INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY - Example: Research on “bystander

REVIEWER apathy” reveals that people often fail to

help when other possible helpers are
Module 1: Nature of Psychology nearby. Why? Because a “diffusion of
responsibility” occurs. Basically, no one
Psychology feels personally obligated to pitch in. As
- The scientific of overt behavior and a result, the more potential helpers
mental processes (Stanovich, 2013) there are, the less likely it is that anyone
will help
Overt Behaviors
- behaviors which are observable or 3. Prediction
manifested behaviors and mental - Can we forecast when the behavior will
processes are those that involve occur?
thinking, remembering, solving - the ability to forecast behavior
problems, decision making, making accurately
interpretations and others - Example: Bystander apathy makes a
prediction about the chances of getting
Therefore, we can say that everything that a help. If you’ve ever been stranded on a
person possess is a concern in psychology. busy freeway with car trouble, you’ll
recognize the accuracy of this
Progress in Psychology Depends On: prediction: Having many potential
1. Developing suitable research helpers nearby is no guarantee that
methods – systematic scientific anyone will stop to help.
approaches to answers particular
questions. 4. Control
2. Scientific Observations - CAREFULLY - What conditions affect it?
PLANNED AND INTERSUBJECTIVE - the ability to alter the conditions that
(more than one observer can confirm) affect behavior

Goals of Psychology Psychologists Rely On:

1. Description 1. Critical Thinking - collecting empirical
- What is the nature of this behavior? evidence to evaluate theories as guided by the
- the process of naming and scientific method
classifying, is typically based on
making detailed record of scientific Critical Thinking Principles Used in
observation Achieving the Goals:
- Answering psychological questions
often begins with a careful description of 1. What claims are being made? What are
behavior. their implications?
- Useful knowledge begins with accurate 2. Are the claims understandable? Do they
description, but descriptions fail to make logical sense? Is there another
answer the important “why” questions. possible explanation? Is it a simpler
explanation?
2. Understanding 3. What empirical tests of these claims
- Why does the behavior occur? have been made? What was the nature
- being able to state the causes of and quality of tests? Can they be
behavior. repeated? Who did the tests? How
reliable and trustworthy were the
investigators? Do they have conflicts of
 interest? Do their findings appear to be 5. Forensic Psychology - apply psychology to
objective? Has any other independent the criminal justice system by helping in
researcher duplicated the findings? investigations and trials
4. How good is the evidence?
5. How much credibility can the claim be 6. Industrial Organizational Psychology -
given? use psychology in the business world to help
companies better serve consumers
Critical Thinking Principles are therefore the
core essentials that make psychology a 7. Sports Psychology - helps athletes focus
scientific field of study. better and break through barriers to improve
their performance
Scientific Method
- A form of critical thinking based on Types of Psychologists
careful collection of evidence, accurate
description and measurement, precise 1. Educational Psychologists
definition, controlled observation, and - like school psychologists, attempt to
repeatable results. ( Jackson, 2011; facilitate learning but focus on course
Yanchar, Slife, & Warne, 2008). planning, instructional methods.
- They focus on motivation, intelligence,
Elements/Steps of Scientific Method: testing, and student and teacher
1. Making observations behavior
2. Defining a problem
3. Proposing a hypothesis 2. Environmental Psychologists
4. Gathering evidence/testing the - study the ways in which people and the
hypothesis environment influence one another.
5. Theory building
6. Publishing results 3. Human Factors Psychologists
- provide suggestions and create
What Psychologists Do: Field of technical systems such as dashboards,
Psychology computer keyboards, etc. to be more
user-friendly.
Psychology Degrees & Specialties
4. Consumer psychologists
1. Cognitive Behavioral Psychology - helps - study the behavior of shoppers in an
patients understand the thoughts and feelings effort to predict and influence their
that influence behavior behavior.

2. Developmental and Child Psychology - 5. Health Psychologists

work with children who have emotional - examine the ways in which behavior
problems, behavioral issues, and physical or and mental processes are related to
mental disabilities health

3. Clinical Psychology - see patients in a

private practice or conduct research in the
academic or healthcare fields

4. Counseling - help people cope with

emotional problems and stressful situations
one on one
 - is likely to have developed because it is
Module 2: Contemporary Perspectives in adaptive.
Psychology - It has been naturally selected, for
example, individuals who are best
1. Neurobiological Perspective/Biological adapted to survive and reproduce.
Perspective - Behaviors may even be sexually
- Human and animal behavior is the result selected, individuals who are best
of internal physical, chemical, and adapted to survive and reproduce and
biological processes. who are most successful in gaining
- Researchers using this perspective in access to mates leave behind more
psychology might look at how genetics offspring.
influence behavior or how damage to - The mind is therefore equipped with
specific areas of the brain affect ‘instincts’ that enabled our ancestors to
personality. survive and reproduce.
- The nervous system, genetics, the
brain, the immune system, and the 3. Behavioral Perspective
endocrine system are just a few - Behavior is shaped and controlled by
subjects of interest. one’s environment.
- Over the last few decades, the - Emphasizes the study of observable
perspective has grown significantly with behavior and the effects of learning;
advances in our ability to explore and stresses the influence of external
understand the human brain and rewards and punishments.
nervous system. - View people (and animals) as controlled
- Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) by their environment and specifically
and Positron Emission Tomography that we are the result of what we have
(PET) scans give researchers tools to learned from our environment.
observe the brain under a variety of - Stimuli: This perspective is concerned
conditions. with how environmental factors
- Scientists can now look at the effects of - Response: affect observable behavior
brain damage, drugs, and disease in - Today, the behavioral perspective is still
ways that were not possible in the past. concerned with how behaviors are
- Many biological psychologists have learned and reinforced.
concentrated on abnormal behavior and - often applied in mental health settings,
have tried to explain it. where therapists and counselors use
- Example: biological psychologists these techniques to explain and treat a
believe that schizophrenia is affected by variety of illnesses.
levels of dopamine (a neurotransmitter).
4. Psychodynamic Perspective
2. Evolutionary Perspective - Behavior is directed by forces within
- Human and animal behavior is the result one’s personality that are often hidden
of the process of evolution. or unconscious.
- Seeks to explain behavior through - Emphasizes internal impulses, desires,
evolutionary principles based on natural and conflicts—especially those that are
selection. unconscious; views behavior as the
- Most behaviors that we see/display are result of clashing forces within
believed to have developed during our personality.
environment of evolutionary adaptation
to help us survive.
- Behavior
 - Believes that events in our childhood 6. Cognitive Perspective
and interpersonal relationships can
have a significant impact on our
behavior as adults.
- While the psychodynamic perspective is
not as dominant today, it continues to be
a useful psychotherapeutic tool or in
treatment of mental illness.

