by ammonia gas
(NH3). The ammonia breaks down into nitrogen and hydrogen, and the nitrogen unites with some
of the alloying elements in the steel to form an extremely hard surface. Nitriding hardens
crankshaft bearing surfaces and cylinder walls in reciprocating engines. It takes place at a lower
temperature than other forms of case hardening, and does not cause warping.

Heli-Coil insert. The registered trade name of a special helical insert used to restore threads stripped from
a bolt hole, or to reinforce the threads in an aluminum casting.

Rocker arm. A pivoted arm on the cylinder head of a reciprocating engine. The pushrod forces one end
of the rocker arm up, and as the other end moves down, it forces the poppet valve off of its
seat.
Poppet valve. A T-shaped valve with a circular head. Poppet valves are used to cover the intake and
exhaust openings in the cylinder head of a reciprocating engine. The valves are held closed
by one or more coil springs and are opened by a cam lobe or a rocker arm pushing on the
end of the valve stem.

Cylinders Assemblies
The cylinder of an internal-combustion engine converts the chemical heat energy of the fuel to
mechanical energy and transmits it through pistons and connecting rods to the rotating crankshaft. In
addition to developing the power from the fuel, the cylinder dissipates a substantial portion of the heat
produced by the combustion of the fuel, houses the piston and connecting-rod assembly, supports the
valves and a portion of the valve-actuating mechanism, and supports the spark plugs.

The cylinder assembly used for present-day engines usually includes the following components:
• cylinder barrel with an integral skirt,
• cylinder head,
• valve guides,
• valve rocker-arm supports,
• valve seats,
• spark plug bushings, and
• cooling fins.
The cylinder assemblies, together with the pistons, connecting rods, and crankcase section to which they
are attached, may be regarded as the main power section of the engine.

Cylinder sections
The two major units of the cylinder assembly are the cylinder barrel and the cylinder head. These are
shown in Fig. 2-34 below
Cylinder Barrel
In general, the barrel in which the piston reciprocates must be made of a high-strength steel alloy, be
constructed to save weight as much as possible, have the proper characteristics for operating under high
temperatures, be made of a good bearing material, and have high tensile strength.
The barrel is usually made of chromium-molybdenum steel or chromium nickel-molybdenum steel
which is initially forged to provide maximum strength.
The forging is machined to design dimensions with external fins and a smooth cylindrical surface inside.
After machining, the inside surface is honed to a specific finish to provide the proper bearing surface for
the piston rings.
The roughness of this surface must be carefully controlled. If it is too smooth, it will not hold sufficient
oil for the break-in period; if it is too rough, it will lead to excessive wear or other damage to both the
piston rings and the cylinder wall.

The inside of the cylinder barrel may be surface-hardened by means of nitriding, or it may be
chromium plated to provide a long-wearing surface.
Chromium plating is usually done as a repair procedure and is accomplished by plating chromium on
the cylinder wall.

Properties of chromium
Chromium provides a very hard surface and possesses several advantages when compared to plain-steel
or nitride cylinder walls.
• Its very resistant to corrosion and rusting.
• It has a uniform hardness and a very low coefficient of friction, and
• with the use of lubrication channels, it possesses excellent wear qualities.
Nitriding is a process whereby the nitrogen from anhydrous ammonia gas is forced to penetrate the
surface of the steel by exposing the barrel to the ammonia gas for 40 h or more while the barrel is at a
temperature of about 975°F [524°C] .

Chokebored cylinders
In some cylinders, the cylinder is bored with a slight taper. The end of the bore nearest the head is made
smaller than the skirt end to allow for the expansion caused by the greater operating temperatures near the
head. Such a cylinder is said to be choke bored; it provides a nearly straight bore at operating
temperatures.

