ISSN: 2717-7696

Research Article
Vol; 3, Issue; 1, pp. 12-21, 2022
DOI: 10.48053/turkgeo.1028669
Journal homepage:
https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/turkgeo

Dolomitization mechanism in the Chorgali formation, Pakistan: Evidence from field

observations, Petrography, Mineralogical, and SEM analysis

Sajjad Khan*1 , Mehboob Ur Rashid 1

1Geoscience Advanced Research Laboratories (GARL), Geological Survey of Pakistan, Shahzad Town, 1461 Islamabad, Pakistan

Keywords ABSTRACT
Dolomitization The subject of dolomite formation has always put researchers in the challenge. In this
Petrographic study study, the origin of the dolomites of the Chorgali Formation near Chorgali Pass was
Geochemical explored through field observation, petrographic characteristics, mineralogical and
characteristics geochemical analysis. Analytical analyses used in the present studies include XRD, SEM-
Chorgali Formation EDS, and stable isotopes studies. The dolomites were categorized into three major
genetic types based on their textural and structural features showing their distinct
origins. These dolomites are named fine crystalline dolomite (Df), medium crystalline
dolomite (Dm), and coarse crystalline dolomite (Dc). The analytical approaches linked
with field observations and petrographic examinations identified that; the first type of
dolomites (i.e., Df) is related to the early stage of diagenesis and contain the presence of
mineral dolomite (40%), gypsum (27%), quartz (17%) and albite (16%) and are low
stochiometric low ordered in character as recognized by XRD results. The SEM-EDS
analysis identified low Mg, Ca, O, Na, Si, and Fe concentrations. Further, the stable
isotopes (δ18O) values for Df (i.e., -5.95 to -396‰V-PDB) are less depleted. Moreover,
Dm and Dc revealed 100% mineral dolomite and are stochiometric ordered dolomites.
High concentrations of Mg, Ca and O are observed in Dm and Dc respectively. Stable
isotopes (δ18O) result in exhibiting highly depleted values for Dm (-7.947‰V-PDB) and
Dc (-9.227 to -8.302‰V-PDB) showing its formation with the elevated temperature at
depth. In addition, δ13C values of Df, Dm, and Dc lie in the range of the original marine
signature of Eocene times.

1. INTRODUCTION limestone, and shale. It is well known that the

Chorgali Formation is performing as a reservoir in
The study area lies in Survey of Pakistan (SOP) many oil fields (Kadri, 1995; Benchilla et al., 2002a).
toposheet no. 43-C/11 at Latitude 33° 27ʹ 05″ N and Previous work is mainly focused on the outcrop-
Longitude 72° 41ʹ 02″ E (Figure 1). The rocks based sedimentology and depositional environment
exposed in the study area are ranging in age from of the Chorgali Formation (Mujtaba et al., 1989;
Eocambrian to Pleistocene (Jaswal et al., 1997). The Jurgan and Abbas, 1991; Mujtaba, 2001; Awais et al.,
rocks of Eocene age include Margala Hill Limestone, 2019). The present study deliberates inclusive
Chorgali, Kuldana formations, whereas Murree investigations of the dolomitization evolution
Formation represents Miocene age. According to mechanism in the Chorgali Formation near Chorgali
Shah, (2009) and Shah and Khan, (2016) the Pass Pakistan.
formation is mainly contained of dolomite, dolomitic

* Corresponding Author Cite this article

*([email protected])
ORCID ID 0000-0003-2730-0997 Khan, S., & Rashid M.U. (2022). Dolomitization Mechanism in the Chorgali
([email protected]) ORCID ID 0000-0003-2555-239X Formation, Pakistan: Evidence from Field observations, Petrography, Mineralogical,
and SEM analysis 3(1), 12-21.
Received: 26/11/2021; Accepted: 07/04/2022
 Turkish Journal of Geosciences, Vol; 3, Issue; 1, pp. 12-21, 2022.

identified showing the complex deformation past

that is characteristic of a fold-and-thrust belt
(Benchilla et al., 2002b). Main Boundary Thrust
(MBT) lies in the north and Soan Syncline exists
south of the area (Figure 1). Furthermore, the
studied section can be accessed from all sides of the
country by roads, approximately lies 55 km in the
south-west of the main capital Islamabad and 190
km from Peshawar (Figure 1).

