BSP 313 PYQ

2 Marks questions

1. Define the concept of attribution?

Ans:- Attribution refers to the process through which individuals explain the causes of
behaviour, both their own and that of others. It involves understanding why people act the
way they do and attributing their actions to specific factors or causes.
2. Differentiate between encoding and decoding.

ENCODING DECODING

1. Encoding is the process by which 1. Decoding is the process by which

individuals express or transmit information, individuals interpret or make sense of the
feelings, or thoughts to others through information received from others. It involves
various channels, including verbal and understanding and assigning meaning to
nonverbal cues. verbal and nonverbal cues.

2. When a person smiles, maintains eye 2. If someone observes a person smiling and
contact, or uses specific gestures during a making eye contact during a conversation,
conversation, they are encoding nonverbal they may decode these nonverbal signals as
signals that convey emotions or intentions signs of friendliness, interest, or agreement.

3. What is meant by social loafing?

Ans:- Social loafing is a phenomenon that refers to the tendency of individuals to exert
less effort when working on a collective task in a group compared to when working
individually. In other words, people may reduce their level of effort or motivation when
they are part of a group, assuming that others will compensate for their decreased
contribution.
SOCIAL LOAFING
 4. Define “Haptics”.
Ans:- Haptics refers to the study of touch as a form of nonverbal communication and its
impact on social interactions and relationships.

5. What do you mean by altruism?

Ans:- Altruism refers to a voluntary and selfless behaviour that benefits others, even at a
personal cost to the individual engaging in the behaviour. Altruistic actions are motivated
by a genuine concern for the well-being of others, without any expectation of personal
gain or reward. ( नेकी कर दरिया में डाल)
ALTRUISM
6. What do you understand by social conformity?
Ans:- Social conformity is a phenomenon where individuals adjust their attitudes,
behaviours, or beliefs to align with those of a larger group. It involves the tendency to go
along with the majority opinion or follow social norms, even if it goes against one's
personal beliefs or preferences.

7. Differentiate between stereotyping and discrimination.

Ans:- Stereotyping:- Stereotyping involves the generalisation of beliefs, attitudes, or
characteristics to an entire group of people based on their perceived membership in that
group. It is a cognitive process where individuals categorise others based on
preconceived notions about their social group. Stereotypes are mental shortcuts or
cognitive schemas that people use to simplify the complexities of the social world. They
often involve oversimplified and generalised beliefs about the attributes or behaviours of
a particular group.

Discrimination:- Discrimination refers to the unjust or prejudicial treatment of

individuals or groups based on their actual or perceived characteristics, such as race,
gender, ethnicity, religion, or other social attributes. It involves actions or behaviours that
result in differential treatment. It involves treating people unfairly or denying them
opportunities, rights, or privileges based on their group membership.
8. What is meant by attitude.
Ans:- A relatively enduring and general evaluation of an object, person, group, issue, or
concept on a dimension ranging from negative to positive. Attitudes provide summary
evaluations of target objects and are often assumed to be derived from specific beliefs,
emotions, and past behaviours associated with those objects.
9. Define “proxemic”.
Ans:- The study of interpersonal spatial behaviour. Proxemics is concerned with
territoriality, interpersonal distance, spatial arrangements, crowding, and other aspects
of the physical environment that affect behaviour.
10. Define the concept of social perception.
Ans:- Social perception refers to the process by which individuals form impressions and
make judgments about other people. It involves the interpretation and integration of
information gathered from various cues, such as facial expressions, body language,
 verbal communication, and contextual factors. Social perception is a fundamental aspect
of social interactions and plays a crucial role in understanding and navigating the social
world.
11. What do you mean by social behaviour?
Ans:- Social behaviour refers to the actions, conduct, or interactions that individuals
engage in within a social context. It encompasses a wide range of behaviours, both verbal
and nonverbal, that occur as people interact with one another. Social behaviour is
influenced by various factors, including cultural norms, social roles, individual
differences, and environmental conditions. It plays a fundamental role in shaping social
relationships, group dynamics, and the overall functioning of societies.

12. What is meant by “Chronemics”?

Ans:- Chronemics refers to the study of how time affects communication. Time can be
classified into several different categories, including biological, personal, physical, and
cultural time.
Read more about it
13. Differentiate between “gesture” and “posture”.

GESTURE POSTURE
Gestures are purposeful movements, actions, or signals made with Posture refers to the position or orientation of the body, including the
different parts of the body, typically the hands, arms, or head, to arrangement of body parts such as the head, shoulders, back, and limbs.
convey specific messages or expressions.
It provides information about an individual's state of mind, emotions, or level
It often used to complement verbal communication, emphasise of comfort. It can convey openness, confidence, attentiveness, or discomfort.
points, or convey emotions. They can be intentional or involuntary and E.g Sitting upright with an open posture may convey attentiveness and
play a significant role in conveying meaning in communication. confidence, while slouching or crossing arms might suggest defensiveness
E.g Waving, pointing, nodding, and using hand movements to illustrate or discomfort.
a concept are all examples of gestures.
 14. Define ethnolinguistics.
Ans:- The investigation of language within the context of human cultures or societies,
paying attention to cultural influences and incorporating the principles of anthropology
and ethnography

10 Marks questions

1. Explain the importance of communication in social behaviour.

Ans:- Communication includes both the transference and the understanding of meaning.
Communication is the process by which people attempt to share meaning via the
transmission of symbolic messages (Dance, 1970)

Communication plays a crucial role in shaping social behavior and is a fundamental aspect of
human interaction. In the realm of psychology, understanding the dynamics of communication
helps us comprehend how individuals express themselves, share information, and navigate the
complexities of social relationships. Here are key points to consider:

Expressing Emotions:

● Communication allows people to express their emotions effectively. Verbal expressions,

tone of voice, facial expressions, and body language all contribute to conveying feelings,
which is essential for emotional regulation and interpersonal understanding.

Resolving Conflicts:

● Effective communication is key to resolving conflicts. By expressing concerns, needs, and

perspectives, individuals can work towards finding mutually satisfactory solutions,
reducing misunderstandings, and preventing escalation of conflicts.

Facilitating Social Bonds:

 ● Communication is the primary tool for establishing and maintaining social connections.
Through verbal and nonverbal cues, individuals convey emotions, thoughts, and
intentions, fostering a sense of understanding and connection.

Cultural and Social Norms:

● Communication is deeply intertwined with cultural and social norms. The way people
communicate is influenced by cultural background, societal expectations, and group
dynamics. Awareness of these factors is crucial for understanding social behavior.