Base of the cylinder

The base of the cylinder barrel incorporates (as part of the cylinder) a machined mounting flange by
which the cylinder is attached to the crankcase. The flange is drilled to provide holes for the mounting
studs or bolts. The holes are reamed for accurate dimensioning.
The cylinder skirt extends beyond the flange into the crankcase and makes it possible to use a shorter
connecting rod and to reduce the external dimensions of the engine.
The outer end of the cylinder barrel is usually provided with threads so that it can be screwed and
shrunk into the cylinder head, which is also threaded.
The cylinder head is heated in an oven to 57 5 to 600°F [302 to 3l6°C] and is then screwed onto the cool
cylinder barrel.
Fins
Cooling fins are generally machined directly on the outside of the barrel. This method provides the best
conduction of heat from the inside of the barrel to the cooling air. On some cylinders, the cooling fins
are on aluminum-alloy muffs or sleeves shrunk onto the outside of the barrel.
The barrel consists of a cylindrical, centrifugally cast sleeve of alloyed gray iron around which an
aluminum finned muff is die-cast. The aluminum muff (jacket) transmits heat from the liner to the cooling
fins.
Cylinder Heads
The cylinder head encloses the combustion chamber for the fuel-air mixture and contains the intake and
exhaust valves, valve guides, and valve seats. The cylinder head also provides the support for the rocker
shafts upon which the valve rocker arms are mounted.
The openings into which the spark plugs are inserted are provided in the cylinder head at positions
designed to provide the best burning pattern.
The spark plug openings on older engines may contain bronze bushings shrunk and staked, or pinned,
into the head. In most modern cylinders the threads are reinforced with steel inserts called Heli-Coils.
The Heli-Coil inserts make it possible to restore the thread by replacement of the inserts. Cylinder heads
are usually made of a cast aluminum alloy (AMS 4220 or equivalent), to provide maximum strength with
minimum weight.

One disadvantage of using aluminum alloys for cylinder heads is that the coefficient of expansion of
aluminum is considerably greater than that of steel.

The cooling fins are cast or machined on the outside of the cylinder head in a pattern that provides the
most efficient cooling and takes advantage of cylinder-head cooling baffles. The area surrounding the
intake passage and valve does not usually have cooling fins because the fuel-air mixture entering the
cylinder carries the head away. The intake side of the cylinder head can be quickly identified by noting
which side is not finned.
The interior shape of the cylinder head may be flat, peaked, or hemispherical, but the latter shape is
preferred because it is more satisfactory for scavenging the exhaust gases rapidly and thoroughly.

Joining the cylinder barrel to the head

The three methods used for joining the cylinder barrel to the cylinder head are;
• the threaded-joint method,
• the shrink fit method, and
• the stud-and-nut joint method.

The method most commonly employed for modem engines is the threaded joint method.
The threaded-joint method consists of chilling the cylinder barrel, which has threads at the head end, and
heating the cast cylinder head to about 575°F [302°C].
The cylinder head is threaded to receive the end of the barrel. A jointing compound is placed on the
threads to prevent compression leakage, and then the barrel is screwed into the cylinder head. When the
cylinder head cools, it contracts and grips the barrel tightly.
The cylinder head is provided with machined surfaces at the intake and exhaust openings for the
attachment of the intake and exhaust manifolds.

Valves
A valve is any device for regulating or determining the direction of flow of a liquid, gas, etc., by a movable part which
opens or closes a passage. The word "valve" is also applied to the movable part itself.
The main purpose of valves in an internal-combustion engine is to open and close ports, which are openings into the
combustion chamber of the engine.
One is called the intake port, and its function is to allow the fuel-air charge to enter the cylinder. The other is called the
exhaust port because it provides an opening through which burned gases are expelled from the cylinder.

Each cylinder must have at least one intake port and one exhaust port. On some liquid-cooled engines of high power
output, two intake and two exhaust ports are provided for each cylinder. The shape and form of all valves are determined
by the design and specifications of the particular engine in which they are installed.

Poppet-Type Valves
The word "poppet" comes from the popping action of the valve. This type of valve is made in four general configurations
with respect to the shape of the valve head:
• the flat headed valve,
• the semi-tulip valve,
• the tulip valve, and
• the mushroom valve. -- These are illustrated in Fig. 2-35.

Valves are subjected to high temperatures and a corrosive environment; therefore, they must be made of metals which
resist these deteriorating influences. Since intake (or inlet) valves operate at lower temperatures than exhaust valves, they
may be made of chromium-nickel steel. Exhaust valves, which operate at higher temperatures, are usually made of
nichrome, silchrome, or cobalt-chromium steel.

Poppet valves are made from these special steels and forged in one piece.
A valve stem is surface-hardened to resist wear. Since the valve tip must resist both wear and pounding, it is made of
hardened steel and welded to the end of the stem. There is a machined groove on the stem near the tip to receive split ring
stem keys. These stem keys hold a split lock ring (collet) to keep the valve-spring retaining washer in place.
The stems of some radial-engine valves have a narrow groove below the lock-ring groove for the installation of safety
circlets or spring rings which are designed to prevent the valves from falling into the combustion chambers if the tip
should break during engine operation or during valve disassembly and assembly.

