HOME WORK

Airfoil Design

By
Khaled Malallah
ID: 21253161
Exercise A: Effect of angle of Attack
Part 1
Here are some observations based on the flow over NACA0013 airfoil at Re = 1200000 and
Mach N0=0.00. The angle of attack ranges from -4 to 16 degree with an increment of 0.5
degree:
Alpha = -4 degrees:
At the leading edge (X/C = 0), the pressure coefficient is positive, indicating higher pressure
on the upper surface of the airfoil.
As you move towards the trailing edge, the pressure coefficient decreases gradually but
remains positive until X/C ≈ 0.3, indicating that there's still higher pressure on the upper
surface.
Beyond X/C ≈ 0.3, the pressure coefficient becomes negative, indicating lower pressure on
the upper surface and indicating the flow has separated from the upper surface of the airfoil.
Alpha = 0 degrees:
At alpha = 0 (the airfoil is at zero degrees angle of attack), you have a typical pressure
distribution for a symmetric airfoil.
The pressure coefficient is zero at X/C = 0.5, which is the point of maximum thickness for a
symmetric airfoil.
The pressure coefficients on both the upper and lower surfaces are symmetric with respect to
the midpoint (X/C = 0.5).
Alpha = 4 degrees:
At a positive angle of attack (alpha = 4 degrees), there is a noticeable difference in the
pressure profile compared to alpha = 0.
The pressure on the upper surface is reduced near the leading edge (X/C ≈ 0), indicating that
the flow starts to separate earlier.
The pressure distribution becomes more asymmetric, with lower pressure on the upper
surface and higher pressure on the lower surface as you move towards the trailing edge.
Alpha = 8, 12, and 16 degrees:
At higher angles of attack (8, 12, and 16 degrees), the pressure distribution on the upper
surface becomes even more asymmetric.
The pressure coefficients on the upper surface are significantly lower, indicating earlier and
more pronounced flow separation.
The lower surface still maintains a relatively symmetric pressure distribution.
In summary, increasing the angle of attack leads to earlier and more pronounced flow
separation on the upper surface of the airfoil. This results in lower pressure coefficients on
the upper surface, which is characteristic of increased lift (due to the pressure difference) but
also increased drag (due to flow separation). Therefore, these pressure profiles help illustrate
how the angle of attack affects the aerodynamic performance of the airfoil.
Here are the values of Cl and Cd at each angle of attack:
Alpha (Angle of attack) Cl Cd
-4 -0.5461 0.0299
0 0 0.02489
4 0.5461 0.02989
8 0.8234 0.04795
12 0.5541 0.14732
16 0.6531 0.20195

The pressure profiles as plotted above do not appear to be consistent with the traditional
Bernoulli approach to analyzing airfoil performance. In the Bernoulli approach, an increase in
the angle of attack (AoA) typically leads to an increase in airspeed on the upper surface of the
airfoil and a decrease in airspeed on the lower surface. This difference in air speed results in a
pressure difference, with lower pressure on the upper surface and higher pressure on the
lower surface. However, this pressure difference doesn't seem to be reflected in the data
obtained.
In given data, as the angle of attack (alpha) increases from -4 degrees to 16 degrees, the
pressure profiles show some inconsistent patterns. For instance, at alpha = 0 degrees, the
pressure distribution appears to be somewhat symmetric, which is expected for an airfoil at a
low angle of attack. However, as you increase the angle of attack to 4 degrees and beyond,
the pressure distribution does not follow a typical Bernoulli pattern. In some cases, the
pressure on the upper surface increases (which is unusual), and in others, it decreases as
expected.
This inconsistency may be due to various factors, including the complexity of real-world flow
over an airfoil, turbulence, or other aerodynamic effects not accounted for in a simple
Bernoulli analysis. Additionally, the data may be influenced by experimental conditions,
measurement errors, or other factors.

Part II
Analysis of the data provided:
alpha CL CD Cl/Cd
-4 -0.4315 0.00697 62
-3.5 -0.3788 0.0066 57.27
-3 -0.3256 0.00632 51.49
-2.5 -0.2718 0.00606 44.93
-2 -0.218 0.00585 37.24
-1.5 -0.1637 0.00572 28.61
-1 -0.1091 0.00564 19.35
-0.5 -0.0547 0.00557 9.82
0 0 0.00558 0
0.5 0.0547 0.00557 9.82
1 0.1091 0.00564 19.35
1.5 0.1637 0.00572 28.61
2 0.218 0.00585 37.24
2.5 0.2718 0.00606 44.93
3 0.3256 0.00632 51.49
3.5 0.3788 0.0066 57.27
4 0.4315 0.00697 62
4.5 0.484 0.00743 65.16
5 0.5384 0.00791 68.05
5.5 0.5946 0.00847 70.26
6 0.6624 0.00907 73.14
6.5 0.73 0.00964 75.52
7 0.7952 0.01024 77.64
7.5 0.8636 0.01082 79.88
8 0.9302 0.01144 81.28
8.5 0.9786 0.01206 81.1
9 1.0181 0.0126 80.79
9.5 1.0581 0.01316 80.33
10 1.0951 0.0141 77.48
10.5 1.1372 0.01472 77.23
 11 1.1807 0.01537 76.86
11.5 1.2231 0.01619 75.57
12 1.2608 0.01739 72.6
12.5 1.29 0.01912 67.49
13 1.3259 0.02012 65.88
13.5 1.3549 0.02128 63.75
14 1.382 0.02266 60.92
14.5 1.408 0.02424 58.12
15 1.4309 0.02619 54.58
15.5 1.4492 0.02875 50.39
16 1.4616 0.03212 45.45
16.5 1.4642 0.03699 39.61
17 1.4435 0.04525 31.95
17.5 1.3947 0.05829 23.96
18 1.3342 0.07416 18

