Energy 197 (2020) 117221

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Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Calculation methods of steam boiler operation factors under varying

operating conditions with the use of computational thermodynamic
modeling
_
Paweł Madejski a, *, Piotr Zymełka b, c

a
AGH University of Science and Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics, Department of Power Systems and Environmental Protection
w, Poland
Facilities, al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059, Krako
b
PGE Energia Ciepła S.A., Production Economics Department, Rybnik, Poland
c
Silesian University of Technology, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Institute of Thermal Technology, Gliwice, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Paper presents the results of pulverized coal-fired steam boiler analysis under varying operating con-
Received 29 November 2019 ditions. To investigate the efficiency of the analyzed steam boiler, the energy and exergy analysis was
Received in revised form conducted, as well as the basic operating conditions of the flue gases-air and water-steam circuit were
10 February 2020
determined. To calculate boiler energy efficiency, the indirect method and individual boiler losses
Accepted 21 February 2020
Available online 24 February 2020
computation was applied. The thermodynamic model was developed to simulate boiler operation under
partial boiler loads. The accuracy of the model results was verified at three different partial loads. The
thermodynamic model was created using Ebsilon Professional software and a 0-dimensional thermo-
Keywords:
Thermodynamic analysis
dynamic modeling approach. The results in the form and steam temperature distributions at the outlet of
Steam boiler all heating surfaces have been verified with available boiler measurement data. The relative error of
Flexibility steam temperature calculation doesn’t exceed 4.5%. The developed model allows performing calculations
Numerical simulation for variable input conditions in order to determine the basic parameters of the boiler operation and total
Boiler energy efficiency boiler efficiency. The presented calculation methods were applied to identify the changing of boiler
Energy analysis efficiency and basic boiler parameters during operation with under different partial loads and during the
Exergy analysis burning of different coal types. The various operating conditions have a great impact on boiler perfor-
mances. Energetic and exergetic analysis carried out for boiler operating parameters were used to
evaluate total boiler efficiencies. The results were presented in the form of total boiler efficiency and
boiler losses as in the function of boiler load and calorific fuel value.
© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction around 60% of the electrical power generation in India [4]. The
development of methods for improving the efficiency of conven-
Coal-fired boilers are still widely used as a technology for solid tional thermal power plants is strongly forced by more strict
fuel combustion and energy conversion in electricity and heat environmental concerns and limits [5]. This is a reason for
generation processes. In 2015 the World Total Primary Energy continuously applied new methods and techniques for reduction
Supply share was consist of Oil (31.7%), Coal (28.1%), Natural Gas gas pollutants and optimizes existing systems taking into account
(21.6%), Biofuels and waste (9.7%, Nuclear (4.9%), Hydro (2.5%) and the dynamic changes of external conditions.
Other (1.5%) [1]. In Poland [2], in the 2015 year, the electricity The efficiency of large-scale coal boilers is relatively high (even
generation was at the level of 164.3 TWh, with the biggest share of above 90%) and varies with the change of boiler load [6e8].
coal (80.9%). In China, by the end of 2015, 565,000 industrial boilers Increasing thermal boiler efficiency is resulting in lower fuel con-
were operated, where 464,00 of them were coal-fired industrial sumption and lower flue gas emission. Based on the simulation and
boilers [3]. The coal-fired power plants have a contribution to optimization results of a 300 MW lignite-fired power plant, Tzo-
lakis et al. [9] shows, that improvement of 0.55% of the overall
thermal efficiency decrease fuel consumption of 2.06% (11.5 t/h
* Corresponding author. lignite) and reduce CO2 in flue gas of 2.06% (4.8 t/h CO2). Currently,
E-mail address: [email protected] (P. Madejski).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117221
0360-5442/© 2020 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
2 _
P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221

Nomenclature Q_ heat power, MW

r volume fraction
S mass fraction of sulfur in coal,%
Abbreviations s mass fraction of sulfur in coal
A, B, C, D, E areas of energy transfer between flue gases and s specific entropy, J/(kg$K)
water-steam circuit S1 exhaust loss, %
AP Air preheater S2 imperfect combustion loss, %
AT Attemperator S3 total incomplete combustion loss, %
CC Combustion chamber S4 heat to environment loss, %
CFB Circulating Fluidized Bed S5 heat with hot bottom slag loss, %
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics Sb incomplete combustion loss in bottom ash, %
CVFEM Control Volume based Finite Element Method Sf incomplete combustion loss in fly ash, %
D Drum t temperature,  C
ECO Economizer T temperature, K
EVA Evaporator V volume per kilogram, m3/kg
HPT High-pressure steam turbine W mass fraction of moisture in coal, %
IPT intermediate-pressure steam turbine w mass fraction of moisture in coal
RH Reheater x specific air humidity, kg/kg
SH Superheater
Greek letters
Symbols a empirical factor for calculation of specific exergy of
A mass fraction of ash in coal, % fuel (for hard coal a ¼ 1.09)
a mass fraction of ash in coal b ratio of chemical exergy and chemical energy in fuel
af coefficient of fly ash fraction in total ash from fuel l excess air ratio/air-fuel equivalence ratio
(af ¼ 0.9) h efficiency
B_ exergy flux, MW
b mass of bottom ash produced from fuel, kga/kgf Subscripts
b specific exergy, J/kg a ash
C mass fraction of carbon in coal, % air air
c mass fraction of carbon in coal b bottom ash
cb mass fraction of unburnt carbon in bottom ash, % b boiler
cf mass fraction of unburnt carbon in fly ash, % ch chemical
cp specific heat, kJ/(kg$K) CO2 carbon dioxide
cp jtt21 average specific heat in temperature range from t1 to d dry
t2, kJ/(m3$K) en energy
CO volume fraction of carbon oxide at the boiler outlet, % ex exergy
CO2 volume fraction of carbon dioxide at the boiler outlet, F fuel
% f fuel
CO2;max maximum content of carbon dioxide (during hard fg flue gases
coal combustion CO2;max ¼ 18:75), % FG1-FG5 flue gas temperature at inlet and outlet of energy
CV calorific value, kJ/kg transfer areas A-E
E_ energy flux, MW f fly ash
f mass of fly ash produced from fuel, kga/kgf H2O water
f constant in boiler loss calculation method (for hard m water vapor
coal f ¼ 60) n net
H mass fraction of hydrogen in coal, % N2 nitrogen
h mass fraction of hydrogen in coal O2 oxygen
i specific enthalpy, J/kg P products
m_ mass flow rate of steam, kg/s SO2 sulfur dioxide
M_ mass flow rate of solid, kg/s t theoretical
N mass fraction of nitrogen in coal, % tm thermodynamic model
n mass fraction of nitrogen in coal u useful/utilized
O mass fraction of oxygen in coal, % wv water vapor
O2 volume fraction of oxygen at the boiler outlet, % 0 reference state
o mass fraction of oxygen in coal 1 … 10 control points in control balance
p pressure, Pa
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P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221 3

