PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO.

6, JUNE 1982 641

Laser Scanning Microscopy

W.JERRY ALFORD, RICHARD D. VANDERNEUT AND VINCENT J. ZALECKAS, MEMBER, IEEE

Invited Paper

Ahmct-In conventional light microscopy, images p ~ formed e either it is possible to detect light diffusely scattered from surface
b y d i r e c t ~ o f t h e o ~ j e c t P t a ~ m r g n i f i c l t i o a o r b y i m t g i n g features much smaller in size than the incident scanned beam
theobject0ntoaranote~rad~~theiflumin.aceItth.t
surfacetoandectricdsipd. InlaesscaMingmkmcopy,theobject size. It will be shown how micrometer-sized defects on silicon
orspecimenatrhceisscPnnedpointbypoietbyrfdIrset.bem. wafersurfaces can be detectedwith rasteredlaser Beams
The actual imqe or other p a t i w n t charactexistic of the objectis then focused to 50-100 I.tm in diameter.
@rerated by an dectmnic system. Use of auch scPnned W systems If the application requires a relatively large fieldto be rapidly
exists today in biomedial resmrch, in the semiconductor microelec-
tronicsindwtry,andinvrriedotheridu&ialhpectkmapplications. covered at high resolution, this can bea tedious and error-prone
Inthisprper,wereviewthebasicp~eaoflrserscPnningmiaob task when performed on a conventionalmicroscope by a human
copy, discuss r
dv
ru
rw as compared to m a e conventional light operator. An example would be the inspection of integrated
microsoopy, and illustnte the technique with examples of systems in circuit photomasks. Even when video imaging devices, such as
llse today. vidicons, CCD’s, etc., are coupled to a microscope, limitations
in image content and dynamic range are encountered in many
I. INTRODUCTION:OVERVIEWOF LASER applications. Laserscanning techniques havebeenused to
SCANNING MICROSCOPY overcome these problems. Also, in laser scanning microscopy

I N CONVENTIONAL light microscopy, images are formed

either by direct imaging of the object at a desired magnifi-
cation or by imaging the object onto a remote surface and
converting the illuminance at that surface to an electrical sig-
various physical characteristics of the object can be monitored.
These would include not only reflectance, but others such as
surface roughness and topography. Assuming a video scanning
format is employed, the result is a video signal that has been
preprocessed to exhibit information in a form that is easily
nal.Inlaserscanning microscopy, the object or specimen
surface is scanned point by point by a focused laser beam. The handled by image processing hardware or readily recognized
image or other characteristic of the object is then generated via observation of a monitor.
by an electronic system. Scanning formats can be such as to Laser scanning departs from conventional imaging, in which
lead to real-time video displays or can be configured so as to information is acquired by direct imagingof the object at a
scan at non-video rates or in a non-raster format, where infor- desired magnification, or by imaging the object onto a remote
mationabout the object is obtainedwithoutits realimage surface and then converting the illuminance at that surface to
being generated. The laser is focused to a spot size consistent an electrical signal. Instead, object scanning is employed to
with the resolution requirements of the application. For many obtain the desired information; there is no direct imaging
applications, a small spot size togetherwitha largeoverall involved.Fig. 1 illustrates the concept ofimage and object
field size and limitations in scan speed prevent the formation scanning. In object scanning, detection is accomplished by an
of “real-time” images.Severalexampleswhere this occurs arrangement of detectors withwideareacoverage.Image
will be cited later in the paper. scanning, on the other hand,uses a light source with wide area
High-resolution laser imaging systems have been developed coverage and localizes detection over the image. This certainly
in mostcases to overcome inherent disadvantages present in has its advantages as a passive technique that can operate with
more conventional light microscopy. For example, within- ambient lighting. In most industrial applications, however,
creasing magnification and numerical aperture, the depth of and certainly in those requiring image processing,some lighting
focus of a conventional microscope becomes very small. Al- control is necessary. Object scanning is an active approach in
though it would still be difficult to form realimages with that the illumination (assumed t o be a laser) and its movement
scanned laser techniques to any greater resolution and depth over the object determine the signal obtained.
of focus as compared to conventionalmicroscopy,through Theconcept of laserscanning to generate an image thus
sophisticated techniques such a dynamic focusing it is feasible provides a whole series of possible controls and variables to
to conceive of such a system. Also, in applications where a optimize. Basically they can be divided into three major cate-
direct image is not requred, significant advantagescanbe gories-detection, illumination, andscanning. As the object
obtained by employing scanned laser techniques. For example, is scanned, detection of the reflected and scattered radiation
can be accomplished in a number of ways to maximize infor-
Manuscript received November 18,1981;revised December 15,1981. mation content. The use of multiple detectors is one example.
W. J. Alford and R. D. VandeNeut are with Ford Aerospace and The illumination is controllable via light intensity and spot
CommunicationsCorporation, Rocsgl Control Roducts Operation, size, while variations in the scan pattern can be made with the
Chariotte, NC 28208.
V. J. Zaleckm is with Western Electric, Engineering Rasearch Center, proper deflection apparatus. Eachof these three categories
Princeton, NJ 08540. will briefly be reviewed in the following.

0018-9219/82/0600-0641$00.75 0 1982 IEEE

642 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 6 , JUNE 1982

Fi.2. Illustration of the use of multiple detectors t o obtain informa-

tion on backscattered radiation a function of reflection @e.