3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

Forty-one representative samples were taken

from 150-meter-thick studied sites during field
studies (Figure 1). Dolomite samples were separated
by applying pre-microscopic methods (etching,
staining, peeling, etc.,). Petrographic thin sections
were prepared including alizarin red S and K-
ferricyanide analysis and studied under a
microscope for the identifications of various
Figure 1. Geo-Tectonic map of Kohat-Potwar area diagenetic phases. Thin sections preparation,
showing the location of the study area (modified Petrography, XRD analysis, and SEM studies were
after Kazmi and Rana, 1982). Abbreviations used executed at Geoscience Advance Research
are; SS= Soan Syncline, NPDZ= North Potwar Laboratories, Geological Survey of Pakistan
Deformed Zone, MBT= Main Boundary Thrust, Islamabad. Polarizing microscope (OPTIPHOT2-
MMT=Main Mantle Thrust, KR= Kishor Range, MR= POL) with an attached camera (Moticam 2000) were
Marwat Range, and BP= Bannu Promontory used for the identification of diagenetic phases. A
powdered sample of 2-5 grams was taken in a
2. GENERAL TECTONIC CONTEXT specified XRD sample holder and prepared for XRD
analysis. The XRD analyses were carried out by
The research site is being a portion of the Indian Panalytical X’Pert Pro Diffractometer (XRD) at 45 kV
Plate. Previous work revealed that the Indian Plate and 40 mA with CuKα radiations scanning speed at
has traveled 9000 kilometers during its tectonic 0.05°/s. The XRD patterns were identified by using X
evolution after detachment from its position in the pert High Score Plus software. SEM Model JEOL JSM
Gondwana, its consecutive departure from other 6610LV with EDS (OXFORD X-MAX 20 mm2) is used
continents of Gondwana, its frequent disintegration, in the present study. Moreover, during sample
its movement in the north direction, and its preparations, carbon coating is well applied all
sequential crash with KIA and with Asia (Chatterjee, around the samples to avoid charging the samples
1992; Chatterjee and Scotese, 1999, 2010). under the SEM.
Furthermore, the Indian Plate represents distinct For measuring carbon and oxygen stable
and highly complex tectonic antiquities (Chatterjee isotopic composition of various diagenetic phases
et al., 2013). During its northward movements, the micro sampled were obtained by using a dentist’s
Indian plate experienced unexpected acceleration micro-drill. Bulk rock analyses were carried out at
from Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene, about 20 PINSTECH (Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science and
cm/year, and then histrionically reduced to 5 Technology), Islamabad. During this process, the
cm/year during its collision with Eurasian Plate carbonate powders were reacted with 100%
(McKenzie and Sclater, 1971; Patriat and Achache, phosphoric acid (density >1Æ9; Wachter and Hayes,
1984; Lee and Lawver, 1995). The crash (i.e., 1985) at 75°C in an online carbonate preparation
happened around 67±2 Ma) between the Indian line (Carbo-Kiel – single sample acid bath) connected
Plate and Eurasian Plate is considered the intense to a Thermo Finnigan 252 mass-spectrometer
tectonic incident of the Cenozoic and is responsible (Thermo Electron Corp., Waltham, MA, USA). All
for the uplift of the Himalayan-Tibetan Plateau values are reported in per million relatives to Vienna
(Powell et al., 1988; Powell and Conaghan, 1973). Pee Dee belemnite standard (V-PDB) by assigning a
The study area lies in the area of the Northern δ13C value of +1Æ95& and a δ18O value of )2Æ20&
Potwar Deformed Zone of the Indian Plate, where to National Bureau of Standards (NBS) 19. Oxygen
extensive complex structural and tectonic features isotopic compositions of dolomites were corrected
are present (Figure 1; Jaswal et al., 1997). Multipart using the fractionation factors given by Rosenbaum
and tight folds, which are trending east-west and are and Sheppard, (1986). Reproducibility based on a
overturned to the south at sheared by step-angle replicate analysis of laboratory standards is better
faults are present in the area (Baker, 1987). than ±0Æ02& for δ13C and ±0Æ03& for δ18O.
Furthermore, the studied area is highly tectonically
disturbed with seven episodes of fracturing were

