Chapter 1 Vectors 1.1 DEFINITIONS Scalar quantities possess only magnitude, ¢.g... time, volume, energy. mass, density, work. Scalars are added by ordinary algebraic methods, €.g.. 28+ 75=9 s: 14 ke ~ 3 ke=9 ke. Vector quaniities possess both magnitude and direction." e.g. force, displacement, velocity, impulse. A vector is represented by an arrow at the given inclination. The head of the arrow indicates the sense, and the length represents the magnitude of the vector. The symbol for a vector is shown in print in boldface type. such as P. The magnitude is represented by [P| oF P. A free vector may be moved anywhere in space provided it maintains the same direction and magnitude: A sliding vector may be applied at any point along its line of action. By the principle of transmissibility the external effects of a sliding vector remain the same A bound or fixed vector must remain at the same point of applic A unit vector is a vector one unit in length. ‘The negative of a vector P is the vector —P that has the sane magnitude and inclination but is of the opposite sense. The resuliant of @ system of vectors is the least number of vectors that will replace the given system. ion. LL ADUINIUN UF LWU VECIUKS (a) The parelelogram law states that the resultant R of tw parallclogram for which P and Q are adjacent sides. All thre in Fig. 1-1(a). P and Q are also called the components of R vectors P and Q is the diagonal of the vectors P,Q. and R are concurrent as shown o Fig. 141 (b) If the sides of the parallelogram in Fig. 1-1(a) are perpendicular, the vectors P and Q are said to be rectengular components of the vector R. The rectangular components are illustrated in Fig. 1-1(4). The Je of the rectangular components is given by Q-Rasd and P=Rcos(9"- 6) = Rsind * Direction is understood ta include buth the mctination (ane) that the line of action makes with a given reference fine and the sense of the vector along the fine of xetion,2 VECTORS. ICHAP. 1 (0). Triangle law. Place the tail end of either vector at the head end of the other. The resultant is drawn from the tail end of the first vector to the head end of the other. The triangle law follows from the parallelogram, Jaw because opposite sides of the paralleloram are tree Vectors as shown in ig. 1-Z (A) Vector addition is commutative: ie, P+ Q = Q +P. 1.3 SUBTRACTION OF A VECTOR Subtraction of a vector is accomplished by adding the negative of the vector; P-Q=P+(-0) (P+Q)=-P-O Note also that 14 ZERO VECTOR A zero vector is obtained when a vector is subtracted from itself: ie., P-P called a null vector. 1.5 COMPOSITION OF VECTORS Composition of vectors is the process of determining the resultant of a system of vectors. A vector polygon is drawn placing the tail end of each vector in turn at the head end of the preceding vouus as show in Fig. 1-3. The resultant is drawn Guus the tail end of the first veetur w thie bee end (terminus) of the last vector. As will be shown later, not all vector systems reduce to a single vector. Since the order in which the vectors are drawn is immaterial, it can be scen that for throe given vectors P. Q. and S. R=P+Q+S=(P+Q)+S =P+(Q+S)=(P+S) +O The above equation may be extended to any number of vectors. 1.6 MULTIPLICATION OF VECTORS BY SCALARS (@) ‘The product of vector P and ecalar om i¢ a vector iP whore magnitude is mi times at grout ae the magnitude of P and that is similarly or oppositely directed to P, depending on whether mis positive or negative.CHAP. 1] VECTORS 3 Fig, 13 (0). Other operations with scalars mt and m are (PnP HP (PQ) = mP ~mQ n(n) = n(onP) = (enn 1.7 ORTHOGONAL TRIAD OF UNIT VECTORS An orthogonal triad of unit vectors i, j, and k is formed by drawing unit vectors along the x, y, and z axes respectively. A right-handed set of axes is shown in Fig. 1-4. A vector P is written as P=Pi+Pi+Pk where Pi, Pj, and P.k are the vector components of P along the x, y, and z axes respectively as shown in Fig. 1-5. Note that P, cos 8,, P, = Pos 6, and 08 8, Fig. 4 Fig. 15VECTORS [CHAP. 1 18 POSITION VECTOR The ponition vector © oF a point (4. ¥5 <) lH 9puce Iy wriuEN where r= Fig. 1.7 1.9 DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT The dor or seater product of wwo vectors P and Q. written P+Q. is a scalar quantity and is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the cosine of their included angle @ (see Fig. 1-7). Thus P-Q=PQ cos The following laws hold for dot products. where mis a scalar: P-Q=Q-P P+(Q+S)=P-QEP-S PA(StT)+Q-(S*T)=P-S+P-THQ-S+Q-T (P+Q)-St1) m(P-Q)= (He) Q= PONV) Since i. j, and k are orthogonal. i-k=J+k=(1)(1) cos 90°=0 Pr7=k-k= (DC) cos” i-j= ‘i Also. if P= Pi+ Pj + Pk and Q= 04+ O0j-O.kthen PQ-FQ,+FQ, + P.O. P-P=P?=P}~ Pi + PE The magnitudes of the vector components of P along the rectangular axes ean be written P, P=Pok since, for example, + 0-0=P,cue. 1] VECTORS 5 Similarly. the magnitude of the vector component of P along any line L can be written P+ e,, where e, is the unit vector along the line £.. (Some authors use u as unit vector.) Figure 1-8 shows a plane through the tail end A of vector P and a plane through the head B, both planes being perpendicular to fine £. The planes intersect line Lat points C and D. The vector CD is the component of P along L, and its magnitude equals P+ €, = Pe, cos 8. Applications of these principles can be found in Problems 1.15 and 1.16, Fig. 1.8 1.10 THE CROSS OR VECTOR PRODUCT The cross or vector product of two vectors P and Q, written PXQ, is a vector R whose magnitude is the product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of their included angle. ‘The vector R= Px Q is normal to the plane of P and Q and points in the direction of advance of a right-handed screw when turned in the direction from P to Q through the smaller included angle 6. ‘Thus if e is the unit vector that gives the direction of R= P XQ, the cross product can be written R=PxXQ=(POsin be 05 6=180" Figure 1 9 indicates that P< Q— QP (aot commutative). Fig. 19VECTORS. (cHar. 1 ‘The following laws hold for cross products. where nr is scalar: Px(Q+S)=PXQEPXS (P+ Q)X(S HTP KIS FT) + OX (S41) =PXxS+PxT+OxStOxT m(P x Q)= (mP) x Q= PX (mQ) Since i, j, and k are orthogonal, xk=0 ixi ixjsk jXk=i kxi Also, iC P= P+ PJ + Pk and Q= Q.+ O,) + Q.k then ij PX Q=(P.Q. ~ P.Q,)i+ (P.O, ~ P.O.) +(P.Q.~ POIk=] PRP QW ® @. For proof of this cross-product determination see Problem 1-12 11 VECTOR CALCULUS (i) Differentiation uf @ vestor P that varies sith wapect to a scalar quantity sunt as tine 6 is pesformed ax follows. Let P= PCO: that is. P is @ function of time ¢ A change SP in P as time changes from ¢ 10 (1+ 0 is AP= PU EA PEO) Pore dy Puy ae Then I Pl) = Pit Pj + Pk. where P.. ?.. and P. are functions of time t. we have ag (PF APR + APIS (P+ SP IR Pi a Pj- Pk ap dia SPA + AP jt SP “The following operations are valid: d _aP dQ indie de dt J e-qye® ae GOP Lepcqyel nae ext? gh XQa GK Oe PKG dP dy, a GUO) e FUER where ¥ is a scalar function of ¢ a di