From the table, we can see that the maximum value of Cl/Cd is approximately 81.28, which
occurs at an angle of attack (alpha) of 8.0 degrees. At this angle of attack, the corresponding
values are:
Alpha (angle of attack): 8.0 degrees
CL (lift coefficient): 0.9302
CD (drag coefficient): 0.01144
We can plot the Coefficient of lift (Cl Vs Alpha) and Coefficient of drag (Cd Vs Alpha) as
following based on the data provided.
2

1.5
Cl (Coefficient of Lift)

0.5
Cl vs Alpha
0
-2.5
-3.5

-1.5
-0.5

11.5

15.5
10.5

12.5
13.5
14.5

16.5
17.5
2
0
1

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-3
-4

-2
-1

6.5

11

16
10

12
13
14
15

17
18
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5

7.5
8.5
9.5

-0.5

-1
Alpha (degree)
 Cld (Coefficient of Drag)
Cll/Cd

0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08

20
40
80
60

-80
-60
-40
-20
100
-4 -4
-3.5 -3.5
-3 -3
-2.5 -2.5
-2 -2
-1.5 -1.5
-1 -1
-0.5
-0.5 0
0 0.5
0.5 1
1 1.5
1.5 2
2 2.5
2.5 3
3 3.5
3.5 4
4 4.5
4.5 5
5 5.5
5.5 6
6 6.5
6.5 7
7.5
7 8
7.5
Alpha (degree)

8.5
8 9

Alpha (degree)
8.5 9.5
9 10
9.5 10.5
10 11
10.5 11.5
11 12
11.5 12.5
12 13
12.5 13.5
13 14
13.5 14.5
14 15
15.5
14.5 16
15 16.5
15.5 17
16 17.5
16.5 18
17
Cd vs Alpha

17.5
18
Cl/Cd vs Alpha
Exercise B: Effect of Reynolds number
Part I
Following is the pressure profile or the graph of coefficient of pressure Vs X/C for the airfoil
at Reynolds number Re = 1200000, 1600000 and 2000000

For Reynolds number Re = 400000, we can plot pressure profile as following.

From the provided data, we have pressure coefficient (Cp) profiles at four different Reynolds
numbers (Re = 1,200,000; Re = 1,600,000; Re = 2,000,000; Re = 4,000,000). To understand
the key changes in pressure profiles as Reynolds number changes, we can observe the
variations in the Cp values at different positions (X/C) along the airfoil. Here are the key
changes observed:

1. Variation in Cp Values with X/C: As you move along the airfoil (from X/C = 0 to X/C =
1), you can see how the Cp values change. Cp is a measure of pressure deviation from the
freestream pressure. The values of Cp provide information about the pressure distribution on
the airfoil's surface.

2. Variation with Reynolds Number:

- Increasing Cp Magnitude with Decreasing Reynolds Number: As Reynolds number
increases from Re = 1,200,000 to Re = 4,000,000, you can observe that the magnitude of the
Cp values generally increases. This indicates that at higher Reynolds numbers, there is a
stronger pressure difference between the airfoil surface and the freestream, which is typically
associated with increased lift generation.
- Shift in Cp Peaks: You can notice that as Reynolds number increases, the location (X/C)
of the peak Cp value shifts slightly toward the trailing edge of the airfoil. This suggests that at
higher Reynolds numbers, the airfoil generates lift more efficiently, and the low-pressure
region is located closer to the trailing edge.

3. Sensitivity of Cp Near Leading and Trailing Edges: The Cp values near the leading and
trailing edges of the airfoil are quite sensitive to changes in Reynolds number. There is a
noticeable difference in these regions between the different Reynolds numbers. As Reynolds
number increases, the Cp values near the trailing edge become more negative (indicating
lower pressure), while the Cp values near the leading edge become more positive (indicating
higher pressure).

4. Uniformity at Mid-Chord: In the mid-chord region (around X/C = 0.5), you can observe
that the Cp values are relatively uniform across different Reynolds numbers. This region is
often less affected by changes in Reynolds number compared to the leading and trailing
edges.
In summary, the key changes in pressure profiles as Reynolds number changes include
variations in Cp magnitude, shifts in Cp peaks, sensitivity of Cp near leading and trailing
edges, and relative uniformity at mid-chord. These changes are indicative of the aerodynamic
performance of the airfoil at different Reynolds numbers, with higher Reynolds numbers
generally associated with more efficient lift generation and pressure distribution along the
airfoil surface.
Part II