coal-fired boilers need to adapt to requirements on the energy operating conditions of burners to identify the best configuration
market and operate under variable load changing during the day. allowing to decrease emission during large-scale boiler operation.
Keeping boiler efficiency on the highest possible level when the Laubscher and Rousseau described in a paper [20] evaluated the
boiler load is changing, nowadays, is important from the energetic, thermal performance of the water wall evaporator, as well as platen
ecologic, economic and also maintenance point of view. Drosatos and final stage superheaters of a subcritical pulverized coal-fired
et al. [10] carried out a comparative investigation of the pulverized- using a CFD modeling methodology. The analysis was performed
lignite boiler furnace operation at a very low thermal load. The at full and reduced boiler load of a 620 MWe power plant. With the
actual minimum operating boiler load is equal to 55% to the nom- use of developed methodology, the effect of internal steam mal-
inal one, where the partial load used in the investigation is equal to distribution on metal temperatures at low loads was investigated.
35%. Based on the presented numerical study results, the authors Badur et al. [21] investigated the lifetime of water walls of
concluded that to ensure stable boiler operation at a 35% load, a co- pulverized-coal boilers. In the presented article, authors developed
firing system and supporting fuels need to be used. a mathematical model with the aim of preventing the water walls
The need to using different solid fuel, as well as a mixture of from high degradation and reducing unburned carbon in bottom
different coal types in industrial coal-fired boilers is observed in the ash.
last years. The boiler ability to burn different fuel, called fuel flex- To monitor boiler performances, the universal models and sys-
ibility, define the range of fuels that can be used in the given boiler tems allowing to analyze boilers in the whole load range are
type. In the study of Ma et al. [11], a novel combustion system for needed. Szega and Czyz_ [22] present the problems of the energy
low-volatile semianthracite-firing is presented. The analysis was efficiency calculation on a dual-fuel steam boiler OPG-430 type. The
performed in order to improve the boiler performances and to available special measurement points were used to calculate the
indicate methods and facilitation of different types of coals burned energy efficiency of the boiler. Balance methods together with the
in conventional coal-fired boilers. Calculations were done for 330 use of advanced data validation and reconciliation method of
MWe corner-fired boiler originally configured for burning low- measuring points, help in the energy efficiency determination
volatile semianthracite and retrofitted for burning high-volatile when the boiler operates at different thermal loads. In paper [23]
bituminous coal. The presented combustion system allowed to authors presented a developed mathematical model for monitoring
achieve a reduction of NOx emission, increase of boiler efficiency, air distribution in a large-scale coal-fired boiler. The presented
and increase coal flexibility. Pronobis et al. [12] developed a method model is a part of an on-line monitoring system allowing to identify
for choosing the optimum coal fineness of boilers, based on the mass flow rate of air delivered to the boiler. Numerical models can
economic criteria and connected with power unit load changes. also find applications to monitor boiler heat exchangers operating
Calculation results provide that the coal change fineness can be the conditions. In a paper [24] presented is developed a model dedi-
control using classifier guide vanes and its angles. cated to monitoring superheater operating conditions in a CFB
To conduct boiler operation analysis, recently, authors use boiler (Circulating Fluidized Bed boiler) at steady and transient
different methods to find an answer about the most efficient con- states. The wall and steam temperatures were determined using a
version of solid fuels inside the furnaces. Ohijeagbon et al. [13] numerical model with distributed parameters and with the use of
conducted research of industrial steam boilers, using an analytical the Control Volume based Finite Element Method (CVFEM). Au-
procedure for the physical and chemical exergetic analysis of boiler. thors of paper [25] developed the methodology for monitoring
Behbahaninia et al. [14] developed a method for exergy auditing of various stages of superheater, reheater, economizer, and evaporator
steam boilers using exergy loss consisting of six main components. in a steam boiler. The indication of the operation periods with
Boiler analysis was conducted to show the main sources of exergy conditions out adopted limits was done in the presented analysis of
loss. In presented method the following terms were taking into a long boiler operation period using a mathematical model and
account: exergy destruction in the boiler, exergy loss through the developed a non-dimensional coefficient for each heat exchanger
boiler’s wall, exergy destruction in gas air heater, the loss related to surface. Numerical techniques can also be applied for monitoring
the flue gas exhaust, loss due to the emission of unburnt hydro- and analyses boiler performance during different coal combustion
carbons and loss due to formation of CO. Koroglu and Sogut [15] [26], as well as biomass co-combustion [27], analyze of reduction
applied conventional and advanced exergy analyses to a marine gas pollutants [28], predict fouling [29] and optimize existing sys-
steam power plant. The results showed that the highest exergy tems [30].
destruction is connected to chemical reactions inside the boiler. There is still a need to develop methods and analyses for
Zhang et al. [16] also performed analysis using the exergy model for calculating boiler operation indicators, in particular for variable
coal-fired boilers confirmed that exergy destruction occurs due to operating conditions such as load change and the type burned fuel.
imperfections and irreversibility in coal combustion. These tools and models should show the accuracy of calculations
One of the wide developed techniques to study boiler opera- and the ability to perform calculations in a short time so that the
tional performances is computational modeling of coal-fired results obtained can be used to improve the operation of coal
boilers. The level of complexity of all processes occurred inside boilers. The continuous code development to modeling, monitor
the boiler is very high, and the current research position in the performances, and analyze complex thermal power plant systems
computational modeling can be divided into the following cate- and their components are observed. The examples of codes using to
gories: coal combustion modeling, radiation modeling, and overall thermodynamic modeling of thermal energy processes are Ebsilon
furnace model development, what was presented in a compre- Professional, Engineering Equation Solver, Gate Cycle, Aspen Plus,
hensive review of pulverized coal-fired boilers computational Aspen Hysys [31e35]. The paper presents the methodology of
modeling [17]. boiler energetic and exergetic analysis in the whole boiler load
Adamczyk et al. [18] proposed a new large scale pulverized range. The results of the proposed analysis, adopted into the
boiler. A concept was prepared based on the results of CFD developed thermodynamic model using Ebsilon Professional soft-
(Computational Fluid Dynamics) calculations. The results were also ware, can be used to calculate and monitor boiler efficiency factors
used to show the possibility of an increase in process efficiency of under varying conditions with high accuracy.
more than 3% points. Al-Abbas et al. [19] investigated the com-
bustion characteristics and boiler performance under different
firing conditions. The analyzed scenarios consisted of different
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P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221