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4. FIELD OBSERVATIONS near the top. The shale is greenish-grey, red

occasionally variegated, and calcareous. Some grit
In the studied section the Chorgali Formation is beds are also intercalated. Well preserved
mainly comprised of two main units. The lower unit cyanobacterial mat, lamination, mud-cracks, and
exhibits the presence of dolomite, dolomitic horizontal burrows have also been observed.
limestone, and shale, whereas the upper unit Anhydrite nodules are also noted during field
contains one thick bed of dark grey color limestone observations (Figure 2a-e).
and a bed of nodular argillaceous limestone almost

Figure 2. Field observations of dolomites of Eocene Chorgali Formation, near Chorgali Pass; (a) General view of
the dolomites of Eocene Chorgali Formation, near Chorgali Pass (b) Dolomite sample exhibiting well preserved
cyanobacterial mat (c) Dolomite sample showing well-developed lamination, mud-cracks and horizontal burrows
(d) Irregular laminations observed in dolomites (e) The presence of anhydrite nodules (white color) in dolomites
of Chorgali Formation

5. PETROGRAPHIC STUDY dolomicritic intraclasts are common and represent

disintegrated algal mats (Figure 3b). Although fabric
5.1. Fine crystalline dolomite (Df) destructive dolomitization has completely destroyed
the original fabric information, a few intraclasts
According to Sibley and Gregg, (1987) ghosts are present. Open micro molds and micro
classification scheme, fine crystalline dolomites (Df) vugs are common and randomly distributed. Locally
are 5-50 μm in size, planar-s, light grey to medium developed microfractures are noticed filled with
grey color dolomites and are mostly comprised of anhydrite (Figure 3c). Anhydrite nodules show the
partially dolomitized fossiliferous micrite with phenomenon of chicken wire features, indicating
sparse, randomly distributed, very fine-grained growth by displacement. Very finely crystalline,
detrital quartz grains are present (Figure 3a). well-developed, pyrite-looking crystals are locally
Bioclasts include sparse ostracod and some common within the groundmass of dolomite and
unidentified very small-sized fossil fragments. Fine anhydrite laths (Figure 3d).
to very finely crystalline dolomite crystals are
common and randomly distributed in the micritic 5.2. Medium crystalline dolomite (Dm)
matrix. A few well-developed, medium-sized,
dolomite rhombs are noticed with cloudy centers Dm is 50-200μm, medium to dark grey, locally
and comparatively clear rims. A few, fine sand-sized, laminated dolomites. Dolomite crystals are medium
intraclasts are also present. Randomly distributed crystalline, equigranular, and subhedral (Figure 3e;

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Sibley and Gregg, 1987). Furthermore, fractures (Figure 3f-g; Sibley and Gregg, 1987). Dc is
intercrystalline spaces are filled with locally stylolites and fractures associated. Filled and
cryptocrystalline carbonate. Most of the dolomite partially open fractures and microfractures are
crystals have light-brown cloudy centers with clear locally common. Pyritization is also associated. Light
rims. Dolomitization has completely destroyed the gray dolomite (collapse breccia). Ghosts of
fabric information of the precursor sediments. intraclasts and fecal pellets are randomly scattered
in a groundmass of finely crystalline dolomite.
5.3. Coarse crystalline dolomite (Dc) Dolomite crystals have mostly cloudy centers and
clear rims. Intercrystalline and vuggy porosity are
These consist of 200μm -2 mm-sized, medium locally common. Some of the pores are partially filled
gray, coarse crystalline euhedral to subhedral with natural solid bitumen. Open microfractures and
dolomites that occur generally as infilling of a few microstylolites are present.