Fa.1. Illustration of the concept of image and object scanning.

11. LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPE TECHNOLOGY

A . Detection
The most basic detection arrangement is the use of a single
detector, where the backscattered radiation from the object
is monitored by the detector. The same principles apply for
light scattered in the forward direction. The single detector Fii. 3. A possible configuration for monitoringtopography using a
position detector.
has found utility in past applications involving a scannedlaser
beam. Applications for optical microscopy [ 1I , [21, semi-
conductor testing [31,[41, photomaskinspection [SI, [61, obtain information pertaining t o the polarization of the re-
and printed circuit board inspection [7] have been reported. flected beam.This information, when suitably processed,
Several of these applications willbe explored later in detail. then allows discrimination between variousmaterials in the
In these areas, scanning with a single detector has been applied object regardless of the reflected intensity or image contrast.
to specific objects with a well-defined application. An example is the observation of gold thin-film patterns on
Although inexpensive photodiodes can be used as the single ceramic with a laser scanner [ lo]. The gold/ceramicratio was
detector, advantages are obtained using detectors with gain, increased from 1.3 to a value near 10 by using two detectors.
such as avalanche photodiodes and photomultiplier tubes. Im- Laser scanning withspecial-purpose detectors canbeem-
provementof the signal-to-noise ratio will produce a signal ployed to obtain information in special applications. A quad-
with increased dynamic range, thereby providing more infor- rant detector has been used for identification of surface defects
mationon object reflectance. Photomultipliers caneasily on the gold contacts of printed wiring boards [ 111. In a
provide a current gain that varies over five decades for a wide transmissionmode, a similar detector hasalsobeenapplied
range of sensitivities with a linear response [ 81. to imageprocessing for visualizationofphase information
A certain amount of information concerning the object can from objects [ 121. As anotherexample, position detectors
be obtained with a single detector. Additional information is such as diode arrays may provide a means of obtaining object
available by the proper application of multiple detectors with contour infomation. The output from position detectors is
appropriate electronic processing of the detector output. An proportional to the mean position of the light intensity distri-
example is illustrated in Fig. 2, where a seriesof detectors bution incident upon them. With laser scanning and an off-
provides information on the backscattered radiation at various axis imaging arrangement, the output from the position detec-
angles.With suitable processing, recognition of object detail tor can be related to object contour. This principleis illustrated
is possible by recognition of the scattering profile, since differ- in Fig. 3 ; the off-axis imaging optics provides a perspective of
ent materials will have different profiles. Thus an object the object such that changes in the contour result in movement
parameter other than reflectance can be used to generate the of the imaged spotonthedetector surface and, therefore,
object signal. Multiple detectors also allow simultaneousobser- changes in the detector output. Incorporating a laser scanner
vation of variations in reflectance properties. 0ne.example is allows for a rapid, high-speed approach that canaccess any
the polarization of the backscattered light [ 91. Two detectors scanline. Note thatotherconventional detectors maybe
with cross-polarizing fiters can examine the same object and deployed to acquire reflectance and/or scattering profie infor-
ALFORD et d.: LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY 643

grating with a period much less than the scanning spot size in
P1, a scanning spot with a high-frequencyfringe pattern is
incident upon the object. The diffuse radiation collected by
that same lens is imaged back to the grating. Due to contour
variations on theobject, the image will have well-defined grating
2 lines only at those points that are within the depth of focus
of the imaging lens. These areas will pass through the grating
withmaximum intensity. Out-of-focus grating lines, on the
other hand, will be reduced by the grating duty cycle. The
light passing through the grating on the return is collected and
sent to a detector. The resulting signal has a brightfringe
delineating those regions within the depth of focus of the
Fig.4. A two-spot pattern for object differentiation in two dimensions. imaginglens. The overallimage,however,remains infocus
due to therelatively smallflnumber that describes the scanning
system.
The potential advantagesofwavelength control lie, as ex-
pected, in color discrimination. A single scanning spot of
multiple wavelength can be detected by any number of detec-
tors, each with a narrow-bandwidthspectral filter. The obvious
comparison is to a color camera, which can also discriminate
object color. An advantage may be gained with laser scanning
in that multiple detectors can provide scattering angle informa-
tion. Color as a function of scattering angle can be used, there-
fore, to provide additional object information. In some cases,
use of an infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (W)illumination source
maybebeneficial.Lasersources with high brightnessare
availablein these regions.Examplesofpossible applications
Fig.5. The optical arrangement for focus contouring. are transmission studies in silicon (IR) [ 141 or fluorescence
studies [ 151.
mation. Thus the contour information can act as yet another C. Scanning
input to identify the object detail. Three aspects of scanning control are considered. The first
is the scan format, or the path of the scanning illumination
B. Illumination point in the object plane. The second is scan position infor-
A second area of importance in laser microscopy is illumina- mationforaccuratemeasurement, if desired, and the third
tion. Variations in the illuminationspot during the object relates to focus variations of the scanning spot.
scan can be made to maximize the information obtained; these For most applications, a standard raster scan pattern for the
variations can be in spot size, spot shape, and light wavelength, object scan is employed. However, depending on the applica-
providing a high degree of versatility in illumination. Control tion, it may be advantageous to employ a different scanning
of spot shape, as in spot-size control, utilizes information in pattern. This would be particularly true for image processing,
the vicinity of the scanning spot to optimize the information where a standardized scan format is not necessarily required.
obtained. This will be illustrated with a discussion of object As an example, aradial scan foralignment of radiallysymmetric
differentiation and focus contouring. objects would provide information in a more suitable format
Object differentiation using multiple spots provides an exact for subsequent image processing. In other cases, a spiral scan
means for obtaining a signal representing the differential of might be beneficial. Random access capability for the object
object reflectance. This can be done in two dimensions, there- scan is a possibility as well, dependingupon the scanning
by providing a capability that simple electronics differentiation apparatus employed. Basically, control of the scanning pat-
cannot provide. Shown in Fig. 4 is an example of a spot con- tern is a means of varying the format of the data as received
figuration that can be used. A multiplexing scheme must be by the image processor. In doing so, the circuitry for process-
used to separate the signal obtained from each spot. Differen- ing the data can be simplified. Obviously, many of the poten-
tiation in the x direction can be realized by subtraction of 1 tial advantages for scan control wouldbebased uponthe
from 3, while in they direction the result is obtained from the partic& characteristics of the object in question.
difference of 2 and 3 (see Fig. 4). Scan position information implies precise knowledge of the
Focus contouring employs a scanning illumination spot that scanning beam location. Applications for precise measurement
contains a high spatial-frequency pattern. It is atechnique and gauging require accurate information relating the signal in
that delineates a single contour on a diffuse objectwith a time to an object location in space. Using methods of position
bright fringe. Basically, it takes advantage of the short depth monitoring for a scanning laserbeam1161, accurate beam
of focus obtained withlow flnumber optics. A similar method position information to 1 part in 40 000 has beendemonstrated.
is described as a “locus of focus” contour [ 131. Fig. 5 serves This is done by splitting a portion of the beam and interrogat-
to better describe the technique. A scanning beam is brought ing the spot in a separate s c a n n i n g plane with a grating. A
to image plane P1. Planes P1 and P2 are conjugates, so that time-space relationship is then established by the grating, and
the imageof the scanning beam is at the object plane. The drifts of the scanning apparatus or nonlinearities in the scan
imaging lens is chosen to have a low f/number. By placing a w li not affect measurementaccuracy. Fig. 6 illustrates the
644 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 6 , JUNE 1982