2. Steam boiler characteristic

The analysis presented in the paper was conducted for pulver-

ized front wall-fired boiler with the steam drum, natural water
circulation, steam superheaters, and reheaters. The boiler is a steam
generator for a 200 MWe power unit that can operate between 135
and 225 MWe (minimum and maximum technical capacity). The
nominal parameters of the analyzed boiler are presented in Table 1.
The boiler is equipped with three regenerative air preheaters,
three forced draft fans for the combustion air (one for primary air,
two for secondary air), three induced draft fans for the flue gas, six
ball ring mills, six primary air fans for the mills and three electrical
precipitators. The general scheme of the longitudinal section of the
boiler, including heating surfaces, is shown in Fig. 1.
The water-steam cycle inside the boiler is as follows: the feed-
water enters at first through the economizer, which is divided into
two parts (ECO-1 and ECO-2), and then flows into the drum. Next,
the water from the drum is distributed by downcomers to the
evaporator walls (EVA). Saturated steam from the drum goes to the
live steam superheaters (SH) and next to the high-pressure steam
turbine (HPT). The live steam superheaters system is divided into
five stages. The saturated steam flows through the rear wall, side
walls, front wall, and the dividing wall of the second pass (SH-1).
Further, the steam goes to the upper part of the front wall of the
first pass (SH-2). The first convective heating surface on the flue gas
path is the third superheater (SH-3). The fourth superheater (SH-4)
is located in the front part of the second pass. The last superheater
stage (SH-5) is in the horizontal part between the first and second
pass of the boiler. The diagram of the high-pressure part is shown in
Fig. 2. The steam from the HPT outlet is headed to the reheater
system (RH). The RH system is divided into two stages. The
convective heating surfaces in the rear part of the second pass are
the first stage (RH-1). The convective heating surface in the upper
part of the second pass is the second stage of the steam reheater
(RH-2). The steam flow through the reheater system is presented in
Fig. 1. The general scheme of the pulverized front wall-fired steam boiler: ECO-1, ECO-
Fig. 3. The reheater steam goes to the intermediate-pressure part of 2 e first and second stage of economizer, RH-1, RH-2 e first and second stage of
the steam turbine (IPT). The flue gas flows from the combustion reheater, SH-1, SH-2, SH-3, SH-4 and SH-5 e first, second, third, fourth and fifth stage
chamber through the horizontal pass and the second pass of the of superheater.
steam generator. The superheaters SH-3 and SH-5 are the convec-
tive heating surfaces on the flue gas path. The second pass is
divided by a wall across the entire steam generator width. The front
part contains the superheater heating surfaces, and the rear part of
the divided pass contains reheater heating surfaces. At the outlet of
the boiler, the part of the flue gases flows to the regenerative pri-
mary air preheater, and the rest of the flue gases goes to through an
economizer to the regenerative secondary air preheater.

3. Method of steam boiler efficiency calculations

Boiler efficiency can be determined using the indirect method,

taking into account losses occurring during the coal combustion

Fig. 2. Steam flow chart and the boiler heat exchangers configuration: AT-1 to AT-4 e
Table 1
first to fourth steam attemperator, D e drum, ECO e economizer, EVA e evaporator, HP
Values of boiler nominal operating conditions.
e high-pressure (steam turbine), SH-1, SH-2, SH-3, SH-4, and SH-5 e first, second,
No Parameter Unit Value third, fourth and fifth stage of superheater.

1 Live steam mass flow rate t/h 650.0


2 Live steam temperature C 540.0
3 Live steam pressure MPa 13.65 process. The total loss in the boiler can be divided into main losses
4 Feedwater temperature 
C 247.0 resulting from the lost energy in the exhaust gases S1, from
5 Reheater steam mass flow rate t/h 565.0 incomplete combustion S2, existing unburned coal in ash S3, as well

6 Reheated steam temperature (boiler outlet) C 540.0
as from the heat transferred to the environment through the boiler
7 Reheated steam pressure (boiler outlet) MPa 2.43
8 Reheated steam temperature (boiler inlet) 
C 333.0
walls S4 and by the hot bottom ash S5. To determine all boiler losses,
9 Reheated steam pressure (boiler inlet) MPa 2.62 the flue gas composition, net calorific value, and specific heat of flue
 _
P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221 5

Table 3
Basic operating parameters used as input data in boiler calculations.

Symbol O2 l x tair tfg CO CO2

Value 6.88 1.478 0.0076 34 154.7 0.0166 12.607

Fig. 3. Steam flow chart of boiler steam reheaters: AT-5 e fifth steam attemperator, IP
e intermediate-pressure (steam turbine), RH-1, RH-2 e the first and second stage of w e mass fraction of moisture in coal
the reheater.