Developing Social Skills:

● Communication is a skill that can be honed and developed. Learning effective

communication strategies enhances social skills, making it easier for individuals to
navigate various social situations and form meaningful connections.

Nonverbal Communication:

● Nonverbal cues, such as body language, gestures, and facial expressions, play a
significant role in social communication. Understanding these nonverbal signals is
essential for interpreting the full meaning behind verbal interactions.

Social Identity and Group Dynamics:

Communication is central to the development and expression of social identity. It

influences how individuals perceive themselves in relation to various social groups and
how group dynamics are shaped through shared communication patterns
2. Explain the features of primary and secondary groups.
Ans:-
PRIMARY GROUP SECONDARY GROUP
A primary group is characteristically small with members A secondary group is characteristically larger with
who share tight-knit and lasting relationships such those impersonal and objective-driven relationships.
experienced in marriage, close friendships, and families.
FEATURE: The interactions are often short-term as they are
FEATURE: Act vital in shaping an individual’s identity as less personal and eventually drift away after the goals have
they are sources of various enduring support. Those who been met. Thus, the motivation to join these groups are
belong to this principal group often express concern for often extrinsic such as those manifested between clients
each other, have regular activities together, and other and agents, among classmates, and among colleagues. The
similar interactions which contribute to the members’ impact to the members is less significant due to the
individuality and psychological well being. superfluous connections.

The relationships in primary groups are deep as more On the other hand, the interaction in secondary groups are
personal information is shared, emotional connections are generally superficial as it is only created to achieve a
strengthened, and the bonds are more enduring. certain goal such as the completion of an academic
requirement, realisation of a career goal, and the
The motivation in primary groups is usually intrinsic since accomplishment of a service.
these are maintained by the connections themselves.
People want to commit to such connections because of On the contrary, the motivation in secondary groups is
attraction, love, altruism, and other intangible factors. largely extrinsic as they are created to obtain economic
goals, educational objectives, political ambitions, and other
Primary groups are highly influential to an individual’s tangible ends.
identity due to the intimacy and duration of these
relationships. For instance, our identities are linked with secondary groups, their influence is most often weak since
our families and friendships. the relationships are largely impersonal and temporary. For
example, the relationship between a client and a customer
In primary groups, the roles are more stable as the is only limited to the specific job order and their
relationships are equally more enduring. For example, a individualities are not significantly altered by the business
true best friend is a best friend for a lifetime. transaction.

On the other hand, the roles in secondary groups are more

interchangeable and less stable due to the similarly
temporary and impersonal relationships.
read more about it
3. Describe the components of prejudice.
Ans:- Prejudice means to develop an opinion or pre-judge something before all of the
facts are obtained. Prejudice was defined as “an animosity based on inaccurate and
inflexible generalisation towards a group as a whole or towards an individual because
they are a part of that group”.

Components of prejudice
a. Cognitive:- Stereotypes are cognitive components of prejudice. Stereotypes are
cognitive representations or generalisations about a group of people. They involve
beliefs or expectations that certain characteristics, traits, or behaviours are
typical of all members of a particular group. Stereotypes can be positive or
negative and may oversimplify or exaggerate group differences.
b. Behavioural:- Discrimination is the Behavioural component of prejudice
Discrimination involves behaviours or actions directed toward individuals or
groups based on their perceived characteristics or group membership.
Discrimination can take various forms, including unequal treatment, exclusion,
harassment, or denial of opportunities. It is the behavioural manifestation of
prejudiced attitudes.
c. Affective:- Affective prejudice involves the emotional or affective response one
has toward individuals or groups. This can manifest as positive emotions (liking or
warmth) or negative emotions (dislike, fear, or anger) based solely on group
membership. Emotional prejudices can influence attitudes and behaviours toward
the targeted group.
SEE MORE ABOUT COMPONENTS OF PREJUDICE
4. Discuss the factor affecting social loafing.
Ans:- Social loafing is a phenomenon in which individuals exert less effort when working
as part of a group than when working individually. This reduction in effort is often
attributed to a diffusion of responsibility, where individuals feel less accountable for their
contributions in a group setting. Several factors can influence the occurrence of social
loafing:
Factor affecting social loafing
Task Identifiability:
● Low Identifiability: When individual contributions to a group task are not easily
identifiable or distinguishable, people may be more likely to engage in social
loafing. If individual efforts are not clearly assessed or recognized, individuals may
feel less accountable.
Task Importance:
● Low Task Importance: When individuals perceive a task as unimportant or of low
significance, they may be less motivated to invest effort. The perceived
importance of the task influences the degree to which individuals feel compelled
to contribute actively.
Perceived Group Size:
● Larger Group Size: Social loafing tends to be more pronounced in larger groups. In
larger groups, individuals may feel that their efforts are less crucial to the overall
outcome, leading to a diffusion of responsibility and a decrease in individual effort.
Task Complexity:
● Low Task Complexity: In tasks that are perceived as simple or routine, social
loafing may be more likely to occur. Individuals may believe that their
contributions are not critical, leading to a decrease in effort.
Cultural Factors:
● Cultural Attitudes: Cultural norms and attitudes toward individualism and
collectivism can influence social loafing. In cultures that emphasize individual
achievements, social loafing may be less prevalent, as individuals may feel more
accountable for their performance.
Motivational Factors:
● Perceived Reward Structure: The perceived reward structure of the group can
influence social loafing. If individuals believe that their efforts will not be
rewarded or recognized, they may be less motivated to contribute fully.
Group Cohesion:
● Low Group Cohesion: Social loafing tends to be more prevalent in groups with
lower cohesion. In groups where members do not feel a strong sense of
 connection or identification with one another, the motivation to contribute may be
diminished.

5. Highlights the importance of pro social behaviour in the present time.

Ans:- Prosocial behaviour, which involves actions that benefit others or society as a
whole, is of paramount importance in the present time for several reasons:

​ Community Well-Being:
● Prosocial behaviour contributes to the overall well-being of communities.
Acts of kindness, cooperation, and support foster positive social
environments, creating a sense of cohesion and interconnectedness..
​ Social Harmony:
● Prosocial behaviour promotes social harmony by fostering positive
interpersonal relationships. Acts of kindness and cooperation contribute to
a more harmonious and supportive social fabric, reducing conflict and
promoting understanding.
​ Mitigating Social Issues:
● Prosocial behaviour plays a role in addressing societal challenges.
Individuals who engage in prosocial actions may contribute to efforts
aimed at alleviating poverty, inequality, and various social issues through
volunteering, charitable activities, and community involvement.
​ Crisis Response:
● In times of crises, whether natural disasters, health emergencies, or other
challenges, prosocial behaviour becomes crucial. Acts of generosity,
volunteerism, and community support are essential for responding
effectively to crises and helping affected individuals and communities.
​ Altruistic Acts:
● Altruistic behaviour, a form of prosocial behaviour where individuals act
selflessly for the benefit of others, has a positive impact on both the giver
and the recipient. Altruistic acts contribute to a sense of shared
responsibility and empathy.
​ Promoting Positive Values:
 ● Prosocial behaviour reinforces and promotes positive societal values such
as compassion, empathy, cooperation, and altruism. These values are
essential for building a just and compassionate society.
​ Social Capital:
● Prosocial behaviour contributes to the development of social capital, which
refers to the social networks, shared values, and mutual trust within a
community. High social capital is associated with improved community
well-being and resilience.

