THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

The Roots of Modern Science

 The Medieval View
 During the Middle Ages, many scholars believed that the Earth was stationary and at the center
of the universe.
 They thought the moon, sun, and planets all moved around the Earth in perfect circles.
 This belief, called the geocentric theory, was based on ideas from Aristotle and expanded by
Ptolemy, an ancient Greek astronomer.
 Christianity also supported this idea, teaching that Earth was specially chosen by God as the
center of the universe. This theory seemed to make sense because the sun appeared to rise and set
around the Earth each day.

 A new way of thinking

 In the mid-1500s, a few scholars started questioning the ideas of ancient thinkers and the church.
This sparked the Scientific Revolution, a new way of thinking about the natural world based on
careful observation and questioning old beliefs. Several factors contributed to this revolution,
including European exploration during the Renaissance. Explorers discovered new lands and
peoples, challenging Europe's existing knowledge. The invention of the printing press helped
spread new ideas more widely. Exploration also drove scientific research, especially in
astronomy and mathematics, as navigators needed better tools and measurements. Scientists
realized that ancient beliefs didn't always match their observations, pushing them to seek new
knowledge beyond the limits of classical understanding.

THE REVOLUTIONARY MODEL OF THE UNIVERSE

 The Heliocentric Theory
is a theory that places the Sun at the center of the Solar System. It also maintains that the Earth revolves
around the Sun.

( In the realm of astronomy during the Renaissance period, a significant challenge arose against the prevailing
geocentric theory, which posited that the Earth was the center of the universe. Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish
cleric and astronomer, embarked on a daring exploration of planetary movements, ultimately proposing the
heliocentric theory. Contrary to popular belief, Copernicus suggested that the sun, rather than the Earth, resided
at the universe's center, with planets orbiting around it. Despite his groundbreaking insights, Copernicus
hesitated to publish his findings until 1543, the year of his death, fearing rejection by scholars and religious
authorities.

Following Copernicus's pioneering work, the scientific community saw the emergence of Tycho Brahe, a
meticulous Danish astronomer who meticulously recorded planetary motions. Brahe's observations provided a
wealth of accurate data, which laid the groundwork for further exploration. After Brahe's passing, his assistant,
Johannes Kepler, a brilliant mathematician, took up the mantle. Kepler analyzed Brahe's data and uncovered
profound truths about planetary motion. He deduced that planets moved in elliptical orbits around the sun, a
revolutionary departure from the previously held belief in circular orbits.

Kepler's discoveries solidified Copernicus's heliocentric theory and reshaped our understanding of the cosmos.
His laws of planetary motion provided mathematical validation for the idea that planets revolve around the sun.
The collaboration between Copernicus, Brahe, and Kepler marked a pivotal moment in scientific history,
challenging longstanding dogma and paving the way for a new era of astronomical inquiry. The heliocentric
model of the universe, once a daring hypothesis, now stood as a cornerstone of modern astronomy, illustrating
the power of observation, inquiry, and mathematical reasoning in reshaping humanity's understanding of the
natural world.)

 Galileo’s Discoveries
An Italian scientist named Galileo Galilei built on the new theories about astronomy. As a young man,
Galileo learned that a Dutch lens maker had built an instrument that could enlarge far-off objects.
Galileo built his own telescope and used it to study the heavens in 1609.
With sincere heart and unpretended faithI
abjure, curse, and detest the aforesaid errors
and heresies [of Copernicus] and also every
other error . . . contrary to the Holy Church,
and I swear that in the future I will never
again say or assert . . . anything that might
causea similar suspicion toward me.
GALILEO GALILEI, quoted in The
Discoveries

( Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist, became intrigued by new ideas in astronomy during the early 1600s. He
heard about a special tool made by a Dutch lens maker that could make far-away things look closer. Galileo
decided to build his own telescope, and when he looked up at the night sky with it in 1609, he saw things that
amazed him. He wrote about these discoveries in a little book called "Starry Messenger," which he published in
1610.

In "Starry Messenger," Galileo shared some incredible findings. He observed that Jupiter, one of the planets,
had four moons circling around it. He also noticed dark spots on the sun and saw that the moon's surface wasn't
smooth but had mountains and valleys. These discoveries were groundbreaking because they challenged what
people had believed for a long time, especially ideas put forward by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle.

What Galileo saw through his telescope supported the ideas of another scientist, Nicolaus Copernicus.
Copernicus had proposed that the Earth and other planets actually moved around the sun, which was different
from what many people thought at the time. Galileo's observations added weight to Copernicus's ideas.

However, not everyone was happy about Galileo's discoveries. His findings contradicted what the Catholic
Church, and even some Protestant leaders, taught about the universe. The church was worried that if people
started to believe Galileo, they might question other things the church said. In 1616, the Catholic Church
warned Galileo not to talk about Copernicus's ideas anymore.

But Galileo didn't stop. In 1632, he wrote a book called "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems,"
where he discussed both Copernicus's ideas and those of another ancient thinker, Ptolemy. Galileo clearly
supported Copernicus's views in the book. This made the Pope angry, and Galileo was brought to trial in 1633.
Under threat of torture, he had to say that he was wrong and that Copernicus's ideas were false.

