• Character Types and Their Development:

Character =
- a person in a narrative or (drama)
- the reader evaluates characters as actual persons by their speech and actions
- Sometimes we have privileged access to their most private thoughts
- Access to the implied or explicit attitude of the narrator

Flat character =
- also called ‘type’
- unchanging, one-dimensional
- single dominant interest
- ‘static’ - character’s existence is entirely accounted for in the ction & simply a function of the plot,
cannot step outside the plot frame

Round character =
- development throughout narrative
- may surprise with actions
- complex
- seen from many sides and many contexts
- re ect the psychological depth of actual human beings
- verbal or descriptive tag
- ‘kinetic’ - able to be absent from the text, motivation extends necessities of accomplishment of the
design of the plot / moving in other spheres/

Note =
Literature uses di erent systems/orders of characterization for round characters also called kinetic
characters. This means they aren’t aesthetically better than at characters. And round characters from
di erent books can’t be compared or classi ed as ‘best’ because they all are remarkably successful
inhabiting very di erent literary modes.
•
Ancient Greece Drama: Eiron (self-deriding), Alazon (imposter & braggart).
•
Middle Age Scholars - Theory of Humors: Black bile (melancholic), Phlegm
•
(phlegmatic), Yellow bile (choleric), Blood (sanguine).
• W.H. Sheldon = Phenotypes
- Mesomorph (muscular, active, assertive)
- Endomorph (fat, self-indulgent, passive)
- Ectomorph (slender spiritual, intellectual)
• Literary Movements and Character Theory:
• Henry James: Importance of psychological depth in literature.
• Modernists: Complex characters, use of techniques like stream-of-consciousness.
• Post-modernists: Reject modernist ideas, focus on characters as situations.
• 1970s Critics: Emphasis on plot 'functions' over characters.
• Plot Structures:
• Plot vs. Story: Causality and sequence of events.
• Aristoteles: Emphasis on plot as a crucial work element.
• Plot Devices: Flashback (analepsis), Flashforward (prolepsis), Ellipsis.
• Genres:
• Bildungsroman: Focus on protagonist's growth from youth to adulthood.
• Picaresque Novel: Adventures of a roguish hero in a corrupt society.
• Romance: Improbable adventures in an enchanted setting.
• Realism: Emphasis on everyday life, credible characters.
• The Novel:
• Elements of narrative by James Phelan: Mimetic, Thematic, Synthetic.
• Importance of setting: De nes mood, atmosphere, and character.
• Types of Novels: Bildungsroman, Picaresque, Romance.
• Literary Periods:
• Restoration Period: Reopening of theatres, rise of science, secular outlook.
• 18th Century: Age of Reason, Enlightenment, rise of middle class.
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 • Prose and Drama:
• Development of modern prose: John Dryden, John Bunyan.
• Drama: Heroic tragedy, comedy of manners.
• Novelistic Techniques:
• Point of View: Omniscient, Intrusive, Editorial, Limited, Stream of Consciousness.
• Setting and its Importance: Creates mood, tone, impacts story.
• Key Literary Works and Authors:
• "Robinson Crusoe" by Daniel Defoe: A mix of novelistic realism and fantasy.
• Works of Dryden, Pope, and other in uential writers.
• Critical Perspectives:
• Di erent views on plot, character, setting, and style in novelistic literature.
• Renaissance:
• Emphasis on individual uniqueness.
• Variety in art and literature.
• Plot Development:
• Shift towards secular themes.
• Move away from Church's 'revealed plots'.
• Modern Plot Connotations:
• Associated with 'conspiracy' and 'intrigue'.
• Re ects complexity of human desire.
- 1970’s critics (in uenced by Russian folklore) replaced the idea of a character with the idea of
plot ‘functions’. So that what ana ctor did in a narrative came to be seen as a de ning
characteristic with that narrative. They distinguish between the actor, a recognizable character
who performs a particular function in a sequence of events, and the actant, a term referring to the
characters functional position, thus several characters may make up a single actant, from a
narratological perspective

Originally, stories were thought about in terms of speci c characters and what they did. However,
this idea evolved into the concept of "plot functions." This means that instead of focusing on who
the characters are, the emphasis is on what roles or functions they play in the story.
Here are the key points:
• Actor vs. Actant: The text di erentiates between an "actor" and an "actant." An actor is a
recognizable character who performs speci c actions in the story. For example, in a fairy
tale, the prince who saves the princess is an actor.
• Actant: The term "actant" refers to the functional role a character plays in the story, rather
than the character itself. This is more about the purpose or role in the narrative rather than
the character's personal identity. For instance, in many stories, there's a role of a 'hero', a
'villain', or a 'mentor'. These are actants. A single actant (like a hero) could be made up of
several characters.
• Narratological Perspective: From a narratology point of view (the study of narrative
structure), what matters more is these roles or functions (actants) rather than the individual
characters (actors). This approach helps in understanding how stories work at a deeper
level, focusing on the mechanics of storytelling rather than just the characters involved.
In simpler terms, this concept suggests that in storytelling, it's sometimes more important to look
at the roles characters play and how these roles drive the story, rather than just looking at the
characters themselves.