1) Thin-Film Masks: Chrome masks for thin-film circuits

have patterned areas of up to 9.5 cm X 11.5 cm in size [ 181.
Pattern options include a large number of regular geometric
shapes (lines, circles, squares, etc.) occurring at an unlimited
number of orientations. Commonlyoccurring defects are
irregular in shape, such as extraneous chrome spots, pinholes,
etc. A noncomparative laser scanning approach for detection
of such defects hasbeendeveloped [SI and is illustrated
schematically in Fig. 7. A He-Nelaseris rastered across the
maskby an x-y galvonometer deflection system. No critical
mask alignment is required since the mask is scanned using a
single focused laser spot. At any point in time, the light trans-
Fii. 6. The use of a two-dimensional grating for accurate monitoring mitted and diffracted from a given point on the mask is col-
of beam position.
lected, immobilized by a descan mirror, and then directed into
the optical processing head. The processing head divides the
basic configuration. Note that other controls such as multiple beam into segments to allow a determination of the radial and
detectors can also be employed in the same arrangement to angular characteristics of the diffraction patterns. If the laser
best delineate the measurement points. spot size is arranged to be smaller than the minimum feature
Focus controlcan provide advantagesin examining extended size on the pattern, then the “regular” nature of valid features
objects. Using electrooptic techniques,the possibility exists results in diffraction patterns with a limited set of radial and
for variation of the focal point of the scanning ill-tion angular characteristics. With fewexceptions,pattern defects
spot during the scan. The apparent depth of focus can then be result in anomalous diffraction patterns having radial and an-
increased by displaying only the information that represents a gular characteristics which fall outside the set unique to valid
focused condition. Techniques for autofocus canbeapplied features. Defects as small as 5 pm are detectable with a scanned
to recognize the focused positions. Object contour informa- spot diameterof 40 pm.
tion can also be provided with this approach [ 17l . The position of both the scanned laser spot and the transla-
tion table are encoded at all times so that, once a defect is
III. APPLICATIONS detected, its position can be stored in a minicomputer. An-
other aspectof this system is the capability to alsorepair
A. Introduction defects once found. This is done using an Nd :YAG machining
In this section wereview selected examples of systems de- laser for removal of extraneous chrome. Pinholes are touched
signed and developed for specificmicroscopic inspectionor up with opaque epoxy[ 191, [ 201.
characterization applications. A major part of the industrial 2 ) AMIS-Automatic Mask Inspection System: A compara-
and commercial development of such systems has occurred as tive laser scanning approach has been developed [6] for the
a result of the inspection needs of the semiconductorindustry. inspection ofSICmasks. It consists ofscanning the mask
Examples of systems for photomask inspection, surface inspec- while comparingtwo adjacent butnominally identical patterns,
tion of polished silicon wafers, andpatterned silicon waferswill andregisteringany deviations on a defect map, which then
bereviewed. In addition, examples will beused to illustrate permits an inspector to view only suspicious locations for
the potential of laser microscopy in other areas such as fabric defect classification. The system relieves the human inspector
inspection, material characterization, and biomedical research. from the tedious search for defects, but uses the human’s
superior pattern recognition power to categorize the defects
B. Photolithographic Mask Inspection found and presented by the machine.
A persistent problem in fabricating thin-film or silicon inte- The basic system is shown schematically in Fig. 8 and com-
grated circuits (SIC’S) has been the limitation rn the yield of prises a scanning comparator, a signal processor for its output
functioning circuits imposedby defective photolithography. signals, a display, a scan generator, an operator console, and a
Spuriousphotolithographic defects of micrometer sizecan data processor. An argon laser is used which produces 5 mW
lead to short circuits betweenadjacentconductorpaths or at 488 nm. The beam is scanned by means of a paratellurite
other failurecausing effects. Defects in the masks thus reduce acoustooptic deflector [ 2 1 ] involving a beam expander, circu-
the achievable percentage yield offunctioning devices. lar polarizer,and a cylindrical lens to removeastigmatism,
Laser scanning systems have been developed for the inspec- none ofwhichareshown. Therearrer, abeamsplitter and
tion (and ultimately the repair) of both thin-film and SIC movable prisns produce two beams of variable separation to
masks. For both technologies, the masks themselvesare similar accommodate different pattern spacings on the mask.Since
in physical characteristics, with the patterns delineated in a the output from the acoustooptic light deflector varies with
thin (opaque) metalfilm of chrome depositedon atransparent deflection angle, a small percentage of one of the beams is
glass substrate. The differences in the two types of masks are directed into a photodetector (PDC), which provides a suitable
found in the patterns themselves. For SIC masks, hundreds or feedfomard compensation signal to the amplifiers in the two
even thousands of patterns are repeated in a regular array (“chip signal paths. An adjustable quarter-wave plate follows to per-
sites”). Hencewhen the lithographic and other fabrication mit adjustment of intensity balance of the two channels.
steps are completed,-thesame number of devices are fabricated Two imaging lenses produce intermediate scan images at ten
on a commonsubstrate. For thin-fdm masks, repeated patterns times final size. Each of these lenses consists of two elements
may or many not exist on the same mask. This difference in with adjustable spacing to permit precise matching of the two
the masks themselveshas led to thedevelopment of two unique scan lines. These intermediate images are reduced t o final size
laser scanning systems for inspection. Each system is reviewed by means of a 0.1x photolithographic reduction lens with an
in the following. 8-mm image field.
ALFORD et ai.: LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY 645