In the present time, marked by various global challenges and uncertainties, fostering
prosocial behaviour is essential for building resilient and supportive communities.
Encouraging individuals to act in ways that benefit others contributes to the creation of a
more compassionate and interconnected world.

6. Describe the determinants of social facilitation.*

Ans:- Social facilitation refers to the phenomenon where the presence of others
influences an individual's performance on a task. The effects of social facilitation can be
influenced by various determinants that shape whether the presence of others enhances
or impairs performance. Here are key determinants of social facilitation:

Nature of the Task:

Simple vs. Complex Tasks: The type of task plays a crucial role. In general, the presence
of others tends to enhance performance on well-practised or simple tasks (social
facilitation), while it may impair performance on complex or novel tasks (social
inhibition).

Arousal Level:

Yerkes-Dodson Law: The Yerkes-Dodson Law suggests that the relationship between
arousal (or stress) and performance follows an inverted U-shaped curve. For simple
tasks, moderate arousal can enhance performance, but for complex tasks, too much
arousal may lead to decreased performance.
Task Familiarity:

Expertise: Individuals who are experts or highly skilled in a particular task may
experience enhanced performance in the presence of others. Novices, on the other hand,
might be more prone to social inhibition.

Evaluation Apprehension:

Concern for Evaluation: The extent to which individuals are concerned about how they are
being evaluated by others can influence social facilitation. High evaluation apprehension
may lead to enhanced performance in simple tasks but impaired performance in complex
tasks.

Audience Size:

Number of Observers: The size of the audience or the number of individuals present can
impact social facilitation. In some cases, a larger audience may lead to increased arousal
and performance enhancement, while in other situations, it might result in social
inhibition.

Task Importance:

Perceived Significance: The perceived importance or significance of the task can

influence social facilitation. When individuals perceive a task as important or meaningful,
the presence of others may enhance their motivation and performance.

Social Comparison:

Upward vs. Downward Social Comparison: Social comparison, where individuals assess
their abilities in relation to others, can affect social facilitation. Upward social
comparison (comparing oneself to those perceived as better) may lead to enhanced
performance, while downward social comparison (comparing oneself to those perceived
as worse) may result in impaired performance.
 SEE MORE ABOUT SOCIAL FACILITATION

7. Discuss the methods of attitude measurement.

Ans:- Attitudes are complex psychological constructs that involve evaluations or feelings
toward a particular object, person, group, idea, or situation. Various methods are used to
measure attitudes, providing researchers and psychologists with tools to assess and
understand individuals' opinions and feelings. Some common methods of attitude
measurement:

Self-Report Scales:

Likert Scales: Respondents indicate the extent to which they agree or disagree
with a series of statements related to the attitude. Responses are typically
measured on a numerical scale, such as a 5-point or 7-point Likert scale.

Semantic Differential Scales: Respondents rate an object or concept on a set of

bipolar adjectives (e.g., good-bad, happy-sad). The distance between chosen pairs
of adjectives indicates the attitude.

Thurstone Scaling:

Respondents are presented with a set of statements expressing different

attitudes toward a particular object. They are then asked to indicate their level of
agreement or disagreement. Researchers assign weights to each statement based
on respondents' choices to determine the overall attitude score.
Guttman Scaling:

A series of statements of varying intensity are presented, and respondents are

asked to indicate agreement or disagreement. The statements are arranged
hierarchically based on their level of acceptance, creating a cumulative scale.

Implicit Measures:

Techniques that assess attitudes without relying on self-report. Implicit measures

aim to uncover subconscious or automatic attitudes. Examples include the Implicit
Association Test (IAT) and reaction time measures.

8. Describe the process of communication. *

Ans:- The process of communication involves the transmission of information, ideas,
emotions, or messages from a sender to a receiver through a medium or channel. The
communication process is complex and can be influenced by various factors. Here are the
key elements and steps in the communication process.

Sender:

The process begins with a sender, who is the person or entity initiating the
communication. The sender encodes a message, translating thoughts or ideas into a
format that can be communicated.

Message:

The message is the information, idea, or content that the sender wants to communicate.
It can take various forms, including verbal language, written text, visual symbols,
gestures, or nonverbal cues.

Encoding:
Encoding is the process of converting the message into a symbolic form suitable for
transmission. This involves choosing words, structuring sentences, and selecting
appropriate nonverbal elements to convey the intended meaning.

Channel/Medium:

The channel or medium is the means through which the encoded message is transmitted
from the sender to the receiver. Channels can include face-to-face communication,
written communication, electronic media, or other forms of communication technology.

Decoding

Decoding is the process by which the receiver interprets and understands the message
sent by the sender. It involves translating the symbolic content back into thoughts or
ideas that make sense to the receiver.

Receiver:

The receiver is the individual or group for whom the message is intended. Receivers play
a crucial role in the communication process as they interpret and respond to the
message based on their understanding, experiences, and perspectives.

Noise:

Noise refers to any interference or distortion that can disrupt the communication
process. It may occur at any stage and can be external (e.g., environmental noise) or
internal (e.g., psychological factors affecting attention).

Context:

The context provides the background or setting in which communication takes place. It
includes the physical environment, social and cultural factors, and the relationship
between the sender and receiver. Context influences the interpretation of the message.
Barriers:

Barriers are obstacles that can impede effective communication. They may include
language barriers, cultural differences, perceptual differences, lack of attention, or
conflicting attitudes.

Response/Action:

After receiving and interpreting the message, the receiver may respond or take action
based on their understanding. This response can be a critical part of the communication
process, leading to further interaction between the sender and receiver.

Feedback:

Feedback is the response or reaction provided by the receiver to the sender. It serves as a
check to ensure that the message was accurately received and understood. Feedback can
be verbal, nonverbal, or written.