3.2. Net calorific value and specific heats

gas need to be calculated.
Table 4 presents the results of the volume fraction of individual
The calorific value CVn is the value determined using laboratory
flue gases components, volume of water vapor in flue gases, as well
methods, or can be calculated using the formula [30,31]:
as, theoretical air consumption requirement.

o
CVn ¼ 33900$c þ 144030$ h  þ 10400$s  2500$ð9$h
8
3.1. Flue gas composition þ wÞ
(9)
The volume of dry flue gases Vfg;d , produced during coal com-
tfg
bustion with composition presented in Table 2, can be calculated Average specific heat of flue gases cp;fg;d Itair
in the temperature
using the equation: range from tair to tfg was determined using average specific heat for
individual flue gas components:
Vfg;d ¼ VCO2 þ VSO2 þ VN2 þ VO2 (1)
t t t t
cp;fg;d jtfgair ¼ rCO2 $cp;CO2 jtfgair þ rSO2 $cp;SO2 jtfgair þ rO2 $cp;O2 jtfgair þ
where the volume fraction of individual gas components (CO2, SO2,
t
N2, and O2) was determined on the basis of the elemental compo- þ rN2 $cp;N2 jtfgair
sition, boiler operating parameters (Table 3) and the following (10)
formulas:
where:
VCO2 ¼ 1:854$c (2)
t t t t
fg
cp;CO2 Itair fg
, cp;SO2 Itair fg
, cp;O2 Itair fg
, cp;N2 Itair e average specific heat of
VSO2 ¼ 0:68$s (3) particular components in the flue gases (CO2, SO2, O2, N2), kJ/
m3K
VN2 ¼ 0:8$n þ 0:79$l$Vair;t (4) rCO2 , rSO2 , rO2 , rN2 e volume fraction of particular elements in
the dry flue gases (CO2, SO2, O2, N2) calculated using the
following formulas:
VO2 ¼ 0:21$ðl  1Þ$Vair;t (5)
VCO2
where: rCO2 ¼ (11)
Vfg;d
c, s, n, o, h e mass fraction of particular elements in the fuel
(carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen) VSO2
rSO2 ¼ (12)
l e air-fuel equivalence ratio Vfg;d
Vair;t e theoretical air consumption requirement, m3air/kgf
VN2
The volume of water vapor Vm is calculated using the following rN2 ¼ (13)
Vfg;d
equation:

Vm ¼ VH2O þ 1:61$l$x$Vair;t (6) rO2 ¼

VO2
(14)
Vfg;d

w
VH2O ¼ 11:2$ h þ (7) The calculated values of specific heat using the presented for-
9 mula (Eq. (10)) and the calorific value determined with the use of
correlation (Eq. (9)) are presented in Table 5.
Vair;t ¼ 8:89$ðc þ 0:375$sÞ þ 0:265$h  0:333$o (8)

where: 3.3. Boiler losses

xe specific air humidity, kgvw/kgair,d The stack loss in the boiler can be determined using the
simplified method using the Siegert formula [36] or using the exact
method [37,38]. Calculation of exhaust loss S1 with the use of the
Table 2 exact method can be completed using the following equation:
Composition of coal used as input data in boiler calculations.

jtfgair þ Vm $cp;wv jtfgair


t t
Symbol C H O N S W A
S1 ¼ Vfg;d $cp;fg;d tfg  tair (15)
Unit wt. % CVn
Value 52.69 3.42 7.78 0.98 0.63 11.0 23.5
where:
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P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221

Table 4
Results of flue gas composition and theoretical air consumption requirement.

Symbol Vfg,d VCO2 VSO2 VN2 VO2 Vm VH2O Vair,t

Unit m3fg,d/kgf m3CO2/kgf m3SO2/kgf m3N2/kgf m3O2/kgf m3m/kgf m3wv/kgf m3air/kgf

Value 6.977 0.977 0.004 5.516 0.480 1.373 0.520 4.688

Table 5 af e coefficient indicating what part of the ash contained in the

Calculated values of specific heat of dry flue gases, water vapor and net calorific fuel passed into the flue gases in the form of fly ash, and what
value of analyzed coal.
part remained into the bottom ash.
Symbol t
fg t
fg CVn
cp;fg;d Itair cp;wv Itair
The mass of bottom b and fly f ash produced from 1 kg of fuel is
Unit kJ/(m3nK) kJ/(m3nK) kJ/kg
Value 1.377 1.518 20,408 calculated based on the equations and parameters presented in
Table 6:


Vfg;d e volume of dry flue gases, m3fg,d/kgf b ¼ 1  af $a (22)
Vm e volume of water vapor, m3wv/kgf
tfg
cp;fg;d Itair e average specific heat of flue gas, kJ/(m3$K) f ¼ af $a (23)
tfg
cp;wv Itair e average specific heat of water vapor, kJ/(m3$K)
CVn e net calorific value, kJ/kg where a is a mass fraction of ash in fuel.
tfg e flue gas temperature at boiler outlet,  C The loss of heat transferred to the environment S4, taking into
tair e air temperature at the boiler inlet,  C account heat transfer from the boiler to the environment by con-
vection and radiation, and is calculated from the empirical formula
Exhaust loss S1 depends strongly on the boiler construction. For [37]:
the one type of boiler, this value can vary with the change of boiler
load and coal composition. The coal properties used as input data in _
S4 ¼ 10ð0:361730:2912lgQ u Þ (24)
the calculation of boiler efficiency and thermodynamic model of
the boiler are presented in Table 2. The basic boiler operating
where Q_ u is the utilized heat power in the boiler and is determined
conditions used in the efficiency calculations procedure are pre-
using heat balance calculations of the analyzed boiler (Fig. 4):
sented in Table 3.
The loss S2 is caused by the occurrence of carbon oxide (CO) in    
the flue gases and is calculated based on the formula [36e38]: Q_ u ¼ m_ 10 $i10 þ m_ 9 $i9  m_ 5 $i5 þ m_ 6 $i6 þ m_ 7 $i7 þ m_ 8 $i8