SCAN LE& DESCAN MRROR

YAW
SCAN MIRROR I I I DESCANLENS

'I LASER

U U
Fii. 7. Schematic illustration of the optical system for thin-fiim mark
inspection.

on the mask. The light passing through the mask is directed

by collector optics common to both channels into the photo-
detectors PDA and PDB, the output from which constitutes
the signals to be processed further.
It is desirable to be able to distinguish surface defects on a
mask from intrinsic defects, such as bubbles in the glass s u b
strate, since the former can, in most instances, beremoved.
Surface defects can be detected by sensing nonspecularly
scattered light in coincidence withthe normal defect detection
signal. Four small fiber-optic bundles are placed ii the four
quadrants at 45' to the principal axes of the mask under test
and 60' to the optical axis of the reduction lens. The four
swTuILE bundles are broughttogether at an additional photodetector
PDD, the output of which is registered if it exczeds a preset
threshold. The fiber bundles are oriented at 45 to suppress
the scattered light from edges oriented inthex andydirections.
The system is capable of detecting defects with diameters
greater than or equal to 3 routinely and to 2 pm with high
probability [61. The ultimate detection limit is imposedby
the irregularities ofimage placementon the mask, notably
stepand-repeat errors. A system is now available commercially
for photomask inspection using the basic comparison scanning
approachemployed in the AMIS system.' This system is
capable of detecting mask defects less than 1 pmin size.
Fig.8. Schematic illustration of the system for SIC mark inspection.
C. Semiconductor Wafer SurfaceInspection
Highly polished silicon wafers with diameters up to 125 mm
The reduction lens operates at f/2.5 to provide a depth of and thickness of approximately 0.56 mm are extensively used
focus of about 12 pm, adequate to handle bowedmasks and in the microelectronics industry as starting substrates for the
to avoid small mismatches between channels dueto differences
in field lens aberrations. It generates the f i i size scan lines Manufactured by KLA Instruments Corp., Santa Clara, CA.
646 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 6 , JUNE 1982