5. Humanistic Perspective - Much human behavior can be

understood in terms of the mental
processing of information.
- Concerned with “mental” functions such
as memory, perception, attention, etc.
- It views people as being similar to
computers in the way we process
information ( input-process-output).
- For example, both human brains and
computers process information, store
data and have input an output
procedure.
- Cognitive Psychologists often utilize an
information-processing model
- Behavior is guided by one’s self-image, (comparing the human mind to a
by subjective perceptions of the world, computer) to conceptualize how
and by needs for personal growth. information is acquired, processed,
- Focuses on subjective, conscious stored, and utilized.
experience, human problems,
potentials, and ideals; emphasizes self- 7. Positive Psychology
image and self-actualization to explain - “What do we know about love,
behavior. happiness, creativity, wellbeing,
- Centers on the view that each person is self-confidence, and achievement?”
unique and individual, and has the free - Focuses on the study of human
will to change at any time in his or her strengths, virtues, and optimal
life. behavior.
- Suggests that we are responsible for - often referred to as having three different
our own happiness and well-being as levels:
humans.
- We have the innate or inborn capacity 3 Different Levels
for self- actualization, which is our
unique desire to achieve our highest 1. Subjective Level - focuses on feelings
potential as people. of happiness, well-being, and optimism,
- emphasizes the role of motivation in and how these feelings transform your
thought and behavior. daily experience
- Concepts such as self-actualization are
essential. Psychologists with a humanist 2. Individual Level - a combination of the
perspective focus on what drives feelings in the subjective level and
humans to grow, change, and develop virtues such as forgiveness, love, and
their personal potential. courage
 8. Sociological Perspective
3. Group Level - positive interaction with
your community, including virtues like
altruism and social responsibility that
strengthen social bonds

- In order to better explain and define

well-being, which is a primary focus in
positive psychology, Seligman created
the PERMA model.

PERMA
- is an acronym for the following five
elements of well-being:
1. Positive Emotions, or experiencing - Behavior is influenced by one’s social
optimism as well as gratitude about your and cultural context.
past, contentment in the present, and - Emphasizes that behavior is related to
hope for the future the social and cultural environment
2. Engagement, or achieving "flow" with within which a person is born, grows up,
enjoyable activities and hobbies and lives day by day.
3. Relationship, or forming social - Psychologists and researchers look at
connections with family and friends human behavior across different
4. Meaning, or finding a purpose in life cultures.
larger than you - By looking at these differences, we can
5. Accomplishments, or goals and learn more about how culture influences
successes our thinking and behavior.
- For example, researchers have looked
Some of the major findings of positive psychology at how social behaviors differ in
Include: individualistic and collectivistic cultures:
- Money doesn't necessarily buy well-being,
but spending money on other people can
1. Individualistic Cultures
make individuals happier.
- (such as the United States)
- People are generally happy.
- Social Loafing: people tend to exert
- Some of the best ways to combat
disappointments and setbacks include less effort when they are part of a
strong social relationships and character group—a phenomenon
strengths. 2. Collectivistic Cultures
- While happiness is influenced by genetics, - (such as China)
people can learn to be happier by - people tend to work harder when they
developing optimism, gratitude, and are part of a group
altruism.
- Work can be important to well-being,
especially when people are able to engage
in work that is purposeful and meaningful
MODULE 5: NEURONS AND
NEUROTRANSMITTERS 3. Axon
- longest extension from the soma
Why do psychologists study the brain and the - up to a meter in length
nervous system? - serves as the primary communication
- A full understanding of human behavior pipeline from one end of the neuron to the
requires knowledge of the biological other
influences underlying that behavior,
especially those originating in the nervous 4. Axon Hillock
system. - the junction that connects the axon to the
- Behavioral Neuroscientists: cell body
psychologists who specialize in studying
the effects of biological structures and 5. Myelin Sheaths
functions on behavior - sections of fatty tissue
- protect the axon
Neurons - speed up signal conduction
- most basic elements of the nervous system
- carry nerve impulses from one part of the 6. Nodes of Ranvier
body to another - aid in signal conduction
- information in a neuron generally follows a - allow nutrients and waste to enter and
route that begins with the dendrites, leave the axon
continues into the cell body, and leads
ultimately down the tube-like extension, the 7. Axon Terminals
axon - extensions that branches the form the
- vary according to their functions and several axon terminals
location - bottom part of the neuron
- neurons in the brain may be only a fraction
of an inch in length, whereas others in the Nerve Cell Network
legs are several feet long. Synapse
- receive messages from number of sources - message transmission happens from the
such as light, other neurons, and pressure junction between one neuron axon
of the skin, and they can pass these terminals and another neuron dendrites
messages along a complex biological - chemical and electrical neurotransmitters
process are released and picked up by the dendrites
- born with more than 100 billion of the other nerve cell
- mostly found on the brain - as neurons pass information to the central
- messages transmitted by neurons somehow nervous system, the body interprets
account for the phenomena ranging from messages as sights, sounds, aromas, and
perception of an itch from a mosquito bite to other senses and sensations that allows
the coordination of vision and muscles, to us to observe the world around us
the composition of a concert to the solution
of a mathematical problem. (Rathus, 2014) 3 Types of Neurons
- primary cell of the nervous system 1. Sensory/Incoming/Afferent - send the
- allows the nervous system to communicate nerve impulses from the sense organs to
with the rest of the body the brain

Structure of Neuron 2. Motor/Outgoing/Efferent - it carries the

1. Cell Body nerve impulses from the brain to the
- known as Soma skeletal muscles, glands, and other
- houses the cell nucleus affected parts of the body

2. Dendrites 3. Interneuron/Association
- tree like branches that extend off the soma
- detect both chemical and electrical stimuli
 - receive the signals from the sensory
neurons and send impulses to other Synaptic Transmission
interneurons or motor neurons 1. Synapse
- found only in the eyes, brain, and spinal - most communication between neurons
cord occurs at a specialized structure
- an area where two neurons come close
enough to one another that they are able to
pass chemical signals from one cell to
another

2. Synaptic Cleft
- neurons are not actually connected, but
separated by a microscopically small space
- the cleft is less than 40 nanometers wide
by comparison a human hair is about
75,000 nanometers

