Dalton Postulates > (i) All matter is made of very tiny particles called atoms. > (ii) Atoms are indivisible particles. > (iii) Atoms of different elements have different masses and chemical properties. *Based on series of experiments like studying static electricity, it was observed that atoms are divisible. ‘While combing dry hair or rubbing a glass rod with silk cloth, it was observed that both the objects become electrically charged. This indicates that atoms are divisible containing charged particlesElectrons From the Cathode Ray Tube experiments, J.J. Thomson invented the electrons. These are the one of the constituent particles present in an atom. (i) Electrons are indicated with e (ii) These are negatively charged. Charge is equal to ‘-1’. (iii) Mass of electron is negligible. It is approximately equal to ( 1/2000)of a proton. ETE PROTONS >In 1886, E. Goldstein discovered the presence of positively charged particles in atom through Cathode Ray Tube experiments. These particles are named as protons. (i) Protons are indicated with p*. (ii) These are positively charged. Charge is equal to +1. (iii) Mass of proton is 2000 times to that of electron. This mass was taken as 1 unit.NEUTRONS > In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another sub atomic particle known as neutron. (i) Neutrons are indicated with ‘n’. (ii) Charge of neutrons is ‘0’. (iii) Mass of neutron is slightly greater than mass of proton. It was also taken as one unit. STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM — THOMSON’S MODEL >Thomson model of an atom is similar to Christmas pudding. > Electrons are in sphere of positive charge like dry fruits in Christmas pudding or like seeds in water melon spread all over. > Atom is neutral as the number of positively charged particles is equal to negatively charged particles.Positive sph Fig.4.1: Thomson's model ef an atom Thomson proposed that: An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral. Drawbacks ** It could not explain the results of Rutherford’s a-ray scattering experiment.Rutherford’s Gold foil experiment Rutherford’s observations: > (i) Most of the fast moving a-particles passed straight through the gold foil. > (ii) Some of the a-particles were deflected by the foil by small angles. > (iii) Surprisingly one out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.Rutherford’s conclusions > Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the a- particles passed through the gold foil without getting deflected. > Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the atom occupies very little space. > Avery small fraction of a-particles were deflected by 180°, indicating that all the positive charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom. Rutherford’s nuclear model >There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. > Nearly all the mass of an atom resides in the nucleus. >The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom. It is 1/100000 of size of atom. >The electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths.Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model “It did not account for the stability of the atom. ostivaly charged ‘nucleus * It did not explain why electrons do not lose energy and fall into nucleus. “It did not explain energy source of electrons to“ revolve around the nucleus. Nucleus Election Bohr’s model of an Atom > Electrons revolve around the nucleus only in certain circular orbits. > These circular orbits are known as discrete orbits. > The energies of these discrete orbits are fixed. Hence these are also called stationary states or Energy levels or shells. These are designated by letters K, L, M, N etc or numbers, n = 1, 2, 3, 4 etc.> As long as the electron revolves in these shells, it does not lose energy. > Energy is emitted or absorbed by an atom only when electron moves from one orbit to another. N shell (n=4) M shell (n=3) L shell (2=2) K shell (n=) Nucleus, Fig. 4.3: A few energy levels tn an atomDistribution of electrons in different shells (Bohr-Bury scheme) >The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the orbit number or energy level index, 1,2,3,.... Maximum number of electrons in different shells are:- i. first orbit or K-shell will be = 2 x 12 = 2, ii. | second orbit or L-shell will be = 2 x 22 = 8, iii. third orbit or M-shell will be = 2 x 32 = 18 iv. fourth orbit or N-shell will be = 2 x 42 = 32 and so on.