The diameter of the focused spot on the wafer is approxi-

GALVANOMETER
mately 15 pm. Scan line oscillation speed is 85 sweep&, and
SIGNAL
DETECTOR table traverse speed is 0.13 cm/s. Defects greater than 8 pm
in diameter are routinely detected and counted and at least
some defects as small as 1 pm in size are detected. No attempt
was made in this system to distinguish or discriminate among
LENSf ,-.\’ defect types, or to detect the presence of broad area defects
such as shallowdepressions (dimples), repeating patterns of
topographic hills and valleys(“swirls,” “orange peel,” “waves”),
underpolish, or chemical stains.
2 ) WIS-WaferInspectionSystem: A more sophisticated
surface inspection system for polishedwafershas recently
beendevelopedand is intended for high-thruput production
use by the semiconductor industry. The system, referred to
as the WIS (Wafer Inspection System)’ is capable of inspecting
Fig. 9. Schematic illustration of themechanical and optical system
used in the siliconwafer scanner (SWS). wafers up to 125 mm in diameter for defects as small as sub-
micrometer sizes at throughput rates of 600 wafers/h. Output
sorting as to defect type is also a characteristic of the system.
planar fabrication of microelectronic devices.Polishing m e In the following, the system itself wili be described as well as
thods have been refined to the point where no surface texture some of the criteria used to establish the overall system con-
is visible at magnifkations as high as 200X with interference figuration. The system serves as an excellent example of taking
contrast techniques [ 221. Imposedon this physicallynear- fundamental concepts in scanning microscopy and developing
perfect background, however, can be small-scale defects in the them into anindustrially oriented product.
form of pits, projections, scratches, or particulate residue. To The following considerations were all important in establish-
date, the only widely appliedmethod for inspection of polished ing the final systemdesign:area to be inspected, optimum
silicon wafers has been with the unaided human eye. The eye throughput, the relative contrast of the defect with its back-
is capable of detecting defects nearly as small as 1 pm in diam- ground, and defect discrimination. These considerations di-
eter under specific lighting conditions due to the near-perfect rectly affect the systemdesign in determining: the scanning
condition of the wafer surface. However, as integrated circuits method used, the spot size or instantaneous detection field of
become more complex and higher densities are achieved, de- view, the detector configuration, and number and placement
fects in the submicrometer range become increasingly impor- of detectors.
tant, and are not consistently detectable by a human operator. In the case of polished silicon wafers, where the defects con-
Additionally, subjectivity of inspection becomes of great con- sist primarilyofany deviation from ‘a flat polished surface
cern due to fatigue, boredom, and the like. Variations among devoidofall scratches and particulates, this is a relatively
inspectors adds to the difficulty in applying specific guidelines simple matter. The 125-mm diameter of a silicon wafer with
for product acceptability. A number of systems havebeen the need to inspect for defects to below 1 pm suggests a flying
developed to automate this visual inspection [ 221 4 2 5 1 . The spot scanner, where the instantaneous.field of vision is the spot
basic principle is the same, namely the surface of interest is size. This is primarily because of the extremely large area to
scanned by a laserbeamand reflected light is monitored to be inspected, compared to the size of the smallest defect. It
sense the presence of defects. Two systems will be described was determined that a 64um scanning spot from a 5-mW He-
in more detail in the following. Ne laser provided sufficient signal for defects in the 1-pm range
1) SWS-Silicon Wafer Scanner: One of the earliest instru- to be detected. The objective was to use as large a spot as
ments developed to automate this visual inspection is called possible to maximize the area inspected per unit time, as well
the Silicon Wafer Scanner (SWS) [22]. A simplified schematic as thedepth of focus of thesystem. This f i t affects the
is shown in Fig. 9. The beam from a He-Ne laser is expanded throughput, andsecond the precision with which the wafer
and directed onto a galvanometer-driven oscillating mirror, and being inspected must be presented. To obtain completecover-
focused by a lens onto the substrate. Movement of the wafer age of the wafer, the focused beam is traversed acrossthe wafer
in a direction perpendicular to thescan results in full coverage by means of a rotating mirror while the wafer is moved under
of the wafer surface. In the absence of surface defects on the the scannedbeam at a rate that permitspartial overlap between
wafer, the iight is reflected normallyfrom the surface and successivescans, thus achieving 100-percent coverage of the
follows its incident path in reverse. If, however, the focused surface being inspected.
spot strikes a defect on the surface, the light is scattered away The light reflected from the wafer is collected and detected
from this direct return path. This scattered light is detected in such a way as to provide optimum recognitionof the defects
and serves to indicate the presence of defects. To collect the being scanned. Here it is useful to observe manual inspection
scattered light, a front-surface mirror with a hole through its techniques, since generally the closer an automatic inspection
center is positioned at a 45’ angle in the light path betweenthe system optically duplicates a manual system, the better will
source and the oscillating mirror. Scattered light striking the be the correlation between the two. In manual inspection of a
peripheral area around the hole is collected by a lens and silicon wafer, two methods are used. The first utilizes a high-
focused onto a detector. By coordinating the laserbeam intensity microscope lamp to illuminate the surface, and the
scanning and wafer motion with that of the sweep of a storage operator observes any resultant scattering of light out of its
CRT, a visual indication of the relative location of defects on normal reflected path due to pits, particulates, scratches, etc.
the surface of the wafercanbe obtained. The practical em-
bodiment of the system includes a spot position monitor,used 2Manufactured by Ford Aerospace and Communications Corp.,
to exclude the outerperiphery of the wafer surface. Charlotte, NC.
ALFORD e t al.: LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY 641

The same results are obtained by using a microscope and ob- ,-ROTATING MULTlFK€lCD UlRROR