3. Presynaptic Neuron
- neuron where the signal is initiated

4. Postsynaptic Neuron
- neuron receives the signal
How Neurons Fire
- like a gun, neurons either fire —that is, 5. Neurotransmitters
transmit an electrical impulse along the - chemical signals in presynaptic neuron
axon—or don’t fire.
- there is no in-between stage, just as pulling 6. Vesicles
harder on a gun trigger doesn’t make the - neurotransmitters that are packaged into
bullet travel faster. small sacs
- similarly, neurons follow an all-or-none - each vesicle can contain thousands of
law: they are either on or off, with nothing in neurotransmitter molecules
between the on state and the off state.
- Once there is enough force to pull the 7. Action Potential
trigger, a neuron fires. - it happens when the presynaptic neuron
- differs not only in terms of how quickly an is excited by an electrical signal
impulse moves along the axon, but also in - it causes these vesicles to fuse with the
their potential rate of firing. presynaptic membrane and release their
- some neurons are capable of firing as contents into the synaptic cleft
many as 1,000 times per second, others - once they are in a synaptic cleft,
fire at much slower rates. neurotransmitters interact with receptors on
- the intensity of a stimulus determines the postsynaptic membrane
how much of a neuron’s potential firing - they bind receptors that causes an action to
rate is reached. occur in the postsynaptic cell
- A strong stimulus, such as a bright light or a - the action may involve increasing the
loud sound, leads to a higher rate of firing likelihood that the postsynaptic cell will
than a less intense stimulus does. become activated and itself fire an action
- Thus, even though all impulses move at the potential or decreasing it by inhibition
same strength or speed through a particular
axon— because of the all-or-none 8. Diffusion
law—there is variation in the frequency of - the neurotransmitter molecules must be
impulses, providing a mechanism by which cleared from the synaptic cleft that some of
we can distinguish the tickle of a feather them will simply drift away in a process
from the weight of someone standing on our
toes. (Feldman 2014) 9. Reuptake
 - neurotransmitter is taken back into the - 2000; Schmidt, 2006).
presynaptic neuron in a process - vary significantly in terms of how strong
- once back inside the presynaptic neuron, their concentration must be to trigger a
the neurotransmitter can be recycled and neuron to fire.
reused - effects of a particular neurotransmitter vary
- enzymes break down the neurotransmitters depending on the area of the nervous
within the synapse system in which it is produced. ( Feldman
- the component parts of the synapse can be 2014)
sent back into the presynaptic neuron to
make it more neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitters
- the body’s chemical messengers
- when a nerve impulse comes to the end of
the axon and reaches a terminal button, the
terminal button releases a chemical courier
- chemicals that carry messages across the
synapse to a dendrite of a receiving neuron.
- like a boat that ferries passengers across a
river, these chemical messengers move
toward the shorelines of other neurons.
- the chemical mode of message Major Neurotransmitters
transmission that occurs between
neurons is strikingly different from the
means by which communication occurs
inside neurons: Although messages travel
in electrical form within a neuron, they move
between neurons through a chemical
transmission system
- there are several types of
neurotransmitters, and not all neurons are
capable of receiving the chemical
message carried by a particular
neurotransmitter.
- in the same way that a jigsaw puzzle piece
can fit in only one specific location in a
puzzle, each kind of neurotransmitter has “The combined activity of all these
a distinctive configuration that allows it neurotransmitters determines which messages
to fit into a specific type of receptor site will be transmitted and which ones will not. You
on the receiving neuron. experience your sensations, your thoughts, and
- it is only when a neurotransmitter fits your control over your body as psychological
precisely into a receptor site that successful Events, but the these psychological events
chemical communication is possible. come
(Feldman 2014) from billions upon billions of electrochemical
- particularly important links between the events.” (Weiten 2017)
nervous system and behavior.
- not only are they important for maintaining Neuroplasticity
vital brain and body functions, a deficiency - scientists have learned in recent years that
or an excess of a neurotransmitter can the brain continually reorganizes itself in
produce severe behavior disorders. a process termed neuroplasticity
- more than a hundred chemicals have - Neurogenesis: although for many years
been found to act as neurotransmitters, conventional wisdom held that no new brain
and neuroscientists believe that more may cells are created after childhood, new
ultimately be identified (Penney,
 research finds otherwise. Not only do the - In the late 1990s, researchers found that
interconnections between neurons become stress can actually kill brain cells—although
more complex throughout life, but it now these conclusions are still not completely
appears that new neurons are also created certain.
in certain areas of the brain during - For many decades, it was thought that the
adulthood. (Feldman, 2014) brain was a “nonrenewable organ,” that
- refers to the brain’s ability to adapt. Or, as brain cells are bestowed in a finite amount
Dr. Campbell puts it: It refers to the and they slowly die as we age, whether we
physiological changes in the brain that attempt to keep them around or not. As
happen as the result of our interactions Ramón y Cajal said, “in adult centers, the
with our environment. From the time the nerve paths are something fixed, ended,
brain begins to develop in utero until the immutable.
day we die, the connections among the - Everything may die, nothing may be
cells in our brains reorganize in response regenerated” (as cited in Fuchs & Flügge,
to our changing needs. This dynamic 2014).
process allows us to learn from and adapt - Research found that there are other ways
to different experiences for brain cells to die, other ways for them to
- The brain is truly extraordinary; unlike adapt and reconnect, and perhaps even
computers, which are built to certain ways for them to regrow or replenish. This
specifications and receive software updates is what’s known as “neurogenesis.”
periodically, the brain can actually receive
hardware updates in addition to software
updates. Different pathways form and fall
dormant, are created and are discarded,
according to our experiences.
- When we learn something new, we
create new connections between our
neurons.
- We rewire our brains to adapt to new
circumstances.
- This happens on a daily basis, but it’s also
something that we can encourage and
stimulate.
- The term “neuroplasticity” was first used by
Polish neuroscientist Jerzy Konorski in
1948 to describe observed changes in
neuronal structure (neurons are the cells
that make up our brains), although it wasn’t THE THEORY AND PRINCIPLES OF
widely used until the 1960s. However, the NEUROPLASTICITY
idea goes back even farther (Demarin,
Morović, & Béne, 2014)—the “father of - Neuroplasticity experts Christopher A.
neuroscience,” Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Shaw and Jill C. McEachern describe it
talked about “neuronal plasticity” in the early this way: “While many neuroscientists use
1900s (Fuchs & Flügge, 2014). He the word neuroplasticity as an umbrella
recognized that, in contrast to current belief term, it means different things to
at that time, brains could indeed change researchers in different subfields… In brief,
after a person had reached adulthood. a mutually agreed upon framework does not
- in the 1960s, it was discovered that neurons appear to exist” (2001).
could “reorganize” after a traumatic event. - Shaw and McEachern write that there are
- Further research found that stress can two main perspectives on neuroplasticity:
change not only the functions but also the ​ 1. Neuroplasticity is one fundamental
structure of the brain itself (Fuchs & process that describes any change in final
Flügge, 2014). neural activity or behavioral response
 ​ 2. Neuroplasticity is an umbrella term for a - The average adult, however, only has about
vast collection of different brain change and half that number of synapses. Why?
adaptation phenomena. - Synaptic Pruning: as we gain new
- The first perspective lends itself to a single experiences, some connections are
theory of neuroplasticity with some basic strengthened while others are eliminated
principles, and that research on the subject - neurons that are used frequently
would contribute to a single, all-inclusive develop stronger connections. Those that
framework of neuroplasticity. are rarely or never used eventually die.
- The second perspective would require By developing new connections and
numerous different frameworks and pruning away weak ones, the brain can
systems to understand each phenomenon. adapt to the changing environment.
- Unfortunately, there is still no unifying
theory of neuroplasticity that can lay out in Limitations
simple terms here. This is still a young field - damage to key areas of the brain can result
and new findings are popping up every day. in deficits in those areas because, while
some recovery may be possible, other
2 Main Types of Neuroplasticity areas of the brain simply cannot fully take
1. Structural Neuroplasticity - strength of the over those functions that were affected by
connections between neurons (or the damage.
synapses) changes. - there are also some medical conditions that
2. Functional Neuroplasticity - describes the can limit or hinder brain plasticity. Among
permanent changes in synapses due to them are a variety of pediatric neurological
learning and development (Demarin, disorders such as epilepsy, cerebral palsy,
Morović, & Béne, 2014). tuberous sclerosis, and Fragile X syndrome

