Quantum Mechanics - Lecture 8

Brajesh Kumar Mani

 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
The Free Particle “V(x) = 0; No boundaries; continuous energy states”
• The time independent Schrodinger equation is

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
− = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2𝜓 2𝑚𝐸
⇒ = −𝑘 2 𝜓 , where 𝑘 = Eq.(1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ
 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
The Free Particle “V(x) = 0; No boundaries; continuous energy states”
• The time independent Schrodinger equation is

ℏ2 𝑑 2 𝜓
− = 𝐸𝜓
2𝑚 𝑑𝑥 2

𝑑2𝜓 2𝑚𝐸
⇒ = −𝑘 2 𝜓 , where 𝑘 = Eq.(1)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℏ

• Let us choose the solution in a general form

𝜓 𝑥 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 Eq.(2) (A and B are the constants)

“there are no boundary conditions for wave function”

⇒ no restrictions on the values of 𝑘
⇒ no restrictions on the energy particle can carry“
ℏ2 𝑘 2
⇒ it can have any positive energy 𝐸 =
2𝑚
 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
The Free Particle “V(x) = 0; No boundaries; continuous energy states”
• Now, the time dependent wave function (the stationary state) we can write as

𝑖𝐸𝑡 ℏ𝑘2 ℏ𝑘2

− 𝑖 𝑘𝑥− 𝑡 −𝑖 𝑘𝑥+ 𝑡
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓 𝑥 𝑒 ℏ = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑚 + 𝐵𝑒 2𝑚 ℏ 𝑘2 𝐸 2𝜋𝐸
Where: = = = 2𝜋𝑣 = 𝜔
2𝑚 ℏ ℎ

= 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡
+ 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖 𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡
 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
The Free Particle “V(x) = 0; No boundaries; continuous energy states”
• Now, the time dependent wave function (the stationary state) we can write as

𝑖𝐸𝑡 ℏ𝑘2 ℏ𝑘2

− 𝑖 𝑘𝑥− 𝑡 −𝑖 𝑘𝑥+ 𝑡
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓 𝑥 𝑒 ℏ = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑚 + 𝐵𝑒 2𝑚 ℏ 𝑘2 𝐸 2𝜋𝐸
Where: = = = 2𝜋𝑣 = 𝜔
2𝑚 ℏ ℎ

= 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡
+ 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖 𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡

“A wave traveling to the right “A wave traveling to the left “ stationary states of free
2𝜋 + 2𝜋 = particle are the propagating
with wavelength 𝜆 = ” with wavelength 𝜆 = ”
𝑘 𝑘 plane waves”
 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
The Free Particle “V(x) = 0; No boundaries; continuous energy states”
• Now, the time dependent wave function (the stationary state) we can write as

𝑖𝐸𝑡 ℏ𝑘2 ℏ𝑘2

− 𝑖 𝑘𝑥− 𝑡 −𝑖 𝑘𝑥+ 𝑡
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝜓 𝑥 𝑒 ℏ = 𝐴𝑒 2𝑚 + 𝐵𝑒 2𝑚 ℏ 𝑘2 𝐸 2𝜋𝐸
Where: = = = 2𝜋𝑣 = 𝜔
2𝑚 ℏ ℎ

= 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡
+ 𝐵𝑒 −𝑖 𝑘𝑥+𝜔𝑡

“A wave traveling to the right “A wave traveling to the left “ stationary states of free
2𝜋 + 2𝜋 = particle are the propagating
with wavelength 𝜆 = ” with wavelength 𝜆 = ”
𝑘 𝑘 plane waves”.

• We can also write in a simple form by combining the two terms as

2𝑚𝐸
Ψk 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖 𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡 , with 𝑘 = ±
ℏ
 k>0: wave is travelling to the right
 k<0: wave is travelling to the left
 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
Important Paradoxes
• The probability density

2 2
P 𝑥, 𝑡 = Ψ𝑘 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴

 that is, probability is independent of position and time

 this implies that there is a complete loss of information about position and time of the state. This
ℏ2 𝑘 2
is due to “definite” values of momentum (𝑝 = ℏ𝑘) and energy (E = ), respectively
2𝑚
 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
Important Paradoxes “V(x) = 0; No boundaries”
• The probability density

2 2
P 𝑥, 𝑡 = Ψ𝑘 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴

 that is, probability is independent of position and time

 this implies that there is a complete loss of information about position and time of the state. This
ℏ2 𝑘 2
is due to “definite” values of momentum (𝑝 = ℏ𝑘) and energy (E = ), respectively
2𝑚

𝜔 𝐸 ℏ 𝐸
2. The speed of the wave vwave = = × =
𝑘 ℏ 2𝑚𝐸 2𝑚

2𝐸
The speed of the particle vparticle = ⇒ 𝑣𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 2 𝑣𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 OR 𝑣𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 2 𝑣𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑚

 “this means that the particle travels twice as fast as the wave that represents it”
 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
Important Paradoxes “V(x) = 0; No boundaries”

