Antenna Arrays

EE-4382/5306 - Antenna Engineering

 Outline
• Introduction
• Two Element Array
• Rectangular-to-Polar Graphical Solution
• N-Element Linear Array: Uniform Spacing and
Amplitude
– Theory of N-Element Linear Array
– Rectangular to Polar Graphical Solution
– Broadside Array
– Ordinary End-Fire Array
– Phased Array
– Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array
• N-Element Linear Array: Directivity
• Design Procedure
• Radio Observatory Antenna Arrays
Linear Antenna Arrays 2
Introduction

3
Antenna Arrays - Introduction
Antenna arrays are a configuration of multiple radiating elements in a
geometrical order. Antenna arrays are an efficient way to freely change
the pattern of an antenna, making it more directive and therefore
increasing the gain. Electronically adjusting the excitation of individual
elements leads to a phased (scanning) array, which enables greater
degrees of freedom.

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 4

Antenna Arrays - Introduction
In an array of identical radiating elements, there are at least five factors
that can be controlled to shape the overall pattern:

1. The geometrical configuration of the array (linear, circular,

rectangular, elliptical, etc.)
2. The relative displacement between the elements
3. The excitation amplitude of the individual elements
4. The excitation phase of the individual elements
5. The relative pattern of the individual elements

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 5

Two-Element Array

6
 Two-Element Array
Two infinitesimal dipoles are placed along the z-axis. The total field
radiated assuming no mutual coupling, is equal to the sum of the two
elements. In the y-z plane:
𝐸𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2
𝛽 𝛽
−𝑗 𝑘𝑟1 − 2 −𝑗 𝑘𝑟2 − 2
𝑘𝐼0 𝑙 𝑒 𝑒
=𝒂ෝ𝜃 𝑗𝜂 cos 𝜃1 + cos 𝜃2
4𝜋 𝑟1 𝑟2
Where the 𝛽 is the difference in the
phase excitation between elements.
Assuming far-field observations:
𝜃1 ≅ 𝜃2 ≅ 𝜃
𝑑
𝑟1 ≅ 𝑟 − cos(𝜃)
2
𝑑
𝑟2 ≅ 𝑟 + cos 𝜃
2
𝑟1 ≅ 𝑟2 ≅ 𝑟
Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 7
 Two-Element Array
Assuming far-field observations, the total field becomes
𝑘𝐼0 𝑙𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟
ෝ𝜃 𝑗𝜂
𝐸𝑡 = 𝒂 cos 𝜃 𝑒 +𝑗 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 +𝛽 /2 + 𝑒 +𝑗 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 +𝛽 /2
4𝜋𝑟
𝑘𝐼0 𝑙𝑒 −𝑗𝑘𝑟 1
ෝ𝜃 𝑗𝜂
𝐸𝑡 = 𝒂 cos 𝜃 2 cos 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 + 𝛽
4𝜋𝑟 2

Field of single element Array Factor

1
AF = 2cos (𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 + 𝛽
2
1
(AF)𝑛 = cos (𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 + 𝛽
2
𝐸 total = 𝐸 single element at ref. point × [array factor]
Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 8
 Two-Element Array - Examples

Given the array shown for two

identical isotropic sources, find
the total field when 𝑑 = 𝜆/2 and
𝛽 = 0.

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 9

 Two-Element Array - Examples

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 10

 Two-Element Array - Examples

Given the array shown for two

identical isotropic sources, find
the normalized total field when
𝑑 = 𝜆/4 and 𝛽 = −90° .

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 11

 Two-Element Array - Examples

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 12

 Two-Element Array - Examples

Given the array shown for two

identical isotropic sources, find
the normalized total field when
𝑑 = 𝜆 and 𝛽 = 0° .

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 13

 Two-Element Array – Examples

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 14

 Isotropic Point Sources – Array
Factor for two elements

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 15

 Isotropic Point Sources – Array
Factor for two elements

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 16

 Two-Element Array - Examples

Given the array shown for two

identical infinitesimal dipoles, find
by the nulls of the total field when
𝑑 = 𝜆/4 and
a. 𝛽 = 0
b. 𝛽 = +𝜋/2
c. 𝛽 = −𝜋/2

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 17

 Two-Element Array - Examples

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 18

 Two-Element Array - Examples

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 19

 Two-Element Array - Examples

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 20

 Antenna Array – Scanning Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 21

 N-Element Linear Array:
Uniform Amplitude and Spacing

22
 Linear Array: Uniform Amplitude
and Spacing
An uniform array is an array of elements, all
with identical magnitude, and each with a
progressive phase.