Both types have exciting potential, but structural Suggested Ways to Improve Neuroplasticity
neuroplasticity is probably the one that is more 1. Enrich Your Environment - learning
attended; that some functions can be rerouted, environments that offer plenty of
relearned, and re-established in the brain, but opportunities for focused attention, novelty,
changes to the actual structure of the brain are and challenge have been shown to
where many of the exciting possibilities lie. stimulate positive changes in the brain.

2. Get Plenty of Rest - research has shown

that sleep plays an important role in
dendritic growth in the brain. Dendrites are
the growths at the end of neurons that help
transmit information from one neuron to the
next. By strengthening these connections,
you may be able to encourage greater brain
plasticity.

3. Exercise Regularly - has a number of brain

benefits. Some research indicates that
exercise might help prevent neuron loss in
key areas of the hippocampus, a part of the
How Neuroplasticity Works brain involved in memory and other
- The first few years of a child's life are a time functions. Other studies suggest that
of rapid brain growth. exercise plays a role in new neuron
- At birth, every neuron in the cerebral cortex formation in this same region.
has an estimated 2,500 synapses, or small
gaps between neurons where nerve 4. Practice Mindfulness - entails completely
impulses are relayed. By the age of three, immersing your mind in the present
this number has grown to a whopping moment, without ruminating over the past or
15,000 synapses per neuron. contemplating the future. Awareness of the
 sights, sounds, and sensations around you - It is important to note that sensory
is key. Many studies have shown that adaptation does not occur with pain
cultivating and practicing mindfulness can perception.
foster the brain's neuroplasticity.
- It is also an automatic, involuntary process
5. Play - games aren't just for kids, studies that involves becoming less sensitive to
show that playing board, card, video, and sensory stimulation.
other games can improve your brain's
neuroplasticity. Causes of Sensory Adaptation
- Sensory adaptation, also known as neural
Module 6: Sensation and Perception adaptation, occurs due to changes in the
neural receptor cells that receive and
- As psychology emerged as a science process sensory information.
separate from philosophy, researchers - Research suggests that sensory adaptation
became interested in understanding how occurs in multiple stages of perceptual
different aspects of perception worked— processing.
particularly, the perception of color. - This change can occur slowly or quickly.
- In addition to understanding basic - Fast adaptation happens very quickly, in
physiological processes, psychologists the span of milliseconds.
were also interested in understanding how - Slow sensory adaptation can occur over
the mind interprets and organizes these minutes, hours, or even days.
perceptions. - Some evidence suggests that repeated
- Gestalt Psychologists proposed a holistic exposure to stimuli may allow people to
approach, suggesting that the sum equals "learn" how to adapt faster to the change.
more than the sum of its part. - Sensory adaptation serves an important
- Cognitive Psychologists have also function by helping people tune out
worked to understand how motivations distractions and focus on the most
and expectations can play a role in the relevant or important stimuli around them.
process of perception. - Imagine what it would be like if you didn't
experience sensory adaptation. You might
Sensation find yourself overwhelmed by the pungent
- The first step for perception to take place. smell of onions coming from the kitchen or
- It is the process wherein information the blare of the television in the living room.
arriving at the brain are received by the
sense organs. 8 Process of Sensory Adaptation
1. Environmental Stimulus
Perception - The world is full of stimuli that can attract
- It happens when the brain organizes attention.
sensation into meaningful patterns. - It has everything in the environment that
- Therefore, seeing and hearing take place has the potential to be perceived.
in the brain, not in the eyes and ears. 2. Attended Stimulus
- The attended stimulus is the specific
Sensory Adaptation object in the environment on which our
- Known as a reduction in sensitivity to a attention is focused.
stimulus after constant exposure. 3. Image on the Retina
- While sensory adaptation reduces our - This part involves light passing through the
awareness of a stimulus, it helps free up cornea and pupil, onto the lens of the eye.
our attention and resources to attend to - The cornea helps focus the light as it enters
other stimuli in our environment. and the iris controls the size of the pupils to
- All five senses can experience sensory determine how much light to let in.
adaptation. Our senses are constantly - The cornea and lens act together to project
adjusting to what's around us, as well as to an inverted image onto the retina.
us individually and what we are
experiencing, such as aging or disease.
 4. Transduction 1. The Gestalt Laws of Organization
- The image on the retina is then - Gestalt psychologists argued that the
transformed into electrical signals perception of stimuli in our environment
through a process. goes well beyond the individual elements
- This allows the visual messages to be that we sense. Instead, it represents an
transmitted to the brain to be interpreted. active, constructive process carried out
5. Neural Processing within the brain.
- After transduction, the electrical signals - This includes the principles of proximity,
undergo neural processing. similarity, closure, continuity and
- The path followed by a particular signal figure-ground.
depends on what type of signal it is (i.e. an
auditory signal or a visual signal). 2. Top-Down Processing
6. Perception - Richard Gregory: A 1970s psychologist
- In this step, you are processing the stimulus introduced the concept of top-down
object in the environment. processing.
- It is at this point that you become - He claimed that perception is constructive.
consciously aware of the stimulus. - When we perceive something, we must rely
7. Recognition on the context and our high-level of
- Perception doesn't just involve becoming knowledge to correctly interpret the
consciously aware of the stimuli. It is also perception.
necessary for the brain to categorize and - According to Gregory, in top-down
interpret what you are sensing. processing, perceptions begin with the most
- The ability to interpret and give meaning general and move toward the more specific.
to the object. These perceptions are heavily influenced by
8. Action our expectations and prior knowledge.
- The action phase of the perception process - Put simply, our brain applies what it knows
involves some type of motor activity that to fill in the blanks and anticipate what's
occurs in response to the perceived next.
stimulus. - We use our existing knowledge and what
- This might involve a major action, like we recall about past experiences to
running toward a person in distress. hypothesize about the meaning of new
- It can also involve doing something as visual information.
subtle as blinking your eyes in response to - If our hypothesis is correct, we make sense
a puff of dust blowing through the air. of our perceptions by actively constructing
