COMPUTERS

FIBER OPTICS, ESDS

FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

Module: 5 Book : 2/5

1
AUTHORITY

It is important to note that the information in this book or study/

training purposes only.

When carrying out a procedure/ work on aircraft / aircraft equipment

you MUST always refer to the relevant aircraft maintenance manual
or equipment manufacturer's handbook

You should also follow the requirements of your national regulatory

authority (The GCAA in the UAE) and laid down company policy as
regards local procedure. Recording, report writing, documentation
etc.

For health and safety in the workshop you should follow the
regulations/ Guidelines as specified by the equipment manufacturer,
your company, National safety authorities and national governments.

2
CONTENTS

Computer structure Page

The CPU
Memories 1
Microprocessor structure and operation 1
Data buses 3
Fibre optics 8
Light sources and detectors 11
Light systems 27
Fly by light control system 3
Electrostatic sensitive devices 0
Software management control 33
Flight instrument displays 3
HSI 8
ADI 40
46
5
3
5
3
5
6

3
 BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE

A basic computer consists of the following: Central Processing Unit (CPU),

Memory, Address Bus, Control Bus, Data Bus, Input/Output ports and power
connections. Figure 1 shows the basic layout.

These elements are known as the hardware elements of a computer.

The computer's function is to execute the instructions in the program. The
program, it's procedures, and documentation is known as the software. On
aircraft this will be mainly in the form of pre-loaded programs but in some
systems the program is on disc, which can be changed eg, Flight Management
System Navigational Data Base.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

This executes the individual instructions that are in the program and may also be
called a microprocessor. This is a single integrated circuit on a chip. It's
components include:
* The register section
* Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
* Timing and Control Section

The Register Section

The register section consists of a number of storage locations (shift registers)
where a piece of data is kept, or one of the registers used by the microprocessor in
carrying out the different operations.
-1-
A special memory in the microprocessor is called the status register. This is
normally made up of single bit indicators (called flags). Typically the flags
would include:

(a) ZERO FLAG - is the result zero?

(b) SIGN FLAG - is the number plus or minus?
(c) CARRY FLAG - did a carry occur?
(d) PARITY FLAG - check whether the total number of bits is odd or even.

These storage elements or temporary memory store hold a single byte or

word, a BYTE is typically an 8 bit (binary digit) word eg, 10011101.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

This unit performs the arithmetic and logical operations. All calculations are
performed in binary, including addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
Adders can be made using a number of logic gates where the basic principles of
addition apply (refer book 1 in this module) ie,

0 +0=0
1+0=1
0 + 1 =1
1 + 1 = 1 carry 1

For subtraction the following method using "two's complement" may be used. To

obtain the two's complement of a number (in binary form):

(i) invert the binary number ie, change all the '0' s to T s
and all the T s to '0' s
(ii) then add 1

Example: Subtract 5 from 9 using a word length of 4 bits.

-2-
ANSWER Binary 5 is 0101
: Invert gives 1010
Add 1 1
Gives 1011 this is the two's complement.

Now we ADD the two's complement of 5 to binary 9

9 1001
-5 101
1
(1)01
00
 Using a word length of four bits [the carry one (1} is ignored], the
answer is 0100 which is decimal 4.

Multiplication can be achieved by repetitive adding:

A x B = A + A + A + A.......A, B times.

Division is achieved by repetitive subtractions:

B / A = B - A - A - A - A ...........A until the remainder is zero or a smaller

number than A.

Timing and Control Section

This co-ordinates the internal operation of the microprocessor and controls the
operation of the ALU and registers to the desired action specified when an
instruction is performed. The clock in this section is a crystal controlled oscillator
producing pulses typically 120MHz to 200MHZ (200,000,000 pulses per second).
The program counter within the section counts the pulses and initiates the next
step in the program and points to the address of the next instruction.

The microprocessor communicates with the memory to access, store and transfer
data to the data highway or bus.

MEMORIES

As we have already seen the CPU has memory storage devices but these are of a
temporary nature. For many aircraft systems a considerable amount of data
needs to be stored. So within the computer is a memory or memories.

-3-
This memory consists of a number of locations where a binary word is stored with
each location having an address. In the microprocessor the memory is usually of
two types:

* Random Access Memory (RAM}

* Read Only Memory (ROM)

RAM
Is sometimes called a read/write memory. It can have information written into
and read out-of each location. There are two types of RAM, static and dynamic.
The static RAM (SRAM) has bistable switches (flip-flops) whose contents are fixed
until the memory cell us written into or power is switched off. The dynamic RAM
(DRAM) memory cells are very small capacitors, which in fact use the stray
capacitance between the gate and source of a MOSFET.
A charged capacitor represents logic 1 and a discharged capacitor logic 0. The
only problem with this is that the cells have to be given a 'refreshening' charge
frequently as the capacitor tends to leak it's charge away. This 'refreshening'
charge is typically every 1mS. These charges are stored in and read out from
memory cells stored in rows and columns e.g., 128 rows and 128 columns can
store 16,384 bits. Figure 2 shows an 8 x 8 bit DRAM.

-4-
There is a row decoder to signal the row address and a column decoder to signal
the column address. In the example shown row address 3 (Oil) and column
address 5 (101) are selected. So all the MOSFET's on that row are turned on, the
column line charge the capacitors when writing and detect the charge when
reading. In this example the charge on the capacitor on line 5 will be 'read' out ie,
one bit of information has been transferred to the data out line. As already stated,
to prevent data being lost the threshold amplifier in the data lines refreshes this
charge.

The DRAM has the advantages that it:

(1) Has a larger storage capacity for a given chip area.

(2) Operates faster.
(3) Consumes less power.
(4) Is cheaper to manufacture due to the fact that MOSFET's only need 1
transistor per memory cell whereas the SRAM needs two.

It does have the disadvantage of needing the refreshening charge of the

capacitors.

A RAM is generally a volatile memory i.e., it loses its stored data when power is
switched off.

ROM

The Read Only Memory has permanent data in it and would contain the program
for the system. When in use, data can only be read out of the memory, new data
cannot be written in. It is a non-volatile memory ie, the stored information is not
lost when the power is switched off.

Figure 3 shows a ROM with a decoder and a diode matrix.

If the decoder input is 101 i.e., 5io the number 5 line will go logic 0. So the two
diodes connected to this line will conduct as their cathodes are at logic 0. Current
will flow through the resistors to the diodes causing lines Y and W to go to logic 0.
X and Z remain at logic 1.
So at the address location 101 the word 1001 is stored and read out of the
memory.
As already stated the programme in this ROM cannot be changed, however, to
provide flexibility there are programmable ROM's.

- 5-
The Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)

It is designed so that it can be programmed to suit a specific application. As we

have already seen the ROM can be made up of a matrix of diodes. In this case
each diode has a fuse in series with it. With the fuse intact the diode is at logic 1'.
The programmer (a person with considerable computer skills) will use computer
control to insert the programme by blowing' the relevant fuses to insert logic 0' as
required.

-6-
Again, once the program is inserted it cannot be erased.

However another type of PROM is the erasable programmable read only memory
(EPROM). The program is held by charging memory cells or not charging memory
cells within the matrix. However, the information programmed into the EPROM
can be erased by exposing the top surface of the 1C package to ultraviolet radiation
through a special window which causes all memory cells to be discharged.
(Normally the window is covered by a uv light-proof sticky patch.) A new
programme can be stored, this would be inserted via a PROM programmer.
Another type of PROM is the Electrically Alterable Programmable Read Only
Memory (EAROM). The advantage of this type over the EPROM is, whereas in the
EPROM all cells were discharged to logic 0, the EAROM can have individual cells
discharged to logic 0 without affecting the others. This is done by applying a
reverse polarity voltage to any individual cell in the matrix.

Bubble Memory

This is a magnetic solid state memory in which data is stored as microscopic

cylindrical regions (the bubbles), that can drift in a thin film of garnet. These
bubbles are generated by pulses through an aluminium loop over an insulating
film on top of the garnet. Presence off a bubble is logic 1, no bubble is logic 0.
These "bubbles' can move around in the material in a controlled manner to form a
shift register type memory. This is a non volatile memory.

Storage Capacity

An eight bit word is called a BYTE. The symbol K (capital K) is used to represent
1024 bits (210). The number of addressable locations in a memory is dependant on
its number of input/output lines. A memory with 8 input lines has 2 s or 256
locations, one with 16 input lines has 2 16 or 65,536 locations. The memory
capacity in the second case assuming 8 bits (byte) per location is then a 64K
memory (64 kilobytes).

Highway Structure

Figure 5 shows the highway structure, there are three buses, the address bus, the
data bus and the control bus.

As we have already seen the memory consists of a number of locations, each

individually identified by an ADDRESS.