1. Data for Re=1200000

Metric Value
Maximum Cl (Lift Coefficient) 1.4642
At alpha = 16.5
Maximum Cd (Drag Coefficient) 0.13732
At alpha = 20
Maximum Cl/Cd (Lift-to-Drag Ratio) 81.31119
Cl = 0.9302
Cd=0.01144
Angle at Maximum Cl/Cd Ratio Alpha = 8
Cl at Stall 1.0181
Cd at Stall 0.0126
Angle Corresponding to Stall:
Looking at the provided data, we can see that the stall of the NACA0013 airfoil occurs when
the angle of attack (alpha) is approximately 9 degrees. At this angle, the CL value is
approximately 1.0181, and this is where there is a noticeable decrease in CL compared to the
previous data points.
2. Data for Re=500000
Metric Value
Maximum Cl (Lift Coefficient) 1.228
At alpha = 14.5
Maximum Cd (Drag Coefficient) 0.23996
At alpha = 20
Maximum Cl/Cd (Lift-to-Drag Ratio) 63.84089
Angle at Maximum Cl/Cd Ratio Alpha = 6
Cl at Stall 1.1766
Cd at Stall 0.02777

Angle Corresponding to Stall:

Based on the provided data, it appears that the stall of the airfoil occurs when the angle of
attack (alpha) is approximately 12.5 degrees. At this angle, the CL value is approximately
1.1766, and there is a noticeable drop in CL compared to the previous data points.
 3. Data for Re=900000
Metric Value
Maximum Cl (Lift Coefficient) 1.3747
Maximum Cd (Drag Coefficient) 0.13973
Maximum Cl/Cd (Lift-to-Drag Ratio) 75.59149
Angle at Maximum Cl/Cd Ratio 7.5
Cl at Stall 1.2972
Cd at Stall 0.02196
Angle Corresponding to Stall:
Based on the provided data, it appears that the stall of the airfoil occurs when the angle of
attack (alpha) is approximately 13 degrees. At this angle, the CL value is approximately
1.2972, and there is a noticeable drop in CL compared to the previous data points.
4. Data for Re=2100000
Metric Value
Maximum Cl (Lift Coefficient) 1.6069
Maximum Cd (Drag Coefficient) 0.07498
Maximum Cl/Cd (Lift-to-Drag Ratio) 93.39378
Angle at Maximum Cl/Cd Ratio 9.5
Cl at Stall 0.6519
Cd at Stall 0.00795
Angle Corresponding to Stall:
Based on the provided data, it appears that the stall of the airfoil occurs when the angle of
attack is approximately 5 degrees. At this angle, the CL value drops from 0.6519 to 0.544
between data points. This significant drop in CL suggests that the airfoil has stalled.

5. Data for Re=4000000

Metric Value
Maximum Cl (Lift Coefficient) 1.6798
Maximum Cd (Drag Coefficient) 0.05803
Maximum Cl/Cd (Lift-to-Drag Ratio) 107.3188
Angle at Maximum Cl/Cd Ratio 11
Cl at Stall (Angle ≈ 8.0 degrees) 0.2812
Cd at Stall (Angle ≈ 8.0 degrees) 0.00554
Angle Corresponding to Stall:
From the given data, it appears that the airfoil stalls at an angle of approximately 2.5 degrees.
At this angle, the CL value drops from -0.2812 to 0.5573 between data points. This
significant drop in CL suggests that the airfoil has stalled.
Plots based on the data provided for various angle of attack and Reynolds number is as
following.

Cl Vs Alpha
2

1.5

1 Re=1200000
Re=500000
0.5
Cl

Re=900000
0 Re=2100000
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Re=4000000
-0.5
Alpha (Degree)
-1

0.3
Cd Vs Alpha
0.25

0.2
Re=1200000
Cd

0.15
Re=500000
0.1
Re=900000
0.05
Re=2100000
0
Re=4000000
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Alpha (Degree)
 120
Cl/Cd Vs Alpha
100
80
60
40
Cl/Cd

20 Re=1200000
0
-20 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Re=500000
-40 Re=900000
-60
-80 Re=2100000
-100
Re=4000000

Alpha (Degree)

Let's analyze the trends in the provided data for different angles of attack (alpha) at various
Reynolds numbers (Re) and note the behavior at low and high angles of attack:

Low Angles of Attack (Alpha < 0 degrees):

At low angles of attack (alpha), the lift coefficient (CL) generally decreases as the angle of
attack becomes more negative (less than 0 degrees) for all Reynolds numbers.
The drag coefficient (CD) tends to increase slightly at low angles of attack, but the changes
are relatively small.
High Angles of Attack (Alpha > 0 degrees):
At high angles of attack (alpha), the lift coefficient (CL) increases significantly, indicating
that the airfoil generates more lift.
The drag coefficient (CD) also increases as the angle of attack becomes more positive, but the
increase in CD is generally more significant at higher angles of attack.

General Trends:
The lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD) generally improves as the angle of attack increases, especially
at higher Reynolds numbers.
The airfoil operates within its linear region at low angles of attack (typically between -4 to 0
degrees), where the lift and drag coefficients change gradually with angle of attack.
Beyond certain angles of attack (around 4 to 5 degrees), there is a noticeable increase in drag
(CD), indicating the onset of stall. The stall behavior is more prominent at higher Reynolds
numbers.
The stall behavior is characterized by a rapid decrease in lift (CL) while drag (CD) increases,
which can be observed as the angle of attack continues to increase beyond the critical value.
In summary, at low angles of attack, the airfoil operates in a linear regime with relatively
small changes in lift and drag coefficients. At high angles of attack, the airfoil generates more
lift, but there is also a significant increase in drag, leading to a stall condition beyond a
critical angle of attack. The stall behavior is more pronounced at higher Reynolds numbers.

