1. An antenna having 40ohm radiation loss and 60ohm radiation resistance.

what is the efficiency of

antenna? Marks 1 ANS. 60 ohms.

2. E and H Filed are ________ to each other. Marks 1 ANS. Perpendicular

3. Equivalent circuit representation of an antenna is ______ Marks 1 ANS. Series R, L, C

4. Input impedance of Dipole is around _____ohm. Marks 1 ANS. 73 Ohms

5. Radiation pattern of Half-wave dipole is _____ Marks 1 ANS. Omni-directional

6. Transmitting antenna has which of the following parameter as a basic requirement. Marks 2

ANS. The basic requirements of a transmitting antenna are high gain and efficiency while requirements
of receiving antennas are low side lobes and large signal to noise to ratio.

7. Which is the function of the antenna? Marks 2

ANS. An antenna receives electromagnetic radiation and converts it into radio frequency electrical signals
on the receiver's end.

8. At what condition does wave radiate? Marks 2

ANS. Naturally occurring radio waves are emitted by lightning and astronomical objects, and are part of the
blackbody radiation emitted by all warm objects.

9. Which is the correct statement for isotropic radiation? Marks 2

ANS. Isotropic radiation is the radiation from a point source, radiating uniformly in all directions, with same
intensity regardless of the direction of measurement.

10. What is the shape of isotropic radiation when observed in 3D? Marks 2

ANS. The isotropic radiation is nothing but Omni-directional radiation. It has a doughnut-shaped pattern
when viewed in 3D and a figure-of-eight pattern when viewed in 2D.

11. What is the gain factor of an isotropic radiator in all directions? Marks 2

ANS. The isotropic radiator has unity gain, which means having a gain factor of 1 in all directions.

12. What is the gain factor (in dB) of an isotropic radiator in all directions? Marks 2

ANS. The isotropic radiator has unity gain, which means having a gain factor of 1 in all directions. In terms
of dB, it can be called as 0dB gain (zero loss).

13. What is EIRP in an isotropic antenna? Marks 2

ANS. Equivalent isotropic radiated power, EIRP, is the total radiated power from a transmitter antenna
times the numerical directivity of the antenna in the direction of the receiver, or the power delivered to the
antenna times the antenna numerical gain.

14. If the angle of radiation is focused at a direction this will _____ the EIRP with the gain of an
antenna. Marks 2

ANS. Increases.
15. What is directivity of antenna? Marks 2

ANS. Directivity is the measure of the concentration of an antennas's radiation pattern in a particular
direction. Directivity is expressed in dB.

16. Define Front to back ration. Marks 2

ANS. The ratio of power gain between the front and rear of a directional antenna. Ratio of signal strength
transmitted in a forward direction to that transmitted in a backward direction.

17. Define HPBW. Marks 2

ANS. When a line is drawn between radiation pattern's origin and the half power points on the major lobe,
on both the sides, the angle between those two vectors is termed as HPBW, half power beam width.

18. How physical generation of EM wave travel? Marks 3

ANS. Electromagnetic waves are created by the vibration of an electric charge. This vibration creates a
wave which has both an electric and a magnetic component. An electromagnetic wave transports its energy
through a vacuum at a speed of 3.00 x 108 m/s (a speed value commonly represented by the symbol c).

19. Derive the equation for electric field intensity for isotropic antenna. Marks 4

20. Explain HPBW with diagram. Marks 3

ANS. Antenna beam width is a measure of directivity of an antenna. Antenna beam width is an angular
width in degrees, measured on the radiation pattern (major lobe) between points where the radiated power
has fallen to half its maximum value. This is called as beam width between half power points or half power
beam width (HPBW).

Half Power Beam Width or HPBW is an angular width (in degrees),

measured on the major lobe of an antenna radiation pattern at half-
power points i.e the points at which the signal power is half that of its
peak value. In other words, The Half Power Beam width (HPBW) is
the angular separation in which the magnitude of the radiation pattern
decreases by 50% (or -3 dB) from the peak of the main beam.

21. Describe front to back ratio for radiation pattern in antenna. Marks 3

ANS. The front-to-back ratio (F/B) is used as a figure of merit that attempts to describe the level of
radiation from the back of a directional antenna. Basically, the front-to-back ratio is the ratio of the peak
gain in the forward direction to the gain 180-degrees behind the peak.
22. How the height of antenna affects the antenna radiation pattern? Marks 3

ANS. In short, the higher the horizontal antenna, the lower is the lowest lobe of the pattern. As a very
general rule of thumb, the higher an HF antenna can be placed above ground, the farther it will provide
effective communications because of the resulting lower radiation angle.