*The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in the outermost orbit is 8 sElectrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the inner shells are filled. That is, the shells are filled in a step-wise manner. 2OOSSO Fig.4.4: Schematic atomic structure of the first eighteen elements Mg Al si SsPrisCw Mes Gt Re Re CES ee eC) Nats Botiass a Wrist sce Ces Cees tty eee’ rR Bocce fey pest) Hydrogen H 1 1 - 1 Seis} 2 Heltum He 2 2 2 2 24 | (= o Lithium u 3 3 4 3 20h) (>) Pe ay Beryllium Be 4 4 5 4 2)\\@)|~ =) a Boron B 5 5 6 5 2) fe) 3 Carbon. cl 6 6 6 6 Ba |e 4 Nitrogen N 7 7 7 7 2!) |is: 3 Oxygen ° 8 8 8 8 2 6 ws kw | 2 Fluorine F 9 9 10 9 23S -|i Neon Ne 10 10 10 10 2, NS ie ° Sodium Na 11 11 12 i 2058 i =| Magnesium = Mg 12 12 12 12 By” 8) | 12 2 Aluminium — Al 13 13) 14 13 2) 8) is 3 Silicon st 14 14 14 14 2,8 4 | =| Phosphorus P 15 15 16 15 2)| 78) ) 05) 3, Sulphur s 16 16 16 (16 2/8 || 6) ) Chlorine cl 17 17 18 17 ae pets] 2 Argon Ar (18 1822 18 2 8 8 ° Valency Valency is the combining capacity of an atom of an element. Valence shell It is the outermost electron shell of an atom. Valence electrons These are the electrons present in the outermost shell of an atom.|. Number of electrons gained, lost or shared to possess an octet gives the valency of that atom. Completely filled outer most shell is called octet. Helium atom can only accommodate 2 electrons i.e.duplet. ll. Octet and duplet are highly stable and atoms with these don't react with other atoms. So they only exist as monoatom ie gases or inert gases. Helium is only inert gas with two electrons in its outer most shell. *Valency of elements having < 4 electrons in valence shell= No. of valence electrons. =Valency of elements having > 4 electrons in valence shell= 8- No. of valence electrons.Atomic Number > Atomic number: Atomic number of an element is the number of protons present in the nucleus of the atom of that element. It is denoted by ‘Z’. All the atoms of that element will have the same number of protons. Eg:- ¥ — Hydrogen(Z) = 1 (1 proton) ¥ Helium (Z) = 2 (2 protons) Y Lithium (Z) = 3 (3 protons) MASS NUMBER > Massnumber(A):The mass number of an element is the sum of the number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) present in the nucleus of an atom. > Mass of an atom is almost equal to the mass of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of the atom as mass of electrons is negligible as compared to them. v i.Carbon —Mass number=12 v (6protons+6neutrons) Mass = 12u v iiAluminium-Mass number=27 v (13protons+14neutrons)Mass= 27uNotation of an atom ‘Mass number = Number of nucleons in Z oe cece amen Atomic number = Number of protons ina nucleus 1 2 — Namber 6 -_ Atomic Number Isotopes i Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same mic number but different mass number. as - Hydrogen has three isotopes. They are Protium, 2 hearers Ioan aH oH f Protium Deuterium — Tritium | Garbon has twa jsotopes.They are = fe ¢ el ac Mrttimberna | Chlorine has two isotopes They are :- lone Atomic Number = Z [al cl es 7 Ficleeien: ‘Trigema _ Isotopes of oxygen are O-16 & O-17. | Isotopes of nitrogen are N-14 & N- 15.@) x ©Uses of Isotopes vY Anisotope of uranium(U-235) is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors. ¥ An isotope of cobalt( Co-60) is used in the treatment of cancer. ¥ An isotope of iodine ( I-131)is used in the treatment of goitre. a aS ISOBARS > Isobars are atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers but same mass numbers. > These pairs of elements have the same number of nucleons. Eg:- Calcium (Ca: Z=20&A=40) and Argon (Z=18 & A=40) This is due to equal number of nucleons:- v¥ Ca:20 protons + 20 neutrons v¥_ Ar:18 protons + 22 neutronsNOTE 1. The chemical properties of Isotopes are similar but their physical properties are different.(Both atoms are same) 2. The properties of Isobars are different. (Both atoms are different) 3. Generally we will consider average atomic mass of an element as it occurs in isotopic forms. For example, Chlorine occurs in two Isotopic forms i.e. Cl-35 (75%) and Cl-75 ( 25%).Hence It’s average atomic mass is calculated as 35.5u [35(75/100) + 37(25/100)] = 35.5