RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

MODULE 1:
Meaning, Objectives and Characteristics of
research - Research methods Vs Methodology,
Types of research, Descriptive Vs. Analytical,
Applied Vs. Fundamental, Quantitative Vs.
Qualitative, Conceptual Vs. Empirical - Research
process - Criteria of good research -Developing a
research plan.

MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research is a derivative of the French word; ‘Researche’ means quest,
search, pursuit
and search for truth. The term ‘Research’ consists of two words.
Research = Re + Search. ‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out
something, the following is the process:

Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different
dimensions.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge.
❖ The Dictionary meaning of research is “a careful investigation or inquiry
especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge.”
❖ Research can also be defined as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent
information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art of scientific
investigation.
❖ The research is defined as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge-
Redman and Mory.
❖ Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to
the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery.
❖ The research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating the
hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis-Clifford
Woody.
❖ The research is defined as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for
the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that
knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”- D.
Slesinger and M. Stephenson
❖ Research is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison
and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and
systematic method of finding solution to a problem is research.
❖ The systematic approach concerning generalisation and the formulation of a
theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic
method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analysing the facts and reaching certain conclusions
 either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalisations for some theoretical formulation.
❖ Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a
particular topic.
❖ It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems
through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a
discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters.
❖ The information might be collected from different sources like experience,
human beings, books, journals, nature, etc.
❖ A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only
through research is it possible to make progress in a field.
❖ Research is indeed civilization and determines the economic, social and political
development of a nation. The results of scientific research very often force a
change in the philosophical view of problems which extend far beyond the
restricted domain of science itself.
❖ Research is not confined to science and technology only. There are vast areas of
research in other disciplines such as languages, literature, history and sociology.
❖ Whatever might be the subject, research has to be an active, diligent and
systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts,
events, behaviours and theories. Applying the outcome of research for the
refinement of knowledge in other subjects, or in enhancing the quality of human
life also becomes a kind of research and development.

Comprehensive definition of research

➢ “Research is a point of view, an attitude of inquiry or a frame of mind. It asks
questions which have hitherto not been asked, and it seeks to answer them by
following a fairly definite procedure. It is not a mere theorising, but rather an
attempt to elicit facts and to face them once they have been assembled. Research
is likewise not an attempt to bolster up pre-conceived opinions, and it implies a
readiness to accept the conclusions to which an inquiry leads, no matter how
unwelcome they may prove. When successful, research adds to the scientific
knowledge of the subject- Rusk

➢ “The systematic and scholarly application of the scientific method interpreted in

its broader sense, to the solution of social studiesal problems; conversely, any
systematic study designed to promote the development of social studies as a
science can be considered research.”- George J. Mouly

➢ “To be sure the best research is that which is reliable verifiable and exhaustive,
so that it provides information in which we have confidence. The main point
here is that research is, literally speaking, a kind of human behaviour, an activity
in which people engage. By this definition all intelligent human behaviour
involves some research.”

➢ “In social studies, teachers, administrators, or others engage in ‘Research’ when

they systematically and purposefully assemble information about schools, school
children, the social matrix in which a school or school system is determined, the
characteristic of the learner or the interaction between the school and pupil.”-
Francis G. Cornell

➢ “The research is a carefully inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles;

 a diligent investigation to ascertain something”-Webster’s New International
Dictionary.
➢ This definition makes clear the fact that research is not merely a search for truth,
but a prolonged, intensive, purposeful search. In the last analysis, research
constitutes a method for the discovery of truth which is really a method of
critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems; formulating
hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypotheses”- Clifford
Woody
➢ “Research is simply a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing
specialised tools, instruments, and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate
solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means. It starts with
a problem, collects data or facts, analysis these critically and reaches decisions
based on the actual evidence. It evolves original work instead of mere exercise of
personal. It evolves from a genuine desire to know rather than a desire to prove
something. - C.C. Crawford

➢ “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic, intensive process of

carrying on the scientific methods of analysis. It involves a more systematic
structure of investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of
procedures and a report of results or conclusions.” - John W. Best thinks