Exhaust Valves
Exhaust valves operate at high temperatures, and they do not receive the cooling effect of the fuel-air charge; therefore,
they must be designed to dissipate heat rapidly.
This is accomplished by making the exhaust valve with a hollow stem, and in some cases with a hollow mushroom
head, and by partly filling the hollow portion with metallic sodium. The sodium melts at a little over 200°F [93.3°C], and
during operation it flows back and forth in the stem, carrying heat from the head and dissipating it through the valve
guides into the cylinder head.
Cooling
The cylinder head is cooled by fins, as explained previously. In some engines, exhaust valve stems contain a salt that
serves as the cooling agent.
Not all lower-power engines are equipped with sodium filled exhaust valves.
Nb; Under no circumstances should a sodium valve be cut open, hammered, or otherwise subjected to treatment which
may cause it to rupture. Furthermore, sodium valves must always be disposed of in an appropriate manner.

The faces of high-performance exhaust valves are often made more durable by the application of about 1/16 in [1.59 mm]
of a material called Stellite (a very hard, heat resisting alloy).
This alloy is welded to the face of the valve and then ground to the correct angle. Stellite is resistant to high-temperature
corrosion and withstands exceptionally well the shock and wear associated with valve operation.
The face of the valve is usually ground to an angle of either 30 or 45°. In some engines, the intake valve face is ground to
an angle of 30°, and the exhaust valve face is ground to 45°. The 30° angle provides better airflow, and the 45° angle
allows increased heat flow from the valve to the valve seat. This is of particular benefit to the exhaust valve.
The tip of the valve stem is often made of high-carbon steel or Stellite so it can be hardened to resist wear. Remember
that the tip of the valve stem is continuously receiving the impact of the rocker arm as the rocker arm opens and closes
the valve.
 Fig.2-28 Hollow sodium filled exhaust valve

Intake Valves
Specially cooled valves are not generally required for the intake port of an engine because the intake valves are cooled
by the fuel-air mixture. For this reason, the most commonly used intake valves have solid stems, and the head may be
flat or of the tulip type. The valve is forged from one piece of alloy steel and then machined to produce a smooth finish.
The stem is accurately dimensioned to provide the proper clearance in the valve guide. The intake valve stem has a
hardened tip similar to that of the exhaust valve.
Intake valves for low-power engines usually have fiat heads. Tulip-type heads are often used on the intake valves
for high-power engines because the tulip shape places the metal of the head more nearly in tension, thus reducing the
stresses where the head joins the stem.

Valve Guides
Valve guides are positioned to support and guide the stems of the valves. Intake valve guides are made of bronze
and exhaust valve guides of a slightly alloyed cast-iron known as Ni-resist, and have an interference fit in the
cylinder head. The outside diameter of the guide is larger than the diameter of the hole into which it fits. The head is
heated to expand the hole, and the guide is driven into the head with a special drift. They are shrunk into bored
bosses with a 0.001- to 0.0025-in [0.025 4- to 0.063 5-mm] tight fit. Fig. 2-37

Fig. 2-37 Valve Guides installed in a cylinder head

Installation
Before the valve guides are installed, the cylinder head is heated to expand the holes in which the guides
are to be installed. The guides are then pressed into place or driven in with a special drift. When the
cylinder head cools, the guide is gripped so tightly that it will not become loose, even under severe
heating conditions.
It is common practice when valve guides are replaced to install new guides which are approximately
0.002 in [0.05 mm] larger than the holes in which they are to be installed.

Materials
Valve guides are made of aluminum bronze, tin bronze, or steel, and in some cylinders the exhaust valve
guide is made of steel while the intake valve guide is made of bronze.

Valve Seats
The aluminum alloy used for making engine cylinder heads is not hard enough to withstand the constant
hammering produced by the opening and closing of the valves. For this reason, bronze or steel valve
seats are shrunk or screwed into the circular edge of the valve opening in the cylinder head,
as shown in Fig. 2-37.
A typical six-cylinder opposed engine has forged aluminum-bronze intake valve seats and forged
chromium-molybdenum steel seats for the exhaust valves. In some cases the exhaust valve seat is made
as valve guides

Valve Springs & Retainers

Valves are closed by helical-coil springs. Two or more springs, one inside the other, are installed over the
stem of each valve.
Reasons
• If only one spring were used on each valve, the valve would surge and bounce because of the
natural vibration frequency of the spring.
• A second reason for the use of two (or more) valve springs on each valve is that it reduces the
possibility of failure by breakage from heat and metal fatigue.