3. Let us normalize the wave function

∞ ∞
‫׬‬−∞ Ψ𝑘∗ 𝑥, 𝑡 Ψ𝑘 𝑥, 𝑡 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐴 2
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑑𝑥 →∞

 that is, wave function of free particle is not normalizable

 this implies that Ψ𝑘 𝑥, 𝑡 is not a physical state. That is, a free particle cannot
exist in a stationary state.
 this also implies that a free particle cannot have a definite momenta and energy
 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
Solution to Paradoxes
“wave packets NOT a plane wave
• The physical solution to free particle Schrodinger equation is represented by the “wave packets”
(not the plane waves) defined as

1 ∞
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = ‫𝜙 ׬‬ 𝑘 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑘 , (free particle’s wave function)
2𝜋 −∞

𝜙 𝑘 represents the amplitude of the wave packets, and obtained using the initial wave function
Ψ 𝑥, 0 using
1 ∞
𝜙 𝑘 = ‫׬‬−∞ Ψ 𝑥, 0 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋
 Schrodinger Equation and Applications
Solution to Paradoxes
“wave packets NOT a plane wave
• The physical solution to free particle Schrodinger equation is represented by the “wave packets”
(not the plane waves) defined as

1 ∞
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = ‫𝜙 ׬‬ 𝑘 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑘 , (free particle’s wave function)
2𝜋 −∞

𝜙 𝑘 represents the amplitude of the wave packets, and obtained using the initial wave function
Ψ 𝑥, 0 using
1 ∞
𝜙 𝑘 = ‫׬‬−∞ Ψ 𝑥, 0 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋

what does the above wave packet solution tell us?

the position, momentum (or energy) of the particle are no longer known exactly
2𝐸
the wave packet and the particle travels with the same speed (𝑣𝑔 = ), called the group velocity.
𝑚
the wave packet is normalizable
Phase and Group Velocities
We know that the velocity of an EM wave in a medium is

1
𝑣=
𝜇𝜖

o If 𝜇 and 𝜖 of a medium does not depend on the frequency of the EM wave, the medium is
called a non-dispersive medium.
 vacuum is an example of a non-dispersive medium”

In this case the EM wave travels at constant speed

𝜔
𝑣𝑝 = , (𝑣𝑝 is the phase velocity)
𝑘

“ all waves in a wave packet travel with the same

speed leading to a no change in the shape of the wave packet”
o If 𝜇 and 𝜖 of a medium depend on the frequency of the EM, the medium is called a
dispersive medium. In this case the EM waves of different frequency travel with
different speeds.
Example: dispersion of light by a prism or a raindrop

o The wave packet as a whole, however, travels with the same

velocity called the group velocity.

𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 = , (𝑣𝑔 is the group velocity)
𝑑𝑘
 Phase and group velocities
F(x,t)

point traveling with phase velocity point traveling with group velocity
Example Problem 6: The initial wave function of a free particle is given as
Ψ 𝑥, 0 = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑥| , A and a are positive real constants. Then
(a) Find the value of A
(b) Find the amplitude of wave packets, 𝜙(𝑘)
(c) Find Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)
(d) Discuss the limiting cases: i) a is very large ii) a is very small
Example Problem 6: The initial wave function of a free particle is given as
Ψ 𝑥, 0 = 𝐴 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑥| , A and a are positive real constants. Then
(a) Find the value of A
(b) Find the amplitude of wave packets, 𝜙(𝑘)
(c) Find Ψ(𝑥, 𝑡)
(d) Discuss the limiting cases: i) a is very large ii) a is very small

Solution: (a) Since Ψ 𝑥, 0 is a quantum mechanical system wavefunction, it must be normalizable.

⇒ The normalize wave function is Ψ 𝑥, 0 = 𝑎 𝑒 −𝑎|𝑥|

(b) The amplitude of the wave packet is given by
∞
1
𝜙 𝑘 = න Ψ 𝑥, 0 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 −∞
(b) The amplitude of the wave packet is given by
∞
1
𝜙 𝑘 = න Ψ 𝑥, 0 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2𝜋 −∞
(c) The dependent wave function is
∞
1
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = න 𝜙 𝑘 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑘
2𝜋 −∞
(c) The dependent wave function is
∞
1
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = න 𝜙 𝑘 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑘
2𝜋 −∞

d) Case I: If a is very large: Ψ 𝑥, 0 will be sharp narrow spike wave function, AND
2
𝜙 𝑘 ≅ ,a broad and flat wave function
𝜋𝑎

 position of the particle is well defined but momentum is ill-defined

(c) The dependent wave function is
∞
1
Ψ 𝑥, 𝑡 = න 𝜙 𝑘 𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) 𝑑𝑘
2𝜋 −∞

d) Case I: If a is very large: Ψ 𝑥, 0 will be sharp narrow spike wave function, AND
2
𝜙 𝑘 ≅ ,a broad and flat wave function
𝜋𝑎

 position of the particle is well defined but momentum is ill-defined

Case II: If a is very small: Ψ 𝑥, 0 will be broad and flat wave function, AND
2𝑎3 1
𝜙 𝑘 ≅ × , will be sharp narrow spike wave function
𝜋 𝑘2

 position of the particle is ill-defined but momentum is well defined