The effect of Reynolds number (Re) on airfoil performance can be observed from the
data as follows:
Lower Reynolds Numbers (Re=500,000 and Re=900,000):
At lower Reynolds numbers, the lift coefficients (CL) are generally lower compared to higher
Reynolds numbers for the same angles of attack.
The drag coefficients (CD) tend to be slightly higher at lower Reynolds numbers, especially
at high angles of attack.
Stall behavior starts at relatively lower angles of attack compared to higher Reynolds
numbers.

Intermediate Reynolds Numbers (Re=1,200,000 and Re=2,100,000):

These Reynolds numbers show intermediate behavior in terms of CL and CD.
The airfoil still exhibits stall behavior, but it occurs at slightly higher angles of attack
compared to the lowest Reynolds numbers.
Higher Reynolds Number (Re=4,000,000):
At higher Reynolds numbers, the lift coefficients (CL) are generally higher, especially at
higher angles of attack.
The drag coefficients (CD) tend to be lower at higher Reynolds numbers, indicating improved
aerodynamic efficiency.
Stall behavior occurs at higher angles of attack compared to lower Reynolds numbers.
In summary, increasing Reynolds number generally results in improved lift coefficients,
reduced drag coefficients, and delayed stall behavior. Higher Reynolds numbers are
associated with more favorable airfoil performance characteristics, allowing for increased lift
and reduced drag, particularly at higher angles of attack before stall occurs. This is a common
trend in aerodynamics, where higher Reynolds numbers often lead to more efficient and
predictable airfoil behaviour.
Exercise C (Part 1)
At Reynolds number, Re = 2000000 and alpha = 4 degree, at Mach No. M=0.00, 0.01, 0.02,
0.03, the pressure profile are as following.

To analyze the key changes in the pressure profile as the Mach number changes, let's
examine the provided data for different Mach numbers (0.00, 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3).
Here are the pressure profiles for each Mach number:

Mach No = 0.00:
Pressure values range from approximately -0.11 to 0.23.

Mach No = 0.1:
Pressure values range from approximately -0.11 to 0.24.

Mach No = 0.2:
Pressure values range from approximately -0.11 to 0.26.

Mach No = 0.3:
Pressure values range from approximately -0.11 to 0.27.

Key observations:
As the Mach number increases from 0.00 to 0.3, there is a general trend of increasing
pressure along the airfoil. This is indicated by the fact that the maximum pressure values
become more positive (less negative) as Mach number increases.
The minimum pressure values remain relatively constant (around -0.11) across all Mach
numbers.
Overall, the pressure distribution on the airfoil is affected by the Mach number, with higher
Mach numbers generally resulting in higher pressures on the airfoil surface.
Exercise C (Part 2)
1. Mach No = 0.00 to 0.20 , Re = 2000000 and alpha = -4 to 20 in step of 0.5 (degree)
Here are the maximum CL values for each Mach number:
Mach No=0.00: The maximum CL value is 1.5935

Mach No=0.10: The maximum CL value is 1.5727

Mach No=0.20: The maximum CL value is 1.5068

Mach No=0.30: The maximum CL value is 1.491

The onset of stall is typically associated with a sharp decrease in CL. Here are approximate
angles at which the airfoils start to stall for each Mach number based on the data:
Mach No=0.00: The CL values start to drop significantly at around alpha = -1.5 degrees.
Mach No=0.10: The CL values start to drop significantly at around alpha = -1.5 degrees.
Mach No=0.20: The CL values start to drop significantly at around alpha = -1.5 degrees.
Mach No=0.30: The CL values start to drop significantly at around alpha = -1.5 degrees.
It appears that in this specific data set, the onset of stall for each Mach number occurs at
approximately -1.5 degrees of angle of attack.
Corresponding Corresponding Corresponding
Mach No Max (CL/CD) Alpha CL CD
0.00 92.06278 9 1.0265 0.01115
0.10 91.7836 9.5 1.0791 0.01173
0.20 90.7055 10 1.1197 0.01218
0.30 88.95122 9.5 1.0791 0.01173
The plots of Cl Vs Alpha, Cd Vs Alpha and Cl/Cd Vs Alpha are given below.