James Phelan = elements of narrative

- Mimetic = verisimilitude (authenticity/credibility), probability, and coherence as a person
(Conventionally realistic narrative)
- Thematic = representing particular ideas or group having signi cance within the narrative
(Modernist narrative emphasizing relationship between character and narrator)
- Synthetic = arti cial, textual construct
(Postmodern narrative does not even mainly focus on the character at all)
‘Dimensions’ of characters = potential to be meaningful in all the three spheres
‘Functions’ of characters = Realizations of that potential within the actual narrative
- ‘uni ed self’ of classical psychology is an illusion

Plot (also called discourse by some)

Example = The king died and then the queen died out of grief.
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 - series of events and actions ordered by the narrative
- has a cause-and-e ect
- to be distinguished from mere series of events by causality
- Aristoteles = plot is the most important aspect of a work
- beginning, middle, end
- 1. Flashback = analepsis
- 2. Flashforward = Prolepsis
- 3. Ellipsis = events not even mentioned, passed over altogether
- (These are all measures of duration or time of telling in a narrative)
- unique and repeated events =
- iterative = events that occur repeatedly but are only mentioned once = they have a special
scenic force
- Example = Every day he passed by the glittering stream on his way to the mill, and it seemed to
him…)
Story
Example = The king died and then the queen died.

- mere series of events by causality

Cli hanger =
- A "cli hanger" refers to a narrative device typically used at the end of a story segment, where
the plot is left unresolved or in a state of suspense. This technique is designed to keep the
audience engaged and eager to know what happens next. It's called a "cli hanger" because it's
akin to leaving someone hanging o the edge of a cli , with their fate unknown.

Parts of a Plot

Exposition = starting point, usually a con ict or potential con ict

Rising action = introduction of complications
Climax = action coming to its head/peak, the point where something important must be resolved
for the protagonist
(Crisis) = here the shape of the future is made clear
Falling action = leads to denouncement/outcome (unknotting/resolution)
Epiphany = moment of sudden spiritual illumination that may mark a story’s psychological climax

The term "picaresque" refers to a genre of prose ction that depicts the adventures of a roguish,
but appealing hero, often of low social class, who lives by their wits in a corrupt society. This
genre originated in Spain and is typi ed by the novel "Lazarillo de Tormes" from the 16th century.

Kernel events = those raising important possibilities & marking signi cant divergences within the
sequence of events, points of action that cannot be removed, reordered, or replaced without
substantially altering that sequence
Satellite events = lling in the outline of a sequence mostly by elaborating on kernel events,
can be omitted, reordered, or replaced by other satellite events without revising the sequence
= Kernels are the Skeleton of a story and satellites are the esh.

- Plato = (Modes of presentation of events)

- Diagesis = represents action in the word of the writer
- refers to any part of a novel’s discourse where the author’s/narrator’s voice is predominant
- advancing the plot (through repeated action/summary/commentary)
- Mimesis = represents action in the word of the characters
- function of establishing the illusion of reality
In a novel these functions and voices overlap, due to Bakthin, this means a novel is properly
working.

Kinds of Plots

Northrop Frye = Anatomy of Criticism

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 - 4 kinds of plot + associated mode corresponding to the seasons of the year
- Spring = Comedy
- Summer = Romance
- Autumn = Tragedy
- Winter = Satire/Irony
The realistic novel belongs to the category of winter and its primary mode is ironic.
This archetypal criticism is called ‘master narrative’.
Master narrative = attempts to explain the most signi cant aspects of life through a single story.
Essential stroy =
- psychologist = a novel’s main plot could involve the loss of innocence for a protagonist
- anthropologist = story may embody a mythic pattern of journey, trial, and renewal, for the
protagonist
- sociologist = may be struck by the fact that the protagonist’s movement from the country to
the city shapes his/her experience
Critical perspective = plot in the modern sense of the word
- implications of uniqueness and possible variety only around the Renaissance.
- the emergence of the plot is part of the process of secularisation and abandonment of ‘revealed
plots’ of the Church worth recounting
- modern word plot carries with it implications of ‘conspiracy’ & ‘intrigue’
- mirrors the working of human desire in all its variety
Virginia Wolf = We can learn more from the ‘incidentals’ of a novel than its framework.
General note =
‘Open’ / ‘open’ end = no plot resolution at all
Progression = movement of narrative through time
instabilities = generally within the story, or series of events
instabilities of discourse = instabilities of value, belief, opinion, knowledge, and expectation -
between authors and or narrators and the audience as well.