them with a combination of what we take in
How Perception Works through our senses and what we already
- Through perception, we become more know about the world. However, if our
aware of (and can respond to) our hypothesis is incorrect, it can lead to
environment. perceptual errors.
- We use perception in communication to - For example, if half of a tree branch is
identify how our loved ones may feel. covered, you usually have an idea of what it
- We use perception in behavior to decide looks like, even though half is not being
what we think about individuals and groups. shown. This is because you know what
- We are perceiving things continuously, trees look like from prior knowledge.
even though we don't typically spend a - Processing information from the top
great deal of time thinking about them. down allows us to make sense of
- For example, the light that falls on our eye's information that has already been
retinas transforms into a visual image brought in by the senses, working
unconsciously and automatically. downward from initial impressions down
- Subtle changes in pressure against our to particular details.
skin, allowing us to feel objects, also occur
without a single thought.
Why We Use Top-Down Processing do you spot three typos in the first few
- In a world where we are surrounded by sentences?
virtually limitless sensory experiences and - If you've experienced some version of this
information, top-down processing can help scenario, you're not alone. Most people find
us quickly make sense of the environment. it difficult to catch their own typos. But it's
- Our senses are constantly taking in new not because they're stupid.
information. At any given time, we're - According to psychologist Tom Stafford, it
experiencing a never-ending stream of may actually be because you're smart.
sights, sounds, smells, tastes, and physical - Because writing is such a high-level task,
sensations. If we had to focus equally on all your brain tricks you into reading what you
of these sensations every second of every think you should see on the page. It fills in
day, we would be overwhelmed. missing details and corrects errors without
- Top-down processing helps simplify our you even noticing.
understanding of the world. It allows us to - This allows you to focus on the more
quickly make sense of all the information complex task of turning sentences into
our senses bring in. As you begin to take in complex ideas.
more information about your environment,
your initial impressions (which are based on 3. Lo_E
previous experiences and patterns) - If you take a look at the image above you’ll
influence how you interpret the finer details. see a word with one letter knocked down,
- This type of processing can be useful yet you are still able to quickly recognize the
when we are looking for patterns in our word as LOVE.
environment, but these predispositions - We don’t have to carefully examine the
can also hinder our ability to perceive shape of the knocked- down letter to do
things in new and different ways. this. The context of the additional three
- Top-down processing explains why this task letters spelling out the word is all we need
is so difficult. People automatically to understand what we’re reading.
recognize the word before they think about
the specific features of that word (like what 3. Bottoms-Up Processing
color it's written in). This makes it easier to - Eleanor J. Gibson: a psychologist who
read the word aloud rather than to say the took a direct approach to the understanding
color of the word. of perception.
- Rather than being dependent upon learning
Examples: and context, Gibson felt that perception was
1. The Stroop Effect a “what you see is what you get” process.
- One classic example of top-down - She argued that sensation and perception
processing in action is a phenomenon are the same things.
known as the Stroop effect. - It is an explanation for perceptions that start
- In this task, people are shown a list of with an incoming stimulus and working
words printed in different colors. They’re upwards until a representation of the object
then asked to name the ink color, rather is formed in our minds.
than the word itself. - This process suggests that our perceptual
- Interestingly, people are much slower and experience is based entirely on the
make more mistakes when the meaning of sensory stimuli that we piece together
the word and the ink color doesn’t match. using only data that is available from our
- So, for example, people have a harder time senses.
when the word “red” is printed in green ink - Sensation: In order to make sense of the
instead of red ink. world, we must take in energy from the
environment and convert it to neural
2. Typos signals.
- You type a message to your boss, - Perception: a next part of the process
proofread it, and hit 'Send.' Only after the where our brains interpret these sensory
message has gone into the nether sphere signals.
 - Defined as sensory analysis that begins at
Data Driven Info is interpreted using
the entry-level—with what our senses can Contextual Clues
detect.
- This form of processing begins with sensory Incoming Sensory Data Uses Previous
data and goes up to the brain's integration Experience and
of this sensory information. Expectations
- Information is carried in one direction Real Time
starting with the retina and proceeding to
the visual cortex.
Improving Perception
- This process suggests that processing
- If you want to improve your perception
begins with a perception of the stimuli and
skills, there are some things that you can do
is fueled by basic mechanisms developed
and actions you can take that may help you
through evolution.
perceive more in the world around you —or
- Unlike top- down processing, bottom-up
at least focus on the things that are
processing is purely data-driven and
important—include:
requires no previous knowledge or
1. Pay attention - Actively notice the world
learning.
around you, using all your senses. What do
- Bottom-up processing takes place as it
you see, hear, taste, smell, or touch? Using
happens.
your sense of proprioception, notice the
- For example, if you see an image of an
movements of your arms and legs, or your
individual letter on your screen, your eyes
changes in body position.
transmit the information to your brain, and
2. Make meaning of what you perceive -
your brain puts all of this information
The recognition stage of the perception
together.
process is essential since it allows you to
- This approach to understanding perception
make sense of the world around you. Place
is an example of reductionism. Rather than
objects in meaningful categories, so you
looking at perception more holistically,
can understand and react appropriately.
including how sensory information, visual
3. Take action - The final step of the
processes, and expectations contribute to
perception process involves taking some
how we see the world, bottom-up
sort of action in response to your
processing breaks the process down into its
environmental stimulus. This could involve a
most basic elements.
variety of actions, such as stopping to smell
the flower you see on the side of the road,
Differences of Bottom-Up Processing and
incorporating more of your senses.
Top-Down Processing

Module 7: Motivation and Emotion

Motivation
- The process of identifying the factors that
direct or energize a behavior.

How does motivation direct and energize behavior?

