Linear Integrated Circuits

and Filters

Dr. Abdul Latif

Department of Telecommunication
https://sites.google.com/a/faculty.muet.edu.pk/abdullatif
Linear Integrated Circuits & Filters Dr. Abdul Latif

Oscillators
• Many electronic devices require a source of energy at a
specific frequency which may range from a few Hertz to
several MHz.
• This is achieved by an electronic device called an
oscillator.
• The frequency of oscillations depends upon the constants
of the device.
• Oscillators are extensively used; for example in radio and
television receivers to generate carrier wave.
• Oscillators are used to produce clock signals (timing
information).

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Oscillators
• Two major classifications for oscillators:
 feedback oscillators and
 relaxation oscillators.

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Oscillators
• Types of oscillation
 Damped oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on
decreasing with time are called damped oscillations.
 Undamped oscillations
The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains
constant with time are called undamped oscillations.

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Oscillators

Fig. 14.1

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Oscillators
• An oscillator is a circuit that produces a periodic waveform on
its output with only the dc supply voltage as an input.
• The output voltage can be either sinusoidal or non-sinusoidal,
depending on the type of oscillator.
• An oscillator converts electrical energy from the dc power
supply to periodic waveforms.

FIGURE 16–1
The basic oscillator concept showing three common types of output waveforms: sine wave,
square wave, and sawtooth.
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Feedback Oscillators
• One type of oscillator is the feedback oscillator, which returns
a fraction of the output signal to the input with no net phase
shift, resulting in a reinforcement of the output signal.
• After oscillations are started, the loop gain is maintained at 1.0
to maintain oscillations.
• A feedback oscillator consists of an amplifier for gain (either a
discrete transistor or an op-amp) and a positive feedback
circuit that produces phase shift and provides attenuation, as
shown in Figure 16–2.

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Feedback Oscillators

FIGURE 16–2
Basic elements of a feedback oscillator.
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Feedback Oscillators
• Positive Feedback
• Positive feedback is characterized by the condition wherein a
portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is fed back to the
input with no net phase shift, resulting in a reinforcement of
the output signal.
• This basic idea is illustrated in Figure 16–3(a).
• The in-phase feedback voltage, Vf, is amplified to produce the
output voltage, which in turn produces the feedback voltage.
• That is, a loop is created in which the signal sustains itself and
a continuous sinusoidal output is produced.
• This phenomenon is called oscillation.

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Feedback Oscillators

FIGURE 16–3
Positive feedback produces oscillation.
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Feedback Oscillators
• Positive Feedback
• In some types of amplifiers, the feedback circuit shifts the
phase 1800 and an inverting amplifier is required to provide
another 1800 phase shift so that there is no net phase shift. This
is illustrated in Figure 16–3(b).

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Feedback Oscillators
• Barkhausen Criterion
• It is in order to produce continuous undamped oscillations at the
output of an amplifier, two conditions, as illustrated in Figure 16–4,
are required:
1. The phase shift around the feedback loop must be effectively 00.
2. The voltage gain, Acl, around the closed feedback loop (loop
gain) must equal to 1 (unity). This is called Barkhausen
criterion.
• The voltage gain around the closed feedback loop, Acl, is the product
of the amplifier gain Av, and the attenuation, B, of the feedback
circuit.
𝐴𝑐𝑙 = 𝐴𝑣 𝐵
• The amplitude of the oscillations should be constant.

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Feedback Oscillators

FIGURE 16–4
General conditions to sustain oscillation.

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Feedback Oscillators
• If a sinusoidal wave is the desired output, a loop gain greater
than 1 will rapidly cause the output to saturate at both peaks of
the waveform, producing unacceptable distortion.
• To avoid this, some form of gain control must be used to keep
the loop gain at exactly 1 once oscillations have started.