➢ “Research is but diligent search which enjoys the high flavour or primitive
hunting.”– James Harvey Robinson

➢ “Research is the manipulation of things concepts or symbols for the purpose of

generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge
aids in the practice of an art.”– Encyclopaedia of Social Science

➢ “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”– V. Redman & Mory

➢ “Research is an endeavour to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an

intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years, ever changing in
purpose and form and always searching for truth.”- C. Francies Rummel

➢ “Research is an honest exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their

meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or
findings of a given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable and
contribution to knowledge in the field studied.”- P.M. Cook
He has emphasised the following characteristics of research in his definition:
1. It is an honest and exhaustive process.
2. The facts are studied with understanding.
3. The facts are discovered in the light of problem. Research is problem-
centred.
4. The findings are valid and verifiable.
5. Research work should contribute new knowledge in that field.

➢ “Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions

are to be derived partly or wholly from facts. The facts dealt with in research
may be statements of opinion, historical facts, those contained in records and
 reports, the results of tests, answers to questionnaires, experimental data of any
sort, and so forth. The final purpose of research is to ascertain principles and
develop procedures for use in the field of social studies; therefore, it should
conclude by formulating principles or procedures. The mere collection and
tabulation of facts is not research, though it may be preliminary to it on eve a
part thereof.”- W.S. Monroe

➢ “Research in the sense of the development, elaboration, and refinement of

principles, together with the collection and use of empirical materials to aid in
these processes, is one of the highest activities of a university and one in which
all its professors should be engaged.”- R.M. Hutchins, Chancellor of the
University of Chicago, in “The Higher Learning in America” says,

➢ “Research is a process which has utility to the extent that class of inquiry
employed as the research activity vehicle is capable of adding knowledge, of
stimulating progress and helping society and man relate more efficiently and
effectively to the problems that society and man perpetuate and create.”- J.H.
McGrath and D.E. Watson

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered till today. Each research study has its own specific purpose. The
prime objectives of research are as follows.
1. To discover the new facts.
2. To verify and test the important facts.
3. To analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and
effect relationship.
4. To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and
understand scientific and nonscientific problems.
5. To find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems.
6. To overcome or solve the problems occurring in our everyday life.

MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e.,
concern over practical problems initiate the research.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
6. Curiosity about unknown
7. Desire to understand the cause and effect of wide spread social problems
8. Appearance of novel and unanticipated situations
9. Desire to discover new and test old scientific procedure as an efficient
way to gain useful and fundamental knowledge.
However, this is not a list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions,
curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and
awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform
research operations.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
The following characteristics may be gathered from the definitions of ‘Research’
1. It gathers new knowledge or data from primary or first-hand sources.
2. It places emphasis upon the discovery of general principles.
3. It is an exact systematic and accurate investigation.
4. It uses certain valid data gathering devices.
5. It is logical and objective.
6. The researcher resists the temptation to seek only the data that support his
hypotheses.
7. The researcher eliminates personal feelings and preferences.
8. It endeavours to organise data in quantitative terms.
9. Research is patient and unhurried activity.
10. The researcher is willing to follow his procedures to the conclusions that
may be unpopular and bring social disapproval.
11. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
12. Conclusions and generalisations are arrived at carefully and cautiously.

SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. A sound philosophy of social studies as the basis of research
2. Research is based on insight and imagination
3. Research requires an inter-disciplinary approach
4. Research usually employs deductive reasoning process
5. Research should come out of a desire to do things better
6. Research is not as exact as research in physical science
7. Research is not the field of the specialist only
8. Research generally requires inexpensive material
9. Research is based on the subjectivity and intangibility of social phenomena
10. Research is perhaps incapable of being dealt through empirical method
11. Research is based on inter dependence of causes and effect
12. Research cannot be a mechanical process

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH

The significance of research is understood keeping in view the following points:
(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research
may mean careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social
structure.
(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood.
(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas
and insights..
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new
styles and creative work.
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of
new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an
important source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental
and
social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.
Research Methods versus Methodology [Research methods and Research
methodology]
Is there any difference between Research methods and Research methodology?
Table 1.1