serving the wafer surface in the dark-fieldmode. This same

result can bereadilyachievedin an automated system by
placing a detector in a position t o only pick up scattered light.
The abovedark-field observations give good results for
defects that diffusely scatter light because it is not critical that
the detector be placed at a specific collection angle. Also, due
t o the low scatter froma defect-free surface, observable defect
size is related to the intensity of the scanning spot rather than
the spot size. However, it is also desired t o observe the flatness
of the polished surface or thepresence of polished undulations
in the surface such as that resulting from saw marks, spikes,
some types of orange peel, etc. This can be readily achieved in
an automatic system by causing the reflected light from the
surface of the wafer to fall on an aperture placed in front of a
detector and sizing the aperture so that any change in slope in
the wafer surface causes the reflected beam t o move off the
aperture. !Y
In manual inspection, observation by the above two methods Flg. 10. Overall view of the WIS wafer inspection system.
must be done separately. In the automatic system, the two are
combined, providing the ability t o instantaneously observe a LGHT FIELD DARK FIELD
defect in two different modes, resulting not only in more com- (SAW MARKS) (SCRATCH)
plete inspection of the wafer than with either method by itself,
but the ability to discriminate as to thetype of defect.
In both the dark field, where any scattered light is observed,
and the light field, where any deviation in the reflected scanned
beam is observed, a fiber-optics line-to-spot collector (a bundle
that collects linearly distributed optical information and trans-
lates it intoa circular spot form) is used t o c o n f i i r ethe results
of the scan line into a centrally located detector. In the dark
field, the amount of scattered light collected is increased by
placing a cylindrical lens in front of the fiber-optics collector.
Inthe light field, the previouslydescribed target aperture
becomes a narrow slit placed in front of a fiber-optics collector.
It mightbe pointed out here that the same results maybe
achieved by useof a focusing lens or mirror, however, such Fig. 1 1 . Illustration o f the s i g n a l outputs generated by the WE.
elements would require an aperture in excess of 6 in with low
flnumbers, and hence wouldbe rather expensive.Although
the fiber-optics collectors aresomewhatless efficient, their sent t o one of four possible stations; i.e., accept, reject, reclean,
lower cost and greater flexibility makes them a better choice or repolish, depending on the natureof the defects found.
forthis application. Thedetectors used are photomultiplier The processed electronic signals are anived at by first passing
tubesfor the reasons outlined previously.Specifically, they the raw detected signal throughappropriate amplifiersof
have the sensitivity and frequency response necessary for high- selected frequency response t o pass those signals of interest,
speedscanning,and their large photosensitive areaprovides and then thresholding the resulting signal t o detect only those
a good match for the fiber-optics collectors. signals that are greater than a predetermined amplitude. Thus
One ofseveralpossible system configurationiis shownin by passing the same signals through separate amplXers of dif-
Fig. 10. Key system components include a He-Ne laser (5 mW), ferent frequency response and thresholding the unattenuated
folding optics, focusing lenses, rotating polygon to generate a portion of the processed signal, information is gained as to the
laserscanning line, automatic wafer-handling system, optical frequency of the detected signal. This approach is useful in
detectors for scattered and specularly reflected light from the the light field, where both low- and high-frequency signals are
wafer, photomultipliertubes, analoganddigitalprocessing obtained. In the dark field, all signals of interest are high fre-
circuits, microprocessor, videoimageofwafer surface with quency. Here the same processed signal, from which any low-
defect location, and hard copy printer. frequency components are removed, is fed t o three separate
In operation, the output of the He-Ne laser is focused to a threshold comparators, each at different amplitudes. The
60-pm spot diameter and scanned across the surface of the amplitude of the signal is determined based on the threshold
wafer. Full surface coverage is provided by moving the wafer at which it is detected. Because the scanned spot is generally
orthogonally through the scan line at a speed of 3.5 cm/s. Two larger than the defect being scanned, the signal amplitude in
fiber-optic collectors detect, respectively, scattered and specu- the darkfield is directly proportional to the defect size. A
larly reflected light fromthe wafer surface. Photomultiplier microprocessor is used for analysis of the above information
tubes convert the collected light into electrical signals which for defect identification and wafer sorting, as appropriate.
are then processed by analoganddigital electronics. These Outputs from the light- and dark-field detectors for a wafer
signals are delivered t o a microprocessor, which constructs a with saw marks and a scratch are illustrated in Fig. 11. (The
map of the waferin its memory along with the location of saw marks show as relatively high-frequency spheres on theleft
detected defects. Wafer status is determined and the wafer is side of the light field trace only, while the scratch shows in
 PROCEEDINGS OF THEIEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 6, JUNE 1982

BRIGHT
FIELD
ETECTOR MIRROR II
GAL

LENS

ANNULAR
MIRROR
FIELD
MICROSCOPE
OBJECTlVE

....
CCI

Fa.11. The laser scanningmicroscopeforpatterned wafer surface

inspection.