-7-
The address bus is therefore used to specify the memory location or input/output
port involved in the transfer. It is a one way bus and may have anything from 4 to
32 lines depending on the number of memory addresses there are, 8 lines give 2 s
=256 addresses. The data bus is a bi-directional bus and is used to carry the data
being transferred to and from the memory or input and output transfer.

The control bus comprises input and output lines which synchronise the
microprocessor's operation with that of the external circuitry e.g., read/write
controls, timing signals, input/output selection. This is also a bi-directional bus.

MICROPROCESSOR (CPU) STRUCTURE AND OPERATION

Figure 6 shows a block diagram of a microprocessor used in an aircraft system. The

function of the components is as follows:

Accumulator - This is a specially defined register that holds the result of any
arithmetic or logic operation.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) - Performs arithmetic or logic operations on data
held in the accumulator.

Buffer Register - Temporarily stores data.

Timing and Control - Contains the circuitry to generate the basic timing signals.
This may be an 8MHz crystal oscillator (Flight Management System
Microprocessor 747-400). This may then be broken down to provide timing signals
for other circuits, e.g. 4MHz, 1MHz, 500kHz, 200kHz and 25kHz. In addition it
accepts and produces special control signals used internally as well as in other
computer circuits e.g.:
(a) Providing read/write pulses for registers, memories and input/output
devices via a control bus.
(b) Incrementing and decrementing the program counter.
-8-
Instruction Decoder - The binary word held in the instruction register is identified
by the decoder, thus enabling the control unit to send out correct timing and
control pulses.

Program Counter - This register/counter holds the address of the location in the
memory where the next instruction in the program sequence is to be found. The
contents of the counter can be incremented or decremented by special control
pulses.

Registers - Perform a wide variety of functions for example:

Instruction Register

On a request by the microprocessor that requires the instruction 'fetch', the

register receives from the RAM/ROM via the data bus, the instruction that is
addressed via the address bus. This instruction is latched into the instruction
register to be decoded to yield the starting address in the microprocessor memory.

Interrupt Register

An overflow interrupt, generated internally is input into this register. The register
receives a number of interrupt signals, determines which signal has the highest
priority and passes the signal to the status register and other units in order to
recognise the interrupt.

-9-
Status Register

This keeps the microprocessor up to date re the present status of operation.

Address Register

This contains the contents of the programme counter, which is the address of the
next instruction.

Extension Register

This is used when certain ALU operations require additional working register
space.

Stack Register

Instead of writing a fairly common programme sequence, eg multiplication in the

main programme every time it is required, it can be written as a subroutine,
stored and recalled when needed. An example is shown in the following diagram.
The store is called a STACK REGISTER because the data is 'stacked' on top of
each other and then recovered in reverse order (last in, first out).

As only one address is needed, ie that on the top of the stack, a 'stack pointer'
controls the addressing of the external stack.

- 10-
Instructions

Each microprocessor has its own unique set of instructions.

These instruction words normally consist of one, two or three bytes. The first byte
is referred to as the operation code (opcode), this tells the microprocessor the type
of operation to be performed. The remaining bytes can be data or an address
indicating where the data is stored, this is known as the operand.

An example of a single byte instruction would be to move the contents of register B

to register A so the instruction would be an eight bit word which would indicate to
the microprocessor that this is required i.e., the opcode.

A two-byte instruction will have an opcode (8 bits) and an operand, telling the
microprocessor what the data is, or the address in the memory where it can be
found. So this instruction will tell the microprocessor to do something with the
data eg, move it into a particular register.

A three-byte instruction would again make byte 1 the opcode and bytes 2 and 3
the operands, the second and third bytes each of 8 bits contain either data or an
address of a 16 bit word. The second byte may hold the least significant bits and
byte three the most significant bits. It should be noted in some microprocessors
this may be the other way round. So the instruction here might be, "the content of
the memory location whose address is specified by byte 2 and 3 is moved to a
register".

Fetch-Execute Cycle

The microprocessor operates in a two phase mode, during the first phase, the
fetch cycle, the next instruction is fetched from the memory and then in the
second phase or execution cycle the microprocessor performs (executes) the action
specified by the instruction (opcode). The program counter points to the next
sequential instruction to be fetched and executed. Thus during a typical
instruction cycle, the next instruction to be executed is read from the memory
location indicated by the contents of the program counter. While this instruction
is being executed, the contents of the program counter are incremented to point to
the next instruction.

DATA BUSES

From the computers within the aircraft, systems information has to be transmitted
to the components, this may be in the form of electrical or fibre optic signals and
are known as data buses.

Aeronautical Radio INCorporated (ARINC) is a corporation made up of scheduled

airlines, transport companies, aircraft manufactures and foreign flag airlines.
- 11 -
One primary activity of ARINC is to produce specifications and reports for the
purpose of:

(1) Indicating to manufacturers the group opinion concerning requisites of

new equipment.

(2) To channel new equipment designs in a direction which will result in

maximum standardisation.

There are many ARINC specifications in existence for example:

ARINC 573 - Specification for digital flight data recording systems.

ARINC 561 - Specification for the Inertial Navigation System.

ARINC 429 - Specification for transfer of digital data between avionic

components.

ARINC 629 - An improvement on the ARINC 429 system.

The Arinc 429 System

First of all we are going to consider the ARINC 429 Specification for data transfer.
As an example let us consider the Air Data Computer which will have on its
output side an ARINC 429 transmitter (TX). One of its outputs (among many) on
the data bus will be altitude information which will be picked up by the ARINC
429 Receiver (RX) in the Digital Altimeter.

- 12 -
The data bus is a pair of twisted wires with shielding.
The ARINC 429 Digital Information Transfer System (DITS) is a self-clocking, self-
synchronising system called "bipolar return to zero".
The data is transmitted in binary bit form. The Ts and 'O's are represented by
high voltage levels (+10v) and low voltage levels (-10v) respectively for one half of
the clock cycle i.e., each pulse returns to zero in the middle of a clock pulse.

Figure 10 shows the principle of this transmission. The data is transmitted in

groups of 32 bits in serial fashion i.e., one bit at a time. Some data buses are
designated as LOW SPEED (12-14k bits/sec) or HIGH SPEED (100k bits/sec).
Signals only flow in one direction on the bus.

- 13-
 Word Format

This 32 bit word has five basic parts:

(1) LABEL
(2) SOURCE/ DESTINATION IDENTIFIER (SDI)
(3} DATA FIELD
(4) SIGN STATUS MATRIX (SSM)
(5) PARITY BIT (P)

The LABEL. The first eight bits of the word (octal coded), identifies the information
contained in the data e.g., airspeed, exhaust gas temperature etc. There are a large
number of words being transmitted on the bus and the Receiver decodes the
labels and selects only those words it requires.

The SOURCE/DESTINATION IDENTIFIER. This is used to identify the source or

destination of a word and are bits 9 and 10 in the word i.e., which of a number of
installations the word is coming from or needs to be directed to.

The DATA FIELD contains the specific data related to the label e.g., how many
knots for airspeed, value of exhaust gas temperature etc. For a binary word this is
contained in bits 11-28 and for a binary coded decimal (BCD) word it is in bits 11-
29. Any bits not used are filled with logic O's these are known as pad bits and
have no data significance.

The SIGN STATUS MATRIX, bits 29,30,31 for a binary word and 30,31 for a BCD
word identifies the characteristics of the word e.g., north or south, positive or
negative, east or west and it's status e.g., no computed data, failure warning or
functional test or normal operation.

The PARITY BIT. Arinc 429 uses odd parity i.e. the total number of logic '1's in the
word must be an odd number, if it is not an odd number, the parity bit is set to 1.
This is used in the system to check for errors, if on receiving a signal it does not
contain an odd number of Ts then there is something wrong with the
transmission and a fault signal would be generated.

To enable the receiver to identify the beginning of a transmission, the data word is
synchronised by a minimum 4 bit time gap. Figure 11 shows two examples of an
ARINC 429 transmission, one using binary and the other BCD.
- 14-
The transmitters of the system, which are embedded in the system equipment, are
capable of interfacing with up to 20 receivers.

MIL-STD- 1553B

This is a United States Military standard and has been adopted as a NATO
standard (STANAG 3838). It is a multiple source data transmission system in that
transmission can take place from more than one source. It is a half duplex system
in that data transfer can take place in either direction on a single line but not in
both directions on that line simultaneously.

The basic configuration is shown in the following diagrams. The data bus may be a
twisted pair or fibre optic cable with a maximum length of l00m.

Generally, direct coupling to the bus is avoided due to the possibility of one
terminal shorting the bus. The bus connection is typically via a transformer-
coupled stub so that the shorting of the stub is isolated from the bus. The
maximum stub length is 20ft (6m).