Type Method Technique

s s
1.Library Analysis of historical (i) Recording of notes, Content analysis,
Research Tape and Film listening and Research
records analysis.
(ii) Statistical compilations and
Analysis of documents manipulations, reference and abstract guides,
contents analysis.
2.Field i. Non-participant Observational behavioural scales, use of
Research score cards, etc
ii. Participant observation Interactional recording, possible use of tape
recorders, photo graphic techniques.
iii. Mass observation Recording mass behaviour, interview using
independent observers in public places
iv. Mail questionnaire Identification of social and
economic background of
respondents.
v. Opinionnaire Use of attitude scales, projective
techniques, use of sociometric scales.
vi. Personal interview Interviewer uses a detailed schedule with
open and closed questions.
vii. Focused interview Interviewer focuses attention upon a given
experience and its effects.
viii. Group interview Small groups of respondents are interviewed
simultaneously.
ix. Telephone survey Used as a survey technique for information
and for discerning opinion; may also be used
as a follow up of questionnaire.
x. Case study and life Cross sectional collection of data for
history intensive analysis, longitudinal collection of
data of intensive character.

3. Small group study of Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of

Laboratory random behaviour, play observers, etc.
Research and role analysis

Research Methods [Table 1.1]

The research methods are the methods used by the researcher during the course of
studying the research problem. The research methods are classified into following three
groups.
 ❖ Research methods are the various procedures, schemes and algorithms
used in research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research
study are termed as research methods.
❖ They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral.
❖ They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical
schemes, statistical approaches, etc.
❖ Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a
problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations
based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on
reasoning alone.
❖ They accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments.
Research methodology
Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. The research
methodology has many dimensions and research methods. So the research method
constitutes a part of the research methodology. The scope of research methodology is
wider than that of research methods.
❖ It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially,
the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing,
explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology.
❖ It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained.
Its aim is to give the work plan of research.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic types of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical
Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different
kinds. Descriptive research attempts to determine, describe, or identify the state as it
exists at present. It uses description, classification, measurement and comparison to
describe a situation. The main characteristic is that the researcher has no control over
the variables. He only reports the situation as it is at that time. The term ex-post facto is
usually used for descriptive research studies in social sciences. The survey method is
commonly used in descriptive research.
Analytical research is a continuation of descriptive research. The researcher
attempts to analyze and explain why or how something is happening. Thus, analytical
research aims to understand phenomena by discovering and measuring causal relations
among them.
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental [Action research Vs Basic or Pure research].
Applied research
Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society or an industrial/business organisation. It deals with practical problems.
In the present world situation, more importance is being given to applied
research to solve problems. These problems are arising out of over population
and scarcity of natural resources.
Applied research is to identify social, economic or political trends that may affect
a particular institution or the copy research or the marketing research or
evaluation research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a
solution for some pressing practical problem.
Fundamental [Action research Vs Basic or Pure] research
Basic research lay down the foundation for the applied research. The research on
human welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare is known as basic,
pure or fundamental research.
 “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’
research.” The fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations
and with the formulation of a theory.
Basic research is conducted to satisfy any curiosity such as: (a) what makes
things happen, (b) why society changes and (c) why social relations are in a
certain way. In fact, it is the source of most new theories, principles and ideas.
To sum up, basic research is purely theoretical to increase our understanding of
certain phenomena or behavior. But it does not seek to solve any existing
problem.
Difference between Applied Research and Fundamental
Research Applied Research
▪ Tries to eliminate the theory by adding to the basics of a discipline.
▪ Problems are analysed from the point of one discipline.
▪ Generalisations are preferred.
▪ Forecasting approach is implemented.
▪ Assumes that other variables do not change.
▪ Reports are compiled in a language of technical language of discipline.
Fundamental Research
▪ Aims to solve a problem by adding to the field of application of a discipline.
▪ Often several disciplines work together for solving the problem.
▪ Often researches individual cases without the aim to generalise.
▪ Aims to say how things can be changed.