Point of view
- perspective the novel is written / way the story is told
- omniscient (God-imitating person) = third-person narrator
- privilege = of an omniscient third-person narrator
- an omniscient narrator may be intrusive or editorial
- Intrusive = directly addresses the reader, o ering commentary, opinions, or even personal
thoughts. This narrator might provide historical context, philosophical insights, or moral
judgments about the characters and their actions. The "intrusive" aspect comes from the way
the narrator breaks the fourth wall, speaking directly to the reader and often acknowledging
that they are, indeed, telling a story. Classic examples can be found in the works of authors like
Charles Dickens and Leo Tolstoy.
- editorial = the "editorial" part implies a more subtle approach. Rather than directly addressing
the reader, this narrator o ers insight, analysis, or commentary in a way that is more integrated
into the narrative. They might provide a critical view of a character's actions or reveal hidden
motives and internal con icts. This type of narrator maintains a more consistent narrative ow,
without the direct interruptions characteristic of the intrusive narrator.
- limited (has no insights into character’s minds and inner thoughts etc.) = third-person narrator
- at times limited strictly to a single character and or protagonist = same e ect as rst-person
narration, in this case langauge of narration appropriate to protagonists language =
- vision = refers to who is doing the perceiving in the story/ voice = who/what is speaking
- focalization = of a passage = any passage of third-person has a narrating voice, focalizer from
whose position or perspective things are seen
- Henry James = ‘center of consciousness’ = This approach represents a shift from the
traditional omniscient point of view to a more limited perspective, where the narrative unfolds
through the subjective experience of one or more characters.
- rst-person narration = an ‘I’ writes
- Character may be the speaker like Robbinson Crusoe
- second-person narration = ‘You’
- impersonal/objective narrator withholds any comments etc.
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 - indirect free style = paraphrasing of direct experience
- Example = ‘She turned away in dismay and thought, ‘How beastly he is,’” in indirect free style
it would be ‘She turned away in dismay. How beastly he was!’
- ‘stream of consciousness’ = "Stream of consciousness" is a literary technique that seeks to
depict the myriad thoughts and feelings that pass through the mind. It's like a written
representation of a character's thought process, often employing an interior monologue. This
style is characterized by a ow of thoughts and images, which may not always appear to have
a coherent structure or cohesion.
- Example = James Joyce ‘Ulysses’ = ‘The tea was drawn. He lled his own moustachecup,
sham crown Derby, smiling. Silly Milly’s birthday gift. Only ve she was then. No, wait: four.”
(This is a long passage and has a meditative element = often called interior monologue)
Soliloquy = (spoken monologue of a speaker alone on a stage)
Arranger = controller of di erent ‘narrators’ (in Ulysses for example)
Implied author = The concept of the "implied author" is a critical term in literary theory, most
notably introduced by Wayne C. Booth in his 1961 book, "The Rhetoric of Fiction." It refers to an
imagined author that a reader constructs while reading a text. This concept is distinct from the
real author of the work. = (in Ulysses for example)

Setting
De nition = The locale, time, and circumstance in which the action of a novel occurs.
Example = 1. James Joyce - Ulysses = June 16, 1994, in Dublin, Ireland
2. Simon Beckett - The Unnamable = protagonist sits in front of a featureless and
vaguely illumined eld …

Science ction + Fantasy = setting can be extremely detailed but imaginary

atmospheric = setting of mainstream novel being particularly important to its e ect
environment or location where the story takes place plays a crucial role in creating the mood, tone,
and overall impact of the story.

Setting can be more or less realistic, more or less conventional, more or less speci ed.
Setting often carries a mood or atmosphere with it.
Setting and character are usually linked: to describe a person’s house is to describe him or her.
Flaubert says novelists were more likely to describe characters through their surroundings than
through direct descriptions.

Types of Novels

Bildungsroman = is a genre of novel that shows a young protagonist's journey from childhood to
adulthood (or immaturity to maturity), with a focus on the trials and misfortunes that a ect the
character's growth.
- German word Bildung, meaning formation, and Roman, meaning novel
- “coming-of-age novel" interchangeably used with the term Bildungsroman
- It is not incorrect but Bildungsroman carries the connotation of a speci c and well-de ned
literary tradition, whereas "coming-of-age novel" is more of a catch-all term
- beginns with protagonist feeling alienated, and alone, but ends on a positive note with the
character nding a sense of belonging or self-realization, though many authors have played
with this formula.
- originated in Germany in the early 19th century
- early form = regarded as novel with educational and philosophical value for young adults
- portraying characters striving to better themselves and able to outgrow / leave behind childish
behaviors for higher aims
- Example = Goethe - Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship
- ((Wilhelm) seeks to escape the mediocrity of his middle-class upbringing and lead the life of an
artist instead )
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 - plot elements later hallmarks of the genre = Wilhelm endures heartbreak, has his artistic
aspirations crushed, gets sent away from home by his parents to learn a thing or two,
squanders his fortune unwisely, and faces nancial ruin