9. What do you mean by social conformity and describe? Its

determinants.
Ans:- Social conformity refers to the tendency of individuals to adjust their thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours to align with the norms, expectations, or standards of a social
group. Conformity is a widespread phenomenon in social psychology, reflecting the
influence that others have on an individual's beliefs and actions.
Conformity can manifest in various ways, and its mechanisms are influenced by both
social and psychological factors.
One of the classic experiments on social conformity was conducted by Solomon Asch. In
his experiments, participants were asked to match the length of lines, and confederates
intentionally provided incorrect answers. Many participants conformed to the incorrect
responses, highlighting the power of group pressure in shaping individual judgments.
There are some types of conformity are as follow:
a. Normative Conformity: This type of conformity occurs when individuals
conform to group norms to gain social approval, avoid rejection, or fit in with the
group. The motivation is driven by the desire to be accepted and avoid social
disapproval.
b. Informational Conformity: In this type, individuals conform because they
believe others have accurate information, and they want to make the correct
decision. Informational conformity is often observed in situations of uncertainty or
ambiguity where individuals seek guidance from others.

Determinants of social conformity

a. Group Size: Conformity tends to increase with the size of the majority.
Larger groups have a greater impact on individual conformity, up to a point.
b. Group Cohesion: The sense of cohesion within a group enhances
conformity. Individuals may conform to group norms to maintain social
bonds and avoid social rejection.
c. Culture: Cultural factors play a role in shaping conformity. Cultures with
an emphasis on collectivism may have higher levels of conformity
compared to individualistic cultures.
d. Social Roles: The roles individuals occupy can influence conformity.
People may conform to the expectations associated with their roles to fulfil
societal or organisational norms.

10. Describe the structure and functions of a group.*

Ans:- A group is a collection of individuals who interact with each other, share common
goals or interests, and perceive themselves as members of a collective entity. Groups can
vary in size, structure, and purpose. They often involve social interactions, influence, and
interdependence among members, contributing to the development of shared norms,
roles, and a sense of identity. Groups can serve various functions, including task
accomplishment, social support, and the satisfaction of emotional needs.

Structure of a Group:

Members:

· A group consists of two or more individuals who interact with each other.

· Members may share common goals, interests, or characteristics that bring

them together.

Roles:

● Within a group, members often assume different roles, representing various functions
and responsibilities.
● Roles may be formally assigned or emerge organically based on individuals' skills and
contributions.

Norms:

● Groups develop implicit or explicit norms—shared expectations about behavior, values,

and attitudes.
● Norms help guide the actions of group members and contribute to a sense of cohesion.

Status Hierarchy:

● Groups may exhibit a status hierarchy where members hold different levels of influence,
authority, or prestige.
● Status can be based on factors such as experience, expertise, or seniority.

Cohesiveness:

● Cohesiveness reflects the degree of unity, solidarity, and connection among group
members.
● High cohesiveness is associated with positive group dynamics, improved communication,
and shared identity.
 Functions of a Group:

Task Accomplishment:

· Groups often come together to achieve specific goals or tasks that are more
efficiently accomplished through collective effort.

· Task-oriented groups focus on achieving objectives, solving problems, or

completing projects

Social Support:

● Groups provide social support and companionship, addressing members' emotional needs.
● Emotional bonds formed within a group contribute to individual well-being and a sense of
belonging.

Information Sharing:

● Groups serve as platforms for exchanging information, ideas, and knowledge.

● The diversity of perspectives within a group can lead to more comprehensive
problem-solving and decision-making.

Social Identity:

● Membership in a group contributes to individuals' social identity, influencing how they

perceive themselves in relation to others.
● Group identity fosters a sense of belonging and shared values.

Conflict Resolution:

11. Groups provide a context for addressing conflicts and differences among
members.
12. Conflict resolution mechanisms contribute to the overall health and stability of
the group.

13. Discuss the different factors affecting Pro social behaviour.

Ans:- Prosocial behaviour refers to voluntary actions intended to benefit others, such as
helping, sharing, cooperating, or providing support. Various factors influence the
likelihood of individuals engaging in prosocial behaviour. Factors that affect prosocial
behaviour:
Altruistic Motivation
● Altruism: Altruistic individuals are motivated by a genuine desire to help others
without expecting personal gain. Altruism plays a crucial role in promoting
prosocial behavior.
Social Learning:
● Observational Learning: Individuals learn prosocial behaviors by observing and
imitating the actions of others, especially role models who demonstrate kindness,
cooperation, and generosity.
Reciprocity:
● Reciprocal Altruism: The expectation of receiving help or support in return can
motivate prosocial behaviour. Individuals may engage in prosocial acts with the
belief that others will reciprocate when needed.
Norms and Socialization:
● Cultural and Social Norms: Cultural and social norms influence the acceptance
and prevalence of prosocial behavior. Societies that emphasize cooperation and
mutual support are likely to have higher levels of prosocial behavior.
Cognitive Factors:
● Perspective-Taking: The ability to take the perspective of others and understand
their needs and feelings is linked to prosocial behavior. Cognitive factors such as
empathy-related skills contribute to prosocial actions.

Social Identity:

● Ingroup Favouritism: Prosocial behaviour may be more likely within one's ingroup
(a group to which an individual identifies) as a way of reinforcing social bonds and
cooperation within the group.

Religious and Moral Values:

 ● Religious Teachings: For some individuals, religious and moral values play a
significant role in motivating prosocial behaviour. Many religious traditions
emphasise compassion, kindness, and helping others.

14. Discuss the role of language in social interaction

Ans:- Language plays a crucial role in social interaction, serving as a
primary tool for communication and facilitating various aspects of human
relationships. Several key aspects highlighting the importance of language
in social interaction are as follows:

Communication:

· Expressing Thoughts and Ideas: Language allows individuals to convey

their thoughts, emotions, and ideas to others. It is the primary means
by which people share information, perspectives, and experiences.

· Understanding Others: Language enables individuals to comprehend the

thoughts and feelings of others, fostering empathy and a deeper
understanding of different perspectives.

Building Relationships:

· Social Bonding: Language is essential for establishing and maintaining social

bonds. It allows individuals to connect with one another on a personal and
emotional level, strengthening relationships.

· Cultural Connection: Language is often tied to culture, and sharing a

common language can enhance a sense of belonging and identity within a
community.

Social Norms and Etiquette:

· Establishing Rules and Norms: Language is used to articulate societal rules

and norms, providing a framework for appropriate behavior in different social
contexts.
 · Politeness and Respect: The use of language helps convey politeness and
respect, which are crucial for smooth social interactions.