▪ Acknowledges that other variables are constant by changing.
▪ Reports are compiled in a common language.
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative research
Quantitative research
Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here a
process is expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities. The result of this
research is essentially a number or a set of numbers.
Quantitative research is more concerned with questions about: how much?
How many? How often? To what extent? etc.
Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/ method are:
• It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or mathematics and uses
numbers.
• It is an iterative process whereby evidence is evaluated.
• The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
• It is conclusive.
• It investigates the what, where and when of decision making.
The quantitative research finds applications not only in physical sciences but also in
economics, social sciences and biology. Quantitative research using statistical methods
often begins with the collection of data based on a theory or hypothesis or experiment
followed by the application of descriptive or inferential statistical methods.
Qualitative research
Qualitative research is undertaken to gain insights. Insights concerning to
attitudes, beliefs, motivations and behaviours of individuals to behave in a particular
manner. The nature of this type of research is to explore a social or human problem and
open ended. It includes the methods such as focus groups, in-depth interviews,
observation research and case studies.
Qualitative research is concerned with finding the answers to questions which
begin with: why? How? In what way?
Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality.
Some of the characteristics of qualitative research/method are:
• It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words.
• Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation.
• Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
• It is exploratory.
• It investigates the why and how of decision making.
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical Research: Which is better?
The modern scientific research is often divided into two classes: conceptual
research and empirical research. But the distinction is not so clear till today.
Conceptual Research: Pen and Paper
Conceptual research focuses on the concept (abstract/ideas) or theory that
explains the phenomenon being studied. The conceptual researcher sits at his desk with
pen in hand and tries to solve these problems by thinking about them. The conceptual
analysis is the preferred method of analysis in social sciences (humanities) and
philosophy.
Here, the researcher tackles the problem part by part. He breaks down the
concept into smaller simpler parts to understand it better. This method of analysis has
gained immense popularity; in spite of that, there is a lot of criticism against it.
Empirical research
In empirical research, data collection is done through observation and
experimentation. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are
capable of being verified by observation or experiment. It is also known as experimental
type of research.
Ex.: Suppose that there is a hypothesis and two different scientists are working
separately on it. Scientists collect the information about the same hypothesis through the
observation and experimentation. They arrive at slightly different results. This is
because; the observation part which involves is bound to be different. The two different
persons have different perception while doing the same research.
(v) Some Other Types of Research
All other types of research are variations of one or more of the above stated
approaches. They are based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of
some other similar factor.
Form the point of view of time
i. One-time research or longitudinal research.
a) In one-time research, the research is confined to a single time-period.
b) In case of longitudinal research, the research is carried on over several
time- periods.
c) Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation
research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried
out.
ii. Clinical or diagnostic research.
Such researches follow case-study methods or in depth approaches to reach the
basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or
events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing data
gathering devices.
iii. Exploratory or it may be formalized.
a) The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses
rather than their testing.
b) Formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with
specific hypotheses to be tested.
iii. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents,
remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of
persons and groups at any remote point of time.
iv. Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented.
a) While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a
problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes.
b) Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and
the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according
to his own inclination. Operations research is an example of decision
oriented research since it is a scientific method of providing executive
departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations
under their control.

RESEARCH PROCESS/ VARIOUS STAGES OF A RESEARCH

Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research. The following are the various steps of research process.
1. Formulating the research problem.
2. Extensive literature survey.
3. Developing the hypothesis.
4. Preparing the research design.
5. Determining sample design.
6. Collecting the data.
7. Execution of the project.
8. Analysis of data.
9. Hypothesis testing.
10. Generalisations and interpretation.
11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-
up of conclusions reached.
A brief description of the above stated steps will be helpful.