Figure 3. Petrographic characteristics of dolomites of Chorgali Formation; (a) Photomicrograph exhibiting

fine crystalline dolomites (Df), the blue arrow shows the presence of dolomitized bioclast (i.e., Assilina)
whereas blue arrow represents fine quartz grains (b) Fine crystalline dolomites (Df), purple arrow shows
ghost of the algal mat (c) Fine crystalline dolomites (Df) with open molds as blue arrow and presence of
gypsum anhydrite as green arrow (d) Fine crystalline dolomites (Df) with chicken wire features as brown
arrow and pyrite existence as a black arrow (e) Photomicrograph exhibiting medium crystalline dolomite i.e.,
Dm with stylolite seems (f) Photomicrographs showing coarse crystalline dolomite (Dc) as a red arrow, pyrite
represented by black arrow (g) Coarse crystalline dolomite (Dc) as a red arrow, pyrite represented by the
black arrow, yellow arrow shows stylolite seems. Abbreviations; Df=fine crystalline dolomites, As=Bioclast
(Assilina), Qu=Quartz, Al =Algal mat, Gy=Gypsum, Mo=Open mould, Dm=Medium crystalline dolomite,
Py=Pyrite, Dc=Coarse crystalline dolomite, St=Stylolite

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6. XRD ANALYSIS existence of dolomite (100%) is observed (Figure

4b-c). Besides this, the mol % Ca Vs I(d105)/I (d110)
XRD studies of representative samples were plot showed that Df is low stochiometric low ordered
carried out. Df exhibited the presence of dolomite dolomites, whereas Dm and Dc are near
(40%), gypsum (27%), quartz (17%), and albite stochiometric ordered dolomites (Figure 5 and Table
(16%) respectively (Figure 4a). In Dm and Dc, the 1).

Table 1. XRD results of analyzed samples

Site Stage d104 d015 d110 I(d015)/I(d110) mol % Ca

D. I 2.871 2.531 2.401 1.054 45.000
Chorgali - pass

D. I 2.869 2.531 2.402 1.054 44.334

D. I 2.872 2.532 2.402 1.054 45.334
D. I 2.870 2.530 2.401 1.054 44.667
D. II 2.880 2.535 2.402 1.055 48.000
D. III 2.881 2.536 2.402 1.056 48.334
D. III 2.882 2.536 2.401 1.056 48.667

Figure 4. XRD results of the dolomites in Eocene Chorgali Formation; (a) XRD pattern showing mineralogical
description with quantification of Df, (b) XRD pattern showing mineralogical description with quantification of Dm
and, (c) XRD pattern showing mineralogical description with quantification of Dc. Abbreviations; Df=Fine
crystalline dolomites, Dm= Medium crystalline dolomite, Dc= Coarse crystalline dolomite

7. SEM-EDS ANALYSIS

In the SEM-EDS studies, Df showed the presence

of Mg, Ca, O, Na, Si, and Fe concentrations (Figure 6a).
The highest concentrations of Mg, Ca and O are
observed in Dm and Dc respectively (Figure 6b-c).

Figure 5. Mol % Ca vs I (d015)/I(d110) plot of various

phases of Eocene Chorgali dolomites

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Figure 6. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) results of selected samples from identified dolomite phases; (a)
detailed SEM results of Fine crystalline dolomites (Df), (b) SEM results of Medium crystalline dolomite (Dm) and,
(c) SEM results of Coarse crystalline dolomite (Dc)

8. STABLE ISOTOPES ANALYSIS

Stable isotopes (δ18O and δ13C) values for Df

are -5.95 to -396 and δ -0.85 to 2 respectively (Figure
7 and Table 2). In Dm δ13C and δ18O are -7.947 and
-0.104 respectively, whereas Dc revealed δ18O (-
9.227 to -8.302) and δ13C (-0.928 to 1.337) values
(Figure 7 and Table 2).