Conflict Resolution:

· Negotiation and Mediation: Language is a tool for resolving conflicts and

reaching compromises. Effective communication can help individuals express
their concerns, understand opposing viewpoints, and find common ground.

· Apology and Forgiveness: Language allows individuals to apologize, seek

forgiveness, and mend relationships after conflicts or misunderstandings.

Social Influence:

· Persuasion: Language is a powerful tool for persuading others and influencing

their opinions and behaviors. It is central to advertising, politics, and various
forms of interpersonal influence.

· Leadership and Authority: Effective leaders often use language to inspire,

motivate, and guide their followers, shaping group dynamics and fostering a
sense of direction.

Cognitive Development:

· Learning and Education: Language is fundamental to the process of

education. It is the medium through which knowledge is imparted, and
cognitive skills are developed. Early language development is also linked to
overall cognitive development in children.

15. Discuss Kelly's theory of attribution.

Ans:- Kelly's theory of attribution or Kelly's Covariation Model, proposed by psychologist
Harold Kelley, is a theoretical framework within attribution theory that seeks to explain
how people make causal attributions about the behaviour of others. Attribution theory
explores how individuals interpret and explain the causes of events, behaviours, and
outcomes. Kelley's Covariation Model focuses on three types of information that people
use to make causal attributions: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency.

Consensus:

● Consensus refers to the extent to which other people behave similarly in a given
situation. When there is high consensus, many people exhibit the same behavior in
a particular situation. Low consensus occurs when few people behave similarly.
Observers use consensus information to determine whether the behavior is unique
to the individual or common to most people in that situation.
● Example: If many people are laughing during a comedy show, high consensus
exists. If only one person is laughing, there is low consensus.

Distinctiveness:

● Distinctiveness relates to the extent to which an individual behaves in a particular

way across different situations. High distinctiveness occurs when the behavior is
unique to a specific situation, while low distinctiveness suggests that the behavior
is consistent across various situations. Observers use distinctiveness information
to assess whether the behavior is specific to the situation or reflects the
individual's general disposition.
● Example: If a person is only laughing during the comedy show but is serious in
other situations, there is high distinctiveness. If the person laughs in various
situations, there is low distinctiveness.

Consistency:

● Consistency refers to the frequency with which an individual's behavior occurs in a

specific situation over time. High consistency implies that the behavior is stable
and occurs regularly in the same situation, while low consistency suggests that
the behavior is variable and not a regular occurrence. Observers use consistency
information to determine if the behavior is a temporary response or a stable trait
of the individual.
 ● Example: If a person always laughs during comedy shows, there is high
consistency. If the person laughs during some comedy shows but not others, there
is low consistency.

16. Define prejudice and describe its sources.

Ans:- Prejudice means to develop an opinion or pre-judge something before all of the
facts are obtained. Prejudice was defined as “an animosity based on inaccurate and
inflexible generalisation towards a group as a whole or towards an individual because
they are a part of that group”.Some key sources of prejudice.
Socialisation:
● Family Influences: Prejudice can be learned through socialization within families.
Children often acquire attitudes, beliefs, and stereotypes from their parents or
caregivers.
● Peer Influence: Interactions with peers and social groups contribute to the
formation and reinforcement of prejudiced attitudes. Individuals may adopt the
biases prevalent in their social circles.
Cultural and Media Influences:
● Media Portrayals: Stereotypical portrayals in media, including television, movies,
and online content, can reinforce existing prejudices. Media can shape perceptions
of different groups, influencing attitudes and beliefs.
● Cultural Norms: Cultural norms and values may perpetuate prejudiced attitudes,
especially in societies where discriminatory beliefs are deeply ingrained.
In-Group vs. Out-Group Dynamics:
● In-Group Favouritism: People may exhibit a preference for members of their own
social, ethnic, or cultural group (in-group), leading to bias against those perceived
as outsiders (out-group). This in-group favouritism can contribute to prejudice.
Fear and Intergroup Conflict:
● Fear of the Unknown: Prejudice can result from fear of the unknown or unfamiliar.
People may hold biases against groups they perceive as different, unfamiliar, or
threatening.
 ● Intergroup Competition: When groups compete for resources, power, or status,
intergroup conflicts can arise, contributing to the development or reinforcement
of prejudice.
Political Factors
● Political Climate: Political ideologies and rhetoric can shape public opinion and
contribute to the normalisation or reinforcement of prejudiced beliefs.
17. Describe the importance of the attribution process in predicting
human behaviour.
Ans:- In Social Psychology, attribution is the process of inferring the causes of events or
behaviors. In real life, attribution is something we all do every day, usually without any
awareness of the underlying processes and biases that lead to our inferences.

For example: When you get a poor grade on a quiz, you might blame the teacher for not
adequately explaining the material, completely dismissing the fact that you didn't study.
When a classmate gets a great grade on the same quiz, you might attribute their good
performance to luck, neglecting the fact that they have excellent study habits.

Attributions are inferences that people make about the causes of events and behavior.
People make attributions in order to understand their experiences. Attributions strongly
influence the way people interact with others.

The attribution process plays a crucial role in predicting social behavior as it provides a
framework for individuals to understand and interpret the actions of others.. In the
context of predicting social behavior, attributional processes help people form judgments
about the intentions, motivations, and characteristics of others.

One key aspect of the attribution process is the distinction between internal and external
attributions. Internal attributions involve assigning the cause of behavior to an
individual's personal traits, abilities, or characteristics, while external attributions involve
attributing behavior to situational factors or external circumstances. Understanding
whether an individual attributes behavior to internal or external factors is critical in
predicting how they will perceive and respond to social situations.
For example, if someone tends to make internal attributions for the behavior of others,
they may be more inclined to believe that people's actions are driven by stable and
enduring traits. In contrast, those who make external attributions may be more likely to
consider situational factors as the primary drivers of behavior. This distinction has
profound implications for predicting social behavior, as individuals who lean toward
internal attributions may be more prone to making dispositional judgments about others,
while those favoring external attributions may be more attuned to the impact of context.

Moreover, the attribution process contributes to the development of social expectations

and norms. People often use attributions to make predictions about future behavior
based on past actions.

If an individual consistently attributes positive behaviors to internal factors, they may

expect others to act similarly in the future, influencing their interpersonal relationships
and social interactions. On the other hand, individuals who rely on external attributions
may be more flexible in their predictions, recognizing the influence of changing
circumstances.