• Wilhelm's Maturation:
• Gains maturity through experiences.
• Finds success as an actor.
• Moral Development:
• Takes a moral stance at novel's end.
• Seeks to confront a character for wrongdoing.
• Bildungsroman Features:
• Focus on personal growth and self-realization.
• Learning from mistakes is central.
• Genre Popularity:
• Grew dramatically in the 20th century.
• Spread to various cultures globally.
• Bildungsroman Impact:
• In uences literary narratives worldwide.
• Re ects universal themes of development and learning.
• Cultural Adaptation:
• Adapted uniquely in di erent cultures.
• Retains core themes of growth and maturity.
• 20th Century Evolution:
• Evolves with changing societal values.
• Explores diverse aspects of human experience.
Typical Structure of Bildungsroman
The typical Bildungsroman has a three-part structure:
1. The set-up, which introduces the protagonist, most often during his or her childhood.
2. Experiences that shape the protagonist's character, often culminating in some sort of spiritual
crisis or loss of faith.
3. The protagonist reaches maturity, which usually involves them nding a sense of peace with
themselves, or of belonging in the world.
Though this structure is not always used by writers of Bildungsroman exactly as described here, it
is extraordinarily common for Bildungsroman.
Some Examples:
Great Expectations by Charles Dickens
Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger
Jane Eyre by Charlotte Bronte
A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce

Picaresque Novel
• Origin and Popularity:
• Originated in Spain.
• Flourished in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Continues in uencing modern literature.
• De nition and Characteristics:
• Humorous novel genre.
• Features misadventures of a young rogue (picaro).
• Narration is comic or satiric.
• Protagonist (Picaro):
• Rogue or rascal, low social status.
• Relies on cunning and trickery.
• Often male, sometimes female.
• Narrative Style:
• First-person, autobiographical.
• Episodic, series of thrilling incidents.
• Protagonist wanders and takes various jobs.
• Social Satire:
• Picaro encounters various social classes.
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 • Satirizes society's hypocrisy and corruption.
• Re ects societal issues across all strata.
Chief characteristics of Picaresque Novel
Picaresque novels have following characteristics: –
1. Episodic in structure, having the insider thrilling or sensational.
2. Picture of contemporary society is thus presented realistically and completely.
3. Consists of a series of thrilling events only loosely connected together by the fact that the same
central character gures in them all.
4. Immense variety-social setting of incident and of character.
5. Not concerned to any great extent, with moral issues. The picaresque novel is not moral in its
intention.
6. Often autobiographical novel about a rogue or ‘picaro’ (who is a person of low social status)
7. The protagonist is a rogue or rascal gure, mostly along a comical line.
8. The story is often told in the rst person (i.e., from the protagonist’s point-of-view).
9. The novelist may satirize various faults of character or the corruption of society, but his purpose
is to entertain and delight.

• Cervantes's Don Quixote:

• Similar to Spanish picaresque novel.
• Satire on romantic absurdities.
• Daniel Defoe's Moll Flanders:
• First picaresque novel of the 18th century.
• Henry Fielding's Tom Jones:
• Picaresque tradition.
• Traveling protagonist (foundling).
• Plot showcases a panoramic societal tour.
• Highlights societal features.
• Fielding's Joseph Andrews:
• Another novel in the picaresque tradition.
• Other Notable Picaresque Novels:
• Charles Dickens’ "David Copper eld".
• Rudyard Kipling’s "Kim".
• Mark Twain’s "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer".
• Mark Twain’s "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn”.
Romance
• De nition of Romance:
• Fictional narrative in prose or verse.
• Chivalric themes or improbable adventures.
• Set in remote or enchanted settings.
• Characteristics of Characters:
• Monodimensional or static.
• Clearly de ned as heroes or villains.
• Protagonist often solitary and isolated.
• Plot Features:
• Emphasizes adventure.
• Often structured as a quest.
• Focus on pursuing an ideal or enemy.
• Examples of Romance Novels:
• "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" by Anonymous.
• "Arcadia" by Sir Philip Sidney.
• "Queen Mab" by Percy B. Shelley.
• "The House of the Seven Gables" by Nathaniel Hawthorne.

Fiction
• Fiction Overview:
• • Features imaginary characters and events.
• • Divided into various subgenres.
• Subgenres of Fiction:
• Fantasy:
• Characters/settings impossible in the real world.
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 • Involves magical elements.
• Examples: "Harry Potter", "Twilight".
• Historical Fiction:
• Made-up stories set in speci c historical periods.
• Mix of ction and historical facts.
• Examples: "The Da Vinci Code", "The Boy in the Striped Pajamas".
• Contemporary/Realist Fiction:
• Set in present day with modern day challenges.
• Themes of personal and social problems.
• Example: "The Kite Runner".
• Mystery:
• Centers on solving crimes or uncovering culprits.
• Provides clues throughout the story.
• Examples: Nancy Drew series, Sherlock Holmes novels.
• Science Fiction:
• Explores new realities through imagined technologies/social changes.
• Example: "Star Wars".
• Other Fiction Categories:
• • Horror, Graphic Fiction, Utopia/Dystopia.