(25)
CO
S2 ¼ f (17) The thermal energy in a coal-fired boiler is also lost, caused by
CO þ CO2
heat, which is transferred out with the bottom ash. Ash falling
where, for hard coal f ¼ 60, and CO and CO2 means the volume down into the ash hopper has a high temperature, next is cooled to
fraction in the flue gases. The CO2 share can be determined from the the ambient temperature and directed outside of the boiler. The
following formula: loss of heat in the bottom slag can be calculated using the following
formula:
ð21  O2 Þ,CO2;max

CO2 ¼ (18)
21 M_ b $cp;b $ðtb  tair Þ 1885$A$ 1  af
S5 ¼ $100 ¼ (26)
M_ $CVnf
CVn
where, the maximum content of carbon dioxide during hard coal
combustion, with excess air described by air-fuel equivalence ratio
where:
l ¼ 1 is equal to CO2;max ¼ 18:75%.
The loss caused by unburnt carbon in the bottom and fly ash S3 is
M_ b e mass flow rate of bottom ash, kg/s
calculated, taking into account that the ash contained in the fuel
cp;b e specific heat of bottom ash, kJ/(kg$K)
passes in part to bottom ash Sb , and in part to the fly ash Sf :
tb e temperature of bottom ash,  C
tair e ambient temperature,  C
S3 ¼ Sb þ Sf (19) CVn e net calorific value, kJ/kg
M_ f - flow rate of fuel, kg/s
33790$b$ð0:9$cb Þ
Sb ¼ (20) The values of losses calculated according to presented formulas
CVn and input data are presented in Table 7. The total value of all losses
in the boiler is equal to 9.1058%. The highest impact on boiler

 operation and decreasing its efficiency is caused by heat transfer to
33790$f $ 0:9$cf
Sf ¼ (21)
CVn
Table 6
where: Parameters used in the calculation of unburnt carbon in ash.

Symbol cb cf af b f
cb e mass fraction of unburnt carbon in bottom ash, %
Value 2.24 4.28 0.9 0.0235 0.2115
cf e mass fraction of unburnt carbon in fly ash, %
 _
P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221 7

Q_
hb;en ¼ _ u
Ech
ðm_ 10 $i10 þ m_ 9 $i9 Þ  ðm_ 5 $i5 þ m_ 6 $i6 þ m_ 7 $i7 þ m_ 8 $i8 Þ
¼
M_ $CVn
f
(28)

where m_ 10 , m_ 9 , m_ 5 , m_ 6 , m_ 7 , m_ 8 is the mass flow rates crossing the

boundary of control area (Fig. 4), and h10 , h9 , h5 , h6 , h7 , h8 are en-
thalpies in these points.

3.5. Mass flow rate of coal

Using Eqs. (27) and (28) possible is to calculate the mass flow
rate of fuel M_ f :

ðm_ 10 $i10 þ m_ 9 $i9 Þ  ðm_ 5 $i5 þ m_ 6 $i6 þ m_ 7 $i7 þ m_ 8 $i8 Þ

M_ f ¼
½1  ðS1 þ S2 þ S3 þ S4 þ S5 Þ $CVn
(29)
Calculated values of boiler energy efficiency, chemical energy in
the fuel, using output heat and mass flow rate of fuel supplied to the
boiler are presented in Table 8.

3.6. Boiler exergetic efficiency

The exergetic efficiency of useful heat production in the

analyzed boiler can be calculated directly from the formula pro-
Fig. 4. Analyzed boiler with marked stream flows of fuel, air, ash, water, flue gas, and vided by Refs. [39e41]:
steam passed the boundary of control area: 1 e fuel, 2 e slag, 3 e ambient air, 4 e flue
gas, 5 e feedwater, 6 e steam to reheat (from High-Pressure turbine), 7 e injection B_
water to superheaters, 8 e injection water to reheaters, 9 e superheated steam (to hb;ex ¼ _ P
High-Pressure turbine), 10 ereheated steam (to Intermediate-Pressure turbine), AP e
BF
air preheater, A, B, C, D, E  areas of energy transfer between flue gases and water- ðm_ 10 $b10 þ m_ 9 $b9 Þ  ðm_ 5 $b5 þ m_ 6 $b6 þ m_ 7 $b7 þ m_ 8 $b8 Þ
¼
B_ F
steam circuit, tFG1, tFG2, tFG3, tFG4, tFG5 e flue gas temperature at inlet and outlet of
energy transfer areas A-E.
(30)

Table 7 where: B_ P is an exergy flux of products and B_ F is an exergy flux of

Calculated values of boiler losses. fuel.
Symbol S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 P
n The physical exergy of the steam and water in formula (30) can
Si
i¼1 be determined [39,40] in the following way:
Value 6.915 0.0789 1.4273 0.3775 0.2171 9.0158
b ¼ iðp; TÞ  iðp0 ; T0 Þ  T0 ½sðp; TÞ  sðp0 ; T0 Þ  (31)

where b is specific exergy (J/kg), s is specific entropy (J/kg$K), T is

the environment and is represented by stack loss S1. temperature, p is pressure, the index “0” refers to parameters of
reference state.
The exergy flux of fuel B_ F can be calculated based on the formula
[39,40]:

B_ F ¼ M_ f $bch;f (32)

3.4. Boiler energetic efficiency where bch;f is chemical exergy of fuel (J/kg), and can be calculated
using the equation developed for organic substances of solid fuels
With the knowledge about values of all losses, boiler efficiency containing C, H, O, N, such as hard coal, lignite, coke and peat
hb can be determined using the following formula: [39,40]:

X
n
Table 8
hb;en ¼ 1  Si ¼ 1  ðS1 þ S2 þ S3 þ S4 þ S5 Þ (27) Calculated boiler efficiency, chemical energy flux in the fuel, the mass flow rate of
i¼1 fuel using indirect method and useful heat transferred to the steam.
The direct formula for boiler energy efficiency using output heat Symbol hb;en E_ ch M_ f Q_ u
power and chemical energy supplied to the boiler can be presented
Value 90.98 558.6 98.55 508.3
in the following form:
8 _
P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221

