TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

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 Temperature Measurement

1.0 Principles of Temperature Measurement

Temperature measurement depends on the transfer of heat energy from the process
material to the measuring device. The measuring device therefore needs to be
temperature dependent.

There are two main industrial types of temperature sensors:

- Contact
- Non contact

1.1 Contact
Contact is the more common used form of temperature measurement.
The three main types for temperature measurement are:
- Thermocouples
- Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD’s)
- Thermistors

These types of temperature devices all vary in electrical resistance for temperature
change. The rate and proportion of change is different between the three types.

1.2 Non-Contact
Temperature measurement by non-contact means is more specialised and can be
performed with the following technologies:
- Infrared
- Acoustic

2.0 Temperature Sensors Contact Types

2.1 Thermocouples
A Thermocouple consists of two wires of dissimilar metals (as in figure 1), such as
iron and constantan, electrically connected at one end. Applying heat to the junction
of the two metals produces a voltage between the two wires. This voltage is called
an EMF (electro-motive force) and is proportional to temperature.

A thermocouple requires a reference junction, this is placed in series with the

sensing junction. As the two junctions are at different temperatures a thermal EMF is
generated. The reference junction is used to correct the sensing junction
measurement.

Preferred material shall be considered from:

Copper constant……………..…. Type I -30 ºC to + 150 ºC
Iron Constant………………..…. Type J 0 ºC to + 800 ºC
Chrome Alumel …………..…… Type K 600 ºC to + 1000ºC
Platinum Platinum Rhodium…... Type S 600 ºC to + 1200ºC

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 Figure 1
Typical thermocouple and extension leads

The voltage across the thermocouple increases as the temperature rises and a
suitably calibrated instrument, capable of measuring small voltages, can be used to
measure the change. The process temperature is obtained from the voltage, either
by reading from a graph or by using thermocouple tables. Thermocouple tables list
the voltages corresponding to each temperature. A table is required for each
thermocouple type.

The relationship between millivolts and temperature is not linear. In microprocessor

based equipment, the conversion is done based on the data stored in the device.

2.2 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD's)

RTD’s are built from selected metals (typically Platinum), which change resistance
with temperature change as in figure 2.

The transducer is the temperature sensitive resistor itself, with the sensor being a
combination of the transducer and electronics that measure the resistance of the
device.

Figure 2
Typical RTD and thermowell construction

The resistance temperature detector (RTD) measures the electrical conductivity as it

varies with temperature. The electrical resistance generally increases with
temperature.

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The ‘PT 100’ defines that the metal is Platinum and the ‘100’ is the resistance in
ohms at ice point (or 0 ºC). These are generally wire wound and are quite common.

Apart from Platinum, other metals are used for RTD’s such as Copper and Nickel.

Platinum is the most common and has the best linear characteristics of the three,
although Nickel has a higher temperature coefficient giving it greater sensitivity.

Temperature Coefficient:
The temperature coefficient defines how much the resistance will change for a
change in temperature, and has units of ohms/ ºC.
The greater the temperature coefficient, the more the resistance will change for a
given change in temperature.

There are a number of ways to measure the RTD resistance. The most common
way is to use a Wheatstone bridge.

The Wheatstone Bridge consists of a bridge of three resistors located in the

instrument housing, with the fourth resistor being that of the RTD. In a balanced
situation, the balancing resistor is adjusted to give zero voltage across the bridge. In
an unbalanced configuration, the voltage is measured across the bridge.

RTD connection to a Wheatstone Bridge:

- Two-wire ( Figure 3 )
- Three-wire ( Figure 4 )
- Four-wire ( Figure 5 )

Figure 3
bridge type two-wire RTD showing a galvanometric (G) readout in a balanced
condition

Figure 4
In three-wire bridge the lead-wire effect is reduced to the difference between the
resistance of the two lead-wires (A - B).

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 Switch in position “A”

Switch in position “B”

Figure 5
If the leads of a four-wire bridge are switched as shown, the lead wire effects are
eliminated and the resistance of RTD = (R3a + R3b)/2.

2.3 Thermistors
A thermistor is a semiconductor device formed from metal oxides. The principle of
temperature measurement with a thermistor is that its resistance changes with
temperature.

Thermistors were traditionally quite unstable, and their performance was

unpredictable. However, improvements in technology and the selection of oxides
now means that thermistors are produced that have characteristics that are well
defined.

Figure 6 Variations in thermistor sensor packaging

Types of thermistors vary in a number of ways as in Figure 6 and one change is
their response to temperature changes.

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2.4 Selection Tables
Table 1 and the figure 7 below highlights the different responses between
thermocouples, RTD’s and thermistors.

Figure 7
Thermistor versus RTD’s versus Thermocouples

Table 1, Orientation Table for Temperature Sensors

2.5 Thermowells
A thermowell has the added advantages of allowing the removal or replacement of
the sensing device without opening up the process tank or piping. The length of the
thermowell needs to be sized for the temperature probe. Thermowells can provide
added protection to the sensing equipment, and can also assist in maintenance and
period calibration of equipment.