Valve Springs & Retainers

Installation
The valve springs are held in place by steel valve-spring retainers, which are special washers shaped to fit
the valve springs. The lower retainer seats against the cylinder head, & the upper retainer is provided with
a conical recess into which the split stem keys (keepers) fit. The valve-spring retainers are sometimes
called the upper and lower valve-spring seats
Valve Operating Mechanism
The purpose of a valve operating mechanism in an aircraft engine is to control the timing of the engine valves so that
each valve will open at the correct time, remain open for the required time, and close at the proper time.
The mechanism should be simple in design, be ruggedly constructed, and give satisfactory service for a long time with a
minimum of inspection and maintenance.
Valve Types
The two types of valve operating mechanisms most generally used today are;
• the type found in the opposed engine and
• the type used in a typical radial engine.
Since both these engines are equipped with overhead valves (valves in the cylinder head), the valve operating mechanisms
for each are quite similar.

Valve Mechanism Components

A standard valve operating mechanism includes certain parts which are found in both opposed and radial engines. These
parts may be described briefly as follows:
• Cam- A device for actuating the valve lifting mechanism.
• Valve lifter or tappet -A mechanism for transmitting the force of the cam to the valve pushrod.
• Pushrod - A steel or aluminum-alloy rod or tube, situated between the valve lifter and the rocker arm of the
valve operating mechanism for transmitting the motion of the valve lifter.
• Rocker arm- A pivoted arm, mounted on bearings in the cylinder head, for opening and closing the valves. One
end of the arm presses on the stem of the valve, and the other end receives motion from the
pushrod.
 Valve Operating Mechanisms(gear train)

The valve operating camshaft in an opposed or in-line engine consists of a shaft with a number of cam lobes sufficient to
operate all the intake and exhaust valves of the engine.

Typical Example
In a typical six-cylinder opposed engine, the camshaft has three groups of three cam lobes, as shown in Fig. 2-38 below. In
each group, the center lobe actuates the valve lifters for the two opposite intake valves, whereas the outer lobes of each
group actuate the lifters for the exhaust valves.

In a radial engine, the valve actuating device is a cam plate (or cam ring) with three or more lobes. In a five cylinder
radial engine, the cam ring usually has three lobes; in a seven-cylinder radial engine, the cam ring has three or four lobes;
and in a nine-cylinder radial engine, the cam ring has four or five lobes.
Valve operating mechanisms for in-line and V-type engines utilize camshafts similar to those installed in opposed engines.
The shaft incorporates single cam lobes placed at positions along the shaft which enable them to actuate the valve lifters or
rocker arms at the correct times.
Some in-line and V-type engines have overhead camshafts. The camshaft is mounted along the top of the cylinders and
is driven by a system of bevel gears through a shaft leading from the

Rocker Arms
The rocker arms used on horizontally opposed engines are made of forged steel with bronze bushings, which ride on the
rocker arm shaft, pressed into them.
The end in which the pushrod rides has a socket that fits the hemispherical end of the pushrod. A hole is drilled on exhaust
arms and Continental intake arms from this socket to the bushing to allow oil that flows through the hollow pushrod to
lubricate the bushing.
The end of the rocker arm that rides on the valve stem and pushes the valve open is ground in a smooth curve and polished
This arc decreases the side load placed on the valve guide by the valve stem when the valve is pushed open.

Typical rocker arms for a horizontally opposed engine

Valve Mechanism for Opposed Engines

The valve action starts with the crankshaft timing gear, which meshes with the camshaft gear. As the crankshaft turns, the
camshaft also turns, but at one-half the rpm of the crankshaft.
This is because a valve operates only once during each cycle and the crankshaft makes two revolutions (r) per cycle. A
cam lobe on the camshaft raises the cam roller and therefore the pushrod to which the cam roller is attached. The ramp on
each side of the cam lobe is designed to reduce opening and closing shock through the valve operating mechanism. In
opposed engines, a cam roller is not employed, and in its place is a tappet or a hydraulic lifter.
The pushrod raises one end of the rocker arm and lowers the other end, thus depressing the valve, working against
the tension of the valve spring which normally holds the valve closed. When the cam lobe has passed by the valve lifter,
the valve will close by the action of the valve spring or springs.
Adjacent to each cam lobe is the cam follower face, which forms the base of the hydraulic valve lifter or lappet assembly.
The outer cylinder of the assembly is called the lifter body.

Hydraulic unit assembly

Inside the lifter body is the hydraulic unit assembly, consisting of the following parts:
• cylinder,
• plunger,
• plunger springs,
• ball check valve, and
• oil inlet tube.
 Fig. 2-40 is an illustration of the complete lifter assembly.