Control of the bus is effected by a Bus Controller (BC) which is connected to a

number of Remote Terminals (RT), up to a maximum of 31, via the data bus. These
remote terminals are connected to the aircraft subsystems. Data is transferred at a
rate of 1MHz using the Manchester bi-phase digital format (see ARINC 629).

The data word size is 20 bits, with an actual word size of 16 bits, with SYNCH
waveform and parity taking up four bits.

Between the Bus Controller (BC) and Remote Terminals (RT) there are various
transfer formats.

- 15 -
However, we shall look at transfer of data from RT to BC.

1) BC sends a transmit signal to RT.

1) RT replies after a short time with a status word, this is followed
immediately with one or more data words up to a maximum of 32.
2) Transmission of one word takes 70jis.

Transfer from one RT to another RT:

1) BC sends command to one RT.

2) Transit command sent to other RT.
1) The sending RT sends a status word followed by the data word up to a
maximum of 32 words.
3) The receiving RT sends a status word to the BC.
- 16-
ARINC 629 has been developed from the MIL-STD-1553B the EC being replaced
by the Data Autonomous Transmission and Communication (DATAC) where each
LRU has a serial interface module which controls the timing of the LRU data onto
the bus when the LRU's are not transmitting.

ARINC 629

In the ARINC 429 system data only flows in one direction so if we wish to send
data back to the receiving element another data bus is required. Also with the
advent of more digital systems on aircraft another data transmission system was
required which was faster and bidirectional. The ARINC 629 fulfils these
requirements and is currently used, as well as ARINC 429, on the Boeing 777.

The ARINC 629 data bus is an unshielded, twisted pair of wires bonded and
terminated at both ends. Data is sent and received at a rate of 2 megabits per
second. The system has three parts:

(a) Data bus cable

(b)Current mode coupler

(c) Stub cable

- 17-
Data Bus Cable

Up to 120 terminals can be connected to the bus which can be up to 100 metres
long. The bus operates a 2MHz which allows 100,000 20 bit words to be
transmitted each second, The cable is 20 AWG (American Wire Gauge) twisted
pair of wires bonded together continuously along their length, at the end of each
bus cable are 130 ohm impedance matched resistors.

Many LRU's receive data at the same time. Communication is bidirectional on the
777 and the maximum number of LRU's on one bus is 46. All the data on the bus
is available to all LRU's on the bus. Each LRU has a serial interface module and a
terminal controller which controls the timing of its LRU data onto the bus when
other LRU's are not transmitting.

Current Mode Coupler

This connects the data bus cable to the stub cable. These are found in panels in
the electronics compartment arranged in rows so that the bus cable can run
through them.

Figure 17 shows couplers of two types, which are interchangeable. They use the
inductive principle, i.e. transformer coupling. An E core assembly is part of the
coupler base. The wire guides are grooves that give controlled routing and
protection for the wires of the data bus cable as they go through the E core
assembly.

- 18-
The upper part has the electronics for putting data on and taking data off the bus
and sending via the receptacle to the LRU stub cable. The housing is waterproof.

Stub Cables

The stub cables are for bi-directional data movement between LRU and current
mode coupler. The stub cables also supply power from the LRU's to the current
mode couplers. The stub cable has four wires, two to transmit and two to receive.
These cables are in the normal aircraft wiring bundles.
- 19 -
Figure 19 shows the arrangement and layout of a stub cable. These cables can be
up to 40 metres long.

All the data bus cables on the 777 are inside the current mode coupler panels
except the left and right bus cables. The diagrams show the basic layout.

-20-
Long runs of cables will have production break splices carried out at the factory.
You can see the coupler connector to the coupler panel in figure 20.

Data Structure

The data is transmitted in groups called messages. Messages are comprised of

word strings and up to 31 word strings can be in a message. Word strings begin
with a label followed by up to 256 data words. Each label and data word is 20
bits. Figure 22 shows the complete structure of the ARINC 629 message.

- 21 -
 ARINC 429 DATAC

LABE PARAMETER LABEL WORD PARAMETER

L POSITION

AIR DATA

230 TRUE AIRSPEED 230 1 TRUE AIRSPEED

231 TOTAL AIR TEMP 2 TOTAL AIR TEMP

233 STATIC AIR TEMP 3 STATIC AIR TEMP

234 BARO CORRECTION (MB)#1 4 BARO CORRECTION (MB) #1

235 BARO CORRECTION (IN OF HG) #1 5 BARO CORRECTION (IN OF

HG)#1
AIR DATA
323 FLIGHT PATH ACCEL 330 1 FLIGHT PATH ACCEL

330 BODY YAW RATE 2 BODY YAW RATE

331 BODY LONGITUDINAL ACCEL 3 BODY LONGITUDINAL ACCEL

332 BODY LATERAL ACCEL 4 BODY LATERAL ACCEL

333 BODY NORMAL ACCEL S BODY NORMAL ACCEL

362 ALONG TRACK HRZ ACCEL 6 ALONG TRACK HRZ ACCEL

354 VERTICAL ACCEL 7 VERTICAL ACCEL

363 CROSS TRACK HRZ ACCEL 8 CROSS TRACK HRZ ACCEL

DATA IDENTIFICATION/RECOGNITION
COMPARISON TABLE - EXAMPLE

A particular parameter is defined by its position in the labelled word string and it
is the responsibility of the system designer to define labels and parameters. The
table above compares the ARINC 429 to the ARINC 629 data word. ARINC 429
requires a different word for each type of information it sends.
ARINC 629 uses a word string that has a label followed by information that can
have up to 256 types of data i.e., more information on the bus hence faster
transmission.
ARINC 629 deals with standards for this bus and it is also referred to as the
Digital Autonomous Terminal Access Communication (DATAC) bus.
To keep the data bus to a twisted pair of cables it was necessary for the data bus
to be self-clocking. Manchester bi-phase is the form of self clocking used in ARINC
629.
-22 -
The principle is that of:
(1) Sending a clock "pulse" in between each data bit
(2) 0 and 1 not being represented by presence or absence of a transition
from one level to another.
For example if there is no transition it corresponds to logic 0 and if there is
transition it corresponds to logic 1. Spaced equally between these data
transmissions are the clock pulse transitions. Figure 23 shows the principle.

Fig. 23 MANCHESTER BIPHASE ENCODING PRINCIPLE

The data buses between LRU's and LRM's (line replacement modules) may be of
different types and data maybe transferred at different speeds. For example:
ARINC 629 sends and receives data at 2 megabits per second.

ARiNC 429 one way buses data sends and receives data at low speed {12 kilobits per second and 14
kilobits per second) and nigh speed (100 kilobits per second)

ARINC 453 is a one way bus that sends data at 1 megabit per second.

ARINC 717 is a one way bus that sends and receives data at 128 words per second.

ARINC 618 is a one way bus that sends and receives data at 128 words per second.

RS-422 is a one way bus that sends and receives data at 9600 bits per second.

RS-232 is a one way bus that sends and receives data on a casual wire at 20 kilobits per second.

10 baseT two way bus that sends and receives signals at 10 megabits per second.

RS-485 two way bus that sends and receives signals at 10 megabits per second.

10 base 2 two way bus that sends and receives signals at 10 megabits per second.

ARINC 636 fibre optic data bus sends and receives signals at 100 megabits per second.
-23 -
As you can see there is a considerable amount of data being sent and received at
varying speeds and using a variety of data bus systems. You do not need to
remember all these data bus systems but you should appreciate the layout of a
bus system on a modern aircraft.

Protocol

This is the formal code of behaviour of a computer/data bus system. It governs the
sequence which computers/terminals write data onto the data bus.

In basic terms it means that when one computer/terminal is writing data onto the
bus the rest are quiet and, if necessary, reading that data off the bus.

It can be either Basic Protocol (BP) or Combined Protocol. The BP can be operated
in periodic mode or aperiodic mode. We shall consider the BP modes.

Timing

All operations on a data system are governed by a timing signal. On the ARINC
629 system the timing of messages is such as to ensure that the required
repetition rate is maintained and there are no collisions between messages. Three
timers are used to ensure periodicity, collision free access and equal access
opportunity, these are:

* Transmit IntervalJTI). This is common to all terminals and can be set

in the range of 0.5 to 64 milliseconds. Tl controls the minimum
interval between periodic transmissions.

Terminal Gap (TG)- Each terminal has a unique time value assigned
to it. This is in the range from 4 to 128 microseconds. The TG is the
parameter which ensures clash free access.

Synch Gap (SGI. This is common to all terminals and is set to a value
larger than the largest TG. SG is the basic parameter which ensures
that all the terminals have equal access opportunity.