1. Formulating the research problem/: Identify the Problem

A research problem identifies your destination: it should tell about you, your research
supervisor and your readers what you intend to research.
i. The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research
question. There are two types of research problems, viz., related to i) states of
nature and ii) relationships between variables.
ii. A researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter
to study. This serves as the focus of the study.
iii. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly and rephrasing the same into meaningful
terms from an analytical point of view.
iv. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own
colleagues or with some expertise in the matter.
v. In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is
usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.
vi. The task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest
importance in the entire research process.
2. Extensive literature survey/ Review the Literature
i. Once the problem has been identified, a brief summary (synopsis) of it should be
prepared. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D
degree. The synopsis of the topic is to be submitted to the necessary Committee
or the Research Board for approval.
ii. To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research
problem. This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area.
iii. The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have
been conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the
conclusions in the problem area.
3. Development of working hypotheses
i. After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the
working hypothesis or hypotheses. It is the focal point for research
ii. The development of working hypothesis plays an important role.
iii. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher
by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens
his thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem.
The development of working hypotheses can be developed by using the following
approach:
(a) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and
the objectives in seeking a solution;
(b) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for
possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
(c) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems;
and
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with
a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.
4. Preparing the research design
The researcher is required to prepare a research design. There are several
research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing.
Experimental designs can be either informal designs or formal designs, out of which the
researcher must select one for his own project.
The preparation of the research design, appropriate for a particular research
problem, involves usually the consideration of the following:
i. The means of obtaining the information;
ii. The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
iii. Explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information
will be organized and the reasoning leading to the selection;
 iv. The time available for research; and
v. The cost factor relating to research, i.e., the finance available for the
purpose.
5. Determining sample design
The way of selecting a sample is popularly known as the sample design. In
other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
❖ The probability samples are those based on simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling.
❖ The non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling,
judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
A brief mention of the important sample designs is as follows:
i. Deliberate sampling
Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.
Judgement sampling is used quite frequently in qualitative research where the
desire happens to be to develop hypotheses rather than to generalise to larger
populations.
ii. Simple random sampling
This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling.
In this each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample.
EX.: if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of 15,000
items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000 items on
slips of paper and conduct a lottery.
Using the random number tables is another method of random sampling.
Ex.: To select the sample, each item is assigned a number from 1 to 15,000.
Then, 300 five digits random numbers are selected from the table.
iii. Systematic sampling
In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th
name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street and so on. Sampling of this
type is known as systematic sampling.
iv. Stratified sampling
It is important that the sample includes representative groups of study units with
specific characteristics. Ex.: Residents from urban and rural areas. The sampling frame
must be divided into groups, or strata, according to these characteristics. Random or
systematic samples of a predetermined size will then have to be obtained from each
group (stratum). This is called stratified sampling.
v. Quota sampling
The actual selection of items for the sample is left to the interviewer’s
judgement. This is called quota sampling. Quota sampling is an important form of non-
probability sampling. Quota samples generally are judgement samples rather than
random samples.
vi. Cluster sampling and area sampling
Cluster sampling involves grouping the population. Then the groups or clusters
are selecting rather than individual for inclusion in the sample.
Ex.: Suppose a departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders. It has issued
its cards to 15,000 customers. The sample size is say 450. Among 15,000
customers, 100 clusters are formed. Each cluster consists of 150 card holders.
Three clusters are selected for the sample randomly.
Under area sampling the total area is to be divided into a number of smaller non-
overlapping areas. These are generally known as geographical clusters. Then a number
of these smaller areas are randomly selected. All units in these small areas are included
in the sample.
vii. Multi-stage sampling
Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary
sampling units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families
within towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling
procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.
viii. Sequential sampling
This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of
statistical quality control.
6. Collecting the data
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data. They are differing
considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. The
researcher conducts an experiment and observes some quantitative measurements or the
data. With the help of data the truth contained in the hypothesis can be examined.
In the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following
ways:
(i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of
investigator’s own observation. The information obtained relates only to what is
currently happening and is not about either the past or future. This method is no
doubt an expensive method. The information provided by this method is also
very limited. This method is not suitable for large samples are concerned.
(ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and
seeks answers to a set of questions through personal interviews. In this method
the output depends upon the ability of the interviewer to a large extent.
(iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves
contacting the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used