Non ction
• Non ction Overview:
• • Tells stories of real people and events.
• • Based on factual information and experiences.
• Types of Non ction:
• Biographies:
• Narrates a person's life story.
• Written by someone other than the subject.
• Autobiographies/Memoirs:
• Self-narrated life stories.
• Focus on personal experiences and insights.
• Travel Writings:
• Descriptions of journeys and places.
• Often includes cultural, historical, and personal perspectives.

Drama
• Drama Overview:
• A genre of literature for stage performance.
• Stories are presented through dialogue and action.
• Key Characteristics:
• Written in script form.
• Intended for theatrical presentation.
• Combines elements of plot, character, dialogue, and setting.
• Notable Dramatists and Plays:
• William Shakespeare: "Macbeth", "Hamlet", "Romeo and Juliet".
• Modern Examples: "A Streetcar Named Desire", "A Raisin in the Sun”.

Poetry
• Poetry Overview:
• A genre of literature focused on the expression of feelings and ideas.
• Uses distinctive style and rhythm.
• Characteristics of Poetry:
• Words arranged in a metrical pattern.
• Often uses rhymed verse, but not always.
• Emphasizes aesthetics and evocative language.
• Notable Poets:
• William Blake.
• E.E. Cummings.
• Robert Frost.
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 Folktale

• Folktale Overview:
• • Originally oral literature.
• • Intended to impart moral lessons.
• • Timeless quality, addressing universal concerns.
• De ning Characteristics:
• • Passed down through generations.
• • Deals with traditional literature themes.
• Types of Folktales:
• Fairy Tales:
• Theme of good vs. evil.
• Typically ends happily.
• Fables:
• Short stories, often with animal characters.
• Teach a moral or lesson.
• Legends:
• Often exaggerate characteristics of notable people.

Robbinson Crusoe - Daniel Defoe

• Robinson Crusoe Overview:

• Full Title: "The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe".
• Story of survival on an uninhabited island for 28 years.
• Themes of adventure and self-reliance.
• Daniel Defoe's Background:
• Middle-class birth, Presbyterian religion.
• Nonconformist trade background.
• Gained political importance in late 17th century.
• Bankrupt in 1692 with signi cant debts.
• Notable as an ardent Whig and political writer.
• Faced legal challenges for his works.
• Defoe's Writing Career:
• Began new career in his early sixties with "Robinson Crusoe" (1719).
• Known for vividly recreating settings with detailed observations.
• Skilled in writing prose resembling actual speech.
• Deep understanding of his contemporary society.
• Focused on themes of survival and pro t in a challenging environment.
• Defoe's Protagonists:
• Represent vitality, humanity, and cunning ingenuity.
• Examples include "Captain Singleton" (1720), "Moll Flanders" (1722), "Colonel
Jack" (1722), "Roxana" (1724).
• Re ects Defoe's interest in property and success.

Realism

• Combination of Realism and Fantasy:

• First example of novelistic realism: detailed and believable.
• Also a fantasy, disguised as realism.
• Crusoe's Character and Experience:
• Sole survivor of a shipwreck.
• Constructs a viable life on an uninhabited island for 28 years.
• Lacks family, freeing him from social obligations.
• Character contrast: Crusoe is pragmatic, unlike the idealistic Don Quixote.
• Narrative Technique:
• First-person narration for immediacy.
• Defoe conceals his authorship, presenting it as a real autobiography.
• Appeals to the public's interest in adventurer or criminal stories.
• Realism in Style:
• Unpolished, conversational narrative style.
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 • Includes seemingly irrelevant details, enhancing realism.
• Addresses money, family, and social status.
• Embedded Contradictions:
• Intended to convey a religious message.
• Focuses on Crusoe's religious conversion and divine providence.
• Readers often resonate more with the self-su ciency fantasy.
• Crusoe's Emotional Landscape:
• Lacks deep passions or emotions.
• Immune from typical social interactions and con icts.
• Portrayed as stolid and unemotional, reinforcing realism.
• Concept of Isolation:
• Raises the question of human interdependence versus isolation.
• Crusoe as an 'island' in himself, contrary to human social nature.