Periodic Mode

Figure 24 shows the operation in periodic mode. This is used when there is a
sufficient bus data rate to allow all messages to be transmitted at the same rate
(the highest rate}. The TI is set to the inverse of the TG to allow collision free
access. There is spare time on the TI and the terminals generally transmit in a set
order. The SG does not feature in this mode.
-24 -
Aperiodic Mode

If there is insufficient bus capacity for all the messages to be transmitted at the
maximum rate then the aperiodic mode is used.

Each terminal is given an equal opportunity to transmit one message on the bus
during a defined period. This is achieved by assigning to each terminal a unique
Terminal Gap {TG) value and by determining a Synchronisation Gap (SG) that is
longer than the longest TG.

Figure 25 shows the operation of a simple three terminal system. The terminal
with the shortest TG starts to transmit (terminal 1). All other terminals reset their
timers. When the first terminal has finished transmitting it will have to wait until
the bus has been quiet for the duration of the SG before it is given the opportunity
to transmit again.

- 25 -
So effectively now the terminal with the shortest TG that has not transmitted it's
information is terminal 3 (looking at figure 25, terminal 3's TG is shorter than
terminal 2's TG so terminal 3 will transmit.)

This process will repeat itself until all the terminals have transmitted in order of
their shortest TG.

When all terminals have transmitted the bus goes quiet while SG timers operate,
and the cycle will start again with the shortest TG terminal transmitting first.

This cycle time is called a Minor Frame (MIF) and the shortest MIF possible (equal
to the synchronisation gap, and the sum of the messages and their terminal gaps)
is the Minimum. Frame Time (MFT).

-26-
 FIBRE OPTICS

Fibre optics are used for the high-speed transmission of data using light.

The elements of an optical fibre are a central core of suitable glass material (e.g.
pure silica) with a low optical transmission loss with an outer cladding with a
lower refractive index than the core, and finally an outer covering for wear
protection and mechanical strength.

The transmission of light along any optical fibre depends on the optical property of
total internal reflection.

Figure 28 shows an enlarged view of a fibre optic of circular cross-section, which

has a core of refractive index n2 and a cladding with a lower refractive index m.
Rays travelling at an angle 6 (measured from the normal core-cladding interface)
are greater than the critical angle 6C. (6C = arc sin ni/n2) are confined by total
internal reflection, i.e. the ray will undergo total internal reflection at the
core/cladding interface and then undergo total internal reflection at the lower
interface and will thus be guided through the core by repeated internal reflections
as shown in figure 28.

-27-
Multimode Fibre

A multimode fibre, which has a larger diameter core than the single mode fibre,
may support hundreds or thousands of ways the light can be guided down the
fibre, ie many angles of incidence.

- 28-
This pulse broadening does place a limit on the bandwidth of the systems using
multimode fibres.

There are two types of larger core multimode fibres, Step Index and Graded Index. In
the step index fibres there is a step change in the refractive index at the core
cladding interface whereas the refractive index of the graded index fibre varies
across the core. These types help to reduce dispersion (broadening) of the output
signal. Intermodal dispersion occurs in multimode fibres because each of the
modes in the fibres travels at a slightly different velocity. An optical pulse into a
fibre has its energy distributed amongst all its possible modes, which has the effect
of spreading the pulse out.

In graded index fibres the effect of intermodal dispersion is reduced over that in
step index fibres because the grading bends the various possible light paths along
paths of nominal equal delay. The bandwidth limitation for a plastic clad step
index fibre is 6 - 25 MHz. km but by using graded index fibre this is typically 200 -
400 MHz.km.

The larger core radii of the multimode fibres makes it easier to launch optical
power and facilitate the connecting of similar fibres. Power can be launched into
such a fibre using Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).

Numerical Aperture (NA)

This is a measure of the maximum core angle for light rays to be reflected down
the fibre by total internal reflection and is a measure of the light gathering power
of the fibre.

- 29 -
Attenuation

This is signal loss within a fibre and is measured in decibels per kilometre
(dB/km).

LIGHT SOURCES AND DETECTORS

Sources

The light sources used are LEDs and semiconductor laser diodes. LEDs are
capable of sending signals with power of between 0.1 and lOmW into the fibre.
Such devices have a peak emission frequency in the near infrared, typically 0.8
and l.0m.

Limitations on the transmission rates using LEDs occur because of its rise time
(about 2 to 10ns) and chromatic dispersion.

-30 -
This occurs because the refractive index of the core material varies with the
optical wavelength and therefore the various spectral components of a given mode
will travel at different speeds.

Laser diodes can provide higher power, particularly with low-duty cycles with
outputs between 1 to lOOmW. Because of their good coupling characteristics
they offer a higher electrical to optical efficiency than LEDs.

The laser action means that the device has a narrower spectral width compared
with an LED, typically 2nm or less, as shown in figure 32.

They have a faster rise time (typically Ins) and chromatic dispersion is less.

For digital transmissions below SOMBps (mega bits per second) LEDs require
less complex drive circuitry than laser diodes and require no thermal or optical
power stabilisation.

Receivers

Both p-i-n (p material-intrinsic-n material) diodes and avalanche photodiodes

are used in the detection of the optical signal at the receiver. In the region 0.8
to 0.9um, silicon is the main material used in the fabrication of these devices.

- 31 -
Another detector is the phototransistor, this can be thought of as a photodiode
giving current amplification due to transistor action. The phototransistor is about
100 times more sensitive than a photodiode.

Figure 33 shows a simplified layout of a complete fibre optic data transmission

system showing the transmitter and receiver details. Note the electrical generation
of a light signal, and after transmission the conversion of the light signal back
into an electrical signal.

Fig. 33 FIBRE OPTIC DATA SYSTEM

To summarise. The use of optical fibres to transmit data offers the following
advantages:

a) Smaller size and weight than coaxial or copper cable buses.

b) Insensitivity to electro-magnetic interference.

c) Electrical isolation.

d) Low cross talk (interference) between fibres.

e) Fast operation - large bandwidth.

f) Suitable for multiplexed signals.

g) No line capacitance or mutual coupling.

h) High data rate (> lOGbits using single mode fibre).

The disadvantages are:

a) Connectors have to be of high integrity.

b) No dc power transmission.
-32-
 c) Minimum bend radii required.

d) Care when handling - no excessive pulling, pinching or crimping.

PRACTICAL SYSTEMS

The following is based on the B777 aircraft and including some other systems. The
systems are used to transmit data to various LRUs (Line Replacement Units) for
flight deck displays, aircraft management systems, computer fault display systems
etc.

Cable Construction

Each fibre optic strand is 0-0055 inches (0.1397mm) in diameter and covered with
several layers of material - cladding (to keep light in), primary buffer (protects
glass fibre during manufacture) and secondary buffers add strength and are
coloured to permit identification of each fibre optic strand. The strand is now 0-
035 inches (0.889mrn) in diameter.

The cable itself can have three or five fibre optic strands, and a number of black
filler strands may be used to make up the cable (these are also -035 inches in
diameter). A polyester tape covers the strands, helping to keep the cable flexible. A
woven aramid yarn protects the optical fibres from damage. The outer jacket is a
purple thermoplastic. The cable is about 0.2 inches (5mm) in diameter.
-33 -
Connectors

Type A - these are used at production breaks that are not regularly connected and
disconnected during maintenance. This is a multi-channel, in line (butt type)
connector which has low light loss between the fibre optic components.

The connector has alignment keys on the plug and alignment grooves on the
receptacle to accurately align the optical components. Guide pins in the plug fit
into cavities in the receptacle; these pins touch the bottom of the cavities so the
connector cannot be over-tightened.

The coupling nut on the plug barrel has a yellow band and the receptacle barrel
has a red and yellow band. When the red band on the receptacle is at least 50%
covered by the coupling nut the connection is correct. A three-start thread on the
plug make sure of a straight start on first joining. The plug and receptacle have
ceramic contacts that touch when connected. The light signal goes through the
holes in the end of the ceramic contacts when they are in direct physical contact
with each other.

Type B Connector

This type of connector is used to connect to LRUs and is therefore more frequently
connected and disconnected. It is a multi-channel, expanded beam (ball lens)
connector. Light loss is low but not as good as the Type A connector. It has similar
alignment keys and guide pins as the Type A.

The connector has a miniature ball lens at the end of each fibre behind a
protective window. This lens expands and focuses the light through the protective
windows of the plug and receptacle to another ball lens which narrows the light
and sends it into the fibre,
-34 -
Some maintenance points with these connectors are:
1) Before examining, ensure equipment is switch off, light from the optical
fibre could damage eyes.
2) Ensure connectors and lenses are clean and use only approved cleaning
agents and procedures for cleaning.

Fibre Optic Testing

The simplest way to check a fibre optic cable for continuity is to point a
commercially available flashlight (torch) at one end and check that light emits
from the other (the torch may have to be moved slightly to see the light at the
other end). Of course, disconnect the cable at both ends first and fit dust caps to
the equipment connections.