method but it plays an important role in industrial surveys in developed regions.
Particularly, the survey has to be accomplished in a very limited time.
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires: Questionnaires are mailed by the researches to
the respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most
extensively used method in various economic and business surveys.
(v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given
training. They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These
enumerators go to respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling
up the schedules by enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents.
Much depends upon the capability of enumerators so far as this method is
concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work of the enumerators may
ensure sincere work.
7. Execution of the project
Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process.
❖ The data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.
❖ The project should be executed in a systematic manner and in time.
❖ The data are to be collected through interviewers.
❖ The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals. Manuals
explain clearly the job of the interviewers at each step.
❖ A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep
the survey as much realistic as possible.
❖ The steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical
control So that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-
 defined standard of accuracy.
❖ If some of the respondents do not cooperate, then some suitable methods
should be designed to tackle this problem.
❖ To deal with the non-response problem, make a list of the non-
respondents and take a small sub-sample of them. Then with the help of
experts vigorous efforts can be made for securing response.
8. Analysis of data
After the collection of data the next task is of analysis of the data. The analysis of
data requires a number of operations. Such as
❖ Establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw
data through coding, tabulation and then drawing.
❖ The unwieldy data should be converted into a few manageable groups and
tables for further analysis.
❖ The raw data should be classified into some purposeful and usable
categories.
❖ Coding operation is done at this stage. Through this coding the categories
of data are transformed into symbols. Then they may be tabulated and
counted.
❖ Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding.
With coding the stage is ready for tabulation.
❖ Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data
are put in the form of tables.
❖ The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A large data
in large inquiries is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save
time but also make it possible to study large number of variables of a
problem simultaneously.
❖ Analysis work is based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients, etc., by applying various well defined statistical formulae.
❖ In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or
conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate
any conclusion(s).
9. Hypothesis-testing
After analysing the data the next step is the hypotheses test.
❖ Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed
by statisticians for the purpose. These test depending upon the nature
and object of research inquiry.
❖ Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in
rejecting it.
10. Generalisations and interpretation
❖ When hypothesis is tested several times, it is possible to arrive to build a
theory.
❖ The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalisations.
❖ When there is no hypothesis to start with, findings can be explained on
the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.
❖ The process of interpretation will trigger off new questions. In turn it may
lead to further researches.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.
Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the
main text, and (iii) the end matter.
In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed by
a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main text
of the report should have the following parts:
(a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research
and an explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
The scope of the study along with various limitations should as well be stated
in this part.
(b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of
findings and recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are
extensive, they should be summarised.
(c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical
sequence and broken-down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down
the results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing
up. At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all
technical data. Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted,
should also be given in the end. Index should also be given specially in a
published research report.
2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienced in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is
that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them.
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria.
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be
used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit
another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results
that are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance.
The methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability
of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,
has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as under
1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified
steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set
 of rules. Systematic characteristic of the research does not rule out creative
thinking but it certainly does reject the use of guessing and intuition in arriving
at conclusions.
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of
logical reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great
value in carrying out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part
to the whole whereas deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to
a conclusion which follows from that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning
makes research more meaningful in the context of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one
or more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a
basis for external validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be
verified by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
IMPORTANCE OF LITERATURE REVIEW IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
A new research is depends on the past knowledge, and not includes a part of
knowledge. A literature review is an account of what has been published in books,
journals and internet on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers.
In general, the literature review should:
1. Literature review is most important to identify the problem of the
study. It can be solved by collection of data. It is very important to
know that the work is doing by researcher in a research should not be
repeated again (or if it is repeated, that it is marked as a "replication
study").
2. It also helps to avoid the mistakes, which already done by another one.
3. A new research is depends on the past knowledge, and not includes a
part of knowledge.
4. It verifies that it has not been already done (outline gaps in previous
research).
5. Literature review is important to judge research question and to
provide latest research material for the readers.
6. Help refine, refocus or even change the topic

