UNIT-III (KCS501)

Data Base Design & Normalization

Functional Dependency
The functional dependency is a relationship that exists between two attributes. It typically exists between the primary key and non-key attribute within
a table.
X → Y
The left side of FD is known as a determinant, the right side of the production is known as a dependent.
For example:
Assume we have an employee table with attributes: Emp_Id, Emp_Name, Emp_Address.
Here Emp_Id attribute can uniquely identify the Emp_Name attribute of employee table because if we know the Emp_Id, we can tell that employee
name associated with it.
Functional dependency can be written as:
Emp_Id → Emp_Name

We can say that Emp_Name is functionally dependent on Emp_Id.

Types of Functional dependency

1. Trivial functional dependency

o A → B has trivial functional dependency if B is a subset of A.
o The following dependencies are also trivial like: A → A, B → B

Example:

Consider a table with two columns Employee_Id and Employee_Name.

{Employee_id, Employee_Name} → Employee_Id is a trivial functional dependency as
Employee_Id is a subset of {Employee_Id, Employee_Name}.
Also, Employee_Id → Employee_Id and Employee_Name → Employee_Name are trivial dependencies too.

2. Non-trivial functional dependency

o A → B has a non-trivial functional dependency if B is not a subset of A.
o When A intersection B is NULL, then A → B is called as complete non-trivial.

Example:

ID → Name,
Name → DOB

For example:
An employee table with three attributes: emp_id, emp_name, emp_address.
The following functional dependencies are non-trivial:
emp_id -> emp_name (emp_name is not a subset of emp_id)
emp_id -> emp_address (emp_address is not a subset of emp_id)

On the other hand, the following dependencies are trivial:

{emp_id, emp_name} -> emp_name [emp_name is a subset of {emp_id, emp_name}]
Refer: trivial functional dependency.
Completely non trivial FD:
If a FD X->Y holds true where X intersection Y is null then this dependency is said to be completely non trivial function dependency.

Normalization
A large database defined as a single relation may result in data duplication. This repetition of data may result in:

o Making relations very large.

o It isn't easy to maintain and update data as it would involve searching many records in relation.
o Wastage and poor utilization of disk space and resources.
o The likelihood of errors and inconsistencies increases.

So to handle these problems, we should analyze and decompose the relations with redundant data into smaller, simpler, and well-structured relations
that are satisfy desirable properties. Normalization is a process of decomposing the relations into relations with fewer attributes.

What is Normalization?
o Normalization is the process of organizing the data in the database.
o Normalization is used to minimize the redundancy from a relation or set of relations. It is also used to eliminate undesirable characteristics
like Insertion, Update, and Deletion Anomalies.
o Normalization divides the larger table into smaller and links them using relationships.
o The normal form is used to reduce redundancy from the database table.

Why do we need Normalization?

The main reason for normalizing the relations is removing these anomalies. Failure to eliminate anomalies leads to data redundancy and can cause
data integrity and other problems as the database grows. Normalization consists of a series of guidelines that helps to guide you in creating a good
database structure.

Data modification anomalies can be categorized into three types:

o Insertion Anomaly: Insertion Anomaly refers to when one cannot insert a new tuple into a relationship due to lack of data.
o Deletion Anomaly: The delete anomaly refers to the situation where the deletion of data results in the unintended loss of some other
important data.
o Updatation Anomaly: The update anomaly is when an update of a single data value requires multiple rows of data to be updated.

Types of Normal Forms:

Normalization works through a series of stages called Normal forms. The normal forms apply to individual relations. The relation is said to be in
particular normal form if it satisfies constraints.

Following are the various types of Normal forms:

 Normal Form Description

1NF A relation is in 1NF if it contains an atomic value.

2NF A relation will be in 2NF if it is in 1NF and all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the primary key.

3NF A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and no transition dependency exists.

BCNF A stronger definition of 3NF is known as Boyce Codd's normal form.

4NF A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd's normal form and has no multi-valued dependency.

5NF A relation is in 5NF. If it is in 4NF and does not contain any join dependency, joining should be lossless.