23. How effect of ground work for antenna radiation? Marks 3

ANS. If an antenna is grounded, the earth still acts as a minor and becomes part of the radiating system. The
ungrounded antenna with its image forms a dipole array, but the bottom of the grounded antenna is joined to
the top of the image. The system acts as an antenna of double size.

24. List the types of polarization. Explain its types. Marks 4

ANS. Following are the three types of polarization depending how the electric field is oriented: Linear
polarization. Circular polarization. Elliptical polarization.

Linear Polarization: In linear polarization, the electric field of light is limited to a single plane along the
direction of propagation.

Circular Polarization: There are two linear components in the electric field of light that are perpendicular
to each other such that their amplitudes are equal, but the phase difference is π/2. The propagation of the
occurring electric field will be in a circular motion.

Elliptical Polarization: The electric field of light follows an elliptical propagation. The amplitude and
phase difference between the two linear components are not equal.

25. A small loop type loop antenna are used as ___ component in communication? Marks 1

ANS. Transmitters

26. In which of the feed there is no impedance mismatch? Marks 1 ANS. Offset feed

27. The current distribution on a half wave dipole is______ Marks 1 ANS. Sinusoidal

28. The radiation resistance of a thin line center fed λ/2 antenna with sinusoid current distribution is.
Marks 1

ANS. Radiation resistance = 73 Ohms.

29. Cassegrain antennas cannot be used in radio telescopes. Marks 1 True or False ANS. False
30. What is the frequency range of folded dipole antenna? Marks 2
ANS. Folded dipole antennas usually operate in the frequency range from 3 kHz to 300 GHz and are
ideal for use where an optimum power transfer and large input impedance is required.
31. List the application of dipole antenna. Marks 2
ANS.
Dipole antennas are used in many areas, both on their own and as part of more complicated antennas
where they can form the main radiating element. They are used in
1. many forms of radio system from two-way radio communications links,
2. to broadcasting broadcast reception,
3. general radio reception and very many more areas.
32. Where the loop antenna is used? Marks 2
ANS.
Loop antennas are used extensively in
1. Radio receivers, 2. Aircraft receivers, for direction finding and also in 3. UHF transmitters.
33. What is a short dipole? Marks 2
ANS. A short-dipole antenna is a center-fed wire whose length is much shorter than one
wavelength. This antenna object only supports polarized fields.

34. List application of helical antenna. Marks 2

ANS. Specialized normal-mode helical antennas are used as transmitting antennas for FM radio and
television broadcasting stations on the VHF and UHF bands.
It is used for extra-terrestrial communications, satellites and space probe communications, and radio
astronomy and so on.
35. On which principle the parabolic reflector works. Marks 2
ANS. The operating principle of a parabolic antenna is that a point source of radio waves at the focal
point in front of a paraboloidal reflector of conductive material will be reflected into a collimated plane
wave beam along the axis of the reflector.
36. Where is the slot antenna is used? List the application. Marks 2
ANS. Slot antennas are usually used at UHF and microwave frequencies at which wavelengths are small
enough that the plate and slot are conveniently small.
Arrays of slot antenna find applications in aircraft. As the metallic surface of the aircraft allows
the formation of the slot directly on it. These are also used in mobile radar systems.

37. Explain Half wave dipole with diagram. Marks 3

ANS.

Half Wave Dipole (Hertz Antenna):

The dipole antenna dates back to the early RF experiments of Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century. It
consists of a conductor that is broken in the center so that RF power can be applied to it. One can think of
the half wave dipole as an open circuited transmission line that has been spread out, so that the transmission
line can radiate a signal into space.

A dipole can be any length, but it most commonly is just under 1/2 wavelength long. A dipole with this
length, known as a resonant or half wave dipole has input impedance that is purely resistive and lies
between 30 and 80 ohms, which provide a good match to commercially available 50 ohms coaxial cables as
 well as commercial transmitters and receivers, most of which have 50 ohm output and input impedances.
The length of a dipole can be approximately determined from the following formula: l = 468/f
38. Describe folded dipole and compare with halfwave dipole. Marks 3
ANS.