In the realm of psychology, the attribution process is closely linked to attribution theory,
which seeks to understand how individuals explain the causes of events. This theory has
practical applications in various fields, including social psychology, clinical psychology,
and organizational behavior. By examining how people attribute causes to behavior,
researchers and practitioners gain valuable insights into the cognitive processes that
underlie social interactions, enabling them to make more accurate predictions about
individual and group behavior. Overall, the attribution process serves as a cornerstone in
understanding and anticipating social behavior, providing a lens through which
individuals interpret the complex and dynamic nature of human interactions.
 15 Marks questions
1. Define communication and describe the types of nonverbal
communication.
Ans: Communication:
Communication is the process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, or feelings
between individuals or groups through verbal or nonverbal means. It involves a sender
who encodes a message, a channel or medium through which the message is
transmitted, and a receiver who decodes and interprets the message. Effective
communication is essential for conveying meaning, building relationships, and facilitating
understanding.

Types of Nonverbal Communication:

Nonverbal communication refers to the transmission of information without the use of
words. It includes facial expressions, gestures, body language, posture, eye contact,
touch, and other nonverbal cues. Nonverbal communication can complement, reinforce,
or contradict verbal messages, providing additional layers of meaning. Types of nonverbal
communication:

1. Facial Expressions:
Emotions: Facial expressions convey a range of emotions, such as happiness, sadness,
anger, surprise, fear, and disgust. The face is a powerful tool for expressing and
interpreting feelings.

2. Gestures
Hand Movements: Hand gestures can add emphasis, clarity, or meaning to spoken
words. Different cultures may interpret gestures differently, so it's essential to consider
cultural context.
 Body Movements: Body gestures, such as nodding, shaking the head, or pointing, can
convey agreement, disagreement, or emphasis.

3. Posture
Body Position: The way individuals position their bodies can communicate openness,
confidence, attentiveness, or defensiveness. Posture influences how others perceive and
interpret messages.

4. Eye Contact
Gaze: Eye contact is a powerful form of nonverbal communication. It can convey
sincerity, interest, confidence, or, conversely, discomfort, avoidance, or dishonesty.
Cultural norms play a role in interpreting eye contact.

5. Proxemics
Personal Space: Proxemics refers to the use of personal space. Different cultures have
varying norms regarding the appropriate distance between individuals during
communication. Proxemics can convey intimacy, formality, or discomfort.

6. Paralanguage:
Tone of Voice: Paralanguage includes variations in tone, pitch, volume, and rate of
speech. These vocal cues can convey emotions, attitudes, or intentions. For example, a
sarcastic tone may convey a different meaning than a sincere one.

7. Touch (Haptics)
Tactile Communication: Touch can communicate warmth, support, affection, or
authority. The meaning of touch varies across cultures and contexts. It can be
comforting, congratulatory, or invasive, depending on the situation.

8. Chronemics:
 Use of Time: Chronemics involves the use of time in communication. Punctuality,
response times, and the allocation of time can convey messages about respect, priorities,
and urgency.

9. Silence
Pause and Silence: Silence can be a powerful form of nonverbal communication. It can
convey contemplation, agreement, disagreement, or discomfort. The meaning of silence
depends on the context and cultural norms.

2. Discuss the situational personal and socio culture determinants

of pro social behaviour.
Ans:- Situational Determinants:

Perceived Need: The perception of someone else's need for assistance strongly
influences prosocial behaviour. In situations where an individual recognizes that
another person requires help, they are more likely to engage in prosocial actions.

Bystander Effect: The presence of others in a situation can influence prosocial

behaviour. The bystander effect suggests that individuals are less likely to help
when others are present, assuming that someone else will take responsibility.

Ambiguity of the Situation: Clarity about the situation can impact prosocial
behaviour. In ambiguous situations, where it's unclear whether help is needed or
appropriate, individuals may hesitate to engage in prosocial actions.

Personal Determinants:

Empathy: Empathy, the ability to understand and share the feelings of others, is a
strong predictor of prosocial behaviour. Individuals with high levels of empathy
are more likely to respond to the needs and emotions of others with helpful
actions.
 Altruistic Motivation: Altruism involves selfless concern for the well-being of
others, without expecting personal gain. Prosocial behaviour driven by altruistic
motives is more likely to occur when individuals are genuinely concerned about
the welfare of others.

Mood and Affect: Positive mood and elevated emotional states are associated
with increased prosocial behaviour. When individuals are in a good mood, they are
more inclined to engage in helpful and supportive actions.

Personal Values: Individual values, such as compassion, kindness, and a sense of

responsibility, can influence the likelihood of prosocial behaviour. People who
value helping others may be more predisposed to engage in such actions.

Socio-Cultural Determinants:

Cultural Norms: Cultural norms play a significant role in shaping prosocial

behaviour. Cultures that emphasises collectivism, cooperation, and
interdependence may promote higher levels of prosocial actions compared to
individualistic cultures.

Socialisation: Early experiences and socialisation within families, schools, and

communities contribute to the development of prosocial attitudes and behaviours.
Individuals learn the importance of helping and cooperation through socialisation
processes.

Religious and Moral Influences: Religious teachings and moral values can
strongly influence prosocial behaviour. Many religious traditions emphasise
compassion, charity, and helping those in need.

Social Identity and Group Membership: The sense of belonging to a

particular group or social identity can impact prosocial behaviour. In-group
favouritism may lead individuals to exhibit more prosocial actions toward
members of their own group.
 Social Norms: Perceived social norms regarding prosocial behaviour can
influence individual actions. If helping others is seen as a normative behaviour
within a particular social group or community, individuals may be more likely to
engage in such actions.

3. What do you mean by social perception? Describes the role of

positivity and negative bias in impression formation.
Ans:- Social perception is the process by which individuals interpret and make sense of
information about others in their social environment. It involves the gathering,
processing, and interpretation of cues from various sources, such as verbal and nonverbal
behaviour, to form impressions, make judgments, and understand the social world. Social
perception is crucial for navigating social interactions, predicting behaviour, and making
decisions about how to interact with others.

Role of Positivity and Negative Bias in Impression Formation:

1. Positivity Bias:

● Definition: Positivity bias refers to the tendency of individuals to emphasise

positive information when forming impressions of others. It involves giving more
weight to positive attributes, behaviours, or characteristics compared to negative
ones.
● Impact on Impression Formation: Positivity bias can lead to the formation of more
favourable first impressions. Positive information may be emphasised,
contributing to a positive overall assessment of the individual. Enhanced Social
Bonds: Individuals exhibiting positivity bias may be more likely to form and
maintain positive relationships, as they emphasise positive qualities and downplay
negative aspects.
● E.g: Imagine a job interview scenario where an applicant, Sarah, has a generally
positive demeanour, maintains eye contact, smiles, and provides well-thought-out
 responses to questions. Despite a few minor mistakes in her answers, the
interviewer may exhibit positivity bias by emphasising Sarah's positive attributes.
The interviewer might downplay the mistakes, attribute them to nervousness, and
form an overall positive impression of Sarah based on her friendly demeanour and
strong communication skills. In this case, the positivity bias leads the interviewer
to focus on the favourable aspects of Sarah's behaviour, contributing to a positive
impression.