If light is not seen, change the cable and retest the system.
On the Boeing 777 systems there are 5 optical fibres in each fibre stub cable but
only 4 are used. If one fibre only is dark, then the connector can be changed so
that the dark fibre corresponds to position E in the connector.

This procedure is stated in the B777 AMM.

-35 -
Applications in Aircraft Systems

The Boeing 777 uses a fibre optic communications network called OLAN (Onboard
Local Area Network) this is divided into two parts.

1. Avionics Local Area Network (LAN).

2. Cabin LAN.

The Avionics LAN connects the following LRUs:

a) Left and right AIMS (Aircraft Information Management System).

b) MAT (Maintenance Access Terminal).
c) First Officers Side Display.
d) Captains Side Display.
e) Brouter.

The Brouter receives and sends signals to LRUs and connects signals to the P
MATS (Portable Maintenance Access Terminals).

The cabin LAN connects the following LRUs:

1) ZNTU 1,2,3 (Zone Network Controller/Telephone Distribution Network).

2) CFS (Cabin File Server).

-36-
ARINC 636 is a fibre optic databus with one strand of fibre optic per bus. The two
strands provide a primary (PRI) and secondary (SEC) bus. Fibre optics is also
used in other areas on aircraft, for example, in a radiation pyrometer system.

The system is used to provide a signal of actual turbine blade temperature for
engine temperature and exhaust gas measurement. The pyrometer head and its
sighting tube are mounted as shown in figure 38 to measure the temperature of
the blades by radiation (radiation emitted by a body, at any wavelength is a
function of temperature). This radiated signal is fed via the fibre optic link to a
photocell where it is converted into an electrical signal in the detector, and then
fed to an amplifier and then onto the indicator or engine monitoring system.

STANAG 3910 Databus System

This is a European databus with a 20 Mbit/s data rate, the controlling

mechanism is the MIL STD 1553B allowing high-speed message transfer over a
fibre optic network. The basic system is shown in figure 39.

-37 -
Note the inclusion of the star coupler, this is a passive optical coupler which
allows the light signals from each fibre stub to be coupled into the other fibre
stubs and then onto the subsystems. The star coupler, as it is a passive coupler,
must attenuate the signal and this signal loss must be allowed for within the
system design.

FLY BY LIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

Figure 40 shows a basic layout of a fly by light flight control system.

The inputs into the system include:

Pilot
Air data
Aircraft accelerations, position etc.

These inputs are transduced into light data form for transmission to the flight
control computer. Data between the various control computers/electronic units is
also in light form with immediate control of the actuators being electrical. The
power control actuators may be electrically powered or hydraulically powered.

The use of fibre optics between components reduces the risk of transmitting
electrical faults between units as the optical fibre is an insulator. Note that the
fibre optic link between the Flight Control Computers and the Actuator Control
Electronics is a two-way system to allow actuator status to be fed back to the
Flight Control Computers. The system eliminates large bundles of cables as the
Actuator Control Electronics unit and actuator are close together, so only a fibre
optic connection and power supply connection are required.

-38-
The fibre optic system can use "Wavelength Division Multiplexing' (WDM). This is
where signals of different wavelengths are sent down the fibre together. At the
other end of the fibre passive optical filters tuned to the relevant wavelengths allow
each signal to be recovered. This technique gives high integrity as the signals are
effectively optically isolated.

OPTICAL SENSORS

These sensors are referred to as passive optical sensors and on a passenger

aircraft would be used to monitor leading edge flap, trailing edge flap, spoilers,
ailerons, rudder and elevator positions for example.

Passive optical sensors are those which do not require electrical supplies or any
electronic processing at the sensor. The sensor output is an optical signal which is
modulated by the quantity being measured. The basic principle of the sensor is
shown in figure 41.

blank

-39 -
 ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES

Fault diagnosis will involve the changing of Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs).
These are normally housed within LRUs. These boards will contain components
some of which are vulnerable to static discharge.
MATERIAL

AIR INCREASINGLY POSITIVE

HUMAN HANDS
ASBESTOS
RABBIT FUR
GLASS
MICA
HUMAN HAIR
NYLON
WOOL
LEAD
SILK
ALUMINIUM
PAPER
COTTON
STEEL INCREASINGLY NEGATIVE
WOOD
AMBER
SEALING WAX
HARD RUBBER
NICKEL COPPER
BRASS SILVER
GOLD PLATINUM
SULFUR
ACETATE RAYON
POLYESTER
CELLULOID
ORLON
SARAN
POLYURETHANE
POLYPROPYLENE
PVC (VINYL)
KEL-F (CTFE)
SILICON
TEFLON
TABLE 1 THE TRIBOELECTRIC SERIES

- 40 -
What is an Electrostatic Discharge?
Static electricity (an electrical charge at rest) is stored on non-conductive
material where an electrical discharge can take place. The static charge is
generated whenever any two materials are rubbed together or pulled apart.

The most common conception of static electricity and its accompanying

discharge is the miniature lightning shock we receive when we walk across a
nylon carpet and touch a metal door handle or light switch. We find from
experience that if we first touch the metal fittings with a key, the discharge can
be seen but not normally felt. This phenomenon is especially acute in modern
office blocks and hotels that are air-conditioned.

The discharge occurs because different materials receive different levels of

charge and the accompanying list (known as the Triboelectric Series) shows the
different level of charge with respect to cotton, the reference material.

The higher up, or lower down the table, the greater is the charge and hence the
greater discharge when the two materials are bought together. The second table
shows typical electrostatic voltages that can occur. (Note the importance of
relative humidity). The voltages of these materials are as stated until they
come into contact with the first available ground potential.

The following table shows the sort of voltages that can occur between two
surfaces/objects.

MEANS OF STATIC GENERATION ELECTROSTATIC VOLTAGES

RELATIVE HUMIDITY 10 to 20%

65 to 90%

WALKING OVER CARPET 35,000 1,500

WALKING OVER VINYL FLOOR 12,000 250

WORKER AT BENCH 6,000 100

VINYL ENVELOPES FOR WORK INSTRUCTIONS 7,000 600

COMMOM POLY BAG PICKED UP FROM BENCH 20,000 1,200

WORK CHAIR PADDED WITH POLYURETHANE 18,000 1,500

FOAM

TABLE 2 ELECTROSTATIC VOLTAGES

Table 3 lists some static sensitive devices and the voltages that can cause
damage. The damage can vary from slight degradation of performance, giving
rise to intermittent and spurious indications; to complete destruction total
system failure. The amount of damage varies with the amount of energy that
strikes them.
- 41 -
The less obvious kind of damage can cause considerable and expensive
maintenance headaches which may lead to lack of confidence in the
equipment.

TABLE 3 DAMAGE TABLE

The advantages of electronics include high "Mean Time Between Failure" rates
(MTBF), low maintenance costs, improved performance and reduced weight.

In order to realise these advantages, the maintenance engineer must handle

these devices in such a way as to avoid known and preventable causes of
component failure.

The following procedures show how to identify ESDS (Electro Static Discharge
Sensitive) LRU's and the precautions for handling the units and PCBs within
the units.

Figure 42 shows ESDS symbols in common use which include military,

commercial and international symbols. The international symbol is the most
common but other symbols may be used on some LRUs.

Removal and Installation of ESDS PCBs

The equipment and supplies needed will include:

* Conductive bags - 3M 2100 series.

* Wrist straps - 3M P/N 2064, 2066, 2067.
* 100% cotton twin - commercially available.
* ESDS Labels (JEDIC international label - multisource
3M P/N 7102}
* Light source.
-42-
Removing PCBs with ESDS decals.

1. Check with the AMM for any special instructions required.

2. Remove system electrical power and tag.

WARNING: USE ONLY WRIST STRAPS WITH A GROUNDING LEAD

RESISTANCE OF GREATER THAN 1 MEGOHM.
INADVERTENT CONTACT BETWEEN THE WRIST STRAP
AND A HIGH VOLTAGE IS A SHOCK HAZARD.

3. Connect wrist strap to a convenient ground on the component

containing the PCB and to the wrist of the person removing the PCB.
4. Gain access to PCB.
5. Inspect inside the unit checking in particular for clearance between
the PCB to be removed and the equipment/PCBs either side.
6. Disconnect any PCB free-end connectors and label if necessary.
7. Remove printed circuit board using extractors provided, taking care
that it slides out smoothly. If it feels obstructed, do not pull too hard,
but check for possible obstruction and clear.
8. Do not touch conducting parts of PCB.
9. Immediately insert into a conductive bag and identify with an ESD
label and identification label. Use an ESDS label or 100% cotton
twine to close the conductive bag.