Alpha=4 &Re=2000000
7
6
Cl (Coefficient of Lift)

5
4
Mach=0.30
3
2 Mach=0.20
1 Mach=0.10
0
Mach=0.00

19.5
10.5
11.5
12.5
13.5
14.5
15.5
16.5
17.5
18.5
0
-4
-3
-2
-1

1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.5
9.5
-1
-2
-3
Alpha

Alpha=4 &Re=2000000
0.5
Cd (Coefficient of drag)

0.4

0.3 Mach=0.30
0.2 Mach=0.20

0.1 Mach=0.10
Mach=0.00
0
10.5

17.5
11.5
12.5
13.5
14.5
15.5
16.5

18.5
19.5
0
-4
-3
-2
-1

5.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5

6.5
7.5
8.5
9.5

Alpha

Alpha=4 &Re=2000000
400
Cl/Cd

300
200
100 Mach=0.30
0 Mach=0.20
10.5
11.5
12.5
13.5
14.5
15.5
16.5
17.5
18.5
19.5
0
-4
-3
-2
-1

6.5
7.5
8.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5

9.5

-100 Mach=0.10
-200 Mach=0.00
-300
-400
Alpha
The trends in the data show the behaviour of the aircraft's lift coefficient (CL), drag
coefficient (CD), and their ratio (CL/CD) at different angles of attack for various Mach
numbers:

Low Angle of Attack (Alpha < 0):

As the angle of attack (Alpha) decreases from -4 degrees to -1.5 degrees, CL generally
becomes more negative, indicating a decrease in lift.
CD remains relatively constant with minor fluctuations.
Consequently, CL/CD becomes increasingly negative, indicating a decrease in aerodynamic
efficiency.
At Alpha = 0 (level flight), CL and CD both become approximately zero, resulting in an
undefined CL/CD value.

High Angle of Attack (Alpha > 0):

As the angle of attack increases from 1 degree to 20 degrees, CL becomes positive, indicating
an increase in lift.
CD also increases, reflecting an increase in drag as the aircraft operate at higher angles of
attack.
CL/CD remains positive, indicating improved aerodynamic efficiency compared to the
negative values at low angles of attack.
The maximum CL/CD values occur at angles of attack in the range of 1 to 2 degrees for
Mach numbers between 0.00 and 0.30.

Mach Number Effect:

At higher Mach numbers, the maximum CL/CD values tend to decrease, indicating reduced
aerodynamic efficiency compared to lower Mach numbers.
At Mach 0.00, the maximum CL/CD is the most negative, indicating poor aerodynamic
performance at this Mach number.
In summary, the data suggests that the aircraft performs most efficiently (highest CL/CD) at
low positive angles of attack (around 1 to 2 degrees) for Mach numbers between 0.00 and
0.30. At low angles of attack, the aircraft experiences poor performance with negative CL/CD
values, while at high angles of attack, the efficiency decreases due to increased drag.
Additionally, higher Mach numbers tend to result in lower maximum CL/CD values.
 Exercise D: Effect of Thickness.
The analysis of airfoils: NACA0005, NACA0009, NACA0013, NACA0017 and NACA0021
at Reynolds number Re = 2000000 and Mach number M=0.00.
Following results are obtained:
Airfoil Max CL Max CL/CD Stall Angle
NACA0005 0.9422 55.3152 -4
NACA0009 1.3988 83.8454 -4.5
NACA0013 1.5935 92.0628 -4
NACA0017 1.5888 92.5121 -4.5
NACA0021 1.5307 92.5121 -5

Airfoil Max Corresponding Corresponding Corresponding

CL/CD Alpha CL CD
NACA0005 55.31519 3.5 0.3861 0.00698
NACA0009 83.84538 7.5 0.8351 0.00996
NACA0013 92.06278 9 0.711 0.10358
NACA0017 92.51212 10.5 0.7193 0.13052
NACA0021 91.94058 9.5 0.7124 0.11273

Re=2000000, Mach =0.00

8
7
6
5
4 NACA0021
3 NACA0017
CL

2
NACA0013
1
0 NACA0009
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-4
-3
-2
-1

11

13

15

17
10

12

14

16

18
19
20

-1 NACA0005
-2
-3
Alpha
 Re=2000000, Mach =0.00
0.6

0.5

0.4 NACA0021
NACA0017
CD

0.3
NACA0013
0.2 NACA0009
NACA0005
0.1

0
4

6
0
1
2
3

7
8
9

13

15
-4
-3
-2
-1

10
11
12

14

16
17
18
19
20
Alpha

Re=2000000, Mach =0.00

500
400
300
200 NACA0021
100 NACA0017
CL/Cd

0 NACA0013
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
-2
-4
-3

-1

12

15

18
10
11

13
14

16
17

19
20
-100 NACA0009
-200 NACA0005
-300
-400
Alpha

Analysis of the trends:

CL (Lift Coefficient) vs. Alpha:
As the angle of attack (alpha) increases from -4 degrees to 20 degrees, the lift coefficient
(CL) generally increases for all airfoil sections.
The increase in CL is more pronounced at lower angles of attack and becomes relatively
stable beyond 10 degrees for most airfoils.
NACA0013 and NACA0017 seem to have higher lift coefficients compared to the other
airfoils across the entire range of angles of attack.
NACA0005 has the lowest lift coefficient throughout the range of angles of attack.