Folded Dipole:

o It is an antenna composed of two or more parallel and closely spaced dipole antennas connected together
at their ends with one of the dipole antennas being centre fed.
o It is a single antenna, but consists of two elements.

o The first is fed directly and the second is inductively coupled at the ends.
o Its radiation pattern is the same as that of a straight dipole.
o If the current fed is I then the current in each arm is I/2, provided the two arms have the same dimensions.
o The spacing between the arms is very small and is of the order of /100.
o Folded dipole is used in yagi-uda antenna as an active element.
o It has the advantages of high input impedance, greater band width, ease and low cost of construction with
better impedance-matching characteristics.

Comparison: A folded dipole is a half-wave dipole with an additional parallel wire connecting its two
ends. If the additional wire has the same diameter and cross-section as the dipole, two nearly identical
radiating currents are generated.

39. Describe Helical antenna working and its application. Marks 4

Helical Antenna
o Helical antenna is an antenna consisting of a conducting wire wound in the form of a helix. In most
cases, helical antennas are mounted over a ground plane.
o The feed line is connected between the bottom of the helix and the ground plane.
Working:
o Helical antennas can operate in one of two principal modes: normal mode or axial mode.
 o In the normal mode or broadside helix, the dimensions of the helix (the diameter and the pitch) are
small compared with the wavelength.
o The antenna acts similarly to an electrically short dipole or monopole, and the radiation pattern, similar
to these antennas is omnidirectional, with maximum radiation at right angles to the helix axis. The
radiation is linearly polarized parallel to the helix axis.
o In the axial mode or end-fire helix, the dimensions of the helix are comparable to a wavelength.
o The antenna functions as a directional antenna radiating a beam off the ends of the helix, along the
antenna's axis. It radiates circularly polarized radio waves.
o Its polarization and radiation properties depend on the diameter, pitch, number of turns, wavelength,
excitation and spacing between the helical loops.
Applications:
o It is used in VHF and UHF band most popularly in axial mode.
o In normal mode, beam width and efficiency are small.
o It is used for extra-terrestrial communications, satellites and space probe communications, and radio
astronomy and so on.

40. Explain parabolic reflector antenna with diagram. Marks 4

ANS. The standard definition of a parabola is - Locus of a point, which moves in such a way that its
distance from the fixed point (called focus) plus its distance from a straight line (called directrix) is
constant.
The following figure shows the geometry of parabolic reflector. The point F is the focus (feed is
given) and V is the vertex. The line joining F and V is the axis of symmetry. PQ are the reflected rays
where L represents the line directrix on which the reflected points lie (to say that they are being
collinear). Hence, as per the above definition, the distance between F and L lie constant with respect to
the waves being focused.

The reflected wave forms a collimated wave front, out of the parabolic shape. The ratio of focal
length to aperture size (ie., f/D) known as “f over D ratio” is an important parameter of parabolic
reflector. Its value varies from 0.25 to 0.50.
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal. This
law when used along with a parabola, helps the beam focus. The shape of the parabola when used for the
purpose of reflection of waves, exhibits some properties of the parabola, which are helpful for building
an antenna, using the waves reflected.

Properties of Parabola
All the waves originating from focus, reflects back to the parabolic axis. Hence, all the waves
reaching the aperture are in phase. As the waves are in phase, the beam of radiation along the parabolic
axis will be strong and concentrated.
Following these points, the parabolic reflectors help in producing high directivity with narrower
beam width.
Construction & Working:
If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a signal, the signal from the feed, comes
out of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus the wave on to the parabola. It means that, the waves come
out of the focal point and strike the Paraboloidal reflector. This wave now gets reflected as collimated
wave front, as discussed previously, to get transmitted.
The same antenna is used as a receiver. When the electromagnetic wave hits the shape of the
parabola, the wave gets reflected onto the feed point. The dipole or the horn antenna, which acts as the
receiver antenna at its feed, receives this signal, to convert it into electric signal and forwards it to the
receiver circuitry.

41. List the types of loop antenna. Explain its working with diagram. 5 Marks


Electrically small loop antenna: The type of loop antenna having a length of wire or circumference of loop
less than one-tenth of wavelength is known as a small loop antenna.
Thus, here C < λ / 10
These types of antennas offer small radiation resistance having value even smaller than their loss resistances.
So, it offers, poor radiating ability, thus is not considered as good radiators.

Due to this reason these are not used in transmitting applications. Therefore, find uses at the receiving sections,
where having a good signal to noise ratio is more important than the efficiency of the antenna.