A MYTH OF CAPITALISM
• Defoe's Personal Experience:
• Businessman and entrepreneur.
• Experienced nancial di culties and imprisonment.
• Allegory of Imprisonment:
• Desert island as a metaphor for prison.
• Crusoe enjoys absolute mastery, unlike real imprisonment.
• Capitalism in the Novel:
• Removal of competition and temptations.
• Crusoe's life in Brazil: plantation owner, becomes wealthy.
• Shipwreck occurs en route to acquire slaves.
• Money's Role:
• Contrast between money's value in England and on the island.
• Crusoe rescues a fortune but initially deems it valueless.
• Capitalism as a Theme:
• Novel as a myth of Western capitalism's values without downsides.
• Financial risk-taking seen as "original sin."
• Re ection on changing attitudes towards wealth and acquisitiveness.
• Weber Thesis Connection:
• Max Weber's theory on capitalism and Protestant ethic.
• Rational acquisitiveness as a respected vocation.
• Concept of worldly asceticism: accumulating wealth responsibly.
• Crusoe's Vocation and Lifestyle:
• Life on the island as a true vocation.
• No motivation for unnecessary production.
• Focus on practical utility and quality in production.
• Fits model of worldly asceticism: hard work and simple living.

CRUSOE AND THE CANNIBALS

• Discovery of the Footprint:
• Crusoe nds a footprint, signaling human presence.
• Suggests cannibalism, ending his idyllic isolation.
• Encounter with Cannibals:
• Observes "savages" practicing cannibalism.
• Initially considers intervening violently.
• Ethical Re ection and Cultural Relativism:
• Recognizes cannibalism as culturally accepted by the natives.
• Decides against intervening, acknowledging cultural di erences.
• Understands cannibalism as part of their war ritual.
• End of Isolation:
• Arrival of mutineers from an English ship.
• Creates a colony on the island.
• Return to civilization when another ship arrives.
• Crusoe's Wealth:
• Discovers accumulated wealth from his Brazilian plantation.
• Money regains signi cance in civilized society.
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 • Return to Civilization:
• Experiences a sense of anticlimax.
• Less interesting in the context of regular society.
• Island experience remains the most de ning aspect of his character.

An Analysis of Robinson Crusoe

• Inspiration from Alexander Selkirk:

• Selkirk marooned himself on a deserted island after a dispute.
• Spent four and a half years on the island.
• His adventures were well-known in England.
• Parallels and Enrichment in Narrative:
• "Robinson Crusoe" has similarities to Selkirk's story.
• Defoe added socio-political and cultural elements to the narrative.
• Themes in Robinson Crusoe:
• Power relations, ownership, and lawfulness.
• Youngest son's rights under primogeniture.
• Rejection of paternal and traditional authority.
• Background and Context:
• Re ects political crisis and Jacobite rebellion in England.
• Divisions between Tories and Whigs.
• Overthrow of monarchic absolutism and sovereign authority.
• Crusoe's Personal Journey:
• Refuses inherited wealth from his father.
• Seeks his own fortune independently.
• Assertion of political will on the island.
• Rejection of Paternal Authority:
• Continuously haunts Crusoe.
• His rst sea journey goes wrong, perceived as divine punishment.
• Subsequent Adventures and Captivity:
• Ignores promises made to his father.
• Embarks on further adventures leading to capture by Moors and enslavement.
• Moral Lessons and Narrative Engagement:
• Story underscores misery from breaching lial duty.
• Moral lessons often overshadowed by engaging narrative (Trimmer 298-99).
• Acquisitive Nature:
• Turns forty pounds into three hundred pound pro t.
• This acquisitiveness leads to the voyage for more slaves and his eventual isolation.
• Resourcefulness and Strategy:
• Demonstrated in his escape plot with Maresco and Xury.
• Foreshadows survival tactics on the island.
• Manipulation and Ideologies:
• Subjugation and selling of Xury re ect white supremacist ideologies.
• Pre gures the nature of Crusoe's relationship with Friday.
• Materialistic Ambitions:
• Crusoe's actions driven by desire for land and pro t.
• Becomes aware of nearing the "middle station of life" his father advised.
• Regrets Selling Xury:
• Regrets not for emotional reasons, but for Xury's utility as a slave.
• Quickly seeks another slave for his needs.
• Continued Pursuit of Wealth:
• Plans a dangerous trip to Africa for slaves for his plantations.
• Scholarly Interpretations:
• Middle-Class Consolidation:
• Viewed as a narrative of developing middle-class values.
• Colonial Attitudes:
• Seen as in uencing attitudes towards non-Europeans.
• Lays groundwork for 18th-century colonialism.
• Crusoe's Views on Slavery:
• Disgusted by slave masters' brutality.
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 • Fails to question the lawfulness of slavery.
• Sees slavery as intertwined with British commerce and trade.
• Modernity in "Robinson Crusoe":
• Emblematic of modern novel characteristics.
• Focuses on character development.
• Features a realistic psychological presence.
• Secular vs. Religious Consciousness:
• Explores the shift from religious to secular worldview.
• Addresses changing societal consciousness.
• Narrative Structure and Temporality:
• Concerned with the structure and timing of narration.
• Crusoe's Experiences:
• Initial trepidation on the island.
• E cient transformation of the island.
• Overcoming perceived enemies.
• Re ecting 18th Century Europe Tensions:
• Mirrors tensions in early 18th century Europe.
• Juxtaposition of emerging secular understanding and religious beliefs.
• Attempts to reconcile modern world with traditional views.
• Providence as Guardian:
• No physical guardian on the island.
• Providential framework acts as a guardian.
• Balancing Individualism and Repentance:
• Struggle between self-reliance and repentance for rejecting paternal authority.
• Re ects rise of middle-class ethos.
• Biblical Contemplations:
• Crusoe contemplates his experiences in the light of biblical gures like Jonah, Job,
and the prodigal son.
• Appears removed from contemporary themes, yet deliberate.
• Tabula Rasa Strategy:
• Presents himself as a blank slate, but it's a strategic pose.
• In uence of 18th Century Travel Literature:
• Needed to meet expectations set by popular travel books.
• Themes include stormy seas, pirates, trade, etc.
• Participation in Established Tradition:
• Despite its originality, the narrative aligns with existing textual traditions.
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 Restoration Period