During operation, engine oil under pressure is supplied to the oil reservoir in the lifter body through an inlet hole in the
side, as shown in Fig. 2-41. Since this oil is under pressure directly from the main oil gallery of the engine, it flows into
the oil inlet tube, through the ball check valve, and into the cylinder. The pressure of the oil forces the plunger against
the pushrod socket and takes up all the clearances in the valve operating mechanism during operation. For this reason,
a lifter of this type has been called a "zero-lash lifter."
When the cam is applying force to the cam follower face, the oil in the cylinder tends to flow back into the oil reservoir,
but this is prevented by the ball check valve.

During overhaul of the engine, the hydraulic valve lifter assembly must be very carefully inspected. All the parts of
a given assembly must be reassembled in order to ensure proper operation.
The ball end of the hollow valve pushrod fits into the pushrod socket, or cup, which bears against the plunger in the lifter.
Both the socket and the ball end of the pushrod are drilled to provide a passage for oil to flow into the pushrod.
This oil flows through the pushrod and out a hole at the end (the hole fits the pushrod socket in the rocker arm), thus
bearing and valve mechanism

FIG. 2-41 Hydraulic valve lifter assembly cutaway view providing lubrication for the rocker arm bearing (bushing)
and valves. The rocker arm is drilled to permit oil flow to the
.
One end of each rocker arm bears directly against the hardened tip of the valve stem. When the rocker arm is rotated by
the pushrod, the valve is depressed, acting against the valve spring pressure. The distance the valve opens and the time it
remains open are determined by the height and contour of the cam lobe.

Valve Clearance
Every engine must have a slight clearance between the rocker arm and the valve stem. When there is no clearance, the
valve may be held off its seat when it should be seated (closed).
This will cause the engine to operate erratically, and eventually the valve will be damaged. If, however, an engine is
equipped with hydraulic valve lifters, there will be no apparent clearance at the valve stem during engine operation.
The cold clearance for the valves on an engine is usually much less than the "hot" (or operating) clearance. This is
true except when the engine is equipped with an overhead cam. The reason for the difference in hot and cold clearances
is that the cylinder on an engine becomes much hotter than the pushrod and therefore expands more than the pushrod.
In effect, this shortens the pushrod and leaves a gap between the pushrod and the rocker arm or between the rocker arm
and the valve stem.

The hot valve clearance of an engine can be as much as 0.070 in [1.778 mm], while the cold clearance may be 0.010 in
[0.254 mm]. In adjusting the valve clearance of an engine, the technician must make sure that the cam is turned to a
position where it is not applying any pressure on the pushrod. For any particular cylinder, it is good practice to place the
piston in position for the beginning of the power stroke. At this point both cams are well away from the valve tappets for
the valves being adjusted.
On an adjustable rocker arm, the locknut is loosened and a feeler gauge of the correct thickness is inserted between the
rocker arm and the valve stem.
The adjusting screw is turned to a point where a slight drag is felt on the feeler gauge. The lock screw or locknut is then
tightened to the proper torque while the adjusting screw is held in place. After the adjusting screw has been locked, a
feeler gauge 0.001 in [0.025 4 mm]
thicker than the gauge used for adjusting the clearance cannot be inserted in the gap if the clearance is correct.
It must be emphasized at this point that valve timing and valve adjustment, particularly of the exhaust valve, have
an important effect on the heat rejection (cooling) of the engine. If the exhaust valve does not open at precisely the
right moment, the exhaust gases will not leave the cylinder head when they should and heat will continue to be transferred
to the walls of the combustion chamber and cylinder.
However, the exhaust valve must be seated long enough to transfer the heat of the valve head to the valve seat; otherwise,
the valve may overheat and warp or burn. Inadequate
valve clearance may prevent the valves from seating positively during starting and warm-up; if the valve clearance is
excessive, the valve-open time and the valve overlap will be
reduced.
When it is necessary to adjust the valves of an engine designed with a floating cam ring, special procedures must
be followed. The floating cam ring for an R-2800 engine may have a clearance at the bearing of 0.013 to 0.020 in
[0.330 to 0.508 mm], and this clearance will affect the valve adjustment if it is not eliminated at the point where the
valves are being adjusted. The clearance is called cam float and is eliminated by depressing certain valves while others
are being adjusted.