Advantages of Normalization
o Normalization helps to minimize data redundancy.
o Greater overall database organization.
o Data consistency within the database.
o Much more flexible database design.
o Enforces the concept of relational integrity.

Disadvantages of Normalization
o You cannot start building the database before knowing what the user needs.
o The performance degrades when normalizing the relations to higher normal forms, i.e., 4NF, 5NF.
o It is very time-consuming and difficult to normalize relations of a higher degree.
o Careless decomposition may lead to a bad database design, leading to serious problems.

First Normal Form (1NF)

o A relation will be 1NF if it contains an atomic value.
o It states that an attribute of a table cannot hold multiple values. It must hold only single-valued attribute.
o First normal form disallows the multi-valued attribute, composite attribute, and their combinations.

Example: Relation EMPLOYEE is not in 1NF because of multi-valued attribute EMP_PHONE.

EMPLOYEE table:
 EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385, UP
9064738238

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389, Punjab

8589830302
The decomposition of the EMPLOYEE table into 1NF has been shown below:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_PHONE EMP_STATE

14 John 7272826385 UP

14 John 9064738238 UP

20 Harry 8574783832 Bihar

12 Sam 7390372389 Punjab

12 Sam 8589830302 Punjab

Second Normal Form (2NF)

o In the 2NF, relational must be in 1NF.
o In the second normal form, all non-key attributes are fully functional dependent on the primary key

Example: Let's assume, a school can store the data of teachers and the subjects they teach. In a school, a teacher can teach more than one subject.

TEACHER table

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE

25 Chemistry 30

25 Biology 30

47 English 35

83 Math 38

In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on TEACHER_ID which is a proper subset of a candidate key. That's why it violates
the rule for 2NF.

To convert the given table into 2NF, we decompose it into two tables:

TEACHER_DETAIL table:

TEACHER_ID TEACHER_AGE

25 30

47 35

83 38

TEACHER_SUBJECT table:

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT
 25 Chemistry

25 Biology

47 English

83 Math

Third Normal Form (3NF)

o A relation will be in 3NF if it is in 2NF and not contain any transitive partial dependency.
o 3NF is used to reduce the data duplication. It is also used to achieve the data integrity.
o If there is no transitive dependency for non-prime attributes, then the relation must be in third normal form.

A relation is in third normal form if it holds atleast one of the following conditions for every non-trivial function dependency X → Y.

X is a super key.
Y is a prime attribute, i.e., each element of Y is part of some candidate key.

Example:

EMPLOYEE_DETAIL table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

222 Harry 201010 UP Noida

333 Stephan 02228 US Boston

444 Lan 60007 US Chicago

555 Katharine 06389 UK Norwich

666 John 462007 MP Bhopal

Super key in the table above:

{EMP_ID}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME}, {EMP_ID, EMP_NAME, EMP_ZIP}....so on

Candidate key: {EMP_ID}

Non-prime attributes: In the given table, all attributes except EMP_ID are non-prime.

Here, EMP_STATE & EMP_CITY dependent on EMP_ZIP and EMP_ZIP dependent on EMP_ID. The non-prime attributes (EMP_STATE,
EMP_CITY) transitively dependent on super key(EMP_ID). It violates the rule of third normal form.

That's why we need to move the EMP_CITY and EMP_STATE to the new <EMPLOYEE_ZIP> table, with EMP_ZIP as a Primary key.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_ZIP

222 Harry 201010

333 Stephan 02228

444 Lan 60007

 555 Katharine 06389

666 John 462007

EMPLOYEE_ZIP table:

EMP_ZIP EMP_STATE EMP_CITY

201010 UP Noida

02228 US Boston

60007 US Chicago

06389 UK Norwich

462007 MP Bhopal

Boyce Codd normal form (BCNF)

o BCNF is the advance version of 3NF. It is stricter than 3NF.
o A table is in BCNF if every functional dependency X → Y, X is the super key of the table.
o For BCNF, the table should be in 3NF, and for every FD, LHS is super key.

Example: Let's assume there is a company where employees work in more than one department.