• Restoration Period (1660-1700):

• Marked by the restoration of monarchy in England.
• Characterized as the age of Dryden.
• Begins with the return of King Charles II.
• Cultural and Social Transformation:
• In uence of Charles II's French experiences.
• Introduction of French-style foppery and looseness in England.
• Demand for English poetry and drama to follow French styles.
• Atmospheric Changes:
• Reopening of theatres.
• Reaction against Puritan morality.
• Increase in gaiety, licentiousness, and moral laxity.
• Scienti c Developments:
• Rapid advancement in science.
• Establishment of the Royal Society.
• Growing interest in rational inquiry and objective outlook.
• Restoration Poetry:
• Formal, intellectual, satirical, and realistic.
• Use of heroic couplets, with Dryden as a key gure.
• Dryden known for political satire, e.g., "Absalom and Achitophel".
• Restoration Prose:
• Beginning of modern English prose.
• Era of intellectualism and rationalism.
• Rise of journalism encouraging simple, straightforward prose.
• Notable gures: John Dryden and John Bunyan.
• Restoration of Theatres:
• Theatres reopened after 1642.
• Became popular among the upper classes.
• Nature of Restoration Plays:
• Aimed to appeal to courtly and cavalier audiences.
• Rise of heroic tragedy and comedy of manners.
• Restoration Heroic Tragedy:
• Also known as heroic tragedy.
• John Dryden as a prominent writer.
• Notable works: "Tyrannic Love" and "Conquest of Granada".
• Restoration Comedy of Manners:
• Focused on fashionable intrigue, sex, marriage, and adultery.
• Treated subjects with worldly wit and cynicism.
• William Congreve as a leading playwright.
• Examples: "The Double Dealer", "Love for Love", "The Way of the World".
• Decline of Restoration Comedy:
• Change in audience preferences around 1700.
• Comedy of manners seen as limited to aristocracy.
• Criticism for immoral and anti-social themes.
• Emergence of periodical essays and newspapers re ecting middle-class morals.
• Shift towards more human and moral themes in drama.

18th Century

The 18th century has been given many names:

• The Age of Reason,
• The Age of Enlightenment,
• The Age of Individualism,
• The Age of Empiricism.

• Literary Perspective:
• Writers sought universal truths, not just documenting their era.
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 • Aimed to apply insights to all times and places.
• Augustan Age Comparison:
• Era sometimes likened to Augustan Age of the Roman Empire.
• Reference to Emperor Augustus' reign characterized by power, prosperity, and
stability.
• Characteristics of 18th-Century England:
• Period of ourishing trade and growing empire.
• Successful in con icts against Holland and France.
• Harmonious relations between King and Parliament.

It is a period when a rational and scienti c approach to religious, social, political, and economic
issues promoted a secular view of the world and a general sense of progress.

- Middle class - established & Whig party dominated,

- middle-class through marriages into the aristocracy,
- Age of balance
- Rule of reason possible
- Progress was no empty myth
- Art = ‘classical’ spirit = social conventions over individual one’s
- Reason over emotion
- Form over content
• French Revolution and Romanticism:
• French Revolution contrasted 'classical' with 'romantic'.
• Romanticism emphasized individual rebellion against societal norms.
• Rejection of conventional artistic forms and established tastes.
• Focus on emotional expression and impatience with societal restrictions.
• Emergence of Freedom and Liberty:
• Growth of freedom sentiment marked by American Declaration of Independence
(1776).
• French Revolution (1789) brought ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity to Europe.
• Threatened British societal stability, recalling memories of the 1649 revolution.
• Period Characteristics:
• Emergence of modern science.
• Birth of a consumer culture.
• Expansion in knowledge and information circulation via periodicals and public
spaces.
• Signi cance of printed press due to the industrial revolution.
• Increase in book production.
• Societal Contrasts:
• Despite progress, about 50% of the population lived in poverty.
• Con ict between regular religious observance and secular Enlightenment rationalism.