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 23

 Linear Array: Uniform Amplitude
and Spacing

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 24

 Linear Array: Uniform Amplitude
and Spacing
𝐴𝐹 = 1 + 𝑒 +𝑗(𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 +𝛽) + 𝑒 +𝑗2(𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 +𝛽) + ⋯ + 𝑒 +𝑗 𝑁−1 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 +𝛽
𝑁

AF = ෍ 𝑒 +𝑗 𝑛−1 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 +𝛽

𝑛=1
𝑁

AF = ෍ 𝑒 +𝑗 𝑛−1 Ψ

𝑛=1

Ψ = 𝑘𝑑 cos(𝜃) + 𝛽

Another useful expression is the closed form expression of the array factor.

Multiply by 𝑒 𝑗Ψ 𝐴𝐹 𝑒 𝑗Ψ = 𝑒 𝑗Ψ + 𝑒 𝑗2Ψ + 𝑒 𝑗3Ψ + ⋯ + 𝑒 𝑗𝑁Ψ

Subtract AF summation 𝐴𝐹 𝑒 𝑗Ψ − 1 = (−1 + 𝑒 𝑗𝑁Ψ )

𝑁
𝑗 2 Ψ
𝑁
−𝑗 2 Ψ 𝑁
𝑒 𝑗𝑁Ψ 𝑁−1
𝑗 2 Ψ 𝑒 − 𝑒 𝑁−1
𝑗 2 Ψ
sin 2 Ψ
Simplify 𝐴𝐹 = = 𝑒 1 1 = 𝑒
𝑒 𝑗Ψ − 1 𝑗 2 Ψ −𝑗 2 Ψ 1
𝑒 − 𝑒 sin 2 Ψ
Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 25
 Linear Array: Uniform Amplitude
and Spacing
𝑁 𝑁
sin 2 Ψ sin 2 Ψ
AF = ≅
1 Ψ
sin 2 Ψ 2

𝑁 𝑁
1 sin 2 Ψ sin 2 Ψ
𝐴𝐹𝑛 = ≅ for small values of Ψ
𝑁 Ψ 𝑁
2 2Ψ
Ψ = 𝑘𝑑 cos(𝜃) + 𝛽

The nulls are given by setting the array factor to 0.

𝑁 𝑁 𝜆 2𝑛
sin Ψ =0 >> Ψቚ = ±𝑛𝜋 > > 𝜃𝑛 = cos −1 −𝛽 ± 𝜋
2 2 𝜃=𝜃𝑛 2𝜋𝑑 𝑁

𝑛 = 1,2,3, … (𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙)
𝑛 ≠ 𝑁, 2𝑁, 3𝑁, … (𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚)
The number of nulls that can exist will be a function of the element separation 𝑑 and phase
excitation difference 𝛽.
Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 26
 Linear Array: Rectangular Plot
First main maximum occurs when
𝜓
=0 >>Ψ=0
2
The principal maxima occurs when
−1
𝜆𝛽
𝜃𝑚 = cos
2𝜋𝑑
Other main maxima occurs when
Ψ = ±2𝑚𝜋, 𝑚 = 1,2,3, …

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 27

 Linear Array: Rectangular Plot

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 28

 Linear Array: Rectangular Plot

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 29

 Linear Array: Rectangular Plot

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 30

 Linear Array: Rectangular Plot
Observations for rectangular plots of linear arrays with elements that
are equally spaced, uniformly excited:

1. As 𝑁 increases, the main lobe narrows

2. As 𝑁 increases, there are more side lobes in one period of 𝑓(Ψ).
In fact, the number of full lobes (one main lobe and the side
lobes) in one period of 𝑓(Ψ) equals 𝑁 − 1. There are 𝑁 − 2 side
lobes in each period.
3. The minor lobes are of width 2𝜋/𝑁 in the variable Ψ and the
major lobes are twice this width.
4. The side lobe peaks decrease with increasing 𝑁.
5. 𝑓 Ψ is symmetric about 𝜋.