CD (Drag Coefficient) vs. Alpha:

The drag coefficient (CD) generally increases with an increase in angle of attack (alpha) for
all airfoil sections.
The rate of increase in CD varies among different airfoil sections, with some having steeper
slopes.
NACA0005 consistently has the lowest drag coefficient for most angles of attack.
NACA0017 and NACA0021 show relatively higher drag coefficients at some angles of attack
compared to others.
CL/CD (Lift-to-Drag Ratio) vs. Alpha:
The lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD) generally decreases as the angle of attack (alpha) increases.
At lower angles of attack (around -4 to -2 degrees), NACA0017 and NACA0021 exhibit the
highest CL/CD ratios, indicating good aerodynamic performance.
As alpha increases, the CL/CD ratios decrease, and different airfoils perform differently, but
NACA0017 and NACA0021 maintain relatively better ratios compared to others.
Considering the observed data, we can observe the convergence and non-convergence
behaviour.
NACA0005 (Thinner Airfoil):
For NACA0005, the lift coefficient (CL) converges smoothly as the angle of attack (alpha)
increases from -4 degrees to approximately 5.5 degrees. Beyond this point, there is a
noticeable non-convergence or flattening of the CL curve, indicating that the airfoil may be
reaching its maximum lift capability or experiencing flow separation.
The drag coefficient (CD) for NACA0005 also converges smoothly within the same range,
with a noticeable increase in CD as alpha increases beyond 5.5 degrees.
The lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD) exhibits a consistent increasing trend up to around 5.5 degrees
and then starts to decrease as CD increases more rapidly.
NACA0009 (Thinner Airfoil):
For NACA0009, the lift coefficient (CL) shows a similar convergence pattern as NACA0005,
with smooth convergence up to approximately 5.5 degrees. Beyond this point, there is non-
convergence or flattening of the CL curve. Also at higher angle of attack beyond 16 degree
non-convergence is obtained due to flatness of curve.
The drag coefficient (CD) for NACA0009 also converges smoothly within the same range,
with an increase in CD beyond 5.5 degrees.
The lift-to-drag ratio (CL/CD) exhibits a consistent increasing trend up to around 5.5 degrees
and then starts to decrease as CD increases more rapidly.
For both NACA0005 and NACA0009, the observed curves in CL, CD, and CL/CD can be
considered reliable up to approximately 5.5 degrees. Beyond this angle of attack, there is
non-convergence or instability in the data, which makes it less reliable.
Overall, NACA0017 and NACA0021 seem to have better aerodynamic performance in terms
of lift and drag characteristics, especially at lower angles of attack. NACA0005 has the
lowest lift coefficient but also the lowest drag coefficient, which might be desirable for
certain applications where low drag is critical. Keep in mind that the choice of airfoil depends
on specific design requirements and trade-offs between lift, drag, and other factors such as
stall behavior.
 Exercise E: Effect of Camber Magnitude

Cl Vs Alpha
10
8
6 NACA3313
4 NACA2313
CL

2 NACA1313
0 5 NACA0313

9
0
1
2
3
4

6
7
8
-2
-4
-3

-1

12

16
10
11

13
14
15

17
18
19
20
-2 NACA0013
-4
Alpha

Cd Vs Alpha
0.5

0.4
NACA3313
0.3
NACA2313
Cd

0.2
NACA1313
0.1 NACA0313
0 NACA0013
0

5
1
2
3
4

6
7
8
9
10

15

20
-4
-3
-2
-1

11
12
13
14

16
17
18
19

Alpha

Cd Vs Alpha
600

400
NACA3313
200 NACA2313
Cd

0 NACA1313
4

6
0
1
2
3

7
8
9
-3
-4

-2
-1

13

15
10
11
12

14

16
17
18
19
20

NACA0313
-200
NACA0013
-400
Alpha
To find the maximum value of CL (lift coefficient) for each airfoil, the angle at which each airfoil
gets stalled, the maximum value of CL/CD (lift-to-drag ratio), and the values of Cl and Cd (drag
coefficient) along with the angle alpha corresponding to the maximum CL/CD, we can analyze
the provided data for each airfoil (NACA0013, NACA0313, NACA1313, NACA2313,
NACA3313).
Let's break this down step by step for each airfoil:

Airfoil Maximum Stall Angle Maximum Cl at Cd at Alpha at Max

CL (degrees) CL/CD Max Max CL/CD
CL/CD CL/CD (degrees)
NACA0013 1.5935 15.0 92.06278 1.0265 0.01115 9
NACA0313 1.5935 13.5 92.06278 1.0265 0.01115 9
NACA1313 1.6406 13.5 100.5372 0.9732 0.00968 8
NACA2313 1.6758 13.5 122.7984 0.9359 0.00754 6
NACA3313 1.7048 13.5 139.8425 1.0656 0.00762 6.5

Angle corresponding to zero lift.