Accessory Section for an Opposed Engine

The accessory case for a Lycoming opposed engine is shown in Fig. 2-48. This case is constructed from
aluminum or magnesium and is secured to the rear of the crankcase.
The accessory case conforms to the shape of the crankcase and forms part of the seal for the oil sump.
The accessory case generally is for the purpose of housing and driving the engine accessories. To perform
this function, it has mounting pads for the various accessories that the engine or the aircraft systems
require.
Some of the engine accessories that the c tachometer drives, and vacuum pumps. The accessory case
shown in Fig. 2-48 is equipped with a dual magneto; therefore, this example contains only one magneto.
On many engines the accessory case has an internal pad to which the oil pump and its housing are bolted.
There is generally a gasket between the accessory case and the engine crankcase. There is also a gasket
between all engine-driven accessories and the accessory case. The accessory drive gears are usually
mounted on the end of the crankcase. The accessory drive gears are housed in a cavity between the
crankcase and the accessory case and are lubricated by engine oil.
In some engines the fuel pump is activated through the use of a plunger which is driven by an elliptical
lobe on one of the accessory drive gears.
Generally the accessory drive gears consist of a crankshaft gear, an idler gear, a camshaft gear, and
various other gears which drive all the engine accessories.
The accessory case also serves as part of the lubrication system. As previously mentioned, the oil pump is
housed with its drive gear and idler gear on the internal side of the accessory case. In some cases the oil
pump and its housing are mounted externally on the accessory case ase houses are the magnetos, oil
filters, fuel pumps
Defns
push fit. A fit between pieces in a mechanical assembly that is close enough to require the parts to be
pushed together. A push fit is looser than a press fit, but closer than a free fit.
journal (bearing). A hardened and polished surface on a rotating shaft that rides in a plain bearing.
cheek (crankshaft). The offset portion of crankshaft that connects the crankpin to the main bearing
journals.
epicyclic reduction gears. A gear train in which a series of small planetary gears rotate around a central
gear. More commonly called a planetary gear train.
zero-lash valve lifter. A hydraulic valve lifter that maintains zero clearance in the valve actuating
mechanism.

Oil Wiper or Scraper Rings

The ring that is installed at the bottom of the piston is called an oil wiper or scraper. Its function is to assure that the
proper amount of oil is on the cylinder wall. Wiper rings normally have a beveled edge so that they act as effective
pumps, and it is extremely important that the bevel be installed in the proper direction relative to the piston head. If
the bevel is away from the head, oil will be forced up toward the oil control ring, and if the bevel is toward the
piston head, oil will be pumped away from the piston. See
Figure 2-34 on the previous page.

Camshaft
The camshaft used on a horizontally opposed engine is a steel shaft with lobes and bearing journals machined on it.
The lobes and journals are ground and polished and case hardened to increase their resistance to wear. The body of
the camshaft is not case hardened, so it remains tough and resilient. The drive gear that meshes with a gear on the
crankshaft is positioned by a dowel pin, or unequally spaced bolt attach holes, that assures that the gear and the
lobes on the shaft are in correct alignment. The lobes are tapered from side-to-side across the opening and closing
ramps and the apex. This taper causes the lifter to rotate, thus changing the bearing action across the lifter face to a
rolling friction rather then a sliding one. This design drastically increases the life of these two surfaces.
The camshaft for a four-cylinder engine has six lobes, with two of the lobes actuating intake valves in cylinders on
opposite sides of the engine.
The camshaft for a six-cylinder engine has nine lobes, with three of the lobes actuating valves in two cylinders. See
Figure 2-55.

Fig.2-55 a Camshsft for a typical six cylinder horizontally opposed engine

Valve Lifters
Some of the smaller horizontally opposed engines and all radial engines use solid valve lifters. These
lifters require an adjustment on the rocker arm that allows a specific clearance to be maintained in the
valve operating train. The majority of horizontally opposed engines use hydraulic valve lifters, and they
are discussed here. Solid lifters are discussed with radial engines.

Push rods
Pushrods used in almost all horizontally opposed aircraft engines are made of hollow steel or aluminum
alloy tubes with hardened and polished spherical steel inserts pressed into each end. The inserts are drilled
so engine lubricating oil can flow through the hollow pushrod to lubricate the valve mechanism in the
rocker boxes on the cylinder heads.
The pushrods are housed in thin-wall aluminum shrouds, and in Continental engines the oil from the
rocker boxes returns to the engine through these tubes. This is possible because Continental places the
camshaft below the crankshaft at the bottom of the crankcase. Lycoming places the camshaft above the
crankshaft and has to use rocker box drain tubes to drain oil back to the crankcase.

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