Irrespective of the shape of the loop, the field pattern of all the small loops is the same as that of infinitesimal
dipole having maximum along the plane and null perpendicular to the plane of the loop.

 Electrically large loop antenna: When the circumference of the loop is approximately equivalent to free
space wavelength then it is referred as an electrically large loop antenna. This means
C ̴ λ
In the case of large loop antennas, the field pattern is such that the null is in the direction of the antenna axis.

The increase in the perimeter or the number of turns in the loop electrically enhance the radiation resistance of
the loop. This is so because, with the increase in the length, the circumference approximately reaches
wavelength and in that case, the field pattern will vary and the maximum will shift from plane to the axis of the
loop.

OR

A loop antenna is a coil carrying radio frequency current. It may be in any shape such as circular, rectangular,
triangular, square or hexagonal according to the designer’s convenience.
Loop antennas are of two types.
1. Large loop antennas
2. Small loop antennas

Large loop antennas

Large loop antennas are also called as resonant antennas. They have high radiation efficiency. These antennas
have length nearly equal to the intended wavelength.
The main parameter of this antenna is its perimeter length, which is about a wavelength and should be an
enclosed loop. It is not a good idea to meander the loop so as to reduce the size, as that increases capacitive
effects and results in low efficiency.

Small loop antennas

Small loop antennas are also called as magnetic loop antennas. These are less resonant. These are mostly used
as receivers.
The features of small loop antennas are −
• • A small loop antenna has low radiation resistance. If multi-turn ferrite core constructions are used, then
high radiation resistance can be achieved.
• • It has low radiation efficiency due to high losses.
• • Its construction is simple with small size and weight.

Due to its high reactance, its impedance is difficult to match with the transmitter. If loop antenna have to
act as transmitting antenna, then this impedance mis-match would definitely be a problem. Hence, these loop
antennas are better operated as receiver antennas.

The polarization of the loop antenna will be vertically or horizontally polarized depending upon the feed
position. The vertical polarization is given at the center of the vertical side while the horizontal polarization is
given at the center of the horizontal side, depending upon the shape of the loop antenna.
The small loop antenna is generally a linearly polarized one. When such a small loop antenna is
mounted on top of a portable receiver, whose output is connected to a meter, it becomes a great direction finder.

42. 8-director elements in Yagi antenna has gain of about 13 to 18 dB Mark 1

43. The directivity of Yagi-Uda antenna is increased by adding which elements?

ANS: Reflector Mark 1
44. Which parameters are adjusted to get change in radiation pattern of Yagi antenna.
ANS: Directors & Reflector Mark 1

45. An array in which radiation comes out parallel to array of axis is called end-fire array. Mark 1
46. A narrow beam-width is obtained through a large number of directors.
True or False: ANS: True Mark 1
47. Define the Yagi-Uda antenna. List the elements of the Yagi antenna. Marks 2
ANS:
Yagi Uda antenna is also termed as Yagi antenna which is a directional antenna that has either
two or more parallel resonant antenna components acting as half-wave dipoles. This antenna is majorly
formed by three components which are reflector, driven element, and directors, where the single driven
component has a connection either with the transmitter/receiver via a transmission line or other parasitic
components. In general, the parasitic elements are the reflector and a number of directors (longer
element).
These parasitic elements (shorter elements) are not electrically connected to the transmitter or
receiver but instead act as passive resonators, working in conjunction with the driven element.
Yagi antennas are generally constructed to function in HF and UHF ranges and they provide the
functional frequency between 30 Mega Hertz to 3 Giga Hertz, even when the bandwidth is very
minimal. These antennas are uniquely designed to have good gain values which are more than 10dB.

1. Driven Element
2. Reflector
 3. Director

48. What is the length of reflector for Yagi antenna if frequency is 3 MHz. Marks 2
ANS:
Reflector length (feet) = 500/f (MHz) = 500/3 = 166.66 Feets

49. Draw H-plane horn antenna. Marks 2

ANS:

50. What is the range of Loop Antenna? Marks 2

ANS:
The frequency range of operation of loop antenna is around 300MHz to 3GHz. This antenna works in UHF
range.

51. On which frequency micro strip antenna operates? Marks 2

ANS: 1 GHz to 10 GHz.

52. What is the slot antenna? Marks 2

ANS:
It is a radiating element formed by a slot in a metallic surface. An operating cut in a conducting
sheet or in one of the walls of the waveguide acts as the antenna.
It is excited suitably either by a co-axial cable or through the waveguide.