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Basic Linear Oscillator

𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑉𝜀 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑓 and 𝑉𝑓 = 𝛽𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝑜 𝐴
⇒ =
𝑉𝑠 1 − 𝐴𝛽
• If Vs = 0, the only way that Vo can be nonzero is that loop gain
Aβ=1 which implies that (Barkhausen Criterion):
𝐴𝛽 = 1
∠𝐴𝛽 = 00
+ V
Vs  A(f) Vo
+

Vf SelectiveNetwork
(f)

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Feedback Oscillators
• Start-Up Conditions
• The unity-gain condition must be met for oscillation to be
sustained.
• For oscillation to begin, the voltage gain around the positive
feedback loop must be greater than 1 so that the amplitude of
the output can build up to a desired level.
• The gain must then decrease to 1 so that the output stays at the
desired level and oscillation is sustained.
• The voltage gain conditions for both starting and sustaining
oscillation are illustrated in Figure 16–5.

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Feedback Oscillators

FIGURE 16–5
When oscillation starts at t0, the condition Acl >1 causes the sinusoidal output
voltage amplitude to build up to a desired level. Then Acl decreases to 1 and
maintains the desired amplitude.

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Oscillators with RC Feedback Circuits

• Three types of feedback oscillators that use RC circuits to
produce sinusoidal outputs are:
 the Wien-bridge oscillator,
 the phase-shift oscillator, and
 the twin-T oscillator.
• Generally, RC feedback oscillators are used for frequencies up
to about 1 MHz.

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Wien-bridge oscillator
• A fundamental part of the Wien-bridge oscillator is a lead-lag
circuit like that shown in Figure 16–6(a).
• R1 and C1 together form the lag portion of the circuit: R2 and
C2 form the lead portion.

FIGURE 16–6
A lead-lag circuit and its response curve.
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Wien-bridge oscillator
• The operation of this lead-lag circuit is as follows:
• At lower frequencies, the lead circuit dominates due to the
high reactance of C2.
• As the frequency increases, XC2 decreases, thus allowing the
output voltage to increase.
• At some specified frequency, the response of the lag circuit
takes over, and the decreasing value of XC1 causes the output
voltage to decrease.
• The response curve for the lead-lag circuit shown in Figure
16–6(b) indicates that the output voltage peaks at a frequency
called the resonant frequency, fr.

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Wien-bridge oscillator
• At this point, the attenuation (Vout/Vin) of the circuit is 1/3 if R1 = R2
and XC1= XC2 as stated by the following equation:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 3
• The formula for the resonant frequency
1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
• To summarize, the lead-lag circuit in the Wien-bridge oscillator has
a resonant frequency, fr at which the phase shift through the circuit is
00 and the attenuation is 1/3.
• Below fr, the lead circuit dominates and the output leads the input.
• Above fr, the lag circuit dominates and the output lags the input.

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Wien-bridge oscillator
1 1 Frequency Selection Network
Let X C1  and X C 2 
C1 C 2 Z1
Z1  R1  jX C1 R1 C1 Z2
1
1 1   jR2 X C 2
Z2      Vi C2 R2 Vo
 R2  jX C 2  R2  jX C 2

Therefore, the feedback factor,

Vo Z2 ( jR2 X C 2 / R2  jX C 2 )
  
Vi Z1  Z 2 ( R1  jX C1 )  ( jR2 X C 2 / R2  jX C 2 )
 jR2 X C 2

( R1  jX C1 )( R2  jX C 2 )  jR2 X C 2
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Wien-bridge oscillator
 can be rewritten as:
R2 X C 2

R1 X C 2  R2 X C1  R2 X C 2  j ( R1 R2  X C1 X C 2 )
0.34

For Barkhausen Criterion, 0.32

Feedback factor 
0.3
imaginary part = 0, i.e., 0.28
=1/3

R1 R2  X C1 X C 2  0 0.26
0.24
1 1
or R1 R2  0.22

C1 C2 0.2

f(R=Xc)
1

   1 / R1 R2C1C2
0.5 Phase=0
Supposing,
Phase
0
R1=R2=R and XC1= XC2=XC,
-0.5
RX C

3RX C  j ( R 2  X C2 ) -1
Frequency
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Wien-bridge oscillator
• The lead-lag circuit is used in the positive feedback loop of an
op amp, as shown in Figure 16–7(a).
• A voltage divider is used in the negative feedback loop.