the darkfield.)Shown in the upperphoto is the result of

successive scans taken as the wafer passes through the scanner
where all bright points on the display are the result of detected
defects. The waveforms illustrated in the lower photo are the
result of a typical scan across the wafer including the defect,
and are the photomultiplier outputs.
3) LSM-Laser Scanning Microscope: Another application
to IC wafer inspection involves the detection of defects on
patterned wafers, Le., wafers which have experienced various
stages of processing and have patterns etched or deposited on (b)
their surfaces. The inspectionof patterned wafers for unwanted Fig. 13. Example of patternedwaferimage on the LSM (a) and the
defects is an extremely difficult task due to the presence of result of using the particle detector (b).
the complex surface pattern. Of interest from an inspection
viewpoint is not onlythe detection of foreign defects (particles, acoustooptic deflector which scans the beam at the same rate
dust, scratches, etc.) but also the pattern itself, i.e., the size of as the horizontal line scan of a television monitor ( 5 3 . 5 9
features, their relative location, integrity, etc. Here, the power constant velocityscan followed by a 10-ps flyback period).
of the human inspector, with his superior pattern recognition The scanned laser beam is transferred to a galvanometer scan-
capability, is used for most inspection needs. However, if the ner by means of a 2 :1 telecentric lens system. The galvanom-
problem is simplified somewhat by limiting the inspection to eter executes a 6GHzscan consistent with the television
protruding surface particles, for example, a dust particle, laser vertical scan rate. The laser beam, now scanned in two ortho-
scanning techniques have been developed to optically discrimi- gonal directions, passes through a flat-field microscope objec-
nate the defect from the pattern and hence a “particulate in- tive and comes to a focus on the surface of the semiconductor
spection” of the surface can be performed. One of the pre- wafer executing a raster scan.
dominant defects encountered by a typical semiconductor Light that is reflected or scattered at low angles form the
VLSI manufacturing process is surface particles. Hence there object is collected by the microscope objective and subsequently
is great interest and need for a system capable of performing collimated. Some of this light passes through the hole in the
this type of inspection. The systems discussed in the previous annular mirror, is reflected by the galvanometer mirror, and
two examples for polishedwafer surface inspection are not is directed t o a detector by means of a beamsplitter and an
directly applicable, since the topography on patterned wafers, auxiUiary mirror. The output of this detector provides a video
i.e., ridges, steps, etc., win scatter incident light in much the imagevery similar to a bright-field microscope image. The
same way as defects. remainder of the scattered light collected by the objective is
A system called the Laser Scanning Microscope (LSM) has intercepted by the edges of the annular mirror and is directed
been developed for particle inspection of patterned semicon- to a second detector. The video image produced at the output
ductor wafers [26]. The LSM illuminates the wafer surface of this second detector containshigher spatial frequency infor-
with a scanning laser beam and presents a magnified image of mation and corresponds to a dark-field microscope image.
the wafer surface on a television monitor. It has the ability Much of the light scattered from the patterned wafer is not
to produce images similarto thatof a conventionalmicroscope, captured by the microscope objective due to its limited aper-
but in addition can produce animage of surface particles with- ture. Thus in a conventional microscope, the image informa-
out imaging the pattern itself. Any or all of these separate tion contained in this high-angle scattering is lost. In the laser
imagescanbecombined through electronic addition and/or microscope, this light is also detected to produce an additional
subtraction to produce other usefulimages. The optical sys- video image, namely, that from particles or protrusions on the
tem of the laser microscope is shown in Fig. 12. surface.
A He-Ne laserbeam is expandedand passed throughan The basic goal in the design of the particle imaging system is
ALFORD et d.:LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY 649

Fig. 14. Woven fabric inspection system.

that of maximizing the signal due to scattering from particles particle detector. As seen, only an image of the particle itself
while minimizing the signal due to diffraction from the surface appears,making a visual inspection for particles a relatively
relief pattern. To accomplish this, anarray of detectors is simple task.
placed around the periphery of the wafer and positioned such
that only light scattered at angles approaching 90' with respect D. Other Applications
to the surface is detected. Particles scatter a sisnificant amount In this section, other applications of laser scanning micru-
of light at very high angles due to their inherent shape,whereas scopy are reviewed. A system which was developed for the
the higher diffracted orders scattered from the pattern relief inspection of woven fabric is discussed. Semiconductor mate-
are relativelyweak. Further discrimination between the par- rial characterization and biomedical applications are also
ticles and pattern signals is achieved by using a simple com- reviewed.
parator circuit following the detector to eliminate any low-level I ) Woven Fabric Inspection: A system developed forthe
signals from the pattern. inspection of woven fabrics utilizes a scanning scheme similar
A typical image generated by the system is shown in Fig. 13. to that employed for inspection of polished wafers described
A bright-field image of a wafer area containing a 1 w par- earlier (Section IIIC2). The systemhas the capability to detect,
ticle is shown in Fig. 13(a), where the field size is 175 X 130 identify, and mark the location of single yam flaws for cloth
bm (16X objective) and the focused spot size is approximately widths up to 330 cm at throughput rates of 225 m/min [271.
2 bm. Fig. 13(b) shows the sameimagefieldusing only the The optical portion of this system is illustrated in Fig. 14.
650 PROCEEDINGS OF THE IEEE, VOL. 70, NO. 6 , JUNE 1982