Even though Galileo had to take back what he said, his ideas continued to spread throughout Europe. He spent
the rest of his life confined to his home, but his influence lived on. Eventually, in 1992, the Catholic Church
admitted that Galileo had been right all along. His discoveries changed how people thought about the universe
and paved the way for modern science.)

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method, inspired by
Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, is a way
scientists use to find answers to questions.
Scientific method - First, they notice something interesting and ask a question about it. Then, they make a
guess, called a hypothesis, about what might be happening. After that, they do tests or look at data to see if their
guess is right. Finally, they look at the results and decide if their guess was correct or not. This method helps
scientists understand the world around us in a logical and organized way.

Bacon and Descartes

The scientific method did not develop overnight. The work of two important thinkers of the 1600s,
Francis Bacon and René Descartes, helped to advance the new approach.

Francis Bacon and René Descartes, influential thinkers of the 1600s, played key roles in advancing the scientific
method. Bacon, an English writer, emphasized the importance of practical knowledge gained through
experimentation rather than relying solely on ancient theories like Aristotle's. He promoted empiricism, where
scientists experiment and draw conclusions from observations. Descartes, a French mathematician, developed
analytical geometry and stressed the need to question old beliefs. He relied on mathematics and logic, famously
stating "I think, therefore I am," to emphasize the importance of reason. Their ideas laid the groundwork for
modern scientific methods based on observation and experimentation.

NEWTON EXPLAINS THE LAW OF GRAVITY

By the mid-1600s, the accomplishments of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo had shattered the old views of
astronomy and physics. Later, the great English scientist Isaac Newton helped to bring together their
breakthroughs under a single theory of motion.

Isaac Newton, after studying mathematics and physics, discovered that the same force governed the movement
of both planets and objects on Earth. He formulated the law of universal gravitation, stating that every object
attracts every other object, with the strength of attraction depending on their masses and the distance between
them. Newton's ideas, published in 1687 in The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, described the
universe as a well-ordered system, was like a giant clock, and attributed its design to God.

THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION SPREAD

  Scientific Instruments
Scientists developed new tools and instruments to make the precise observations that the scientific
method demanded.
The first microscope, invented by Zacharias Janssen in 1590, allowed for precise observations, later
enhanced by Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who observed bacteria and red blood cells using a microscope in
the 1670s. Evangelista Torricelli developed the mercury barometer in 1643 for measuring atmospheric
pressure, while Gabriel Fahrenheit created the first mercury thermometer in 1714, with water freezing at
32° Fahrenheit. Anders Celsius introduced another scale for the mercury thermometer in 1742, with
freezing set at 0° Celsius. These instruments revolutionized scientific observation and measurement.
 Medicine and Human Body
During the Middle Ages, European doctors had accepted as fact the writings of an ancient Greek
physician named Galen.
During the Middle Ages, European doctors relied on the writings of the ancient Greek physician Galen
for medical knowledge, even though Galen had never dissected humans, only animals. However,
Flemish physician Andreas Vesalius disproved Galen's assumptions by dissecting human corpses and
publishing detailed observations in his book "On the Structure of the Human Body" in 1543. In the late
1700s, British physician Edward Jenner developed the first smallpox vaccine by using germs from
cowpox, which provided safer and long-lasting protection compared to earlier inoculation methods using
smallpox germs. This breakthrough marked the advent of vaccination in medical history.
 Discovery in Chemistry
Discoveries in Chemistry Robert Boyle pioneered the use of the scientific method in chemistry. He is
considered the founder of modern chemistry.
Robert Boyle is credited with pioneering the scientific method in chemistry and is hailed as the founder
of modern chemistry. In his book "The Sceptical Chymist" (1661), Boyle rejected Aristotle's theory of
four elements, proposing instead that matter was composed of smaller particles. His most famous
contribution, Boyle's law, explains how the volume, temperature, and pressure of gas interact. Boyle's
rational approach to science influenced thinkers beyond chemistry, sparking a movement that challenged
traditional beliefs about governance and the rights of ordinary people, leading to significant changes in
political landscapes across societies.

SUMMARY
 THE GEOCENTRIC THEORY- once widely accepted, posited that the Earth was the center of the
universe, shaping early cosmological beliefs.
 THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION- ignited by scholars like Galileo Galilei, marked a transformative
period in history where empirical observation and experimentation revolutionized scientific thinking and
understanding.
 THE HELIOCENTRIC THEORY- championed by Copernicus and further supported by Galileo
Galilei, proposed that the sun, rather than the Earth, was at the center of the solar system, challenging
traditional astronomical views.
 GALILEO GALILEI- through his pioneering work and support of the heliocentric theory, significantly
contributed to the advancement of modern astronomy and the scientific method.
 THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD- exemplified by the work of Robert Boyle, emphasizes empirical
observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and analysis, providing a systematic approach to
scientific inquiry.
 ISAAC NEWTON- renowned for his contributions to physics and mathematics, introduced
revolutionary concepts such as the law of universal gravitation, which unified celestial and terrestrial
mechanics, laying the groundwork for modern physics.

WHY IS IT IMPORTANT THAT WE LEARN SCIENCE?

Learning science is crucial because it helps both society and individuals. By using the scientific method, people
learn to ask questions, collect data, analyze results, and share information. This knowledge is valuable,
especially when shared with the scientific community, to avoid it being wasted. Scientists are naturally
skeptical, so new information must be carefully examined by others, ensuring its accuracy and usefulness.