Why is a literature review necessary? The literature review performs a

number of important functions:

1. It demonstrates to a research committee that the researcher has read a

large amount of statistical literature to prove that the researcher is
aware of the wide range of research in theory and methodology
related to the proposed research topic.
2. It provides proof to a research committee that the researcher has a
deep understanding of the published statistical research related to the
topic of the dissertation.
3. It should convince the research committee that the researcher can
communicate this understanding of the statistical literature and its
relationship to the proposed research.
4. It should support the originality and relevance for the research problem.
i. This is done by identifying specific gaps in the statistical
literature. That is, the researcher identifies statistical questions
that have not been answered and problems that have not been
solved.
ii. By identifying gaps in the statistical literature, the researcher
can justify the originality of the proposed dissertation research.
The originality can be an extension of research that has been
published or a modification of existing methodology or theory
that can be used to perform the research research.
5. In the proposal the student emphasizes or stresses the originality of
the dissertation. Without a good literature review, the researcher
cannot convince the committee that that the proposed research is
original.
6. A dissertation may be unacceptable because the researcher does not
clearly show that the research problem is original due to a poor
literature review.
 7. Remember: the Literature Review is more than a summary of
publications. It provides evidence that your research will be an
original and relevant contribution to statistics.

After defining a problem, the researcher has to do literature survey

connected with the problem. Literature survey is a collection of research
publications, books and other documents related to the defined problem. It is very
essential to know whether the defined problem has already been solved, status of
the problem, techniques that are useful to investigate the problem and other related
details. One can survey

1. The journals which publish abstracts of papers published in various

journals,
2. Review articles related to the topic chosen,
3. Journals which publish research articles,
4. Advanced level books on the chosen topic,
5. Proceedings of conferences, workshops, etc.,
6. reprint/preprint collections available with the supervisor and nearby
experts working on the topic chosen and
7. Internet.

Other sources are the Education Index and the Educational Resources
information centers (ERIC). Computer-assisted searchers of literature have
become very common today. They have the advantage of comprehensiveness and
speed. They are also very cost-effective in terms of time and effort although access
to some of the databases requires payment. Irrespective of the sources of the
literature, ethics of research require that the source is acknowledged through a
clear system of referencing.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES

For some research projects you may be required to use primary sources. How can
you identify these?
Primary sources are the surviving original records of a period, eyewitness
accounts and first-published documentation of new information.
Primary Sources
1. A primary source provides direct or firsthand evidence about an
event, object, person, or work of art.
2. Primary sources include historical and legal documents, eyewitness
accounts, and results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of
creative writing, audio and video recordings, speeches, and art
objects.
3. Interviews, surveys, fieldwork, and Internet communications via
email, blogs, listservs, and newsgroups are also primary sources.
4. In the natural and social sciences, primary sources are often
empirical studies—research where an experiment was performed or
a direct observation was made.
5. The results of empirical studies are typically found in scholarly
articles or papers delivered at conferences.
Secondary Sources
 1. A secondary source is second-hand information.
2. Secondary sources describe, discuss, interpret, comment upon,
analyze, evaluate, summarize, and process primary sources.
3. Secondary source materials can be articles in newspapers or popular
magazines, book or movie reviews, Web pages or articles found in
scholarly journals that discuss or evaluate someone else's original
research.
WEB AS A SOURCE - SEARCHING THE WEB
From past one decade or so the internet became an important source of knowledge
and an effective medium for research. For researchers, it is providing a range of
new opportunities for collecting information, networking, conducting research,
collecting data and disseminating research results.
Electronic mail, e-journal, on-line submission of articles to journals, online
focus groups, online video conferencing and online questionary are some of the
latest tools opened-up by the internet. We note that thousands of books and other
print publications have been made available online. Otherwise, that would be
extremely difficult to locate, including out-of- print books, classic literature and
textbooks.
Some of the scientific research information available on the internet is:
Details about various scientific and nonscientific topics.
Titles and other relevant information of article published in various
journals, possibly, from past one decade or so (full article will not be
available).
Preprint of papers submitted by researchers in certain websites.
Information about scientific meetings to be held.
Contact details for other researchers.
Databases of reference material.
Places where one can discuss topics and ask for help.
In general, academic research that has been commercially published is not
freely available on the internet.
Some of the features of conducting research through internet are:

Short time for collecting and recording data.