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 31

 Rectangular to Polar Graphical
Solution

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 32

 Rectangular to Polar Graphical
Solution
In antenna theory, many solutions are of the form

𝑓 𝜁 = 𝑓(𝐶 cos 𝛾 + 𝛿)

Where 𝐶 and 𝛿 are constants and 𝛾 is a variable. The approximate array

sin 𝜁
factor of an N-element, uniform amplitude linear array is a where
𝜁
𝑁 𝑁
𝜁 = 𝐶 cos(𝛾) + 𝛿 = Ψ = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 + 𝛽
2 2
𝑁
𝐶 = 𝑘𝑑
2
𝑁
𝛿= 𝛽
2
The 𝑓 𝜁 function can be plotted in rectilinear coordinates, and
transferred to a polar graph.
Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 33
 Rectangular to Polar Graphical
Solution
The procedure that must be followed in the construction of the polar
graph is as follows:

1. Plot, using rectilinear coordinates, the function 𝑓 𝜁 .

2. a) Draw a circle with radius C and its center on the abscissa at 𝜁 = 𝛿
b) Draw vertical lines to the abscissa so that they will intersect the
circle.
c) From the center of the circle, draw radial lines through the points
of the circle intersected by the vertical lines.
d) Along radial lines, mark off corresponding magnitudes from the
linear plot.
e) Connect all points to form a continuous graph.

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 34

 Rectangular to Polar Graphical
Solution

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 35

 Four element linear array -
Example
Find and plot the array factor of a four-element, uniformly excited,
equally spaced array. The spacing is 𝜆/2 and 90° interelement phasing
(i.e. 𝛽 = 𝜋/2).

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 36

 Four element linear array -
Example

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 37

 Two element linear array -
Examples
Find and plot the array factor of a two-element, isotropic, equally
spaced array with distance d = 𝜆/2 and uniform phase excitation 𝛼 =
0°

Find and plot the same array factor of a two-element, isotropic,

equally spaced array with distance d = 𝜆/2 but with phase excitation
𝛼 = 180°

Find and plot the same array factor of a two-element, isotropic,

equally spaced array with distance d = 𝜆/4 but with phase excitation
𝛼 = −90°

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 38

 Two element linear array -
Examples

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 39

 Five element Endfire Linear Array
- Examples
Find and plot the array factor of a five-element, isotropic, equally
spaced array with distance d = 0.45𝜆 and uniform phase excitation
𝛼 = 0.9𝜋

Find and plot the array factor of a five-element, isotropic, equally

spaced array with distance d = 0.5𝜆 and uniform phase excitation 𝛼 =
𝜋

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 40

 Five element linear array -
Examples

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 41

Broadside Array
In many applications it is desirable to have the maximum radiation of
an array directed normal to the axis of the array (𝜃 = 90° ). To optimize
this design, both the maxima of the single element and the array
factor should be both directed toward 𝜃 = 90° .
Recall the maximum of the array factor occurs when
Ψ = 𝑘𝑑 cos(𝜃) + 𝛽 = 0
Since it is desired to have the first maximum directed toward 𝜃 = 90°

Ψ = 𝑘𝑑 cos(𝜃) + 𝛽 ቚ =𝛽=0
𝜃=90°

To have the maximum of the array factor in an uniform linear array

directed to the broadside to the axis, all elements need to have the
same phase excitation.

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 42

Broadside Array
To ensure that there are no other maxima in other directions (grating
lobes), the separation between the elements should not be equal to
multiples of a wavelength (𝑑 ≠ 𝑛𝜆, 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …) when 𝛽 = 0.
If 𝑑 = 𝑛𝜆, 𝑛 = 1,2,3, and 𝛽 = 0, then

Ψ = 𝑘𝑑 cos 𝜃 + 𝛽ȁ 𝑑=𝑛𝜆 = 2𝜋𝑛 cos 𝜃 ȁ𝜃=0,𝜋 = ±2𝑛𝜋 avoid this!

𝛽=0
𝑛=1,2,3,…

To avoid any grating lobes, the largest spacing between the elements
should be less than one wavelength (𝑑 = 𝜆)

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 43

 Broadside Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 44

 Broadside Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 45

 Broadside Array

Introduction to Antennas Slide 46

 Broadside Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 47

 Ordinary End-Fire Array
Instead of having the maximum radiation broadside to the axis of an
array, it may be desirable to direct it along the axis of the array (end-
fire). Sometimes it may be desirable that it radiates toward only one
direction (𝜃 = 0° , 180° )

For the maximum toward 𝜃 = 0° :

Ψ = 𝑘𝑑 cos(𝜃) + 𝛽 ቚ = 𝑘𝑑 + 𝛽 = 0 > > 𝛽 = −𝑘𝑑
𝜃=0°

For the maximum toward 𝜃 = 180° :