CAUTION: DO NOT USE STAPLES OR ADHESIVE TAPE TO CLOSE

CONDUCTIVE BAGS. DAMAGE TO BAG MAY EXPOSE
PCB TO ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE.
9. Close and secure aircraft unit unless replacement PCB is to be
installed immediately.
-43-
 10. Disconnect wrist strap from ground and operator.
11. Place bagged PCB in a rigid container to maintain integrity of
conductive bag during transportation.
12. Record work done in logbook and sign.

Installing PCB With ESDS Decals

1. Check that system electrical power is off.
2. Check AMM for details of procedure to be adopted.
3. Check documentation on "new" PCB such as JAA form 1 etc to
ascertain that it is the correct one - check IPC. Check that part
and serial numbers are correct and that the documents are signed
and come from an approved supplier.
4. Connect wrist strap assembly to convenient ground on unit where
the PCB is to be installed and to wrist of person installing PCB.
Note the warnings stated above.
5. Gain access to LRU that PCB is to be installed into.
6. Inspect the inside of LRU to make sure that the PCB slideways are
clear and that fixed end connectors are clear and not damaged.
Check for adequate clearance. Check all other PCBs and
equipment inside unit as far as possible for security, damage,
clearance and signs of contamination and burning. Renew any
suspect items, investigate the reasons for the damage and test the
system.
7. Remove "new" PCB from conductive bag. Do not touch any
conducting parts.
8. Inspect the PCB for damage and verify that it is the correct part
number and make a note of the serial number.
9. Install PCB into position using extractors provided. Lock
extractors. Make sure that PCB slides easily into position and
visually check that there is clearance between the PCB and
adjacent components. Remove extractors.
10. Fit any free-end connectors.
11. Close and secure unit.
12. Disconnect wrist strap.
10. Reinstate power and carry out a functional check/BIT check in
accordance with the AMM.
13. Record all work done in the logbook and sign.

Metal-Encased ESDS LRU's

Metal-encased ESDS units can be either rack mounted, panel mounted or

bolted in position.
-44-
Dust Caps

Conductive or anti-static dust caps should be used where available. If

conductive or anti-static dust caps are not available, non-conductive dust caps
may be used but with caution since they do not provide complete ESDS
protection during handling.

Removing Metal Encased LRU's With ESDS Labels

1. Remove system electrical power and tag.

2. Check the AMM.
3. Remove ESDS labelled unit from rack, panel, or mounted position.
Do not touch any metal part
4. Install dust caps on all connectors. Do not touch electrical pins in
connectors. Dust caps from unit being installed may be used on
the unit being removed.
5. Transport unit carefully with dust caps installed.
6. Record all work done and sign the logbook.

Installing Metal Encased LRU's With ESDS Labels

1. 2. Check the AMM.
Check that system electrical power is off and tag. Do not touch any
metal parts
Inspect unit for any signs of damage. Check stores documentation
(JAA form 1 etc). Confirm that description, part number, and serial
numbers agree.
Remove all dust caps from connectors of unit being installed. Do
5. 6. not touch electrical pins in connectors.
7. Place unit in position and secure.
Switch electrical power on and carry out functional/BIT checks.
Record all work done and sign.
The bonding of all electrostatic components is also important. On equipment
containing circuits carrying more than 50V (rms or dc) no contact resistance
should exceed 0.05ohms.

-45-
 SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL

The control and certification of software in aircraft, aircraft systems and

components is laid down in Air Worthiness Notices (AWN) 45 and 45A, the main
points of which is reproduced below for your convenience.

AWN 45. Extensive use is now being made in aircraft of software-based

equipment and systems. Software may be used in flying control systems, engine
control systems, electrical generation and distribution systems, brakes, radio
and navigation equipment, flight instruments and automatic flight control. The
software may have a direct influence on aircraft safety. Hence, in meeting the
appropriate aircraft requirements and, for Controlled Items, the requirements of
BCAR Sections A or B, or JAR-21, it is necessary for the CAA to investigate the
software design and to control its certification in a manner the same as that
applicable to conventional safety-critical systems.

RTCA/EUROCAE document DO-1 78/ED-12, issued May 1982, entitled Software

Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification, provides
guidance to manufacturers and operators on software practices that would
support the certification of software-based equipment and systems. This
document is acceptable to the CAA as a basis for the certification of the software
in aircraft equipment and systems.

Requirements
In addition to the normal assessment of system criticality, the responsible Design
Organisation (normally the aircraft manufacturer) shall assign a Software
Criticality Category to each software-based equipment or system which shall
relate to the severity of the effect of possible software errors within the
equipment or system (see appendix). The Software Criticality Category assigned
shall be agreed by the CAA.
Where the equipment is to be the subject of an application to the CAA for
accessory Approval or Appliance Registration, as provided by BCAR Section A,
Chapter A4-8 or A4-10, the level of Software Criticality Category shall be
declared in the Declaration of Design and Performance.
Where the equipment or system is to be approved under the Component
Procedure of BCAR Section A, Chapter A4-8 or, under the aircraft modification
procedure of BCAR Section A, Chapter A2-5, the Software Criticality Category of
the equipment or system shall be declared.
Details of equipment and system Software Criticality Categories should be
provided to the aircraft operators to assist in the evaluation of any post-
certification modifications.
- 46-
Initial Certification. In respect of a software-based equipment or system, the
responsible design organisation snail provide evidence to the CAA that the
software has been designed, tested and integrated with the hardware in a
manner which ensures compliance with BCAR Section A.
Post Certification Modifications. In respect of equipment and systems with
software in the Major, Hazardous or Catastrophic Criticality Categories, a
modification which affects software shall not be embodied unless it has been
approved by the responsible Design Organisation.

Interpretation of Requirements

Initial Certification. An applicant for the approval of a software-based equipment

or system may use the guidance material given in document DO-178/ED-12 (or
an agreed equivalent standard) as a means of obtaining CAA approval.
A software Configuration Management Plan, for example as defined in Part 7 of
document DO-178/ED-12, will be required as a means of software identification
and change control to be effective throughout the life of the equipment. The plan
will need to be managed by the responsible design organisation.
Post-Certification Modifications. Modifications to software will be subject to the
same approval procedures as are applied to hardware modifications (see BCAR
Section A, Chapters A2-5, A4-8 or A4-10 as appropriate). Modified software will
need to be identified and controlled in accordance with the procedures stated in
the Software Configuration Management Plan. The guidance material given in
document DO-178/ED-12 (or an agreed equivalent) may be used as a basis for
the approval of software modifications.

Note: The term 'maintenance' is often used by software specialists when

referring to modifications to software.

The CAA will require the design and investigation of a modification, including
those proposed by the aircraft operator, to involve the support service provided
by the design organisation responsible for the equipment or system. It is unlikely
that an aircraft operator could justify the establishment of its own software
design capability. Therefore, where the Software Criticality Category is Major,
Hazardous or Catastrophic, the aircraft constructor would normally be the
appropriate Design Organisation, although tasks may be delegated to equipment
manufacturers or software organisations.

Aircraft operators will need to ensure that their normal procedures will report
software problems to the responsible design organisation.

Implementation. These requirements come effect as from 1 st November 1983.

-47-
 APPENDIX - DEFINITION OF EUROPEAN CRITICAL CATEGORIES

SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT AND CERTIFICATION GUIDELINES

AWN 45 was issued to give CAA recognition to RTCA/EUROCAE document DO-

178/ED-12, entitled, 'Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and
Equipment Certification'. The RTCA/EUROCAE documents have been updated to
reflect industry's experience, and released under references DO-1 78B/ED-12B.
The rigid correlation required in DO-178/ED-12 between software verification and
function criticality category has been relaxed. A more flexible approach, in which
design techniques are permitted to influence the software verification for a given
Junction criticality, is described in DO-178B/ED-12B, or later issues.

The purpose of this AWN (AWN 45A) is to extend CAA recognition to the updated
documents and to restate the applicable requirements with appropriate guidance
material. AWN 45 will continue to apply to systems and equipment for which DO-1
78/ED12 was adopted.

RTCA/EUROCAE document DO-1 78B/ED-12B, issued December 1992, entitled

Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification,
provides guidance to aircraft constructors, equipment manufacturers and aircraft
operators on software design and management practices. This document is
acceptable to the CAA as a basis for the certification of the software in aircraft
systems and equipment.

In addition to the normal assessment of system, and/or function criticality, the

responsible Design Organisation shall assign, to each software-based system or
equipment, associated software levels which related to the severity of the effect of
possible software errors within the system or equipment (see appendix). The
software levels so assigned shall be agreed by the CAA.