There are six of the following:
1. Instinct Theory: Born to be Motivated
- According to instinct approaches to
motivation, people and animals are born
pre-programmed with sets of behaviors
essential to their survival.
- Those instincts provide the energy that
channels behavior in appropriate directions.
- This theory suggests that motivation is
Bottom-Up Top-Down
inborn or innate to humans. Humans and
animals are naturally and neurally
 pre-wired to respond to certain stimuli in increase them by seeking stimulation.
certain ways. (Felman 2014) (Feldman 2014)
- William James and William McDougal - Arousal approaches seek to explain
argued that humans have instincts, such as behavior in which the goal is to maintain or
love, sympathy, modesty, hunger, sex, self increase excitement.
assertion. - People vary widely in the optimal level of
2. Drive-Reduction Approaches: Satisfying arousal they seek out, with some people
Our Needs looking for especially high levels of arousal.
- Drive-reduction approaches to motivation 4. Incentive Approaches: Motivation’s Pull
suggest that a lack of some basic biological - Incentive approaches to motivation suggest
requirement such as water produces a drive that motivation stems from the desire to
to obtain that requirement (in this case, the obtain valued external goals, or incentives.
thirst drive). - In this view, the desirable properties of
- A drive is motivational tension, or external stimuli—whether grades, money,
arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a affection, food, or sex—account for a
need. person’s motivation (Festinger et al.,
- Primary Drives: Many basic drives, such 2009).
as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex, are related - Although the theory explains why we may
to biological needs of the body or of the succumb to an incentive (such as a mouth-
species as a whole. Primary drives contrast watering dessert) even though we lack
with secondary drives in which behavior internal cues (such as hunger), it does not
fulfills no obvious biological need. provide a complete explanation of
- Secondary Drives: Refers to prior motivation because organisms sometimes
experience and learning brings about seek to fulfill needs even when incentives
needs. For instance, some people have are not apparent.
strong needs to achieve academically and - Consequently, many psychologists believe
professionally. We can say that their that the internal drives proposed by
achievement needs are reflected in a drive-reduction theory work in tandem with
secondary drive that motivates their the external incentives of incentive theory to
behavior (McKinley et al., 2004; Seli, 2007). “push” and “pull”behavior, respectively.
- We usually try to satisfy a primary drive by Thus, at the same time that we seek to
reducing the need underlying it. satisfy our underlying hunger needs (the
- For example, we become hungry after not push of drive-reduction theory).
eating for a few hours and may raid the - We are drawn to food that appears very
refrigerator, especially if the next scheduled appetizing (the pull of incentive theory).
meal is not imminent. If the weather turns - Rather than contradicting each other,then,
cold, we put on extra clothing or raise the drives and incentives may work together in
setting on the thermostat to keep warm. If motivating behavior (Pinel,Assanand, &
our bodies need liquids to function properly, Lehman, 2000; Lowery, Fillingim, & Wright,
we experience thirst and seek out water. 2003; Berridge, 2004)
(Feldman 2014) 5. Cognitive Approaches: The Thoughts
3. Arousal Approaches: Beyond Drive Behind Motivation
Reduction - Cognitive approaches to motivation suggest
- According to arousal approaches to that motivation is a product of people’s
motivation, each person tries to maintain thoughts, expectations, and goals—their
a certain level of stimulation and activity. cognitions.
- As with the drive reduction model, this - For instance, the degree to which people
model suggests that if our stimulation and are motivated to study for a test is based on
activity levels become too high, we try to their expectation of how well studying will
reduce them. But, in contrast to the pay off in terms of a good grade.
drive-reduction model, the arousal model - Cognitive theories of motivation draw a key
also suggests that if levels of stimulation distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic
and activity are too low, we will try to motivation:
- Intrinsic Motivation: It causes us to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is important for
participate in an activity for our own two reasons: It highlights the complexity of
enjoyment rather than for any concrete, human needs, and it emphasizes the idea
tangible reward that it will bring us. that until more basic biological needs are
- Extrinsic Motivation: It causes us to do met, people will be relatively unconcerned
something for money, a grade, or with higher-order needs.
- some other concrete, tangible reward. - For example, if people are hungry, their first
- For example, when a physician works long interest will be in obtaining food; they will
hours because she loves medicine, intrinsic not be concerned with needs such as love
motivation is prompting her; if she works and self-esteem (Hanley & Abell, 2002;
hard to make a lot of money, extrinsic Samantaray, Srivastava,& Mishra, 2002;
motivation underlies her efforts (Lepper, Ojha & Pramanick, 2009)
Corpus,& Iyengar, 2005; Shaikholeslami &
Khayyer, 2006; Finkelstein, 2009). Emotions
- We are more apt to persevere, work harder, - Feelings states with physiological, cognitive,
and produce work of higher quality when and behavioral components.
motivation for a task is intrinsic rather than
extrinsic. In fact, in some cases providing 4 Elements of Emotions
rewards for desirable behavior (thereby 1. Adaptive Behaviors - actions that aid
increasing extrinsic motivation) actually may attempts to survive and adapt to changing
decrease intrinsic motivation (Henderlong & behaviors.
Lepper, 2002; James, 2. Physiological Changes - include
- 2005;Grant, 2008). alterations heart rate, blood pressure,
perspiration and other involuntary
6. Maslow’s Hierarchy: Ordering responses.
Motivational Needs 3. Emotional Expressions - refers to outward
signs that an emotion is occurring, such as
laughter, frowning, crying and others.
4. Emotional Feeling - it includes the private,
subjective experience of having an emotion.