Enlightment

• De nition of the Enlightenment:

• A philosophical movement in 18th-century Europe.
• Emphasized reason as the primary source of authority.
• Enlightenment Ideals:
• Advocated liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity.
• Supported constitutional government and church-state separation.
• Scienti c and Intellectual Emphasis:
• Focus on the scienti c method and reductionism.
• Questioned religious orthodoxy.
• Impact on Modern Democracies:
• In uenced civil society, human/civil rights, separation of powers.
• Core ideas foundational to modern democracies.
• Foundation of Sciences and Academia:
• Established empirical methods in sciences, social sciences, humanities.
• Global Context:
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 • Coincided with European exploration and colonization.
• Marked the beginning of European global domination ("European Moment in World
History").
• Primacy of Human Reason:
• Emphasis on logic and orderly investigation for truth.
• Immanuel Kant's motto: "Dare to know! Have courage to use your own reason!”

• Reason in the Enlightenment:

• Central to Enlightenment thought.
• Used to understand the universe and improve human condition.
• Goals: knowledge, freedom, happiness.
• John Locke's Contribution:
• In "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690), argued against innate
knowledge.
• Advocated that knowledge comes from sensory experience and re ection.
• Introduced the concept of 'tabula rasa' (blank slate) at birth.
• Shift in Knowledge Acquisition:
• Move away from traditional explanations to direct investigation and reasoning.
• Encouraged empirical investigation and independent thought.
• England's Stability and Growth:
• Political stability enabled growth in wealth, science, manufacturing, agriculture.
• Signi cant population growth and urban migration.
• In ux from rural areas and other regions.
• Urban vs. Rural Life:
• Cities: lively but grimy, poor living conditions for many.
• Writers contrasted city life with idealized rural life.
• Freedom of the Press:
• Pre-1695, the Licensing Act controlled publication.
• Post-1695, expiration of the act led to a surge in political and diverse writings.
• Development of Political Journalism:
• Spearheaded by Daniel Defoe with "Review" (1704-13).
• Rise of magazines discussing politics and cultural topics.
• Literary In uence of Classical Antiquity:
• 18th century also known as the Age of Pope, Augustan Age, or Neo-classical.
• Emulation of classical writers as models of literary taste.
• Known as the Classical Age due to imitation of Latin literature.
• Stable Government and Aristocratic In uence:
• Era of stable government, especially under Queen Anne.
• Period of peace and prosperity, with a focus on trade and commerce.
• Upper aristocracy held signi cant socio-political in uence.
• Age of Reason:
• Emphasized rationalism, intellect, logic, and wit.
• Opposition to excessive emotionalism and imagination.
• Dominance of Prose:
• Era regarded as an Age of Prose.
• Poetry developed qualities akin to prose.
• Notable prose writers: Addison, Steele, and Swift (master of English prose).
• Con icting Aspirations and Visions:
• Tension between rational modernity and adherence to tradition.
• Whig policy associated with stability and democracy.
• Tory vision linked to persistence of tradition and religion.
• Interplay of old and new in the 18th century.

Literary Context

• Con icting Literary Interplay:

• New writers respected classical authors (e.g., Virgil, Horace, Ovid).
• Aimed to revive the classical spirit with a focus on balance, clarity, coherence.
• Growing Interest in the Novel:
• Novel seen as less ambitious but focused on ordinary individuals.
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 • Simpler language and everyday themes.
• Emergence of the Novel:
• Traces back to 16th century with Rabelais' "The Life of Gargantua and Pantagruel".
• Combines heroism, satire, humor, and exaggeration.
• Mikhail Bakhtin's De nition:
• Novel as a narrative mixing various literary forms: epic, romance, comedy, parody,
satire.
• Novel's Focus on Daily Experience:
• Prioritizes daily life over older genres like epic and romance.
• Addresses virtue and truth in contemporary context.
• Language and Audience:
• Initially written in simpler, clearer language.
• Initially perceived as literature for the less literate.
• In uence of Enlightenment:
• Realistic novel born out of a hunger for actuality.
• Avoidance of supernatural elements.
• Artistic Imitation of Life:
• Fiction re ects everyday, common sense experiences.
• Transition from general to speci c and individual stories.
• Content and Themes:
• Speci c, historical accounts of individuals.
• Focus on middle-class characters seeking status through virtue and action.
• Titles and Critique:
• Titles included “history”, “romances”, “adventures”, etc.
• Critical perspective on breakdown of traditional moral order.
• Watt's Key Areas for the Rise of the Novel:
• Economic/possessive individualism and capitalist values.
• Materialistic individualism emphasizing the individual.
• Demand for education/moral training linked to middle-class values.
• Characteristics of 18th Century Novels:
• Importance of individual experience.
• Shift away from history, legend, mythology in plots.
• Unique, contemporary characters.
• Precise settings with detailed descriptions.
• Move towards descriptive language, less rhetorical and gurative.
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