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_COUNTRY EMP_DEPT DEPT_TYPE EMP_DEPT_NO

264 India Designing D394 283

264 India Testing D394 300

364 UK Stores D283 232

364 UK Developing D283 549

In the above table Functional dependencies are as follows:

EMP_ID → EMP_COUNTRY
EMP_DEPT → {DEPT_TYPE, EMP_DEPT_NO}

Candidate key: {EMP-ID, EMP-DEPT}

The table is not in BCNF because neither EMP_DEPT nor EMP_ID alone are keys.
To convert the given table into BCNF, we decompose it into three tables:

EMP_COUNTRY table:

EMP_ID EMP_COUNTRY

264 India

264 India

EMP_DEPT table:
 EMP_DEPT DEPT_TYPE EMP_DEPT_NO

Designing D394 283

Testing D394 300

Stores D283 232

Developing D283 549

EMP_DEPT_MAPPING table:

EMP_ID EMP_DEPT

D394 283

D394 300

D283 232

D283 549

Functional dependencies:

EMP_ID → EMP_COUNTRY
EMP_DEPT → {DEPT_TYPE, EMP_DEPT_NO}

Candidate keys:

For the first table: EMP_ID

For the second table: EMP_DEPT
For the third table: {EMP_ID, EMP_DEPT}

Now, this is in BCNF because left side part of both the functional dependencies is a key.

Fourth normal form (4NF)

o A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-valued dependency.
o For a dependency A → B, if for a single value of A, multiple values of B exists, then the relation will be a multi-valued dependency.

Example

STUDENT

STU_ID COURSE HOBBY

21 Computer Dancing

21 Math Singing

34 Chemistry Dancing

74 Biology Cricket

59 Physics Hockey

The given STUDENT table is in 3NF, but the COURSE and HOBBY are two independent entity. Hence, there is no relationship between COURSE and
HOBBY.
In the STUDENT relation, a student with STU_ID, 21 contains two courses, Computer and Math and two hobbies, Dancing and Singing. So there is a
Multi-valued dependency on STU_ID, which leads to unnecessary repetition of data.

So to make the above table into 4NF, we can decompose it into two tables:

STUDENT_COURSE

STU_ID COURSE

21 Computer

21 Math

34 Chemistry

74 Biology

59 Physics
STUDENT_HOBBY

STU_ID HOBBY

21 Dancing

21 Singing

34 Dancing

74 Cricket

59 Hockey

Inclusion Dependency
o Multivalued dependency and join dependency can be used to guide database design although they both are less common than functional
dependencies.
o Inclusion dependencies are quite common. They typically show little influence on designing of the database.
o The inclusion dependency is a statement in which some columns of a relation are contained in other columns.
o The example of inclusion dependency is a foreign key. In one relation, the referring relation is contained in the primary key column(s) of
the referenced relation.
o Suppose we have two relations R and S which was obtained by translating two entity sets such that every R entity is also an S entity.
o Inclusion dependency would be happen if projecting R on its key attributes yields a relation that is contained in the relation obtained by
projecting S on its key attributes.
o In inclusion dependency, we should not split groups of attributes that participate in an inclusion dependency.
o In practice, most inclusion dependencies are key-based that is involved only keys.

Relational Decomposition
o When a relation in the relational model is not in appropriate normal form then the decomposition of a relation is required.
o In a database, it breaks the table into multiple tables.
o If the relation has no proper decomposition, then it may lead to problems like loss of information.
o Decomposition is used to eliminate some of the problems of bad design like anomalies, inconsistencies, and redundancy.
Types of Decomposition

Lossless Decomposition
o If the information is not lost from the relation that is decomposed, then the decomposition will be lossless.
o The lossless decomposition guarantees that the join of relations will result in the same relation as it was decomposed.
o The relation is said to be lossless decomposition if natural joins of all the decomposition give the original relation.