Where the system or equipment is to be the subject of an application to the CAA

for approval as part of an engine or propeller, as provided by BCAR Sections A or
B, Chapters A/B4-2 orA/B4-4, the software levels of the system or equipment
shall be declared in the Engine or Propeller Type Certificate Data Sheet or the
equipment Declaration of Design and Performance, as appropriate.
-48-
Where the equipment is to be the subject of an application to the CAA for
accessory approval, appliance registration or radio approval, as provided by
BCAR Sections A or B, Chapters A/B4-8 orA/B4-10, the software levels,
adopted by the manufacturer as a basis for the design, and the reference
number of the associated Accomplishment Summary*, shall be declared in the
Declaration of Design and Performance.
Where the system or equipment is to be approved under the component
procedure of BCAR Sections A or B, Chapter A/B4-8 or under the aircraft
modification procedure of BCAR Sections A or B, Chapter A/B2-5, the software
levels of the system or equipment shall be declared.
Details of system and equipment software levels should be made available to the
aircraft operators to assist in the evaluation of post-certification modifications.
Initial Certification. For software-based systems or equipment, the responsible
Design Organisation shall provide evidence to the CAA that the software has
been designed, tested and integrated with the hardware in compliance with the
relevant requirements of BCAR Sections A or B, Chapters A/B4-2, A/B 4-4, A/B
4-8, A/B 4-10 and A/B 3-11.
Post-Certification Modifications. For systems and equipment with Level 1 or Level
2 software, a modification which affects the software shall not be embodied
unless it has been approved by the responsible Design Organisation.

Interpretation of Requirements
Initial Certification, An applicant for the approval of a software-based system or
equipment may use the guidance material given in Document DQ-178B/ED-12B
(or an agreed equivalent).
A software configuration management plan, eg as defined in Section 7 and
paragraph 11.4 of Document DO-178B/ED-12B, will be required as a means of
software identification and control to be effective throughout the life of the
equipment.
Organisations approved by the CAA in accordance with BCAR Section A, Sub-
section A8 will need to ensure that their design and quality assurance
procedures are appropriate for the software aspects of the work undertaken.
These procedures should form part of the Exposition of the Organisation.
Post-Certification Modifications, Modifications to software will be subject to the
same approval procedures as are applied to hardware modifications (see
relevant Chapters of BCAR Sections A or B). Modified software will need to be
identified and controlled in accordance with the procedures stated in the
software configuration management plan. The guidance material given in
Document DO-1 78B/ED-12B (or an agreed equivalent) may be used as a basis
for the approval of software modifications.
-49 -
The CAA will require the design and investigation of modifications, including
those proposed by the aircraft operator, to involve the support service provided
by the responsible Design Organisation. The re-certification effort will need to be
related to the software levels. Experience has shown that an aircraft operator is
unlikely to justify the establishment of its own software design capability.
Therefore, where the software is classified in Level 1 or Level 2, the aircraft,
engine or propeller constructor, as appropriate, would normally be the
responsible Design Organisation for certification purposes, although related
tasks may be delegated to equipment manufacturers or software organisations.
Aircraft operators will need to ensure that their defect reporting procedures will
report software problems to the responsible Design Organisation.

Software Documentation

The documentation to be made available to the certifying authority is as listed in

DO-178B/ED-12B.
Where the CAA is validating an approval granted to a system or equipment by a
foreign airworthiness authority, the CAA will notify the applicant which
documents are to be submitted. In many cases, a reasonably comprehensive
accomplishment summary, as outlined in DO-1 78B/ED-12B, may suffice.
Guidance on the preparation of an accomplishment summary is given in
appendix 2.
Implementation. With effect from 1 August 1986, software in aircraft systems
and equipment will be subject to the provisions of AWN 45A, except for existing
systems and equipment, where the provisions of AWN 45 have already been
adopted.
APPENDIX - RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUNCTION CRITICALITY
CATEGORY & SOFTWARE LEVEL

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Appendix - Software Accomplishment Summary

Extracts from Paragraph 11.20 ofDO-178B/ED-12B

The software accomplishment summary is considered the primary document for
use by the certifying authorities. It should identify all other documents which may
be required for information or available for submission. The document is a
summary, normally no more than about 10 pages long. However, its length will
depend on the complexity and criticality of the system or equipment and the
associated software levels. The accomplishment summary may evolve from the
Plan for Software Aspects of Certification defined as DO-178B/ED-12B, or
subsequent issue.

Where the application relates to an equipment approval, the summary will need
to be prepared by the equipment manufacturer. For approval of the installation of
the equipment into an aircraft, engine or propeller system, the installer may need
only to produce a supplement to the manufacturer's summary to reflect the
additional certification required.
Where a significant change is proposed to the software of an approved system or
equipment, the accomplishment summary should be reviewed and, where
necessary, amended to take account of the change. The CAA will normally
require a copy of the amended summary prior to acceptance of a significant
software change.
Content. As a minimum, information relevant to the particular software version
should be included in the summary under the following headings:
a) System and Equipment Description. This section should describe the
equipment functions and hardware including safety features which rely on
hardware devices or system architecture.

b) Organisation of Software. This section should identify the particular

software version and briefly describe the software Junctions and architecture
with the emphasis on the safety and partitioning concepts used. The size of
the final software design should be stated, eg in terms of memory bytes,
number of modules. The language(s) used should also be stated.

c) Criticalitu Categories and Software Levels. This section should state the
software levels applicable to the various parts of the software. The rationale
for their choice should be stated, either directly, or by reference to other
documents.
d) Design Disciplines. This section should describe the design
procedures and associated disciplines which were applied to ensure the
quality of the software. The organisations which were involved in the
production and testing (including flight testing) of the software should be
identified and their responsibilities stated.

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»

e) Development. The development phases of the project should be

summarised. This information could be included in sub-paragraph (i) below.

f) Software Verification Plan. Should summarise the plan and the test results.

g) Configuration Management. The principles adopted for software

identification, modification, storage and release should be summarised.

h) Quality Assurance. The procedures relating to quality assurance of the

software should be summarised including, where applicable, those
procedures which applied to liaison between the equipment manufacturer and
the aircraft, engine or propeller constructor, as appropriate.

i) Certification Plan. This should provide a schedule detailing major milestones

achieved and their relationship to the various software releases,

j) Organisation and Identification of Documents. This should identify the

documents which satisfy the requirements ofDO-1 78B/ED-12B.

k) Software Status. Any known errors, temporary patches, functional limitations

or similar shortcomings associated with the delivered software should be
declared and the proposed timescale for corrective action stated.

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 FLIGHT INSTRUMENT DISPLAYS

On older aircraft these included the Airspeed Indicator (ASI), Artificial Horizon,
Turn & Slip Indicator and the Gyro Compass. On newer aircraft all but the
Airspeed Indicator have been incorporated into the Horizontal Situation Indicator
(HSI) - a sort of compass, and the Attitude Director Indicator (ADI) - a sort of
Artificial Horizon.

Originally these instruments where electro-mechanical in operation with gyro

inputs etc being sent to the instrument and torquer motors moving the various
pointers and indicator bars. Most aircraft now have all electronic displays in the
form of colour CRT or flat screen displays.
The 'mechanical' HSI and ADI are included in this book as background knowledge
to Electronic Flight Deck Display Systems in book 3.
It must be realised that as far as the HSI and ADI are concerned there is no
'standard' instrument, however the instruments shown here have the main
features which are usually found on most HSIs and ADIs.

HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR

Miniature Aircraft
When related to the movable parts of the course indicator, the fixed miniature
aircraft symbol located in the centre of the course indicator window shows aircraft
position and direction.

Course Arrow and Course Control

The course arrow is a white arrow which is rotated against the azimuth ring by the
course control knob to a magnetic heading which coincides with the desired VOR
(VHF Omni-directional radio Range - a ground based navigation aid) radial or
localiser course.
When one of the radio modes is selected, the V-bar command indicator in the
attitude director indicator displays steering commands to capture and track the
selected radio course.

Course Counter
The course counter in the upper right comer of the instrument improves the
accuracy and speed of course selection by giving a digital repeat of the VOR radial
or localiser course indicated by the course arrow.

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To-From Pointer

The To-From pointer is a movable delta-shaped symbol, and indicates the

direction TO the VOR station along the radial selected with the course arrow.
This is a dc meter movement fed from the navigation (VOR) receiver.

Lateral Deviation Bar

The movable centre section of the course arrow represents the centre-line of the
selected VOR radial or localiser course. The miniature aircraft represents the
position of the aircraft with respect to this selected course.

When the navigation receiver is tuned to a VOR frequency, initiated movement of

the lateral deviation bar begins when the aircraft is approximately 16° from VOR
radial centre; the deviation scale dots represent approximately 5° and 10°
deviation from radial centre.

When the navigation receiver is tuned to a localiser frequency, initial movement of

the bar begins when the aircraft is approximately 4 degrees from the localiser
beam centre, the dots represent approximately 1% degrees and 2 l/2 degrees
deviation.

