Intellectual Revolutions That Defined Society

Learning Objectives:

After reading this section, the student should be able to:

 Discuss the paradigm shifts through history;
 Explain how the intellectual revolution changed the way how
humans see the world; and
 Describe the technological advancements that happened in the
information age.

The previous chapter tackled how historical antecedents have affected the
course of science and technology.
 It has been established that most, if not all, of the discoveries and
inventions in science and technology during each time period were
due to human needs and wants.
 Brilliant minds responded to the call of the times and created
things that could make life easier for the people.

There have also been instances when advancements in science and

technology changed people’s perceptions and beliefs. Much of these
events happened in a period now known as the Intellectual Revolution.
The developments during the Intellectual Revolution showed how society
was transformed by science and technology.

This chapter aims to establish the interaction between science and

technology and society, cementing further the relationship as introduced in
the first chapter.

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 In the early times, people questioned what created days and stars,
moons and planets are. The invention of the telescope allowed the people
to take a peek at the outer space, but more importantly, it also intrigued
them to known what was actually out there
Many Greek philosophers and intellectuals wrote about planets in an
attempt to explain the movements of heavenly bodies and their effects on
the world as they knew it. Many of these philosophers agreed that planets
moved around in circular motion, and that these movements created days
and nights, among others. In the 6 th century, Claudius Ptolemy introduced
the Geocentric model which described the absolute perception of the
universe with the Earth as its center which was thought to be true by most
of the people at that time.

a. The Copernican Revolution

This caused the paradigm shift of how the earth and sun were placed
in the heavens/universe. It is the idea that rejected Geocentric model (earth
is the center of the solar system) and proved the heliocentric model (Sun is
the center of the solar system having the earth revolving around it.)

 Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

An astronomer who proposed a heliocentric system, that the
planets orbit around the Sun; that Earth is a planet which, besides orbiting
the Sun annually, also turns once daily on its own axis; and that very slow
changes in the direction of this axis account for the precession of the
equinoxes.

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 The shift from the geocentric to heliocentric slowly happened
through the contributions of different persons.
 Tycho Brahe’s careful observation of the star, Cassiopeia and
measurements of the orbitals of Mars.
 Johannes Kepler’s idea that all planets move in elliptical orbit and
the sun at the center; Laws of Planetary Motion
 Galileo Galilei’s development of his own telescope and observed
the planet Venus
 Isaac Newton’s Law of Gravitation; Newton’s Laws of Motion

These observations influence conceptual changes in cosmology,

religion, physics and philosophy. It changes the belief of the people about
the center of the Earth.

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b. The Darwinian Revolution (1809-1882)
This has brought a great impact on how people approach Biology
forever. This revolution provided a different than the "theory of Creation".
The Darwinian revolution started when Charles Darwin published his
book “On the Origin of Species” that emphasizes that humans are the
result of an evolution.

 Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

He is famous for his theory of evolution that was formulated in his
book “The Origin of Species” in 1859. The theory describes how
organisms change over time as a result in changes in heritable physical or
behavioral traits. The changes that allow an organism to better adapt to its
environment can help it survive and have more offspring. This book is
considered to be one of the most important works in scientific literature.

The theory of evolution has two main points:

1. All life on Earth is connected and related to each other.
2. This diversity of life came about because of the modifications in
populations that were driven by natural selection.

Natural selection often describes as survival of the fittest, where fitness

refers to the ability to survive and reproduce.

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c. The Freudian Revolution
This theory has started to revolutionize Psychiatry with Sigmund
Freud. This includes the "Freudian Theory of Personality" that involves
the human development contributes to his/her personality and also his
"psychoanalysis" that is the process for achieving proper functioning if a
human does not complete his/her developmental stage.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

He was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a
clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a
patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud is a famous figure in the field of
psychology.
According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has
more than a single component. In his famous psychoanalytic theory, Freud
states that personality is composed of three elements known as the id, the
ego, and the superego. These elements work together to create complex
human behaviors.

Freudian revolution may be viewed as the discovery of a way of

locating in the mind objective entities which can be studied like physical
things.

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d. The Information Revolution
This has been the era in which technology has been prevalent. It is
also known as the Computer Age that has brought so much change on how
are we living today.
Alan Turing’s machine introduced the idea that thinking and being
conscious could be attributed to nonhuman entities.

The information revolution started from the Sumerian pictographs,

the invention of Gutenberg’s printing press in 1455 and the use of
typewriter and telegraph.

Sumerian pictographs Gutenberg’s printing press

Typewrite and telegraph

Today, these technologies are used widely which became easier
with the help of the internet.

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e. Development of Science in Meso-America
Meso-America includes the entire are of Central America from
Southern Mexico up to the border of South America. The Meso-American
region is rich in culture and knowledge prior to the arrival of its European
colonizers.
The Mayan civilization is one of the famous civilizations that
lasted for approximately 2,000 years. These people are known for their
works in astronomy. They incorporated their advanced understanding of
astronomy into their temples and other religious structure. The Mayans are
also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar systems
that were very useful for their religious rituals and cultural celebrations.
The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced
societies in Mesoamerica.
The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas
made advanced scientific ideas and tools to help them in everyday life
such as;
 Roads paved with stones;
 Stone buildings
 Irrigation system and techniques for storing water
 Calendar with 12months
 The first suspension bridge
 Quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts
can interpret; and
 Inca textile

Following the Inca, the Aztec civilization has also made substantial
contributions to science, technology and society in Mesoamerica, such as;

 Mandatory education
 Chocolates

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  Antipasmodic medication; a type of medication that could prevent
muscle spasms
 Chinampa; Aztec technology for agricultural farming
 Aztec calendar
 Invention of canoe; a light narrow boat used for travelling in water
systems
f. Development of Science in Asia
Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many
ancient civilizations. In field of science, technology, mathematics, great
civilizations have stood out: India, China and the Middle East
civilizations.
Indians are known for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical
works. Iron steel is considered to be the best in the whole Roman Empire.
India is also famous in the field of medicine, astronomy, mathematics.

China is one of the ancient civilizations with many substantial

contributions in the field of medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics,
arts, philosophy and music, among others. The Chinese are known for
traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experience and discovery
of the Chinese people. The four great inventions of ancient China include
the compass, gunpowder, paper making and printing.
g. Development of Science in Middle East

The Middles East are dominantly occupied by Muslims. The

revolutions in the Middle East were a product of the development and
growth of individual nationalism, imperialism, for the efforts to westernize
and modernize Middle Eastern societies, and to push the declining power
of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab region.
The Arab applied the Romans principles and improve the watermill
known as noria. The Middle East is known for their machine designed and
improvement for irrigation, industrial work and war. The windmill and

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watermill are used for crushing sugarcanes, grinding grain, and pumping
water.
h. Development of Science in Africa

Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Africa is

known for the production of kola nuts and coffee in Ethiopia Kola nuts
stimulant mostly found in West Africa and is the basis of the popular cola
drink. Coffee was developed as a consumable drink that spread to Arabia
and then throughout the world.
Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the
medieval forerunner of chemistry. They tried to study human anatomy,
and pharmacology, and applied important components such as
examination, diagnosis, treatment and prognosis for the treatment of
diseases. Moreover, Africa used plants with salicylic acid for pain
(aspirin) and for diarrhea (Kaopectate). They are also highly advanced in
medicine such operating autopsies and caesarian.

Main Reference:

Serafica, J. P. J. et al., Science, Technology, and Society Rex Book Store,

Inc., ©2018 Edition: First Edition.