FIGURE 16–7
The Wien-bridge oscillator schematic drawn in two different but equivalent ways.
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Wien-bridge oscillator
• The Wien-bridge oscillator circuit can be viewed as a
noninverting amplifier configuration with the input signal fed
back from the output through the lead-lag circuit.
• Recall that the voltage divider determines the closed-loop gain
of the amplifier.
1 1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝐴𝑐𝑙 = = =
𝐵 𝑅2 / 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅2
• The circuit is redrawn in Figure 16–7(b) to show that the op-
amp is connected across the bridge circuit.
• One leg of the bridge is the lead-lag circuit, and the other is the
voltage divider.

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Wien-bridge oscillator
• For the circuit to produce a sustained sinusoidal output (oscillate),
the phase shift around the positive feedback loop must be 0° and the
gain around the loop must be equal to unity (1).
• The 0° phase-shift condition is met when the frequency is fr because
the phase shift through the lead-lag circuit is 0° and there is no
inversion from the noninverting (+) input of the op-amp to the
output.
• This is shown in Figure 16–8(a).
• The unity-gain condition in the feedback loop is met when
𝐴𝑐𝑙 = 3
• This offsets the 1/3 attenuation of the lead-lag circuit, thus making
the total gain around the positive feedback loop equal to 1.

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Wien-bridge oscillator

FIGURE 16–8
Conditions for sustained oscillation

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Wien-bridge oscillator
• To achieve a closed-loop gain of 3,
R1 = 2R2
• Then
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2𝑅2 + 𝑅2 3𝑅2
𝐴𝑐𝑙 = = = =3
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2
• Initially, the closed-loop gain of the amplifier itself must be
more than 3 (Acl > 3) until the output signal builds up to a
desired level.
• Ideally, the gain of the amplifier must then decrease to 3 so
that the total gain around the loop is 1 and the output signal
stays at the desired level, thus sustaining oscillation.
• This is illustrated in Figure 16–9.

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Wien-bridge oscillator

FIGURE 16–9
Conditions for start-up and sustained oscillations.

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Wien-bridge oscillator
• All practical methods to achieve stability for feedback
oscillators require the gain to be self-adjusting.
• This requirement is a form of automatic gain control (AGC).
• A better method to control the gain uses a JFET as a voltage-
controlled resistor in a negative feedback path.
• This method can produce an excellent sinusoidal waveform
that is stable.
• A JFET stabilized Wien bridge is shown in Figure 16–11.
• The gain of the op-amp is controlled by the components shown
in the green box, which includes the JFET.

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Wien-bridge oscillator

FIGURE 16–11
Self-starting Wien-bridge oscillator using a JFET in the negative feedback loop

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Wien-bridge oscillator
• The JFET’s drain-source resistance depends on the gate voltage.
• With no output signal, the gate is at zero volts, causing the drain-
source resistance to be at the minimum.
• With this condition, the loop gain is greater than 1.
• Oscillations begin and rapidly build to a large output signal.
• Negative excursions of the output signal forward-bias D1 causing
capacitor to charge C3 to a negative voltage.
• This voltage increases the drain-source resistance of the JFET and
reduces the gain (and hence the output).
• This is classic negative feedback at work.
• With the proper selection of components, the gain can be stabilized
at the required level.

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Wien-bridge oscillator
• Example 16-1: Determine the resonant frequency for the
Wien-bridge oscillator in Figure 16–12. Also, calculate the
setting for Rf assuming the internal drain-source resistance r’ds,
of the JFET is 500 Ω when oscillations are stable.