4 Explanations on Emotional Experience

1. The James-Lange Theory: Do Gut
Reactions Equal Emotions?
- James and Lange took the view that the
instinctive response of crying at a loss leads
us to feel sorrow, that striking out at
someone who frustrates us results in our
- Maslow’s model places motivational needs feeling anger, that trembling at a menacing
in a hierarchy and suggests that before threat causes us to feel fear.
more sophisticated, higher-order needs - Visceral Experience: They suggested that
can be met, certain primary needs must for every major emotion there is an
be satisfied (Maslow, 1970, 1987). accompanying physiological or “gut”reaction
- A pyramid can represent the model with the of internal organs. It is this specific pattern
more basic needs at the bottom and the of visceral response that leads us to label
higher-level needs at the top. the emotional experience.
- To activate a specific higher-order need, - In sum, James and Lange proposed that we
thereby guiding behavior, a person must experience emotions as a result of
first fulfill the more basic needs in the physiological changes that produce specific
hierarchy. Although research has been sensations. The brain interprets these
unable to validate the specific ordering of sensations as specific kinds of emotional
Maslow 's stages, and it is difficult to experiences. (Laird & Bresler,1990; Cobos
measure self-actualization objectively, et al., 2002).
2. The Cannon Bard Theory: Physiological occur during strong emotional reactions,
Reactions as the Result of Emotions such as an increase in physiological
- This theory rejects the view that arousal, including higher heart and
physiological arousal alone leads to the respiration rates and a reddening of the
perception of emotion. Instead, the theory face.
assumes that both physiological arousal - The members of both groups were then
and the emotional experience are produced placed individually in a situation where a
simultaneously by the same nerve stimulus, confederate of the experimenters acted in
which Cannon and Bard suggested one of two ways.
emanates from the thalamus in the brain. - In one condition he acted angry and hostile;
- The theory states that after we perceive an in the other condition he behaved as if He
emotion-producing stimulus, the thalamus is was exuberantly happy.
the initial site of the emotional response. - The purpose of the experiment was to
- Next, the thalamus sends a signal to the determine how the participants would react
autonomic nervous system, thereby emotionally to the confederate’s behavior.
producing a visceral response. At the same - When they were asked to describe their
time, the thalamus also communicates a own emotional state at the end of the
message to the cerebral cortex regarding experiment, the participants exposed to the
the nature of the emotion being angry confederate reported that they felt
experienced. angry, while those exposed to the happy
- Hence, it is not necessary for different confederate reported feeling happy.
emotions to have unique physiological - In sum, the results suggest that participants
patterns associated with them—as long as turned to the environment and the behavior
the message sent to the cerebral cortex of others for an explanation of the
differs according to the specific emotion. physiological arousal they were
- It therefore assumes that both physiological experiencing.
arousal and emotional experience are - The results of the Schachter-Singer
produced simultaneously by the same nerve experiment, then, supported a cognitive
stimulus. (Feldman 2014) view of emotions in which emotions are
determined jointly by a relatively nonspecific
kind of physiological arousal and the
labeling of that arousal on the basis of cues
from the environment.
- Although later research has found that
arousal is more specific than Schachter and
Singer believed, they were right in
assuming that when the source of
physiological arousal is unclear, we may
look to our surroundings to determine what
we are experiencing. (Feldman 2014)

3. The Schachter-Singer Theory: Emotions

as Labels/Cognitive Appraisal Theory
- This approach to explaining emotions
emphasizes that we identify the emotion we
are experiencing by observing our
environment and comparing ourselves with
others.
- Schachter and Singer’s classic experiment
found evidence for this hypothesis.
- In the study, participants were told that they
would receive an injection of a vitamin.
- In reality, they were given epinephrine, a
drug that causes responses that typically
 4. Facial Feedback Hypothesis - This pairing occurred repeatedly and was
- The importance of facial expressions is carefully planned so that, each time, exactly
illustrated by an intriguing notion. the same amount of time elapsed between
- According to this hypothesis, facial the presentation of the bell and the meat. At
expressions not only reflect emotional first the dog would salivate only when the
experience, but they also help determine meat was presented, but soon it began to
how people experience and label salivate at the sound of the bell.
emotions. - In fact, even when Pavlov stopped
- Basically put, “wearing” an emotional presenting the meat, the dog still salivated
expression provides muscular feedback to after hearing the sound.
the brain that helps produce an emotion - The dog had been classically conditioned to
salivate to the bell.
Module 8: Learning and Conditioning

What is learning?
Behaviorist Perspective - A relatively permanent
change in behavior that arises from practice or
experience
Cognitive Perspective - Mental change that may
or may not be associated with changes in
behavior

How does learning take place?

Classical Conditioning: Learning Based on
Association
- A type of learning in which a neutral
stimulus (such as the experimenter’s
footsteps) comes to elicit a response
after being paired with a stimulus (such
as food) that naturally brings about that
response.
- Pavlov’s genius lay in his ability to Why did the dog salivate?
recognize the implications of this discovery. Behaviorist Perspective - Dog learned to salivate
He saw that the dogs were responding not in response to the tone because the tone had been
only on the basis of a biological need paired with the meat powder
(hunger) but also as a result of learning. Cognitive Perspective - The dog salivated in
- Pavlov had been studying the secretion of response to the tone because the tone became
stomach acids and salivation in dogs in mentally connected with the meat
response to the ingestion of varying
amounts and kinds of food. While doing 2 Types of Conditioning
that, he observed a curious phenomenon: 1. Classical Conditioning of Emotional
sometimes stomach secretions and Responses
salivation would begin in the dogs when - Emotional responses are especially
they had not yet eaten any food. The mere likely to be learned through classical
sight of the experimenter who normally conditioning processes.
brought the food, or even the sound of the - Classical conditioning also accounts for
experimenter’s footsteps, was enough to pleasant experiences. For instance, you
produce salivation in the dogs. may have a particular fondness for the
- To demonstrate classical conditioning, smell of a certain perfume or aftershave
Pavlov (1927) attached a tube to the lotion because thoughts of an early love
salivary gland of a dog, allowing him to come rushing back whenever you
measure precisely the dog’s salivation. He encounter it. Or hearing a certain song can
then rang a bell and, just a few seconds bring back happy or bittersweet emotions
later, presented the dog with meat. due to associations that you have
 developed in the past. Classical
conditioning, then, explains many of the
reactions we have to stimuli in the world
around us.
- For instance, how do some of us develop
fears of mice, spiders, and other creatures
that are typically harmless?
- John B. Watson and Rosalie Raynar
(1920): In a now infamous case study, it
showed classical conditioning was at the
root of such fears by conditioning an
11-month-old infant named Albert to be
afraid of rats.
- “Little Albert,” like most infants, initially was
frightened by loud noises but had no fear of
rats.
- In the study, the experimenters sounded a
loud noise whenever Little Albert touched a
white, furry rat. The noise (the
unconditioned stimulus) evoked fear (the
unconditioned response). After just a few
pairings of noise and rat, Albert began to
show fear of the rat by itself, bursting into
tears when he saw it.
- The rat, then, had become a CS that
brought about the CR, fear. Furthermore,
the effects of the conditioning lingered: five
days later, Albert reacted with some degree
of fear not only when shown a rat, but when 2. Operant Conditioning: Learning Based
shown objects that looked similar to the on Consequences
white, furry rat, including a white rabbit, a - You may have heard of the Skinner box, a
white seal-skin coat, and even a white chamber with a highly controlled
Santa Claus mask. (By the way, although environment that was used to study operant
we don’t know for certain what happened to conditioning processes with laboratory
the unfortunate Little Albert, it appears he animals.
was a sickly child who died at the age of 5. - Animals in a Skinner box learn to obtain
- In any case, Watson, the experimenter, has food by operating on their environment
been condemned for using ethically within the box.
questionable procedures that could never - Skinner became interested in specifying
be conducted today. how behavior varies as a result of
alterations in the environment.
- To illustrate Skinner’s contribution, let’s
consider what happens to a rat in the typical
Skinner box: Suppose you want to teach a
hungry rat to press a lever that is in its box.
At first the rat will wander around the box,
exploring the environment in a relatively
random fashion. At some point, however, it
will probably press the lever by chance, and
when it does, it will receive a food pellet.
- The first time this happens, the rat will not
learn the connection between pressing a
lever and receiving food and will continue to
explore the box. Sooner or later the rat will
 press the lever again and receive a pellet,
and in time the frequency of the pressing
response will increase.
- Eventually, the rat will press the lever
continually until it satisfies its hunger,
thereby demonstrating that it has learned
that the receipt of food is contingent on
pressing the lever.

Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant

Conditioning
Types of Reinforcement
1. Reinforcement
- Skinner called the process that leads the rat
to continue pressing the key
“reinforcement.”
- It is the process by which a stimulus
increases the probability that a preceding
behavior will be repeated.
- Example: Pressing the lever is more likely
to occur again because of the stimulus of
food.
2. Reinforcer
- It is any stimulus that increases the
probability that a preceding behavior will
occur again.
- Example: Food is a reinforcer, because it
increases the probability that the behavior
of pressing (formally referred to as the
response of pressing) will take place.

What kind of stimuli can act as reinforcers?

- Bonuses, toys, and good grades can serve Punishment
as reinforcers—if they strengthen the - It is the presentation of an adverse event or
probability of the response that occurred outcome that causes a decrease in the
before their introduction. behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
- What makes something a reinforcer punishment. In both of these cases, the
depends on individual preferences. behavior decreases.
- Although a Hershey bar can act as a
reinforcer for one person, an individual who Types of Punishment
dislikes chocolate may find one dollar more 1. Positive Punishment
desirable. The only way we can know if a - Sometimes referred to as punishment by
stimulus is a reinforcer for a particular application, presents an unfavorable event
organism is to observe whether the or outcome in order to weaken the response
frequency of a previously occurring it follows.
behavior increases after the presentation of - Example: Spanking for misbehavior
the stimulus. ​ is a form of punishment by application.
 2. Negative Punishment - The rats that were never rewarded (the
- Also known as punishment by removal. unrewarded control condition) consistently
- Occurs when a favorable event or outcome made the most errors, whereas those that
is removed after a behavior occurs. received food at the finish every day (the
- Example: Taking away a child's video game rewarded control condition) consistently
following misbehavior. made far fewer errors.
- Unlike negative reinforcement, which - But the results also showed latent learning:
produces an increase in behavior, Rats that were initially unrewarded but
punishment reduces the likelihood of a began to be rewarded only after the 10th
prior response. day (the experimental group) showed an
- If we receive a shock that is meant to immediate reduction in errors and soon
decrease a certain behavior, then we are became similar in error rate to the rats that
receiving punishment, but if we are already had been rewarded consistently.
receiving a shock and do something to stop - According to cognitive learning theorists,
that shock, the behavior that stops the the reduction in errors indicates that the rats
shock is considered to be negatively had developed a cognitive map—a mental
reinforced. representation—of the maze.
- In the first case, the specific behavior is apt
to decrease because of the punishment; in
the second, it is likely to increase because
of the negative reinforcement.

Latent Learning
- A type of learning which is not apparent in
Cognitive Factors in Learning the learner's behavior at the time of
- Pavlov, Watson, and their followers learning, but which manifests later when a
traditionally viewed conditioning as a suitable motivation and circumstances
mechanical process in which appear.
stimulus-response associations are - Tolman referred to the rats’ initial learning
“stamped in” by experience. period, where there was no obvious reward.
- Learning theorists asserted that because - That, rats formed a cognitive map - is an
creatures such as flatworms and sea slugs internal representation (or image) of
can be conditioned, conditioning can’t external environmental features or
depend on higher mental processes. Most landmarks.
mainstream theories of conditioning at the - He believed that as all animals, including
time did not allocate any role to cognitive humans, go about their daily lives, they
processes. In recent decades, however, build up a cognitive map of the world
research findings have led theorists to shift around them—the “God-given
toward more cognitive explanations of maze”—which they can apply to locate
conditioning. specific goals.
- In an attempt to demonstrate latent - He gave the example of how we learn the
learning, rats were allowed to roam through locations of various landmarks on our daily
a maze of this sort once a day for 17 days. journeys, but only realize what we have
 learned when we need to find somewhere - Social critics have voiced concern about the
along the route. amount of violence on television ever since
- Further experiments showed that the rats TV became popular in the 1950s.
learned a sense of location rather than - The bobo doll experiment made a
merely the turns required to reach a landmark research on the issue that
particular place. remains widely cited and influential

Observational Learning Social Learning Theory of Aggression

- It occurs when an organism’s response is - Also known as Observational Learning
influenced by models. - A learning that occurs as a function of
- Models: Observation of Others observing, retaining, and replicating
- Albert Bandura (1977, 1986) - This behavior observed in others
process has been investigated extensively. - It is most associated with the work of
- Bandura does not see observational psychologist Albert Bandura who
learning as entirely separate from classical implemented some of the seminal studies in
and operant conditioning. Instead, he the area and initiated social learning theory.
asserts that it greatly extends the reach of
these conditioning processes. The Bobo Doll Experiment
- Whereas previous conditioning theorists - Bandura et al. (1963)
emphasized the organism’s direct - 66 nursery children divided into three
experience, Bandura has demonstrated that groups
both classical and operant conditioning can - All three watched a film of an adult (the
take place “vicariously” through model) kicking and punching a ‘bobo’ doll
observational learning. 1. Condition 1: Children saw the model being
What determines whether we will imitate a rewarded by second adult
model? 2. Condition 2: Children saw a second adult
- Bandura believes part of the answer is telling off the model for the aggressive
reinforcements and punishments—those behavior
received by the model as well as by the 3. Condition 3: The model was neither
imitator. punished nor rewarded
- By watching, we learn to anticipate a
behavior’s consequences in situations like
those we are observing. We are especially
likely to imitate people we perceive as
similar to ourselves, as successful, or as
admirable.

Observational Learning and the Media Violence

Controversy
- The power of observational learning has
been at the center of a long-running
controversy about the effects of media
violence.
- Children spend an average of about 40
hours per week with various types of
entertainment media, and more than half of
that time is devoted to watching television,
videos, and DVDs (Bushman & Anderson,
2001).
- Children are very impressionable. Extensive
evidence indicates that they pick up many
responses from viewing models on TV
(Huston et al., 1992).