2. Negative Bias:

● Definition: Negative bias, or negativity bias, is the tendency to give more weight
to negative information when forming impressions. Negative information may
have a stronger impact on judgments and evaluations than positive information.
● Impact on Impression Formation: Negative bias can lead to more critical
evaluations of individuals. Negative information may weigh more heavily in
forming judgments, influencing overall impressions in a more adverse manner.
Caution in Relationships: Individuals with negative bias may approach social
interactions with caution, as they may be more sensitive to potential risks or
negative aspects in others.
● E.g: Consider a situation where Mark, a new colleague, arrives late on his first day
at work and appears somewhat reserved during initial interactions. Despite Mark's
tardiness being due to unforeseen circumstances, some colleagues might exhibit
negative bias in forming their impressions. They may focus on the lateness as a
sign of unreliability, interpret Mark's reserved demeanour as aloofness, and
attribute these behaviours to negative personality traits. The negative bias in this
case leads colleagues to give more weight to the negative information, potentially
influencing their overall negative impression of Mark, despite the circumstances
beyond his control.

5. Describe the scope of social psychology*.

Social psychology is a scientific discipline that studies how individuals think, feel, and
behave in social situations. It explores the influence of real or imagined others on an
individual's thoughts, emotions, and actions. The scope of social psychology is vast,
reflecting the myriad ways social factors intertwine with individual cognition and
behaviour.
Interpersonal Relationships: This covers attraction, love, jealousy, friendship, and group
dynamics. Understanding how and why relationships form and the factors that contribute
to their maintenance or dissolution is central to this domain.

Attitude Formation and Change: How do individuals form opinions and attitudes? What
methods can effectively change them? This scope includes the study of persuasion,
propaganda, and cognitive dissonance.

Social Cognition: This examines how people process, store, and apply information about
others. Areas include social perception, heuristics, stereotypes, and attribution theories.

Social Influence: The study of conformity, compliance, obedience, and the myriad ways
individuals influence one another falls within this domain.

Group Dynamics: This entails studying group behaviour, intergroup relations, group
decision-making processes, leadership, and more. Concepts like groupthink and group
polarisation emerge from this area.

Prejudice and Discrimination: Understanding the roots of bias, racism, sexism, and other
forms of prejudice, as well as exploring interventions to reduce them, is a significant
focus.
Self and Identity: Investigating self-concept, self-esteem, self-presentation, and the
social construction of identity are all part of this realm.

Prosocial Behavior and Altruism: Why do individuals sometimes help others, even at a
cost to themselves? This area delves into the motivations and conditions that foster
cooperative and altruistic behaviour.

Aggression: From understanding the underlying causes of aggressive behaviour to

studying societal factors that exacerbate or mitigate aggression, this topic seeks to
dissect the nature of hostile actions.

Cultural and Cross-cultural Dimensions: As societies become more interconnected,

understanding cultural influences on behaviour, cognition, and emotion is crucial. This
area compares and contrasts behaviours across different cultures and societal groups.

Environmental and Applied Settings: Social psychology principles find application in

health psychology, environmental behaviour, organisational behaviour, consumer
behaviour, and more.

Social Issues: Social psychologists might study the impact of societal structures on
individual behavior, exploring topics like poverty, urban stress, and crime.

Education: Principles of social psychology enhance teaching methods, address issues of

classroom dynamics, and promote effective learning.
Media and Technology: In the digital age, understanding the effects of media
consumption, the dynamics of online communication, and the formation of online
communities is increasingly relevant.

Law: Insights from social psychology inform areas such as jury decision-making,
eyewitness testimony, and legal procedures.

Health: Concepts from social psychology are employed to promote health behaviours,
understand doctor-patient dynamics, and tackle issues like addiction.

6. Discuss the role of non verbal communication in understanding social behaviour.

Ans:- Nonverbal communication plays a crucial role in understanding social behaviour as
it provides additional layers of meaning beyond verbal expressions. It includes facial
expressions, body language, gestures, posture, eye contact, paralanguage (tone, pitch,
and speed of speech), and other nonverbal cues. The role of nonverbal communication in
understanding social behavior is multifaceted and extends to various aspects of
interpersonal interactions:

​ Expressing Emotions:
● Nonverbal cues, such as facial expressions and body language, are
powerful indicators of emotions. Understanding these cues helps
individuals interpret the emotional states of others, leading to more
accurate assessments of their feelings.
​ Enhancing Verbal Communication:
● Nonverbal cues complement and enhance verbal communication. They
provide context, emphasis, and nuance to spoken words, helping to convey
emotions, sincerity, or intensity that may not be fully captured by language
alone.
​ Impression Formation:
● Nonverbal cues contribute significantly to the formation of impressions
about others. Facial expressions, body posture, and gestures influence the
perception of warmth, trustworthiness, competence, and other social
traits.
​ Social Influence:
● Nonverbal communication is a powerful tool for social influence.
Individuals use nonverbal cues intentionally or unintentionally to persuade,
influence, or convey dominance in social interactions.
​ Relationship Building:
● Nonverbal behaviours are integral to relationship building. Positive
nonverbal cues, such as eye contact, smiles, and open body language,
foster rapport and strengthen social bonds. Conversely, negative nonverbal
signals can create distance or discomfort.
​ Deception Detection:
● Nonverbal cues are often critical in detecting deception. Changes in facial
expressions, body language, or vocal tone may reveal inconsistencies
between verbal statements and true feelings or intentions.
​ Conflict and Resolution:
● Nonverbal communication plays a role in conflict situations. Understanding
nonverbal cues helps individuals gauge the intensity of a conflict, identify
emotions involved, and assess the sincerity of apologies or attempts at
resolution.
​ Cultural Differences:
● Nonverbal communication varies across cultures, and understanding these
differences is essential for effective cross-cultural communication.
Gestures, facial expressions, and proxemics (use of personal space) can
convey different meanings in different cultural contexts.
​ Social Power and Status:
 ● Nonverbal cues can signal power dynamics and social status. Dominant
individuals may use assertive body language and eye contact, while those
in submissive positions may exhibit more passive nonverbal behaviors.
​ Adaptation and Regulation:
● Individuals adapt their nonverbal behaviors based on social contexts and
norms. Nonverbal cues also play a role in regulating social interactions,
helping to maintain appropriate levels of engagement, express interest, or
signal the desire for privacy.
​ Group Dynamics:
● Nonverbal communication is crucial in group settings. It helps establish
group cohesion, coordinate activities, and express collective emotions or
attitudes through shared nonverbal cues.
​ nonverbal communication serves as a rich and dynamic channel for understanding
social behavior. It enhances the accuracy of interpersonal perceptions, facilitates
effective communication, and contributes to the complex dynamics of social
interactions.