The slot length is a half wavelength at the desired frequency and the width is a small fraction of a
wavelength. The antenna is frequently compared to a conventional half-wave dipole consisting of two
flat metal strips.
o The physical dimensions of the metal strips are such that they would just fit into the slot cut out of the
large metal sheet.
o A basic slot has a length of c and its width is much less than /2.
o A horizontal slot with such an excitation produces vertical polarization and vice-versa.
o In order to increase the gain and directivity, array of slots is used.
o Cylindrical arrays of slots are found to produce Omni-directional radiation in the horizontal plane
with horizontal polarization.

53. Yagi-Uda antenna made of which basic antenna? Marks 2

ANS:

The Dipole and the parasitic elements together form this Yagi-Uda antenna. Dipole is the basic antenna.

54. Explain Half wave dipole with diagram. Marks 3

ANS:

Half Wave Dipole (Hertz Antenna):

The dipole antenna dates back to the early RF experiments of Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century. It
consists of a conductor that is broken in the center so that RF power can be applied to it. One can think of
the half wave dipole as an open circuited transmission line that has been spread out, so that the transmission
line can radiate a signal into space.

A dipole can be any length, but it most commonly is just under 1/2 wavelength long. A dipole with this
length, known as a resonant or half wave dipole has input impedance that is purely resistive and lies
between 30 and 80 ohms, which provide a good match to commercially available 50 ohms coaxial cables as
well as commercial transmitters and receivers, most of which have 50 ohm output and input impedances.
The length of a dipole can be approximately determined from the following formula: l = 468/f

55. Describe folded dipole and compare with half-wave dipole. Marks 3
ANS: Folded Dipole:

o It is an antenna composed of two or more parallel and closely spaced dipole antennas connected together
at their ends with one of the dipole antennas being centre fed.
o It is a single antenna, but consists of two elements.

o The first is fed directly and the second is inductively coupled at the ends.
o Its radiation pattern is the same as that of a straight dipole.
o If the current fed is I then the current in each arm is I/2, provided the two arms have the same dimensions.
o The spacing between the arms is very small and is of the order of /100.
 o Folded dipole is used in yagi-uda antenna as an active element.
o It has the advantages of high input impedance, greater band width, ease and low cost of construction with
better impedance-matching characteristics.

Comparison: A folded dipole is a half-wave dipole with an additional parallel wire connecting its two
ends. If the additional wire has the same diameter and cross-section as the dipole, two nearly identical
radiating currents are generated.

56. Describe Helical antenna working and its application. Marks 3

Helical Antenna
o Helical antenna is an antenna consisting of a conducting wire wound in the form of a helix. In most cases,
helical antennas are mounted over a ground plane.
o The feed line is connected between the bottom of the helix and the ground plane.
Working:
o Helical antennas can operate in one of two principal modes: normal mode or axial mode.

o In the normal mode or broadside helix, the dimensions of the helix (the diameter and the pitch) are small
compared with the wavelength.
o The antenna acts similarly to an electrically short dipole or monopole, and the radiation pattern, similar to
these antennas is omnidirectional, with maximum radiation at right angles to the helix axis. The radiation is
linearly polarized parallel to the helix axis.
o In the axial mode or end-fire helix, the dimensions of the helix are comparable to a wavelength.
o The antenna functions as a directional antenna radiating a beam off the ends of the helix, along the antenna's
axis. It radiates circularly polarized radio waves.
o Its polarization and radiation properties depend on the diameter, pitch, number of turns, wavelength,
excitation and spacing between the helical loops.
Applications:
o It is used in VHF and UHF band most popularly in axial mode.
o In normal mode, beam width and efficiency are small.
o It is used for extra-terrestrial communications, satellites and space probe communications, and radio
astronomy and so on.

57. Explain parabolic reflector antenna with diagram. Marks 4

 The standard definition of a parabola is - Locus of a point, which moves in such a way that its
distance from the fixed point (called focus) plus its distance from a straight line (called directrix) is
constant.
The following figure shows the geometry of parabolic reflector. The point F is the focus (feed is
given) and V is the vertex. The line joining F and V is the axis of symmetry. PQ are the reflected rays
where L represents the line directrix on which the reflected points lie (to say that they are being
collinear). Hence, as per the above definition, the distance between F and L lie constant with respect to
the waves being focused.