Ψ = 𝑘𝑑 cos(𝜃) + 𝛽 ቚ = −𝑘𝑑 + 𝛽 = 0 > > 𝛽 = 𝑘𝑑
𝜃=180°

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 48

 Ordinary End-Fire Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 49

 Ordinary End-Fire Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 50

 Ordinary End-Fire Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 51

 Ordinary End-Fire Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 52

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 53
 Scanning/Phased Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 54

 Scanning/Phased Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 55

 Scanning/Phased Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 56

Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array
We discussed the conditions to have an ordinary end-fire array in the
previous sections.
In order to enhance the directivity of an end-fire array without
destroying any of the other characteristics, Hansen and Woodyard
proposed in 1938 proposed that the required phase shift between
closely spaced elements of a very long array should be
For the maximum toward 𝜃 = 0° :
2.92 𝜋
𝛽 = − 𝑘𝑑 + ≅ − 𝑘𝑑 +
𝑁 𝑁
For the maximum toward 𝜃 = 180° :
2.92 𝜋
𝛽 = − 𝑘𝑑 + ≅ + 𝑘𝑑 +
𝑁 𝑁
For both directions, spacing should be
𝑁−1 𝜆 𝜆
𝑑= ≅ for large N
Linear Antenna Arrays
𝑁 4 4 Slide 57
 Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 58

 Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 59

 Linear Arrays - Summary

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 60

 Linear Arrays - Summary

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 61

 N-Element Linear Arrays:
Directivity

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 62

 Antenna Array Directivity
For a linear antenna array, determine total length by

𝐿 = 𝑁−1 𝑑

For a large broadside array (𝐿 ≫ 𝑑), directivity reduces to

𝑑 𝐿 𝑑 𝐿
𝐷0 ≅ 2𝑁 =2 1+ ≅2
𝜆 𝑑 𝜆 𝜆

For a large ordinary end-fire array (𝐿 ≫ 𝑑), directivity reduces to

𝑑 𝐿 𝑑 𝐿
𝐷0 ≅ 4𝑁 =4 1+ ≅4
𝜆 𝑑 𝜆 𝜆

For a Hansen-Woodyard end-fire array (𝐿 ≫ 𝑑), directivity reduces to

𝑑 𝐿 𝑑 𝐿
𝐷0 ≅ 1.805 4𝑁 = 1.805 4 1 + ≅ 1.805 4
𝜆 𝑑 𝜆 𝜆

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 63

 Linear Arrays: Design
Procedure

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 64

 Linear Arrays: Design Procedure

𝐿+𝑑
𝑁=
𝑑
𝐿 = 𝑁−1 𝑑

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 65

 Linear Arrays: Design Procedure
Example
Design an uniform linear scanning array whose maximum array
factor is 30° from the axis of the array 𝜃 = 30° . The desired half-
power beamwidth is 2° while the spacing of the elements is 𝜆/4.
Determine the phase excitation of the elements, length of the array
(in wavelengths), number of the elements, and directivity (in dB).

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 66

 Radio Observatory Antenna
Arrays

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 67

Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA)
• It’s a cm-wavelength radio astronomy
observatory located 50 miles west of
Socorro, NM
• The radio telescope comprises 27
independent antennae, each of which
has a dish diameter of 25 meters and
weighs 209 metric tons.
• The antennae are distributed along
the three arms of a track, shaped in a
wye-configuration, (each of which
measures 21 km).
• The frequency coverage is 74 MHz to
50 GHz (400 to 0.7 cm)

Linear Antenna Arrays Slide 68

Very Long Baseline Array

http://www.vlba.nrao.edu
Linear Antenna Arrays /sites/ Slide 69
Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA)
and High Sensitivity Array (HSA)
• VLBA is an interferometer consisting of 10 identical antennas on
transcontinental baselines up to 8000 km (Mauna Kea, Hawaii to St. Croix,
Virgin Islands).
• The VLBA is controlled remotely from the Science Operations Center in
Socorro, New Mexico.
• The VLBA observes at wavelengths of 28 cm to 3 mm (1.2 GHz to 96 GHz)
• It is part of the High Sensitivity Array (HSA), which comprises the VLBA, phased
Very Large Array (VLA), Green Bank Telescope (GBT), Effelsberg, and Arecibo
telescopes, and subsets thereof. This array spans around 12,000 km in length.

Linear Antenna Arrays https://science.lbo.us/facilities/vlba Slide 70