Table 9 type of boiler. The simulation model of the steam generator has
Results of exergetic analysis of steam boiler. been divided into five areas (A-E), where the flue gas transfers the
Symbol b bch;f B_ P B_ F hb;ex energy to the heating surfaces, which are located in a given area.
The radiation and convection mechanism is used in the heat
Value 1.065 21,734 258.01 594.9 43.36
transfer process. The material properties and hydraulic parameters
of heating surfaces in the boiler are implemented. The properties of
water, steam, flue gas, fuel, and air are calculated using a built-in
bch;f library of thermal properties. In the model design phase, the
h o n
b¼ ¼ 1:0437 þ 0:1896 þ 0:0617 þ 0:0428 (33) average numerical values from thermal measurements included in
CVn c c c
the performance report of the boiler were used to simulate the
Calculated values used in exergetic analysis of the steam boiler nominal operation of the steam generator.
are presented in Table 9. The simulation model was verified and compared with the real
In practical engineering applications, chemical exergy can also measurement values for the three boiler load levels (100%, 80%, and
be determined with sufficient accuracy using the following 60%). The output temperature of the superheaters and desu-
equation: perheater was examined through the simulation. The verification
results are presented in Table 12. The relative error measure was
bch;f ¼ a$CVn (34) used to assess the accuracy of the developed model.

where a is an empirical factor for calculation of specific exergy of

5. Thermodynamic analysis of boiler operation
different types of fuels. In the case of hard coal, the value a ¼ 1.09
[40].
Analysis of boiler operation was conducted using the presented
procedure of boiler performance calculation, as well as using a
4. Thermodynamic model of boiler developed thermodynamic model of boiler. The analysis was
divided into two stages. The first stage consists of boiler perfor-
The simulation model of reference boiler system has been mance calculation results at different partial load, where the input
developed in EBSILON® Professional software [42]. The general data used in the simulation are presented in Table 10. The simu-
structure of the steam generator model is shown in Fig. 5. The lation results for the different boiler loads were validated with the
modeling of the heating surfaces of the boiler system, such as real data obtained from balance calculation and efficiency mea-
economizer, steam drum, desuperheater, and superheaters, was surements of the boiler. In the second part of the analysis, different
performed using available components in Ebsilon software. The coal and their basic properties were investigated (Table 11).
nominal parameters of each component have been implemented in
the model based on existing technical documentation and available 5.1. Energetic and exergetic efficiency and analysis of boiler
technological diagrams. The heating surfaces components are performance at different load
located in accordance with the current location in the analyzed
Input data for boiler performance analysis using the procedure
described in chapter Method of steam boiler efficiency calculations
are presented in Table 10. The values of defined parameters were

Table 10
Boiler properties used in simulation and boiler efficiency calculation for three
different boiler load (100%, 80%, and 60%).

No. Symbol Unit Value

Load 100% Load 80% Load 60%


1 tair C 34 31.9 33.5

2 tfg C 154.7 139.2 133.6
3 O2 % 6.88 6.58 8.05
4 l e 1.487 1.456 1.622
5 x kgair,w/kgair,d 0.0076 0.0059 0.00925
6 Vair,t m3/kgf 4.688 4.688 4.688
7 VCO2 m3CO2/kgf 0.977 0.977 0.977
8 VSO2 m3SO2/kgf 0.004 0.004 0.004
9 VN2 m3N2/kgf 5.516 5.402 6.014
10 VO2 m3O2/kgf 0.480 0.449 0.612
11 Vfg,d m3fg,d/kgf 6.977 6.832 7.607
12 rCO2 e 0.140 0.143 0.128
13 rSO2 e 0.001 0.001 0.001
14 rN2 e 0.791 0.791 0.791
15 rO2 e 0.069 0.066 0.08
16 Vm m3/kgf 0.857 0.585 0.633
17 VH2O m3vm/kgf 0.520 0.520 0.520
18 cp,fg.d|tair tfg kJ/(m3$
n K) 1.377 1.376 1.368
19 cpw,v|tairtfg kJ/(m3$
n K) 1.518 1.520 1.511
Fig. 5. Simulation model of reference boiler: A-E  areas of energy transfer between 20 cb % 2.24 6.56 12.9
flue gases and water-steam circuit, AP e air preheater, CC e combustion chamber, ECO- 21 cf % 4.28 5.76 4.68
1, ECO-2 e first and second stage of economizer, EVA e evaporator, HP - high-pressure 22 Q_ u
MW 508.3 407.8 309.3
(steam turbine), RH-1, RH-2 e first and second stage of reheater, SH-1, SH-2, SH-3, SH-
23 CO2 % 12.607 12.875 11.5625
4, and SH-5 e first, second, third, fourth and fifth stage of superheater, A1, A2, B, C, D1,
24 CO % 0.0166 0.0031 0.002
D2, D3, D4, E  areas of energy transfer between flue gases and water-steam circuit.
 _
P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221 9

Table 11
Results of boiler analysis for three different boiler load (100%, 80%, and 60%).

No. Name Symbol Unit Value

Load 100% Load 80% Load 60%

1 Net calorific value CVn kJ/kg 20,408 20,408 20,408

2 Fuel mass flow rate M_ f
t/h 98.55 78.26 59.41
3 Fuel chemical energy E_ ch MW 558.694 443.695 336.781
4 Stack loss S1 % 6.915 5.409 5.575
5 Imperfect combustion loss S2 % 0.0789 0.0144 0.0104
6 Incomplete combustion loss in bottom ash Sb % 0.0784 0.2297 0.4517
7 Incomplete combustion loss in fly ash Sf % 1.3489 1.8154 1.4750
8 Total incomplete combustion loss (Sb þ Sf) S3 % 1.4273 2.0451 1.9267
9 Heat to environment loss S4 % 0.3775 0.3995 0.4330
10 Heat loss in slag S5 % 0.2171 0.2171 0.2171
11 Loss sum P 5 % 9.0158 8.0851 8.1622
Si
i¼1
12 Boiler energy efficiency hb;en % 90.98 91.91 91.84
13 Boiler exergy efficiency hb;ex % 43.36 43.72 43.33