The reflected wave forms a collimated wave front, out of the parabolic shape. The ratio of focal
length to aperture size (ie., f/D) known as “f over D ratio” is an important parameter of parabolic
reflector. Its value varies from 0.25 to 0.50.
The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal. This
law when used along with a parabola, helps the beam focus. The shape of the parabola when used for the
purpose of reflection of waves, exhibits some properties of the parabola, which are helpful for building
an antenna, using the waves reflected.

Properties of Parabola
All the waves originating from focus, reflects back to the parabolic axis. Hence, all the waves
reaching the aperture are in phase. As the waves are in phase, the beam of radiation along the parabolic
axis will be strong and concentrated.
Following these points, the parabolic reflectors help in producing high directivity with narrower
beam width.

Construction & Working:

If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a signal, the signal from the feed, comes
out of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus the wave on to the parabola. It means that, the waves come
out of the focal point and strike the Paraboloidal reflector. This wave now gets reflected as collimated
wave front, as discussed previously, to get transmitted.
The same antenna is used as a receiver. When the electromagnetic wave hits the shape of the
parabola, the wave gets reflected onto the feed point. The dipole or the horn antenna, which acts as the
receiver antenna at its feed, receives this signal, to convert it into electric signal and forwards it to the
receiver circuitry.

58. List the types of loop antenna. Explain its working with diagram.
Same as Question no. 41 Marks 4

59. How slot antenna works? Explain it with diagram. Marks 5

It is a radiating element formed by a slot in a metallic surface. An operating cut in a conducting

sheet or in one of the walls of the waveguide acts as the antenna.
It is excited suitably either by a co-axial cable or through the waveguide.
 The slot length is a half wavelength at the desired frequency and the width is a small fraction of a
wavelength. The antenna is frequently compared to a conventional half-wave dipole consisting of two
flat metal strips.

o The physical dimensions of the metal strips are such that they would just fit into the slot cut out of the
large metal sheet.
o A basic slot has a length of c and its width is much less than /2.
o A horizontal slot with such an excitation produces vertical polarization and vice-versa.
o In order to increase the gain and directivity, array of slots is used.
o Cylindrical arrays of slots are found to produce Omni-directional radiation in the horizontal plane
with horizontal polarization.

60. What frequency is ground wave propagation employed up to? Mark 1

ANS: 2MHz

61. Which of the following scattering occurs through the fine layers in the troposphere? Mark 1
ANS: Forward Scatter propagation
62. Ground wave propagation is also known as____? Mark 1
ANS: Surface Wave

63. Duct propagation occurs at __________? Mark 1

ANS: lower atmospheric layers

64. How the ground wave losses vary with high frequencies? Mark 1
ANS. Increases

65. What is wave propagation? Marks 2

ANS. Wave propagation is any of the ways in which waves travel. Single wave propagation can be
calculated by 2nd order wave equation or 1st order one-way wave equation. With respect to the direction
of the oscillation relative to the propagation direction, we can distinguish between longitudinal wave and
transverse waves. By Wikipedia

66. List the types of wave propagation. Marks 2

ANS. The main three types of wave propagation as below.
1. Ground wave propagation (Surface wave propagation).
 2. Sky wave propagation
3. Space wave propagation (Troposphere Scattered Propagation, Duct Propagation)
4. Direct wave propagation (Line of Sight)

67. List the type of radio wave propagation. Marks 2

ANS. 1. Ground wave propagation (Surface wave propagation).
2. Sky wave propagation
3. Space wave propagation

68. What is LOS communication? Marks 2

ANS.
If the Transmit and Receive antenna are in line of sight (LOS) then direct path exist. The
propagating wave is called Line of Sight communication (direct wave).

In LOS model, the assumption is that there is only one path for propagation of EM Wave from
transmit antenna to receive antenna. The two antennas are kept in free space with no other objects
intersecting radiation from transmitter antenna.
It is limited to “line-of sight” transmission distances .The limiting factors are antenna height and
curvature of earth. The Radio horizon is about 80% greater than line of sight because of diffraction
effects. A Part of the signal from the transmitter is bounced off the ground and reflected back to the
receiving antenna.

69. Explain the types of wave propagation? Marks 3

ANS.
1. Ground Wave propagation: Ground wave propagation is a type of radio propagation which is also
known as a surface wave. These waves propagate over the earth's surface in low and medium
frequencies. These are mainly used for transmission between the surface of the earth and the
ionosphere. These are made up of the number of constituent waves.
2. Sky Wave propagation: Sky Wave propagation, commonly known as the skip, is a kind of radio
wave propagation. It is either the reflected or refracted back waves to the earth from the ionosphere,
which is an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere.