The beam from a He-Ne laser is split by a beamsplitter andthe the size of the incident beam. A number of laser scanning sys-
resulting beams are shaped into mutually orthogonal elliptical tems have been developed and used to elicit a variety of photo-
shapes, each ellipse having a width approximately equalto the electric responses from semiconductor specimens. Photoemis-
distance between the centerlines ofadjacent yarns. The shaped sion [ 381, p-n junction photovoltage [ 391, bulk photovoltage
beams are reflected off a rotating, multifaceted pirror which and photoconductance 1401, and optically induced avalanche
direets the beams onto the woven fabric at a 45 angle to the breakdown [4 1] have all been studied.
direction of fabric flow. One beam is focused so that the long Of note is the fact that somewhat similar mechanisms can be
part of the oval is parallel to the threads aligned in the cloth exploitedfor the inspection of metals. Fatigue damagein
flow direction, and the other beam is oriented with the per- metalshasbeendisplayed and assessedbymeansof photo-
pendicular set of threads. electron emission [42]. The surface of a fatigue sample is
Since the two beams strike the mirror at a 20' angular offset, scanned by a focused UV laser, and the spatial distribution of
and the scan is made in a 20' arc, only one elliptical beam is the electron emission is displayed on an oscilloscope. The local
on the cloth at any given instant. In this manner, warp and intensity of the emission is a quantitative m w u r e of the local
fill thread flaws can ultimately be distinguished. Three sets of fatigue deformation. The fatigue process generates microscopic
fiber-optic bundle detectors collect reflected, direct, and scat- extrusions of fresh metal, from which electrons are photo-
tered laserlight from the fabric. The collected light is con- emitted .more easily than from the surrounding oxide-coated
verted into electrical signals by photomultiplier tubes. In most surface.
cases, for a single scan the defect signal is barely larger than 3) Biomedical Applications: Scanning laser techniques
the background noise and of about the same frequency. Hence have been employed in a number of applications in the area of
the defects are virtually indistinguishable from other areas of biomedical research. Amongthe advantages of laser microscopy
the trace, and undetectable. However,whatmakes these de- is the fact that microbiological objects need not be stained, an
fects objectionable is their persistence. They must persist for important consideration when living cells are to be observed
several centimetersbeforethey can be classified as a flaw. [ 11. A laser scanning systemfor use in automated fluorescence
Therefore, once these signals from the flaw are processed suffi- microscopyhasbeendeveloped [ 151.The systemuses an
ciently that a predetermined threshold can be exceeded, even argon laser (488 nm) and was optimized for use with fluores-
though similar areas ofthe scan may also exceedthe threshold, cein isothiocyanate(FITC) stained samples. FITC is the
this scan is stored in memory and compared to subsequent fluorochrome usedalmostexclusivelyinclinical fluorescent
scans along with information as to the cloth movement. This antibody tests. Another example of an instrument developed
information is used to determine if the flaw is still present in for biomedical microscopy is a Laser Scanning Phase Modula-
subsequent scans,and only when it hasbeen detected often tion Microscope 1431 . In this system a laser flyingspot scanner,
enough to achieve a minimum length is it considered a flaw. a phase modulation servo system, and digital image processing
The signalsare subsequentlypresented to a microprocessor are integrated with a highquality optical research microscope.
which links the information together for flaw identification, The laser is rastered across the specimen with galvanometers,
severity, and location. The location offlaws is indicated by yielding a 51 2 x 512 pixel image with potential resolution to
spraying a washable dye onto the edgeof the cloth. Upon 0.5 pm. The phase modulation system useslead lanthanum
completion of the inspection of a roll of cloth, a high-speed zirconate titanate (PLZT) ceramic electrooptic light modulators
line printer displays a topographical defect map of the roll for in an innovative servo design. When combined with the laser
subsequent analysis. scanner, it permits point-by-point measurement of any one of
2) Semiconductor Material Characterization: Laser scanning several optical properties (birefringence, optical rotation, etc.)
techniques have been extensively reported for the noncontact and thus an image can beformed in several modes.
investigationand evaluation of semiconductor materialsand A laserscanning microscope hasbeen employed to make
circuits [281-[351.Bothelementalsemiconductors, such as high-precisionmeasurementsofcells from clinicalcervical
silicon and germanium, and compound semiconductors, such samples [ M I . The instrument consists of a Leitz fluorescent
as gallium arsenide
and indiumphosphide, have
been microscopewithepi-illumination. Illumination is available
investigated. from three sources; tungsten and mercury lamps, and a He-
Thetechniques developedcanbedivided into twobroad CdIO-mW laser (441 nm). The first two sources are used to
categories [36]. First, those in which the input and output locate and identify the cells; actual scanning measurements
from the sample under investigation are optical. For example, are made with the laser. The incident and emitted light are
the IRtransmittance, reflectance, and photoluminescence separated using a flter and dichroic mirror system t o permit
[37] of semiconductor materials can provide information on illumination below 455 nm andemissionabove 490 nm. A
internal inhomoge,neities, impurity precipitations, photoioniza- 0.5-pm spot is produced inthe plane of the cells and is rastered
tion effects, and inclusions of foreign material. An instrument across the cell with a vibrating mirror from top to bottom in
called the ScannedLaser Infrared Microscope(SLIM)has the field, while the stage (undercomputer control) moves
been developed for such evaluations [ 141. the slide laterally in 0.5-#m steps following the completion
The second category includes those techniques in which an of each laser scan. In this manner, a field 50 pm X 50 pm is
optical input is used to elicit an electrical response. Techniques swept out. The specimens are stained with the DNA specific
in this category rely on the fact that incident optical radiation fluorochromemithramycin, and the fluorescent imagesana-
absorbed within a semiconductor will disturb the equilibrium lyzed to give information on nuclear size, DNA content, and
distribution of carriers and hence the electrical properties of nuclear shape.
the sample. The extent of the modification of the electrical
properties depends not only on the illumination but also on IV. SUMMARY
the properties of the material itself in the illuminated region. In this paper we have presented the basic concepts of laser
In principle then, techniquescould be developed for measuring scanning microscopy, and reviewed various applications of the
the electrical properties of a sample with a resolution set by technique, particularly in the semiconductor industry. Laser
ALFORD e t al.: LASER SCANNING MICROSCOPY 651

microscopy was shown t o offer several unique advantages over hardsurface photolithographic masks via laser photodeposition,”
conventional imaging, and it is hoped that the various applica- IEEE ElectronDevice Lett., vol. EDL-1, no. 6, pp. 101-103,
June 1980.
tions presented demonstrated these concepts. [21] A.W. Warner, D.L. White, and W.A. Bonner,“Acousto+ptic
Therecentintroduction of
several
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trate the potential impact that the technique is predicted to tronic materials surface evaluation,” J. Elect. Mat., vol. 3, no. 1,
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