Table 2. Isotopes results of analyzed samples

Section Stage δ18O δ13C Figure 7. δ18O Vs δ13C plot of various phases of
Eocene Chorgali dolomites. The blue rectangle
Df -3.96 -0.96 represents the marine signatures of Eocene
Limestone
Df -5.95 -0.085
9. Discussions
Df -3.96 2.96
Chorgali - Pass

Df -3.96 -0.96 During field investigations, the presence of well-

preserved cyanobacterial mat, lamination, mud-
Dm -7.947 -0.104 cracks, and horizontal burrows are observed along
with the dolomites of the Chorgali Formation (Figure
Dc -8.302 -0.928 2a-e). The presence of anhydrite nodules with
chicken is also associated with these dolomites
Dc -9.227 1.337 (Figure 2e). Cyanobacterial mat, lamination, mud-
cracks, horizontal burrows, and gypsum/anhydrite
nodules are typical features of inter-and supra-tidal
settings and are found in dolomites formed in
tropical and arid conditions (Gasparrini et al., 2003;

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Warren 2000, 2006). In such arid conditions, undulatory extinction under cross-polarized light
increased rates of evaporation in lagoons produce probably formed as fluids moved along paths of
denser and more saline waters (with respect to increased permeability created by burrows,
seawater), promoting dolomitization as Mg becomes fractures, and stylolites (Figure 3f-g; Zenger, 1983;
highly concentrated in the brines and the kinetic Amthor and Friedman, 1991). Petrographic
constraints of dolomitization alleviated. Thus, characteristics combined with XRD data, SEM-EDS
hypersaline fluids, usually produced by high rates of analysis, and stable isotopes results identified that
evaporation, resulting in the precipitation of these dolomites are formed at great depth with
dolomites along with gypsum and anhydrite elevated temperature after the deposition of thick
(Mckenzie, 1981). During petrographic sedimentary cover above (Figure. 4-7; Guo et al.,
examinations, fine crystalline dolomite (Df) 2016; Feng et al., 2017). Pyritization marks the end
exhibited small crystal size and planar of diagenesis (Figure 8).
intercrystalline boundaries with fabric retentive
character are the possibilities of the dolomites
formed in supratidal and intertidal realms in the
early stage of diagenesis near-surface low-
temperature conditions (Figure 3a-d; Saller, 1984;
Gregg and Sibley, 1984; Land, 1985; Sibley and
Gregg, 1987; Mitchell et al., 1987; Gregg and Shelton,
1990; Rahimi et al., 2016). According to Shah, (2009)
the epeirogenesis experienced resultant emergence
in various areas of Pakistan, and this caused
unconformities of varying magnitude. These early-
stage diagenetic processes can be possibly related to
Middle-Late Eocene unconformities. The XRD
studies showed the existence of dolomite, gypsum,
quartz, and albite in Df (Figure 4). Based on XRD data
Df is identified as low stochiometric low ordered
dolomites (Figure 5). Furthermore, SEM analysis
accredited low concentrations of Mg, Ca, O, Na, Si,
and Fe in these dolomites (Figure 6). Stable isotopes
(C & O) exhibited slightly depleted values for Df
(Figure 7). Figure 8. Paragenetic sequence of different types of
Based on field observation, microscopic the dolomite of Eocene Chorgali Formation
examinations linked with XRD, SEM-EDS, and
Isotopes analysis fabric retentive dolomites (Df) can 10. CONCLUSION
be interpreted to be of early diagenetic origin.
Furthermore, the similarity between Chorgali Based on detailed field observations and
shallowing upward sequence and Persian Gulf microscopic examinations along with XRD analysis,
sabkha sequence suggests that the formation of SEM results, and Isotopic data of representatives
these early diagenetic Chorgali dolomites was taken from the dolomites of the studied formation
similar to that of Holocene dolomite in the Persian mentioned below conclusion can be made;
Gulf; where the sediments are being dolomitized by During field studies the presence of well-
evaporated seawater (Illing et al., 1965; Mckenzie, preserved cyanobacterial mat, lamination, mud-
1981; Patterson and Kinsman, 1982). cracks, horizontal burrows, and anhydrite nodules
The microscopic examinations revealed that with chicken wire structures were observed in the
medium crystalline dolomites (Dm) are fabric dolomites of Chorgali Formation
destructive in character and with stylolite seems, The petrographic studies observed relics of the
which predominantly occupy the lower portion of pre-existing textures with the presence of gypsum
the sequence (Figure 2e) and their formation flakes in Df. Moreover, Dm is destructive in character
possibly occurs at slighter depth after the formation with the presence of stylolites, whereas Dc is
of Df (Mountjoy et al., 1999; Duggan et al., 2001; fractures associated. Based on Petrographic
Fabricius et al., 2007). The XRD results showed that characteristics three types of dolomites are
it contains 100% mineral dolomite and is nearly identified which contain Df (fine crystalline
stochiometric ordered dolomite (Figure 4a-c and dolomite), D. II (medium crystalline dolomite), and
Figure 5). Furthermore, SEM-EDS analysis identified Dc (coarse crystalline dolomite).
strong concentration peaks of Mg in Dm (Figure 6). XRD study revealed Df as non-stoichiometric
Stable Isotopes values (δ18O) of these dolomites are low ordered dolomite, while Dm and Dc are
highly depleted than Df reflecting its formation in a stochiometric ordered dolomites.
higher temperature at depth (Figure 7). SEM results showed a low concentration of Mg,
The late diagenetic fracture and void filling Ca, O, Na, Si, and Fe in Df, and High concentrations of
dolomite cement (Dc) with curved surfaces and Mg, Ca, and O are observed in Dm and Dc.