Example:

EMPLOYEE_DEPARTMENT table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME

22 Denim 28 Mumbai 827 Sales

33 Alina 25 Delhi 438 Marketing

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore 869 Finance

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai 575 Production

60 Jack 40 Noida 678 Testing

The above relation is decomposed into two relations EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT

EMPLOYEE table:

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY

22 Denim 28 Mumbai

33 Alina 25 Delhi

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai

60 Jack 40 Noida

DEPARTMENT table

DEPT_ID EMP_ID DEPT_NAME

827 22 Sales

438 33 Marketing

869 46 Finance

575 52 Production

678 60 Testing
Now, when these two relations are joined on the common column "EMP_ID", then the resultant relation will look like:

Employee ⋈ Department

EMP_ID EMP_NAME EMP_AGE EMP_CITY DEPT_ID DEPT_NAME

22 Denim 28 Mumbai 827 Sales

33 Alina 25 Delhi 438 Marketing

46 Stephan 30 Bangalore 869 Finance

52 Katherine 36 Mumbai 575 Production

60 Jack 40 Noida 678 Testing

Hence, the decomposition is Lossless join decomposition.

Dependency Preserving
o It is an important constraint of the database.
o In the dependency preservation, at least one decomposed table must satisfy every dependency.
o If a relation R is decomposed into relation R1 and R2, then the dependencies of R either must be a part of R1 or R2 or must be derivable
from the combination of functional dependencies of R1 and R2.
o For example, suppose there is a relation R (A, B, C, D) with functional dependency set (A->BC). The relational R is decomposed into R1(ABC)
and R2(AD) which is dependency preserving because FD A->BC is a part of relation R1(ABC).

Multivalued Dependency(MVD)
o Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are independent of each other but, both depend on a third attribute.
o A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that are dependent on a third attribute that's why it always requires at least
three attributes.

Example: Suppose there is a bike manufacturer company which produces two colors (white and black) of each model every year.

BIKE_MODEL MANUF_YEAR COLOR

M2011 2008 White

M2001 2008 Black

M3001 2013 White

M3001 2013 Black

M4006 2017 White

M4006 2017 Black

Here columns COLOR and MANUF_YEAR are dependent on BIKE_MODEL and independent of each other.

In this case, these two columns can be called as multivalued dependent on BIKE_MODEL. The representation of these dependencies is shown below:

BIKE_MODEL → → MANUF_YEAR
BIKE_MODEL → → COLOR

This can be read as "BIKE_MODEL multidetermined MANUF_YEAR" and "BIKE_MODEL multidetermined COLOR".

Join Dependency(JDs)
o Join decomposition is a further generalization of Multivalued dependencies.
o If the join of R1 and R2 over C is equal to relation R, then we can say that a join dependency (JD) exists.
o Where R1 and R2 are the decompositions R1(A, B, C) and R2(C, D) of a given relations R (A, B, C, D).
o Alternatively, R1 and R2 are a lossless decomposition of R.
o A JD ⋈ {R1, R2,..., Rn} is said to hold over a relation R if R1, R2,....., Rn is a lossless-join decomposition.
o The *(A, B, C, D), (C, D) will be a JD of R if the join of join's attribute is equal to the relation R.
o Here, *(R1, R2, R3) is used to indicate that relation R1, R2, R3 and so on are a JD of R.

Alternative Approaches to Database Design

1.Object Database Design

There is still a great deal of controversy about the best way to approach database design for object-oriented systems. Architecturally, some experts
argue that the relational model is not well suited for use in an object-oriented environment while other experts maintain that relational architectures
are more suitable for traditional data processing. This has been borne out in the marketplace where we see object-oriented databases used for non-
traditional applications such as telephone billing system, while the relational model enjoys predominance in business administration applications.

It is important to recognize that many of the "pure" object-oriented database management systems do not exploit many of the features of "classical"
database management. To some object-based systems, the only purpose of an object database (OODBMS) is to provide "object persistence" and
very little attention is paid to concurrency-control, rollback and recovery, and the other features associated with relational database management.

2.Top-down vs. Bottom-up object database design

There are two approaches for developing any database, the top-down method and the bottom-up method. While these approaches appear radically
different, they share the common goal of uniting a system by describing all of the interaction between the processes. Let's examine each approach:

The top-down method starts from the general and moves to the specific. Basically, you start with a general idea of what is needed for the system and
then ask the end-users what data they need to store. The analyst will then work with the users to determine what data should be kept in the
database. Using the top-down method requires that the analyst has a detailed understanding of the system. The top-down method also can have
shortcomings. In some cases, top-down design can lead to unsatisfactory results because the analyst and end-users can miss something that is
important and is necessary for the system.

