SCHOOL OF MEDICINE- MEDICAL SCHOOL FOUNDATION PROGRAM

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES, CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION (BIO

Tutorial Sheet

2018

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1. CELLS

The cell is the tiniest building unit of an organism and is capable of carrying out all the
functions of life. Cells vary in shape, structure and size. The cell is made up of a protoplasmic
mass surrounded by the cell membrane. The protoplasm is differentiated into a nucleus and
cytoplasm. Cytoplasm contains a group of cellular structures called cell organelles.
Organelles allow different functions to occur efficiently and simultaneously in different parts
of the cell.

Questions

1. Name the various organelles found in cells and explain their function.
2. What is cell differentiation and what are its advantages?
3. How are cells arranged into tissues? Give four examples of tissues.
4. How are tissues arranged into organs? Give four examples of organs.
5. How are organs arranged into organ systems? Give four examples of organ systems.
6. Outline the three statements that make up the cell theory.
7. Discuss the limitations of the cell theory.
8. Describe the structure of the plasma membrane.
9. By what means do substances move in and out of the cells?
10. What is the difference between facilitated diffusion and simple diffusion?
11. What is the difference between a carrier protein and channel protein with respect to
structure and function?
12. What affects the rate of diffusion?
13. What is osmosis and how does it affect animal cells and plant cells?
14. Define the terms:
a. Hypotonic
b. Hypertonic
c. Isotonic
d. Active transport
e. Exocytosis
f. Endocytosis
g. Phagocytosis

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2. PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

There are two cell types in the three domains Eukarya, Eubacteria and Archaea. These are:
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are the cell type for the domains
Eubacteria and Archaea and Eukaryotic cells are the cell type for the domain Eukarya.
Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells have a number of similarities and differences with
respect to structure.

The prokaryotic cells are the simplest type of living cells. They are relatively small with a
diameter ranging from 1 -5 µm (micrometer). They typically do not have membrane-bound
organelles and lack a true nucleus. Their DNA is suspended in the cytoplasm of the cell.
Prokaryotes show a variety of cell shapes, spheres (cocci), rods (bacilli) and spirals (spirilla).
Most bacterial cell walls contain a unique material called peptidoglycan which consists of
polymers of modified sugars cross-linked by short chain polypeptides. Cellulose is not used.

Prokaryotes are useful agents in biotechnology. Prokaryotes recycle elements linking the
biological and physical components of the ecosystem. They play a significant role as
decomposers in the carbon and nitrogen cycles. They are used in manufacture of vitamins and
antibiotics and in recombinant DNA technology. However, poisonous chemicals known as
toxins are released by bacteria and are the most common cause of symptoms of bacterial
diseases. Toxins released by some types of bacteria may cause disease even when the bacteria
themselves are no longer present.

Eukaryotic cells are relatively larger than prokaryotic cells and possess a true nucleus. The
DNA is contained in the nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope. Eukaryotic cells are more
complex than prokaryotic cells. They have more organelles present such as the Endoplasimc
reticulum and mitochondria, e.t.c., and all these organelles are membrane-bound. Animal calls
and plant cells are all eukaryotic cells.

Questions

1. Compare and contrast the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

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 3. WATER

Water is the most common liquid on earth, covering an estimated ¾ of the earth’s surface. It is also
the major component by weight of living organisms, making up 70% of a human living cell and up to
95% of the mass of a plant cell. Water consists of two hydrogen atoms which carry a partial positive
charge and one oxygen atom carrying a partial negative charge. The water molecule maintains a
“bent” shape because of the tetrahedral arrangement around the oxygen and the presence of a lone
pair of electrons on the oxygen. A water molecule is electrically neutral as it has no overall charge. It
has 10 electrons and 10 protons.

The most important property of water is that the molecules can stick together by forming hydrogen
bonds. The physical and chemical properties of water are due to its hydrogen bonding. The physical
and chemical properties of water include it being a universal solvent, its latent heat of vaporization,
specific heat capacity, et cetera. Due to its properties, water plays key roles in living organisms.