The developed model using Ebsilon Professional software was used

to calculate boiler operation at different boiler load, and the results
were verified with collected measuring data. A comparison of
calculated and measured data is presented in Table 12. The verifi-
cation of the thermodynamic model was made through a com-
parison of steam temperature distribution inside the boiler. The
relative error of steam temperature does not exceed 4.5%, and the
high quality of calculated values is keeping for the whole boiler load
range.
To carry out the simulation with variable load, input data in the
form of a mass flow rate of fuel delivered to the boiler were used,
calculated according to Eq. (28). Other boiler operational data
needed to carry out the calculations are, among others, the amount
and properties of air (temperature, pressure, humidity), the
composition of the fuel, steam pressure, temperature, and mass
Fig. 6. The curve representing energy efficiency and losses (S1eS5) in the boiler load flow rate at the boiler inlet. The developed model of pulverized
range 60e100%.
coal-fired boiler is developed to giving the possibility to simulate
different operating conditions.

5.3. Energetic and exergetic analysis of boiler performance for

collected or calculated based on measured values individually for
different fuel
each partial boiler load.
Table 11 presents the results of the conducted analysis. The
Input data for boiler performance analysis for taking into ac-
highest value for each load has a stack loss, which varies between
count different fuel composition and using the procedure described
5.4 and 6.9%. The total boiler energy efficiency calculated using the
in the previous chapter are presented in Table 13. The values of
indirect method and calculated boiler loss values reaches the lower
defined parameters were collected or calculated based on
value for the nominal boiler load, and the highest value for load
measured values for nominal boiler load.
equal to 80%. Exergy efficiency reaches the values 43.36, 43.72, and
Table 14 presents results of boiler operation analysis at nominal
43.33 for boiler load 100%, 80%, and 60%, respectively. The reason
load and during burning different fuel, with a defined composition
for low efficiency during operating with a nominal load is the
(c, h, o, n, s, w, a) of based on the elemental analysis presented in
highest values of flue gas temperature, which has a great impact on
Table 2. Analyzed coal has a different net calorific value, which was
the stack loss.
calculated using Eq. (9).
The results in the form of characteristics are presented in Fig. 6.
The total boiler energy and exergy efficiency are changing with
The total boiler energy efficiency is decreasing with a higher boiler
fuel quality and composition, and reach the highest value for fuel 3
load because of increasing losses (mainly a stack loss S1). The next
(with the highest CVn). Thanks to the boiler efficiency calculation
high loss is a total, incomplete combustion loss, which has minimal
are possible to determine the fuel mass flow rate needed to produce
value for the nominal boiler load, confirming a high efficiency of the
the same amount of steam. The change of overall boiler energy
solid fuel combustion process and proper fuel and air distribution
efficiency, as well as individual losses, is presented in Fig. 7.
inside the combustion chamber.

5.4. Efficiency analysis results

5.2. Results of boiler performance calculations using
thermodynamic modeling The comparison of results for all analyzed boiler operation
variants is presented in Tables 15 and 16. The tables contain results
For the same input data, presented in Table 10, the analysis of obtained using the indirect energy efficiency calculation procedure,
boiler operation using thermodynamic modeling was conducted. exergy efficiency, and boiler energy efficiency calculated using the
10 _
P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221

Table 12
Simulation results of boiler modeling.