7. Describe the technique of reducing prejudice and discrimination.

Ans:- Reducing prejudice and discrimination is a complex task that involves addressing
cognitive, affective, and behavioural components. Various strategies and techniques have
been developed to promote understanding, empathy, and positive intergroup relations.
Here are some common techniques used to reduce prejudice and discrimination:

​ Education and Awareness:

● Diversity Training: Providing education and training programs that increase
awareness of diversity, cultural differences, and the impact of prejudice.
This includes promoting understanding of various cultures, ethnicities, and
social identities.
​ Contact Hypothesis:
● Positive Intergroup Contact: The contact hypothesis suggests that
increased contact between members of different groups, under positive
 conditions, can reduce prejudice. Encouraging meaningful and positive
interactions between diverse individuals helps break down stereotypes and
fosters understanding.
​ Perspective-Taking:
● Empathy-Building Exercises: Engaging individuals in exercises that
promote perspective-taking and empathy. Encouraging people to see
situations from the perspective of others can lead to a better
understanding of their experiences and challenges.
​ Cognitive Interventions:
● Cognitive Restructuring: Challenging and changing biased or stereotypical
beliefs through cognitive restructuring. This involves addressing and
modifying the cognitive processes that contribute to prejudiced attitudes.
​ Media Literacy:
● Media Awareness Programs: Promoting media literacy to help individuals
critically evaluate media messages and representations. This includes
addressing stereotypes, biases, and the potential impact of media on
shaping attitudes.
​ Intergroup Cooperation:
● Superordinate Goals: Creating common goals that require collaboration
between different groups. Superordinate goals encourage cooperation and
mutual effort, leading to reduced intergroup conflict and prejudice.
​ Legislation and Policy Changes:
● Anti-Discrimination Laws: Implementing and enforcing laws that protect
individuals from discrimination based on race, gender, religion, sexual
orientation, or other characteristics. Legal measures can serve as
deterrents and provide recourse for victims of discrimination.
​ Positive Role Models:
● Exposure to Positive Role Models: Highlighting positive examples of
individuals from diverse backgrounds who have achieved success. Positive
role models can challenge stereotypes and serve as sources of inspiration.
​ Community-Based Programs:
 ● Community Engagement: Implementing community-based programs that
promote inclusivity, dialogue, and understanding. These programs may
involve community discussions, workshops, and initiatives aimed at
reducing prejudice at the local level.
​ Cross-Cultural Education:
● Cross-Cultural Education Programs: Incorporating cross-cultural education
into school curricula and workplace training. These programs can teach
cultural competence, respect for diversity, and the importance of
inclusivity.
​ Interpersonal Strategies:
● Interpersonal Interventions: Encouraging individuals to engage in open and
honest communication with others from different backgrounds. This may
involve facilitating difficult conversations, sharing personal experiences,
and building connections.
​ Self-Reflection and Awareness:
● Implicit Bias Training: Increasing awareness of implicit biases and
providing training to help individuals recognize and address their
unconscious prejudices. This involves self-reflection and learning how
biases can influence decision-making.

It's important to note that the effectiveness of these techniques may vary based on
individual and contextual factors. Combining multiple strategies and addressing
prejudice at various levels (individual, interpersonal, institutional) is often more
comprehensive and impactful in fostering positive social change.

8. Discuss the weiner’s theory of attribution.

Ans:- Weiner's attribution theory focuses on how individuals explain the causes of their
own and others' behaviours. The theory is particularly relevant to achievement settings
and explores how people attribute success and failure to different factors. Weiner's
theory identifies three key dimensions of attributions: locus of control, stability, and
controllability.
 ​ Locus of Control:
● Internal Locus: Attributing the cause of an event or behavior to factors
within oneself. For example, if a student succeeds on a test, they might
attribute it to their intelligence or effort (internal factors).
● External Locus: Attributing the cause to factors outside oneself. If the
same student fails a test, they might attribute it to the difficulty of the
exam or the teacher's unfair grading (external factors).
​ Stability:
● Stable Attributions: Attributing the cause of an event or behavior to stable,
unchanging factors. For instance, if someone attributes their success on a
project to their high intelligence (a stable trait), they are making a stable
attribution.
● Unstable Attributions: Attributing the cause to factors that are variable and
subject to change. If the same person attributes their success to luck (an
unstable factor), they are making an unstable attribution.
​ Controllability:
● Controllable Attributions: Attributing the cause to factors that are under
one's control. If a student attributes their failure on a test to lack of effort
(a controllable factor), they are making a controllable attribution.
● Uncontrollable Attributions: Attributing the cause to factors beyond one's
control. If the student attributes their failure to the difficulty of the
questions (an uncontrollable factor), they are making an uncontrollable
attribution.

Weiner's attribution theory also proposes that these dimensions influence emotional and
behavioral responses. The combinations of these dimensions can lead to different
emotional reactions, expectations for future success or failure, and patterns of behavior.

Examples:

​ Success Attribution:
 ● Internal-Stable-Controllable: "I succeeded because I'm smart and studied
hard."
● External-Stable-Uncontrollable: "I succeeded because the test was easy,
and the questions were straightforward."
​ Failure Attribution:
● Internal-Unstable-Controllable: "I failed because I didn't study enough this
time, but I can improve with more effort."
● External-Unstable-Uncontrollable: "I failed because the questions were
unexpectedly difficult, and there was nothing I could do about it."

Weiner's attribution theory is widely used in educational and organisational settings to

understand how individuals explain success and failure. It has implications for motivation,
self-esteem, and the persistence of effort in the face of challenges. Individuals'
interpretations of the causes of events influence their emotional reactions, expectations,
and future behaviours.

IMPORTANT TOPICS: Communication ( specially non verbal);

Attribution; Social Loafing, Social facilitation; Prejudice;
Discrimination; Social Perception

Impression Formation
Attribution
Weiner's Attribution Theory
Prejudice
Altruism and pro social behaviour
Social loafing & social facilitation