Questions

1. Draw a water molecule and explain what is meant by the term “dipolar”.
2. Describe how hydrogen bonding occurs between water molecules.
3. How are the properties of water linked to the polar nature of the molecule?
4. Describe the physical and chemical properties of water.
5. Discuss how the properties of water are significant to living organisms and processes.

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4. BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES

All biomolecules contain a Carbon chain or ring. Carbon has a great bonding capacity because of
its four valence electrons in its outer shell. It forms stable covalent bonds. The biological
molecules often consist of large carbon chains. Biological molecules include Proteins,
Carbohydrates, Lipids and Nucleic acids.

Biological molecules are polymers made up of monomers joined together via a dehydration
reaction (or condensation reaction). The polymers can be broken down into monomers via
hydrolysis reactions.

Questions
1. What are biological molecules?
2. Define the following terms:
a. Monomer
b. Polymer
3. Give three examples of a monomer.
4. Give three examples of a polymer.
5. Describe a condensation reaction.
6. Describe a hydrolysis reaction.

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5. CARBOHYDRATES

Carbohydrates are biological molecules that contain only Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H) and Oxygen
(O).They include sugars, and polymers of sugars. Carbohydrates are classified as
monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides exhibit isomerism due to the asymmetric carbon atoms. Disaccharides such as
Maltose and Lactose are reducing sugars while sucrose is a non-reducing sugar. Polysaccharides
include starch, cellulose and glycogen.

The common tests for carbohydrates are: Iodine test for starch, and the test for reducing and non-
reducing sugars using Benedict’s reagent.

Questions
1. What is the general formula of carbohydrates?
2. Describe how larger carbohydrates are made from monosaccharide monomers.
3. What monomers make up sucrose, maltose and lactose?
4. What is an isomer?
5. Draw the isomers of glucose.
6. Explain how you would test for reducing and non-reducing sugars.
7. Describe how you would test for starch.
8. How is the structure related to function in:
a. Starch
b. Glycogen
c. Cellulose
9. What are the functions of carbohydrates?
10. State the reasons for the solubility of glucose in water.

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6. LIPIDS

Lipids are a heterogeneous group of organic compounds related more by their physical rather
than chemical properties. They have the common property of being
 relatively insoluble in water and are said to be water- hating (hydrophobic)
 soluble in nonpolar solvents such as ether, chloroform and benzene.

All lipids are polymers- long chains of repeating units joined together in a condensation
reaction during which water is released. Lipids are classified as being complex or simple
lipids. They can be saturated or unsaturated depending on the presence or absence of double
or triple bonds in the fatty acid tails. The commonest lipids are triglycerides. Other lipids
include, phospholipids and cholesterol. Lipids have various functions that are of biological
importance to living organisms.

Questions
1. What are lipids?
2. Describe the types of lipids.
3. Describe the function of lipids.
4. With the use of a diagram, describe how a triglyceride is formed.
5. Explain the following terms:
a. Saturated fatty acids
b. Unsaturated fatty acids
6. What is the difference between a triglyceride and a phospholipid with reference to
structure?
7. How does the length of the fatty acid hydrocarbon chain affect fluidity of cell
membranes?
8. A camel stores fat in the hump primarily as a water source rather than an energy source.
i) By what metabolic process would water be made available from fat?
ii) Carbohydrates could also be used as a water source in the same process. What
advantage does fat have over carbohydrates?

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7. PROTEINS

Proteins are essential constituents of the structural components of animal and human tissue.
They are polymers of amino acids. Amino acids are crystalline solids that are soluble in
water, but insoluble in organic solvents. All amino acids contain two reactive groups; an
amino group and a carboxylic group. The R- group varies from one amino acid to the other
and determines the individual chemical properties of each amino acid.

Proteins have four confirmation levels; primary structure, secondary structure, tertiary
structure and quaternary structure. Proteins are classified as being either simple or conjugated
proteins. Proteins have biological functions ranging from structural storage, transport,
protective, et cetera.

Questions
1. Draw the general structure of an amino acid.
2. How many different types of amino acids are there, and how are they different?
3. Describe the formation of a peptide bond.
4. Explain how a functional protein may contain one or more polypeptides.
5. With examples, describe the structure and function of a:
a. Primary protein
b. Secondary protein
c. Tertiary protein
d. Quaternary structure
6. What are the roles of proteins in living organisms?
7. Describe the role of hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and disulfide bridges in the structure of
proteins.
8. How would you test for proteins in a solid food sample?
9. What is the difference between globular and fibrous proteins?