3. Space wave propagation: Space wave propagation is defined for the radio waves that occur within
the 20km of the atmosphere ie; troposphere, comprising of a direct and reflected waves. These
waves are also known as tropospheric propagation as they can travel directly from the earth's surface
to the troposphere surface of the earth.

70. Which are the types of radio wave propagation. Explain any one in detail. Marks 3
ANS. Types of radio wave propagation as below.
1. Ground wave propagation (Surface wave propagation).
2. Sky wave propagation
3. Space wave propagation

GROUND WAVE PROPAGATION

 The process in which radio frequency propagates along the surface of the earth for the
communication purpose.
 Low frequency of electromagnetic spectrum where used
  Also called surface wave propagation.
 Collection of these radiation along the surface of the earth is known as ground wave
propagation.
 Intensity of radiations drops with distance due to its absorption by ground.

71. Explain concept of duct wave propagation. Marks 4

ANS.
Duct Propagation
These waves propagate around the curvature of the earth even up to a distance of 1000km. This
refraction goes on continuing in this region of troposphere. This can be termed as Duct propagation.

Duct propagation is sometimes referred as super refraction. It allows the propagation of the
signals beyond the horizon. This means that, unlike surface wave propagation, it permits the signal
transmission without assuring the need for having a line of sight distance between the two antennas.
A radio wave propagation technique that allows the transmission of UHF and VHF
electromagnetic waves through the region near the tropospheric layer of the atmosphere is known
as duct propagation. Basically in duct propagation, despite being reflected from the ionosphere or
gliding over the surface of the earth, the waves propagate from an end to another by undergoing
successive refraction from the troposphere.

72. List the advantages, disadvantage and application of ground wave. Marks 4
ANS.
Advantages of Ground Wave Propagation
1. As it uses lower frequencies, interference occurs due to atmospheric noise only. That's why the
absorption of EM waves at lower frequencies is less. Hence it can cover longer distances. However, the
path loss increases as the distance from the transmitter increases.
2. These waves are more efficient and also these are not affected by the change in atmospheric conditions,
due to the bending around the corners or obstructions during propagation.
3. They are vertically polarized in order to prevent short circuits of the electric field (E) component.

Disadvantages of Ground Wave Propagation

1. High-frequency waves cannot be transmitted as the energy losses are more because of the absorption of
energy in the earth’s atmosphere.
2. These are used to cover short ranges and also involve attenuation of waves as they interact with the eddy
currents produced by the surface of the earth.
3. If the polarization of the ground wave is affected, E field components are short-circuited with the
ground.

73. The ionosphere functions as a reflecting surface for the waves in which of the following modes of
propagation? Marks 1
ANS. Sky wave

74. The frequencies __________ are reflected in sky wave propagation. Marks 1
ANS. 2 MHz to 30MHz
75. RADAR works on the principle of ______ of electromagnetic waves. Marks 1
ANS. Reflection

76. Which of the following is the top region during night hours in ionosphere? Marks 1
ANS. F Layer

77. Which of the following layer is known as absorption layer for short waves? Marks 1
ANS. D Layer

78. List the layer types in ionosphere. Marks 2

ANS. 2
 D-Layer
 E-Layer
 F1-Layer
 F2-Layer

79. What is happens in ionosphere layer during day and night? Marks 2
ANS.
The ionosphere from 90 to 1000 km above the earth's surface. It is divided into three regions or layers;
the F-Region, E-Layer and D-Layer. During the daytime the F-Layer splits into two layers then
recombines at night.

80. What is skip distance? Marks 2

ANS.
A skip distance is the distance a radio wave travels, usually including a hop in the ionosphere. A skip
distance is a distance on the Earth's surface between the two points where radio waves from
a transmitter, refracted downwards by different layers of the ionosphere, fall. It also represents how far
a radio wave has travelled per hop on the Earth's surface, for radio waves such as the short wave (SW)
radio signals that employ continuous reflections for transmission.

81. What is critical frequency? Marks 2

ANS.
In telecommunication, the term critical frequency has the following meanings: In radio
propagation by way of the ionosphere, the limiting frequency at or below which a wave component is
reflected by, and above which it penetrates through, an ionospheric layer.