• Solution:
• For the lead-lag circuit, and R1 = R2 = R = 10 k Ω and C1 = C2
= C = 0.01 mF. The frequency is
1 1
𝑓𝑟 = = = 1.59 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋 10 𝑘Ω 0.01 𝜇𝐹

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Wien-bridge oscillator
• The closed-loop gain must be 3.0 for oscillations to be
sustained.
• For an inverting amplifier, the gain expression is the same as
for a noninverting amplifier.
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = +1
𝑅𝑖
• Ri is composed of R3 and r’ds. Substituting
𝑅𝑓
𝐴𝑣 = ′ +1
𝑅3 + 𝑟𝑑𝑠
• Rearranging for Rf
′
𝑅𝑓 = 𝐴𝑣 − 1 𝑅3 + 𝑟𝑑𝑠 = 3 − 1 1.0 𝑘Ω + 500 Ω = 3.0 𝑘Ω

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Wien-bridge oscillator

FIGURE 16–12

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The Phase-Shift Oscillator

• Figure 16–13 shows a sinusoidal feedback oscillator called the
phase-shift oscillator, using an inverting amplifier.
• The additional 180° phase shift is provided by an RC phase-
shift network.

FIGURE 16–13: Phase-shift oscillator

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The Phase-Shift Oscillator

Applying KVL to the phase-shift
Network, we have: C C C
V1 Vo
V1  I1 ( R  jX C )  I 2 R
0   I1 R  I 2 (2 R  jX C )  I 3 R R R R
I1 I2 I3
0   I2R  I 3 (2 R  jX C )
Solve for I3, we get
R  jX C R V1
R 2 R  jX C 0
R
I3  0 0
R  jX C R 0
R 2 R  jX C R
0 R 2 R  jX C

V1 R 2
Or I3 
( R  jX C )[(2 R  jX C ) 2  R 2 ]  R 2 (2 R  jX C )
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The Phase-Shift Oscillator

The output voltage,
V1 R 3
Vo  I 3 R 
( R  jX C )[(2 R  jX C ) 2  R 2 ]  R 2 (2 R  jX C )
Hence the transfer function of the phase-shift network is given by,
Vo R3
  3
V1 ( R  5RX C2 )  j ( X C3  6 R 2 X C )
For 180o phase shift, the imaginary part = 0, i.e.,
X C3  6 R 2 X C  0 or X C  0 (Rejected)
 X C2  6 R 2
1
 Note: The –ve sign mean the
6 RC
and, phase inversion from the
1
  voltage
29
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The Phase-Shift Oscillator

• Oscillation occurs at the frequency where the total phase shift
through the three RC circuits is 180°.
• The inversion of the op-amp itself provides the additional 180°
to meet the requirement for oscillation of a 360° (or 0°) phase
shift around the feedback loop.
• The attenuation, B, of the three-section RC feedback circuit is
1
𝐵=
29
where B=R3/Rf.

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The Phase-Shift Oscillator

• To meet the greater-than-unity loop gain requirement, the
closed-loop voltage gain of the op-amp must be greater than
29 (set by Rf and R3).
• The frequency of oscillation (fr) is stated in the following
equation, where R1 = R2 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C3 = C:

1
𝑓𝑟 =
2𝜋 6𝑅𝐶

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The Phase-Shift Oscillator

• EXAMPLE 16–2: (a) Determine the value of Rf necessary for
the circuit in Figure 16–14 to operate as an oscillator.
• (b) Determine the frequency of oscillation.

FIGURE 16–14
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The Phase-Shift Oscillator

• Solution:
(a) Acl=29, and B=1/29= R3 / Rf. Therefore,
𝑅𝑓
= 29
𝑅3
𝑅𝑓 = 29𝑅3 = 29 10 𝑘Ω = 290 𝑘Ω
(b) R1 = R2 = R3 = R and C1 = C2 = C3 = C. Therefore,
1 1
𝑓𝑟 = = ≅ 6.5 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 6𝑅𝐶 2𝜋 6 10𝑘Ω 0.001𝜇𝐹

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OSCILLATORS WITH LC FEEDBACK CIRCUITS

• Although the RC feedback oscillators, particularly the Wien

bridge, are generally suitable for frequencies up to about 1
MHz, LC feedback elements are normally used in oscillators
that require higher frequencies of oscillation.
• With an LC circuits, oscillations of frequencies between 1 and
500 MHz can be produced.
• Also, because of the frequency limitation (lower unity-gain
frequency) of most op-amps, discrete transistors (BJT or FET)
are often used as the gain element in LC oscillators.