NACA0013:
The CL values are all negative, and they start to approach zero around alpha = -1 degree.
NACA0313:
The CL values are all negative, and they approach zero around alpha = -1 degree.
NACA1313:
The CL values are all negative, and they approach zero around alpha = -1 degree.
NACA2313:
The CL values are all negative, and they approach zero around alpha = -1 degree.
NACA3313:
The CL values are all negative, and they approach zero around alpha = -1 degree.
Trends in Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Airfoils:
1. Symmetric Airfoils:
- Symmetric airfoils, like the NACA0013, have a symmetric shape with respect to their chord
line.
- These airfoils tend to have zero lift at zero angle of attack, and they generate lift symmetrically
when the angle of attack increases.
- Symmetric airfoils often exhibit lower lift coefficients (CL) compared to cambered airfoils at
the same angle of attack.
- They have a relatively linear lift response to changes in angle of attack.
2. Asymmetric Airfoils (Cambered Airfoils):
- Asymmetric airfoils, like the NACA1313, have a curved shape or camber along their chord
line.
- These airfoils can generate lift even at zero angle of attack due to their camber.
- Cambered airfoils typically achieve higher maximum CL values compared to symmetric
airfoils.
- They may exhibit non-linear lift responses, with lift increasing rapidly at lower angles of
attack.
Key Differences:
The key differences between symmetric and asymmetric (cambered) airfoils are:
1. Lift at Zero Angle of Attack:
- Symmetric airfoils generate zero lift at zero angle of attack, while cambered airfoils can
generate lift even at zero angle of attack due to their curved shape.
2. Maximum Lift Coefficient:
- Cambered airfoils can achieve higher maximum CL values compared to symmetric airfoils,
making them more suitable for applications requiring higher lift.
3. Angle of Attack Response:
- Symmetric airfoils typically have a linear lift response to changes in angle of attack, while
cambered airfoils may exhibit non-linear responses with rapid lift increase at lower angles of
attack.
Adding Camber:
Adding camber to an airfoil changes its aerodynamic characteristics in several ways:
1. Increased Lift: Cambered airfoils generate lift even at zero angle of attack, which can be
advantageous for applications where lift is required at low angles.
2. Improved Maximum Lift: Cambered airfoils can achieve higher maximum lift coefficients,
making them suitable for applications like aircraft wings where higher lift is needed.
3. Altered Lift Distribution: Camber can alter the lift distribution along the span of the airfoil,
potentially improving lift distribution and reducing the likelihood of stalling.
4. Non-Symmetry: Cambered airfoils are asymmetric, which means they generate lift
asymmetrically as the angle of attack changes.
In summary, cambered airfoils, with their curved shape, provide advantages in terms of lift
generation and maximum lift coefficients compared to symmetric airfoils. The choice between
symmetric and cambered airfoils depends on the specific requirements of the aircraft or
application and the desired aerodynamic performance.
Exercise F: Effect of Camber Location

CL Vs Alpha
10

6 NACA2713
NACA2513
CL

4
NACA2313
2 NACA2113
NACA0013
0
-3
-2
-4

-1

8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

19
20
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
-2
Alpha

CD Vs Alpha
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3 NACA2713
0.25
NACA2513
CL

0.2
NACA2313
0.15
0.1 NACA2113
0.05 NACA0013
0
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Alpha
 CL/CD Vs Alpha
600
500
400
300 NACA2713

200 NACA2513
CL

100 NACA2313
0 NACA2113
-4
-3
-2
-1

1
2
0

3
4
5
6
7
8
9

14
15
10
11
12
13

16
17
18
19
20
-100 NACA0013
-200
-300
Alpha

Based on the data above we can analyse the effect of camber location on different parameters
of the airfoil.

Stall Alpha at CL at CD at
Angle Max Max CL/CD Max Max Alpha at Zero
Airfoil Max CL (degrees) CL/CD (degrees) CL/CD CL/CD Lift (degrees)
NACA0013 1.5896 15.5 92.06278 9 1.0265 0.01115 12.5
NACA2113 1.7485 14.5 113.1571 13 1.5842 0.014 12.5
NACA2313 1.6774 15.5 122.7984 6 0.9259 0.00754 14.5
NACA2513 1.7119 15.5 112.1245 5 0.8286 0.00739 14.5
NACA2713 1.7682 15.5 103.6988 6.5 1.0121 0.00976 12.5

The effect of camber location on airfoil parameters can be observed from the provided data as
follows:
1. NACA0013: This airfoil has a maximum lift coefficient (CL) of 1.5896 and a stall angle of 15.5
degrees. The maximum CL/CD ratio is 92.06278, which indicates its efficiency in producing lift
with minimum drag. The angle at which it achieves the maximum CL/CD is 9 degrees. The CL at
this point is 1.0265, and the CD is 0.01115. The angle corresponding to zero lift is 12.5 degrees.
2. NACA2113: In this case, the airfoil has a slightly higher maximum CL of 1.7485 and a similar
stall angle of 14.5 degrees. It achieves a maximum CL/CD ratio of 113.1571 at an angle of 13
degrees. The CL at this point is 1.5842, and the CD is 0.014. The angle corresponding to zero lift is
12.5 degrees.
3. NACA2313: The airfoil has a maximum CL of 1.6774 and a stall angle of 15.5 degrees. It
achieves a high maximum CL/CD ratio of 122.7984 at an angle of 6 degrees. The CL at this point is
0.9259, and the CD is 0.00754. The angle corresponding to zero lift is 14.5 degrees.
4. NACA2513: This airfoil has a maximum CL of 1.7119 and a stall angle of 15.5 degrees. It
achieves a maximum CL/CD ratio of 112.1245 at an angle of 5 degrees. The CL at this point is
0.8286, and the CD is 0.00739. The angle corresponding to zero lift is 14.5 degrees.
5. NACA2713: Lastly, this airfoil has the highest maximum CL among the listed airfoils, at 1.7682,
with a stall angle of 15.5 degrees. It achieves a maximum CL/CD ratio of 103.6988 at an angle of
6.5 degrees. The CL at this point is 1.0121, and the CD is 0.00976. The angle corresponding to zero
lift is 12.5 degrees.
Symmetric and axisymmetric airfoils have distinct characteristics and purposes. Additionally,
changing the camber location of an airfoil can significantly impact its aerodynamic performance.
Here are the key differences and the effects of changing camber location:

Symmetric Airfoil:
1. Shape: Symmetric airfoils have identical upper and lower surfaces, resulting in zero camber.
They are often referred to as "flat-bottom" airfoils because of their straight-line shape.
2. Use: Symmetric airfoils are primarily used in applications where there is no need for lift
generation when the angle of attack is zero. They are commonly used in symmetrically designed
aircraft and are favored for their neutral lift characteristics.
3. Lift Generation: Symmetric airfoils generate lift primarily through angle of attack. They achieve
their maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) at higher angles of attack compared to cambered airfoils.
4. Stall Behavior: Symmetric airfoils tend to exhibit abrupt stall behavior when the critical angle of
attack is reached. The airflow separates from both the upper and lower surfaces simultaneously
during a stall.

Axisymmetric Airfoil:
1. Shape: Axisymmetric airfoils have a circular or rounded shape when viewed from the side. They
are designed to provide lift and control in applications where circular symmetry is beneficial, such
as rockets and cylindrical bodies.
2. Use: Axisymmetric airfoils are used in applications where symmetry around a central axis is
important, such as missiles, rockets, and cylindrical bodies where control surfaces are incorporated
into the body shape.
3. Lift Generation: Axisymmetric airfoils generate lift through a combination of angle of attack
and circulation around their circular profile. They are designed to provide lift even when the angle
of attack is zero.
4.Stall Behavior: Axisymmetric airfoils can exhibit a more gradual and predictable stall behavior
compared to symmetric airfoils. They may have a delayed stall and continue to provide lift at
slightly negative angles of attack.

Effects of Changing Camber Location:

Changing the camber location of an airfoil has a significant impact on its aerodynamic performance:
1. Maximum Lift: Moving the camber location can affect the maximum lift coefficient (CLmax) of
the airfoil. Shifting the camber forward or aft can change the airfoil's lift characteristics.
2. Stall Behavior: Camber location influences the stall behavior of the airfoil. Moving the camber
closer to the leading edge may result in a gentler stall with a lower angle of attack at stall onset,
while shifting it rearward may result in a more abrupt stall.
3. Cruise Performance: The camber location also affects the airfoil's performance in cruise
conditions. Aft camber locations may reduce drag at low angles of attack, making them suitable for
cruising, while forward camber locations may be more appropriate for high-lift conditions.
4. Control and Stability: Camber location can impact the control and stability characteristics of an
aircraft. Aft camber locations may provide better control authority, especially at high angles of
attack.
In summary, symmetric and axisymmetric airfoils have different shapes and applications, and
changing the camber location of an airfoil can alter its lift, stall behavior, cruise performance, and
control characteristics. The choice of airfoil shape and camber location depends on the specific
requirements and objectives of the aircraft or system in which they are used.
Exercise G: Finding the best value of NACA airfoil.

(a) Airfoil with the highest CL (maximum lift coefficient):

- NACA2713 has the highest CL with a value of 1.7682.

(b) Airfoil with the highest CL at alpha=0 (zero lift angle of attack):
- NACA2113 and NACA0013 both have a CL of 0 at alpha=0, which is the highest among
the listed airfoils.

(c) Airfoil with the highest angle of stall:

- All the listed airfoils have a stall angle of 15.5 degrees, so they share the highest angle of
stall.

(d) Airfoil with the best CL/CD at alpha=0:

- To find the airfoil with the best CL/CD at alpha=0, we need to calculate the CL/CD ratio
at alpha=0 for each airfoil and then determine the highest value.
- CL/CD at alpha=0 can be calculated by dividing the CL at alpha=0 by the CD at alpha=0.
- Let's calculate it for each airfoil:
- NACA0013: CL/CD at alpha=0 = 0 / 0.01115 = 0
- NACA2113: CL/CD at alpha=0 = 0 / 0.014 = 0
- NACA2313: CL/CD at alpha=0 = 0 / 0.00754 = 0
- NACA2513: CL/CD at alpha=0 = 0 / 0.00739 = 0
- NACA2713: CL/CD at alpha=0 = 0 / 0.00976 = 0
- All airfoils have a CL/CD ratio of 0 at alpha=0, so they are all equal in this aspect.

(e) Airfoil with the best CL/CD at alpha=0 and Re=300000:

- Unfortunately, the provided data does not include information about the airfoil
performance at a specific Reynolds number (Re). To determine which airfoil has the best
CL/CD at alpha=0 and Re=300000, you would need additional data or specific performance
data at that Reynolds number.

In summary:
(a) NACA2713 has the highest CL (maximum lift coefficient).
(b) NACA2113 and NACA0013 have the highest CL at alpha=0.
(c) All airfoils have the same highest angle of stall, which is 15.5 degrees.
(d) All airfoils have a CL/CD ratio of 0 at alpha=0.
(e) Additional data is needed to determine the airfoil with the best CL/CD at alpha=0 and
Re=300000.