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Stable isotopes data exhibits slight depletion fold-and-thrust belts: a case study of the Salt
δ18O values for Df, whereas Dm and are highly Range-Potwar Basin (N-Pakistan). American
depleted representing the elevated temperature at Association of Petroleum Geologists Annual
depth. Further, δ13C values of Df, Dm, and Dc lie in Meeting, Houston.
the marine signatures range.
The above studies revealed that fine crystalline Chatterjee, S., & Scotese, C.R. (1999). The breakup of
dolomites (Df) are formed near-surface conditions Gondwana and the evolution and biogeography
during the early stage of diagenesis, whereas of Indian plate. Proceedings-Indian National
medium crystalline dolomite (Dm) and coarse Science Academy, 65(3), 397-426.
crystalline dolomite (Dc) are formed at depth with
elevated temperature. Chatterjee, S., & Scotese, C.R. (2010). The wandering
Indian plate and its changing biogeography
Acknowledgement during the Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary
period. In New Aspects of Mesozoic
The author is grateful to Geoscience Advance Biogeography Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Research Laboratories, Geological Survey of
Pakistan Islamabad, and PINTECH for providing Chatterjee, S. (1992). A kinematic model for the
access to Laboratory facilities. evolution of the Indian plate since the Late
Jurassic. New Concepts in Global Tectonics, 33-
Author Contributions 62.

Sajjad Khan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Chatterjee, S., Goswami, A., & Scotese, C.R. (2013).
Software, Data curation, Writing-Original draft The longest voyage: Tectonic, magmatic, and
preparation. Mehboob ur Rashid: Visualization paleoclimatic evolution of the Indian plate
Supervision, Writing-Reviewing and Editing. during its northward flight from Gondwana to
Asia. Gondwana Research, 23(1), 238-267.
Conflicts of Interest
Duggan, J.P., Mountjoy, E.W., & Stasiuk, L.D., (2001).
The authors declare no conflict of interest. Fault-controlled dolomitization at Swan Hills
Simonette oil field (Devonian), deep basin west-
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