This is a dc meter driven movement fed from the navigation (VOR/1LS) receiver.
Figure 44 shows the deviation bar indications for approach onto the localiser.

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Azimuth Card

Gyro stabilised magnetic compass information is indicated by the rotating

azimuth card. Aircraft heading is read on the card under the lubber line at the
top centre of the instrument.

Heading Marker and Heading Control

The heading marker, a movable orange-coloured triangular symbol, is set to the

desired heading against the azimuth card by rotating the heading control. In the
heading mode, the V-bar command indicator in the flight director indicator
displays bank commands to turn to, and maintain, this selected heading.

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Glide Slope (GS) Pointer

The glide slope pointer shows the glide slope of the aircraft. It is in view only when
the navigation receiver is tuned to a localiser frequency. This is a dc meter driven
movement fed from the navigation (ILS) receiver.

ATTITUDE DIRECTOR INDICATOR

Aircraft Symbol

The aircraft is represented by a fixed, delta-shaped symbol. Aircraft pitch and

bank attitude is displayed by the relationship of the aircraft symbol and the
attitude tape.

Pitch and bank commands are displayed by the relationship of the command bars
and the aircraft symbol. With some practice, a pilot can instinctively manoeuvre
the aircraft symbol into the command bars to satisfy pitch and bank commands.

Bank Pointer and Horizon Tape

Bank attitude is shown by rotation of the attitude tape relative to the aircraft
symbol. A full 360° bank presentation is possible. The bank-angle pointer and
scale near the top of the indicator display bank angles of 10, 20, 30, 45 and 60
degrees.

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Comparing the aircraft symbol to the attitude tape gives a realistic picture of bank
attitude. Pitch attitude as previously stated, is shown by the vertical position of
the attitude tape pitch scale relative to the fixed-aircraft symbol.

Command Bars

The command bars display computed bank and pitch commands. A selected
heading or radio course may be flown by observing and responding to the bank
commands.

Pitch attitude, selected altitude, or glide slope beam tracking may be flown by
observing and responding to the pitch command. To satisfy the commands, the
aircraft symbol is "flown into" the command bars until the two are aligned as
shown later.

The command bars move up or down to command a climb or descent and move
clockwise or counter clockwise for bank commands to provide lateral guidance,
such as capturing and tracking a VOR radial. Simultaneous servo inputs for these
commands enable the pilot to respond to pitch and bank commands by viewing a
single, integrated instrument.

The servo system has rate feedback to prevent oscillation of the command bars,
and position feedback to ensure the correct amount of movement.

Glideslope Pointer and Scale

The glide slope pointer represents the centre of the glide slope beam and displays
vertical displacement of the aircraft from the beam centre. The pointer is in view
whenever a localiser frequency is selected on the navigation receiver, regardless of
mode selector position. The centre line of the glide slope scale represents aircraft
position with respect to the glide slope pointer.

If the pointer is displaced upward, the aircraft is below the glide path. This is
displacement information only; pitch commands are presented by the command
bars.

Localiser Deviation Pointer (Runway Symbol)

The runway symbol represents the centre of the localiser beam and is in view
whenever the navigation receiver is tuned to a localiser frequency. When the
symbol moves left, the aircraft is to the right of the localiser beam. On a back-
course ILS the runway symbol senses in reverse and should not be used for a
back-course approach.

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The runway symbol displays lateral displacement from the centre of a localiser
beam and represents an expanded portion of the localiser scale.

The outside reference dots of the miniature runway scale are equivalent to the
first dots of the smaller scale on the course indicator. They provide an expanded
lateral display of aircraft position in relation to the centre of the localiser beam.
This is a dc motor driven movement fed from the navigation (ILS) receiver.

-58-
Figure 47 shows the localiser and glide slope indications for various aircraft
positions relevant to the ILS beams. Note the ADI has a runway representing the
localiser position.

For the last 200 feet before landing (which should be centred at this time) the
runway symbol rises towards the centre line of the ADI presentation, and when the
aircraft has landed it will sit just below the command bars.

Slip Indicator

Co-ordinated turns to new headings without side-slipping (slipping into the centre
of the turn) or skidding (skidding to the outside of the turn) the aircraft are
monitored by the familiar slip indicator, a weighted ball in a liquid-filled tube.

Radio Altimeter Pointer

A pointer on the right side of the flight director display indicates radio altitude up
to 200 feet. The RAD ALT pointer is deflected out of view when not in use.

Speed Command

An optional speed command indicator may be displayed on the right side of the
flight director indicator. The display indicates aircraft speed as SLOW or FAST.
Presentation of this feature precludes a radio altitude indication.

The bank attitude system works in exactly the same manner.

Many of the ADIs have a test button, usually in the left hand bottom corner of the
instrument, when pressed this injects a test signal, which makes the display go
10° pitch and 20° roll right and the 'ATT' flag to come into view.

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Command Bar Presentation

Figure 45 shows an ADI where the command bars are of a wedge shape and the
aircraft symbol a triangular shape. Figure 47 (A) shows a command on the ADI
telling the pilot to 'fly left'. He/she will fly the aircraft to get the aircraft symbol
into the command bars.

When the command is satisfied the aircraft symbol will be sitting in the command
bars at the centre of the instrument.

Fig. 48 ADI - CROSS POINTER COMMAND BAR

An alternative command bar presentation is using the cross pointer display. Note
the pitch and roll command bars. The display, as shown, would be commanding
the pilot to turn the aircraft to the right and pitch down.

When the command is satisfied the two bars will be at the centre of the
instrument crossing one another, thus +.

Flags

FD-108 warning flags are "positive-monitoring" - that is, the proper operating
voltage must be present to keep the associated flag from view. Limited system
operation is possible with certain of the warning flags in view.
-60-
A check would be made to determine whether the apparent malfunction could be
corrected by resetting circuit breakers, changing fuses, re-tuning an associated
receiver, or slaving or erecting an input gyro etc.

A visual inspection, as far as possible, would also be carried out to check for any
obvious signs of damage, and the onboard fault computer checked for any fault
codes. Of course, if there is a fault the faultfinding section of the AMM should also
be consulted.

Computer Flag

The Computer Flag monitors the active inputs to the FD-108 computer for the
selected mode. In all modes, this includes computer power, the vertical gyro, the
gyro stabilised magnetic compass, and the primary servos of the V-bar commands.

In addition, the selected radio input to the computer is monitored in VOR/LOC and
GS modes. The computer flag warns that all V-bar command information is
unusable. The attitude, heading, and radio displays are still correct if the
corresponding flags are not showing.

Gyro Flag

The Gyro Flag indicates failure of the vertical gyro and/or primary attitude display
servo system, and warns that the attitude display is unusable. Radio and heading
displays and V-bar commands are still correct if the corresponding flags are not
showing.

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Compass Flag

The Compass Flag indicates failure of the gyro stabilised magnetic compass
and/or primary heading display servo system, and warns that the heading display
is unusable. Radio and attitude displays and V-bar commands are still correct if
the corresponding flags are not showing.

Glide Slope Flags

The GS Flags indicate a malfunction of the glide slope receiver or an unreliable

glide slope signal, and warn that the glide slope displays, and V-bar pitch
commands computed from glide slope information, are unusable. Localiser
command, heading, attitude, and VOR/localiser information is still valid if the
corresponding flags are not showing.

VOR/LOC Flag

The VOR/LOC Flag indicates a malfunction of the navigation receiver or an

unreliable radio signal, and warns that the lateral deviation displays, and V-bar
roll commands computed from VOR or localiser information are unusable. V-bar
pitch commands, heading, attitude and glide slope information is still valid if the
corresponding flags are not showing.

Localiser Shutter

This parallels the operation of the VOR/LOC flag in GS mode. In other modes it
conceals the localiser deviation pointer.

Miles Shutter

This conceals the miles counter when DME is unavailable.

The Computer

This provides computed roll and pitch steering commands to the ADI. These
commands, when displayed on the ADI, enable the pilot to intercept and/or
maintain a selected flight path. The computer is divided into two basic channels
pitch and roll. The roll channel generates steering commands on information
received from the vertical gyro (roLl signal), heading error signal from the HSI,
course error signal from the HSI, and radio signals from the VOR/LOC receiver.

The pitch channel generates nose-up or nose-down steering commands to be

displayed on the ADI.

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The commands are generated on the basis of information received from the
vertical gyro, glide slope receiver and manual pitch commands.

Instrument Amplifier
This provides servo-actuating power to the altitude displays on the ADI and
displays on the HSI. As has already been seen earlier, error signals are amplified
to drive their respective displays. The signals from the steering computer are dc
and the amplifier converts them to ac for use by the roll and pitch servo motors in
the ADI,

Mode Selector
This may be a switch on the side of the ADI or part of a separate switch panel.
The pitch command facility is available on both displays

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