82. Define MUF and LUF. Marks 2

ANS.
MUF: In radio transmission maximum usable frequency is the highest radio frequency that can
be used for transmission between two points via reflection from the ionosphere at a specified time,
independent of transmitter power. This index is especially useful in regard to shortwave transmissions.
LUF: The lowest usable high frequency (LUF), in radio transmission, is a frequency in the HF
band at which the received field intensity is sufficient to provide the required signal-to-noise ratio for a
specified time period

83. How the wave propagates in sky wave propagation through different propagation method. Marks 5
ANS.
Sky waves are electromagnetic waves transmitting antennae emit and then receive after being reflected
by the ionosphere. This method of propagation is known as sky wave propagation. The ionosphere's
entire internal reflection of the electromagnetic waves causes the skywaves to propagate.

Skywave propagation refers to the propagation of radio waves reflected or refracted back toward
Earth from the ionosphere, an electrically charged layer of the upper atmosphere. Since it is not limited
 by the curvature of the Earth, skywave propagation can be used to communicate beyond the horizon, at
intercontinental distances. It is mostly used in the shortwave frequency bands.

The ionosphere is a region of the upper atmosphere, from about 80 km to 1000 km in altitude,
where neutral air is ionized by solar photons and cosmic rays. When high frequency signals enter the
ionosphere obliquely, they are back-scattered from the ionized layer as scatter waves. If the mid-layer
ionization is strong enough compared to the signal frequency, a scatter wave can exit the bottom of the
layer earthwards as if reflected from a mirror. Earth's surface (ground or water) then diffusely reflects
the incoming wave back towards the ionosphere. Consequently, the signal may effectively bounce
between the earth and ionosphere two or more times (multihop propagation). Since at shallow incidence
losses remain quite small, signals of only a few watts can sometimes be received many thousands of
miles away as a result. This is what enables shortwave broadcasts to travel all over the world. If the
ionization is not great enough, the scatter wave is initially deflected downwards, and subsequently
upwards (above the layer peak) such that it exits the top of the layer slightly displaced. Sky wave
propagation occurs in the waveguide formed by the ground and ionosphere, each serving as reflectors.

84. Explain wave propagation through ionosphere. Marks 5

ANS.
Ionospheric wave propagation is also called sky wave propagation. EM waves directed upward
at some angle from the earth’s surface are called sky waves. Sky wave propagation is useful in the
frequency range of 2 to 30 MHz and for long
distance communication.
Ionosphere is the upper portion of the atmosphere between approximately 60 km and 400 km
above the earth which is ionized by absorbing large quantities of radiation energy from the sun.
The major ionisation is from a, b and g radiations from the sun and cosmic rays and meteors.
Ionisation is a process by which a neutral atom or molecule gains or loses
electrons and is left with a net charge.

CHARACTERISTICS OF IONOSPHERE
The physical properties of the ionosphere vary from time to time as the temperature, ionisation
density and composition change regularly. As a result, ionosphere tends to be stratif ied and it does not
have regular and constant distribution.
Ionosphere is divided meteorologically into different regions or layers and each layer exhibits
different characteristics.
 D-Layer
 E-Layer
 F1-Layer
 F2-Layer
85. Explain MUF and LUF in wave propagation. Marks 3
ANS:
 MUF: In radio transmission maximum usable frequency is the highest radio frequency that can
be used for transmission between two points via reflection from the ionosphere at a specified time,
independent of transmitter power. This index is especially useful in regard to shortwave transmissions.

LUF: The lowest usable high frequency (LUF), in radio transmission, is a frequency in the HF
band at which the received field intensity is sufficient to provide the required signal-to-noise ratio for a
specified time period.

86. Explain concept of skip distance and fading. Marks 4

ANS.

Skip Distance:
A skip distance is the distance a radio wave travels, usually including a hop in the ionosphere. A
skip distance is a distance on the Earth's surface between the two points where radio waves from
a transmitter, refracted downwards by different layers of the ionosphere, fall. It also represents how far
a radio wave has travelled per hop on the Earth's surface, for radio waves such as the short wave (SW)
radio signals that employ continuous reflections for transmission.

Fading:
It is the fluctuation in signal strength at a receiver and may be rapid or slow, general or
frequency-selective. In each case it is due to interference between two waves, which left the same source
but arrived at the destination by different paths. The fluctuation is more likely with smaller wavelengths,
i.e., at higher frequencies.
Types of Fading: 1. Slow Fading. 2. Fast Fading. 3. Block Fading. 4. Flat Fading. 5. Frequency selective
Fading