ACID Properties in DBMS

DBMS is the management of data that should remain integrated when any changes are done in it. It is because if the integrity of the data is
affected, whole data will get disturbed and corrupted. Therefore, to maintain the integrity of the data, there are four properties described in
the database management system, which are known as the ACID properties. The ACID properties are meant for the transaction that goes
through a different group of tasks, and there we come to see the role of the ACID properties.

In this section, we will learn and understand about the ACID properties. We will learn what these properties stand for and what does each
property is used for. We will also understand the ACID properties with the help of some examples.

ACID Properties

The expansion of the term ACID defines for:

1) Atomicity: The term atomicity defines that the data remains atomic. It means if any operation is performed on the data, either it should
be performed or executed completely or should not be executed at all. It further means that the operation should not break in between or
execute partially. In the case of executing operations on the transaction, the operation should be completely executed and not partially.

xample: If Remo has account A having $30 in his account from which he wishes to send $10 to Sheero's account, which is B. In account B, a
sum of $ 100 is already present. When $10 will be transferred to account B, the sum will become $110. Now, there will be two operations
that will take place. One is the amount of $10 that Remo wants to transfer will be debited from his account A, and the same amount will get
credited to account B, i.e., into Sheero's account. Now, what happens - the first operation of debit executes successfully, but the credit
operation, however, fails. Thus, in Remo's account A, the value becomes $20, and to that of Sheero's account, it remains $100 as it was
previously present.

In the above diagram, it can be seen that after crediting $10, the amount is still $100 in account B. So, it is not an atomic transaction.

The below image shows that both debit and credit operations are done successfully. Thus the transaction is atomic.

Thus, when the amount loses atomicity, then in the bank systems, this becomes a huge issue, and so the atomicity is the main focus in the
bank systems.

2) Consistency: The word consistency means that the value should remain preserved always. In DBMS, the integrity of the data should be
maintained, which means if a change in the database is made, it should remain preserved always. In the case of transactions, the integrity of
the data is very essential so that the database remains consistent before and after the transaction. The data should always be correct.

Example:
In the above figure, there are three accounts, A, B, and C, where A is making a transaction T one by one to both B & C. There are two
operations that take place, i.e., Debit and Credit. Account A firstly debits $50 to account B, and the amount in account A is read $300 by B
before the transaction. After the successful transaction T, the available amount in B becomes $150. Now, A debits $20 to account C, and that
time, the value read by C is $250 (that is correct as a debit of $50 has been successfully done to B). The debit and credit operation from
account A to C has been done successfully. We can see that the transaction is done successfully, and the value is also read correctly. Thus,
the data is consistent. In case the value read by B and C is $300, which means that data is inconsistent because when the debit operation
executes, it will not be consistent.

4) Isolation: The term 'isolation' means separation. In DBMS, Isolation is the property of a database where no data should affect the other
one and may occur concurrently. In short, the operation on one database should begin when the operation on the first database gets
complete. It means if two operations are being performed on two different databases, they may not affect the value of one another. In the
case of transactions, when two or more transactions occur simultaneously, the consistency should remain maintained. Any changes that
occur in any particular transaction will not be seen by other transactions until the change is not committed in the memory.

Example: If two operations are concurrently running on two different accounts, then the value of both accounts should not get affected. The
value should remain persistent. As you can see in the below diagram, account A is making T1 and T2 transactions to account B and C, but
both are executing independently without affecting each other. It is known as Isolation.

4) Durability: Durability ensures the permanency of something. In DBMS, the term durability ensures that the data after the successful
execution of the operation becomes permanent in the database. The durability of the data should be so perfect that even if the system fails
or leads to a crash, the database still survives. However, if gets lost, it becomes the responsibility of the recovery manager for ensuring the
durability of the database. For committing the values, the COMMIT command must be used every time we make changes.

Therefore, the ACID property of DBMS plays a vital role in maintaining the consistency and availability of data in the database.

Thus, it was a precise introduction of ACID properties in DBMS. We have discussed these properties in the transaction section also.