100% LOAD

Name Unit Reference Model Relative error


Steam temperature at SH-1 outlet C 355.5 350.5 1.4%

Steam temperature at SH-2 outlet C 383.2 379.2 1.0%

Steam temperature at SH-3 outlet C 478.6 470.4 1.7%

Steam temperature at SH-4 outlet C 498.0 499.1 0.2%

Steam temperature at SH-5 outlet C 537.0 536.1 0.2%

Steam temperature at RH-1 outlet C 416.8 417.5 0.2%

Steam temperature at RH-2 outlet C 537.0 536.8 0.1%

80% LOAD

Parameter Unit Reference Model Relative error


Steam temperature at SH-1 outlet C 352.5 346.6 1.7%

Steam temperature at SH-2 outlet C 384.6 378.9 1.5%

Steam temperature at SH-3 outlet C 479.6 467.9 2.4%

Steam temperature at SH-4 outlet C 495.6 495.3 0.1%

Steam temperature at SH-5 outlet C 537.5 538.2 0.1%

Steam temperature at RH-1 outlet C 399.2 401.4 0.5%

Steam temperature at RH-2 outlet C 531.9 534.9 0.6%

60% LOAD

Parameter Unit Reference Model Relative error


Steam temperature at SH-1 outlet C 352.5 343.2 2.6%

Steam temperature at SH-2 outlet C 386.8 374.3 3.2%

Steam temperature at SH-3 outlet C 483.6 462.0 4.5%

Steam temperature at SH-4 outlet C 496.2 490.4 1.2%

Steam temperature at SH-5 outlet C 536.8 532.6 0.8%

Steam temperature at RH-1 outlet C 403.0 402.7 0.1%

Steam temperature at RH-2 outlet C 526.6 524.7 0.3%

Table 13
Boiler properties used in simulation and boiler efficiency calculation for three boiler load (Load 80%) and the lowest value for the nominal load
different fuels. (Load 100%). In Table 16, a comparison of efficiency calculation for
No. Symbol Unit Value different fuel is presented. Maximum efficiency was computed for
fuel with the highest net calorific value CVn (Fuel 3), and the lower
Fuel 1 Fuel 2 Fuel 3
value for fuel with the middle CVn value (Fuel 1).
1 c e 0.5269 0.4868 0.5497
2 h e 0.0342 0.0322 0.035
3 o e 0.0778 0.0744 0.0463
6. Conclusions
4 n e 0.0098 0.0082 0.01
5 s e 0.0063 0.0084 0.008
6 w e 0.11 0.12 0.2234 In the paper, a methodology of energetical and exergetical
7 a e 0.235 0.27 0.1275 analysis of the steam boiler is presented. The analysis was con-
8 CVn kJ/kg 20,408 18,864 21,580
ducted based on the boiler operating conditions under different
9 Vair;t m3/kgf 4.688 4.339 4.907
partial loads and for different coal fuel characterized by variable net
10 VCO2 m3CO2/kgf 0.977 0.903 1.019
11 VSO2 m3SO2/kgf 0.004 0.006 0.005 calorific value. Results of calculated energy and exergy efficiency
12 VN2 m3N2/kgf 5.516 5.105 5.774 demonstrate the behavior of boiler operation under varying
13 VO2 m3O2/kgf 0.480 0.444 0.502 external conditions. To simulate the boiler operation, the thermo-
14 Vfg;d m3fg,d/kgf 6.977 6.457 7.301
dynamic model created using Ebsilon Professional software was
15 rCO2 e 0.140 0.140 0.140
developed. The simulations were conducted for different boiler
16 rSO2 e 0.001 0.001 0.001
17 rN2 e 0.791 0.791 0.791 loads, and the results were compared with available data from
19 rO2 e 0.069 0.069 0.069 power plant measuring system. Values of steam temperature at the
20 Vm m3/kgf 0.857 0.822 1.023 outlet of superheaters and reheaters, obtained as using the devel-
21 VH2O m3s/kgf 0.520 0.510 0.670
oped model and collected by the measuring data system during
22 af e 0.9 0.9 0.9
boiler operation, were compared. The maximum value of the
23 b kgash,b,/kgf 0.0235 0.027 0.01275
24 f kgash,f/kgf 0.2115 0.243 0.11,475 relative error does not exceed 4.5%. Calculation methods developed
and presented in the paper were applied to identify boiler effi-
ciency changing with the different boiler operating conditions as
boiler load and calorific value of burned coal. Calculations results,
presented in the form of total boiler efficiency and boiler losses as a
thermodynamic modeling using Ebsilon Professional software.
function of boiler load and calorific fuel value, confirmed the impact
The values of boiler energy efficiency at partial load obtained
of these factors on total boiler energy and exergy efficiency.
using boiler loss calculation, and indirect method (90.98%, 91.91%,
Developed procedures and models are giving wide perspectives to
91.84%) and direct calculation using the developed thermodynamic
develop a monitoring system based on thermodynamic computa-
model (91.47%, 91.64%, 91.55%) are presented in Table 15. In both
tional methods. Implementation of these types of monitoring sys-
cases, the highest efficiency value was obtained for the middle
tems can be helpful in boiler performance analysis, production
 _
P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221 11

Table 14
Results of boiler energetic and exergetic analysis for three different fuels.

No. Name Symbol Unit Value

Fuel 1 Fuel 2 Fuel 3

1 Net calorific value CVn kJ/kg 20,408 18,864 21,580

2 Fuel mass flow rate M_ f
t/h 98.55 106.05 92.36
3 Fuel chemical energy E_ ch MW 558.694 555.7 553.64
4 Stack loss S1 % 6.915 6.262 6.267
5 Imperfect combustion loss S2 % 0.0789 0.0789 0.0789
6 Incomplete combustion loss in bottom ash Sb % 0.0784 0.0849 0.0742
7 Incomplete combustion loss in fly ash Sf % 1.3489 1.4593 1.2756
8 Total incomplete combustion loss (Sb þ Sf) S3 % 1.4273 1.5442 1.3498
9 Heat to environment loss S4 % 0.3775 0.3775 0.3775
10 Heat loss in slag S5 % 0.2171 0.2698 0.1114
11 Loss sum P 5 % 8.5087 8.5324 8.1846
si
i¼1
12 Boiler energetic efficiency hb;en % 90.98 91.47 91.81
13 Boiler exergetic efficiency hb;ex % 43.36 40.43 46.34

possibility to calculate boiler performance factors in the whole

boiler load range.

Declaration of competing interests

The authors declare that they have no known competing

financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this
paper.Acknowledgments

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Paweł Madejski: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software,

Fig. 7. Energy efficiency and boiler losses (S1eS5) for different coal and CVn. Validation, Investigation, Resources, Writing - original draft,
Writing - review & editing, Supervision, Project administration,
_
Funding acquisition. Piotr Zymełka: Methodology, Software, Vali-
planning, and making a decision about different types of coal dation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Resources, Writing - original
burned in large-scale coal-fired boilers in order to keep high energy draft, Writing - review & editing, Visualization.
and exergy efficiency of the process. The presented boiler model, This paper was partially funded by Faculty of Mechanical Engi-
together with methods of energy and exergy calculation, gives the neering and Robotic at AGH University of Science and Technology
under Dean’s Grant no. 15.11.130.828.

Table 15
Summary of boiler simulation results at different partial load.

No. Name Symbol Unit Load 100% Load 80% Load 60%

1 Net calorific value CVn kJ/kg 20,408 20,408 20,408

2 Fuel mass flow rate M_f
t/h 98.55 78.26 59.41
3 Boiler energy efficiency hb;en % 90.98 91.91 91.84
4 Boiler energy efficiency (Ebs model) hb;en;tm % 91.47 91.64 91.55
5 Boiler exergy efficiency hb;ex % 43.36 43.72 43.33
6 Boiler output power Q_ u MW 508.3 407.5 309.3

Table 16
Summary of boiler simulation results for different fuel.

No. Name Symbol Unit Fuel 1 Fuel 2 Fuel 3

1 Net calorific value CVn kJ/kg 20,408 18,864 21,580

2 Fuel mass flow rate M_f
t/h 98.55 106.05 92.36
3 Boiler energy efficiency hb;en % 90.98 91.47 91.81
4 Boiler energy efficiency (Ebs model) hb;en;tm % 91.47 91.89 92.01
5 Boiler exergy efficiency hb;ex % 43.36 40.43 46.34
6 Boiler output power Q_ u MW 508.3
12 _
P. Madejski, P. Zymełka / Energy 197 (2020) 117221

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