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8. ENZYMES

Enzymes are protein molecules which change the rate of a chemical reaction without
themselves being permanently changed by the reaction. Two theories govern the mechanism
of action of enzymes; lock and key theory and induced fit. Enzymes are specific: i) substrate
specific- some enzymes will catalyse reactions involving one particular kind of substrate, ii)
group specific- some enzymes will catalyse reactions involving a particular group of
substrates, iii) reaction type specific- some enzymes will catalyse reactions of a particular
type.
Enzyme activity is influenced by factors such as enzyme and substrate concentration, pH,
temperature, competitive and non-competitive inhibitors, cofactors, etc. Enzymes have
various uses in industry as well as in medicine.
Questions
1. What is an enzyme?
2. State the characteristics of enzymes.
3. Explain the factors that affect enzyme activity.
4. How do enzymes lower the activation energy of reactions they catalyse?
5. Define the terms; a) induced fit hypothesis
b) denaturation
6. Describe and explain the effect which a competitive inhibitor would have on the rate of a
reaction.
7. Discuss the use of enzymes in medicine.
8. State three advantages of using enzymes commercially compared with other types of
catalysts.

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9. NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of a pentose sugar, a
nitrogenous base and a phosphate group. The nitrogenous bases are in two groups;
pyrimidines and purines, differentiated by the number of rings they possess. There are two
types of nucleic acids: Deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA and Ribonucleic acid, RNA. Nucleic
acids carry genetic information that determines structures and physiological processes.

The characteristics of cells and organisms are determined by the particular proteins which are
present, and the synthesis of these proteins involves DNA and RNA. DNA is contained in the
nucleus of a cell and carries the code to determine which particular proteins are made. RNA
has three forms, which then carry this information to the cytoplasm of the cell and assemble
the proteins.

Questions
1. What are nucleic acids?
2. Draw and label the monomer unit of a nucleic acid.
3. Compare and contrast the components of a DNA and RNA monomer unit.
4. Explain the rules of complimentary base pairing.
5. What is a phosphodiester bond and how is it formed?
6. Compare and contrast the structure of DNA and RNA molecules.
7. Describe the semi-conservative method of DNA replication.
8. Name the three types of RNA and explain their functions.
9. Name the enzyme used to:
a. Separate two strands of DNA.
b. Join nucleotides to form a new strand of DNA.

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10. CELL CYCLE

Cell cycle is the entire sequence of events happening from the end of one nuclear division to
the beginning of the next. It includes all activities that take place from the time a cell
completes dividing up to the time the produces cell starts to divide. Cell cycle is divided into
three stages; Interphase, M-phase and Cytokinesis. M-phase can either be Mitosis or Meiosis.

In interphase, the cell is metabolically active and synthesizes new proteins and DNA.
Mitosis results in the formation of two diploid daughter cells from a diploid parent cell. These
daughter cells are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell. Mitosis is the basis
of asexual reproduction and is responsible for growth, replacement of worn out cells. Mitosis
has four stages; Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and Telophase.

Meiosis in contrast, results in the formation of four haploid daughter cells from a diploid
parent cell (germ cell). These are genetically different from each other and from the parent
cell. Meiosis takes place in sex cells and results in the formation of gametes. Meiosis has two
divisions; Meiosis I, also known as heterotypic division and Meiosis II, also known as
homotypic division. Meiosis provides opportunities for new gene combinations leading to
genetic variation in the offspring produced.

Questions
1. Describe the stages of the cell cycle.
2. Explain the role of spindle fibres.
3. Why is mitosis important?
4. What can uncontrolled cell division lead to? Explain why.
5. How do viruses replicate?
6. How do prokaryotic cells divide?
7. What three main methods are used to treat cancer? Explain their advantages and
disadvantages.
8. What is the difference between meiosis and mitosis?
9. Name two ways in which meiosis produces genetic variation.
10. Identify one event that occurs in meiosis I,but not during meiosis II.

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