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3.0 Temperature Sensors Non Contact Types
Non contact pyrometric methods of temperature measurement use the
electromagnetic radiation that is emitted from a material. The emitted radiation is
proportional to the temperature.

Figure 7

There are two basic types of pyrometers for temperature measurement:

- Infrared pyrometers
- Acoustic pyrometers

3.1 Infrared Pyrometers

Any object with a temperature above absolute zero will radiate electromagnetic
energy. Infrared pyrometers measure the amount of energy radiated from an object
in order to determine its temperature.

Typical Applications
Pyrometers are used for measuring high temperatures and where contact with the
object is not possible.

3.2 Acoustic Pyrometers

Acoustic pyrometers work on the principle that the speed of sound in a gas is
dependant on the nature of the gas and its temperature. The time of flight is used,
and since the distance between points is known it is possible to measure any
change in conditions. This principle is adapted for liquid and solid temperature
measurement also.

Typical Applications
Acoustic pyrometers are used when requiring an average temperature or the
temperature over a large area or volume of gas.

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 Acoustic pyrometers are useful for measuring gas temperatures inside kilns and
furnaces. They work over a very large temperature range and are useful for mapping
thermal contours. Unfortunately cost is often prohibitive.

4.0 Temperature gauge

The temperature gauge is a device to indicate the temperature by one of the following
method:
Dial with pointer
The hermetic seal prevents entry of moisture into the casing, minimizing the possibility of
icing or fogging inside the case.
• Hermetic seal
• Tamper resistant, no adjustment
• Maxivision dial
• 1% full-span accuracy
• All-welded stainless steel construction
• Silicone on the coil provides vibration
dampening and superior response time
• Heavy-duty glass is standard

Liquid filled temperature gauge

This series is liquid filled – prolonging instrument life.
Potential wear problems caused by excessive
vibration are minimized through dampening, and
the liquid medium improves readability. External
adjustment is standard in the rear of the case.

• Silicone liquid filled

• External adjustment
• Durable polycarbonate window
• Maxivision dial

Every angle industrial bimetal thermometer dial face with Maxivision dial can be rotated 360
degrees and angled 180 degrees.

Digital indication
Supports a single input from a range of grounded
or ungrounded thermocouples, or 2-wire RTDs.
Cold junction compensation for thermocouple.
Extremely well-sealed for rugged indoor and
outdoor applications. Unlighted display. May be
pickup or DC powered.

5.0 Temperature transmitter

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The Temperature Transmitter is an electronic device connected with temperature element
to give a standard signal 4-20 mA.

• Improves temperature measurement accuracy

• Statistical Process Monitoring (SPM) and
Thermocouple Diagnostics provide improved
visibility into process conditions and sensor loops.
• Communicate using either
-4-20 mA
-HART or FOUNDATION fieldbus protocol
• The integral LCD Display conveniently displays:
-sensor values
-transmitter diagnostics information
• Safety certified to IEC 61508

Temperature Switches

The temperature switch provides quick, accurate response to process temperature

changes with negligible ambient temperature effects. This is inherent in the design due to
the precise relationship that exists between temperature and pressure according to the
vapor pressure laws. A wide selection of sensing bulb and armored capillary lengths is
available. The vapor pressure system design features small bulb sizes, making installation
easy and cost-effective.

These standard designs perform well in applications where shock and vibration could be a
problem and should be used with thermowells for bulb protection and ease of installation
and maintenance.

ELECTRICAL CONNECTION
Temperature switch has terminal blocks – wire directly to the switch according to circuit
requirements. Terminals are marked common (C), normally open (NO) and normally
closed (NC).

THERMOWELLS

Thermowells must be used on any application where the bulb of the temperature element
may be exposed to pressure, corrosive fluids or high velocity. Additionally, the use of a
thermowell permits instrument interchange or calibration check without disturbing or closing
down the process.

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Type: Straight (Uniform) Shank, Threaded
Process Conn.: 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1 NPT, Wed-In
Materials: Brass, Carbon Steel
304 Stainless Steel, 316 Stainless Steel

Type: Stepped Shank, Threaded

Process Conn.: 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1 NPT
Materials: Brass, Carbon Steel
304 Stainless Steel, 316 Stainless Steel

Type: Tapered Shank, Threaded

Process Conn.: 1⁄2, 3⁄4, 1 NPT
Materials: Brass, Carbon Steel
304 Stainless Steel, 316 Stainless Steel

Type: Socket Weld

Process Conn.: 3⁄4˝, 1˝ Pipe Size
Materials: 304 Stainless Steel,
316 Stainless Steel, Carbon Steel

Type: Van Stone

Process Conn.: 1,˝ 11⁄2˝ Pipe Size
Materials: 304 Stainless Steel,
316 Stainless Steel

Type: Weld-in
Process Conn.: 11⁄2˝ Dia.
Materials: 304 Stainless Steel,
316 Stainless Steel

Type: Flanged
Process Conn.: 1˝, 11⁄2˝, 2˝ Pipe Size
Materials: 304 Stainless Steel, 316 Stainless Steel

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