Data unknown to us can be identified and downloaded.

The possibility of conducting interviews and focus groups by e-mail,

which results in enormous saving in costs and time.

New communities to act as the object of social scientific enquiry.

While the internet contains a virtually-unlimited wealth of information not

found in traditional resources, this abundance also may hinder academic research.
The following are some of the new challenges for the researcher:

Problems of sampling.
Reliability and accuracy of the obtained data information.
The ethics of conducting research into online communities.
Physical access and skills required to use the technologies involved.
The changed chronology of interaction resulting from asynchronous
 communication.

For websites and authors which have little popularity, one must consider the
credentials of the source–if those are available and valid. Even though a website
may be written in a professional or academic manner, the lack of central body to
determine its credibility may be a prohibitive factor for serious research.

Low-cost delivery and return.

Wide potential coverage.
Ease of completion.
Submission and data capture.
Appropriateness to particular populations.

High respondent acceptance for some

groups. Potential difficulties include:

O The paucity of methodological literature.

O Appropriateness to research aims.
O Target population.
O Technical difficulties.
O Sampling and response rates.

IDENTIFYING A GAP IN THE LITERATURE

Once we have found a promising research area of interest, we must identify

research
questions that are not only unresolved but whose exploration can meaningfully
contribute to
existing theory and/or practice.

In this section, it helps to

i. Learn to identify such promising research questions by avoiding

common beginner's mistakes.
ii. Understanding how to identify a "gap" in the scholarly literature. and
iii. Making sure it is worthwhile to try to fill the gap.

What is a gap in the literature?

A gap in the literature is a research question relevant to a given domain that

has not been answered adequately or at all in existing peer-reviewed scholarship.

A gap in the literature may emerge if…..

1. The question has not been addressed in a given domain, although it
may have been answered in a similar or related area.
2. The question has never been asked before, but it now merits
exploration due to changes in accepted theory, data collection
technology, or culture.
 3. The question has been asked and tested in peer-reviewed research,
but the
methods were either of questionable validity or had necessitated
limited applicability of results. Alternatively, a replication study
could be run to verify a published study's results if appropriate.

Why does it matter?

Even if a legitimate gap in the literature exists, it does not necessarily mean
that the research question(s) merits pursuit. To justify to yourself and others the
investment of time and energy into designing and conducting research, you must
ensure the research will likely have valuable practical and/or theoretical
implications.
1. Practical implications: Answering the research question could
improve existing practice and/or inform professional decision-
making.
2. Theoretical implications: Answering the research question could
revise, build upon, or create theory informing research design and
practice.

DEVELOPMENT OF WORKING HYPOTHESES

Researchers do not carry out work without any aim or expectation.

Research is not of doing something and presenting what is done. Every research
problem is undertaken aiming at certain outcomes. That is, before starting actual
work such as performing an experiment or theoretical calculation or numerical
analysis, we expect certain outcomes from the study. The expectations form the
hypothesis.

1. After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear

terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. It is the focal point for
research
2. The development of working hypothesis plays an important role.
3. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of
research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the
hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of
research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his thinking
and focuses attention on the more important facets of the
problem.

The development of working hypotheses can be developed by using the following

approach:

a. Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin
and the objectives in seeking a solution;
b. Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the
problem for possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;
c. Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar
problems; and
 d. Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field
interviews on a limited scale with interested parties and individuals
with a view to secure greater insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.

What are the criteria of a good hypothesis?

1. A hypothesis should have conceptual clarity and a theoretical orientation.

2. It can be tested by investigation.
3. A hypothesis made initially may become incorrect when the data
obtained are analyzed. In this case it has to be revised. It is important
to state the hypothesis of a research problem in a research report.
4. We note that if a hypothesis withstands the experiments and provide
the required facts to make it acceptable, not only to the researchers
performing the experiments but to others doing other experiments
then when sufficiently reinforced by continual verification the
hypothesis may become a theory.