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The Colpitts Oscillator

• The oscillator is shown in Figure 16–16.
• It uses an LC circuit in the feedback loop to provide the necessary
phase shift and to act as a resonant filter that passes only the desired
frequency of oscillation.
• The approximate frequency of oscillation is the resonant frequency
of the LC circuit and is established by the values of C1, C2, and L
according to this familiar formula:
1
𝑓𝑟 ≅
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝑇
• where CT is the total capacitance. Because the capacitors effectively
appear in series around the tank circuit, the total capacitance CT is:
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶𝑇 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
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The Colpitts Oscillator

FIGURE 16–16 A basic Colpitts oscillator with a BJT as the gain element.

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The Colpitts Oscillator

• EXAMPLE 16–3 (a)

Determine the frequency for
the oscillator in Figure 16–
21. Assume there is
negligible loading on the
feedback circuit and that its
Q is greater than 10.
• (b) Find the frequency if the
oscillator is loaded to a
point where the Q drops to
8.
FIGURE 16–21

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The Colpitts Oscillator

• Solution: (a)
𝐶1 𝐶2 0.1 𝜇𝐹 0.01 𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑇 = = = 0.0091 𝜇𝐹
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 0.11 𝜇𝐹
1 1
𝑓𝑟 ≅ = = 7.46 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝑇 2𝜋 50 𝑚𝐻 0.0091 𝜇𝐹
• (b)
1 𝑄2
𝑓𝑟 = 2
= 7.46 𝑘𝐻𝑧 0.9923 = 7.40 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝐿𝐶𝑇 𝑄 +1

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Relaxation Oscillators
• A second type of oscillator is the relaxation oscillator.
• Instead of feedback, a relaxation oscillator uses an RC timing
circuit to generate a waveform that is generally a square wave
or other non-sinusoidal waveform.
• Typically, a relaxation oscillator uses a Schmitt trigger or other
device that changes states to alternately charge and discharge a
capacitor through a resistor.

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A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

• The op-amp integrator can be used as the basis for a triangular-

wave oscillator.
• The basic idea is illustrated in Figure 16–27(a) where a dual-
polarity, switched input is used.
• When the switch is in position 1, the negative voltage is
applied, and the output is a positive-going ramp.
• When the switch is thrown into position 2, a negative-going
ramp is produced.
• If the switch is thrown back and forth at fixed intervals, the
output is a triangular wave consisting of alternating positive-
going and negative-going ramps, as shown in Figure 16–27(b).

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A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

FIGURE 16–27: Basic triangular-wave oscillator

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A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

• A practical triangular wave oscillator utilizes an op-amp

comparator with hysteresis is shown in Figure 16–28.

FIGURE 16–28 A triangular-wave oscillator using two op-amps.

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A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

• The operation is as follows:

• To begin, assume that the output voltage of the comparator is
at its maximum negative level.
• This output is connected to the inverting input of the integrator
through R1, producing a positive-going ramp on the output of
the integrator.
• When the ramp voltage reaches the upper trigger point (UTP),
the comparator switches to its maximum positive level.
• This positive level causes the integrator ramp to change to a
negative-going direction.

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A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

• The ramp continues in this direction until the lower trigger

point (LTP) of the comparator is reached.
• At this point, the comparator output switches back to the
maximum negative level and the cycle repeats.
• This action is illustrated in Figure 16–29.

FIGURE 16–29: Waveforms for the circuit in Figure 16–28.

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A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

• Since the comparator produces a square-wave output, the

circuit in Figure 16–28 can be used as both a triangular-wave
oscillator and a square-wave oscillator.
• The output amplitude of the square wave is set by the output
swing of the comparator, and the resistors R2 and R3 set the
amplitude of the triangular output by establishing the UTP and
LTP voltages according to the following formulas:
𝑅3
𝑉𝑈𝑇𝑃 = +𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅2
𝑅3
𝑉𝐿𝑇𝑃 = −𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑅2
where the comparator output levels, +Vmax and - Vmax are equal.

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A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

• The frequency of both waveforms depends on the R1C time

constant as well as the amplitude-setting resistors, R2 and R3.
• By varying the frequency of oscillation can be adjusted
without changing the output amplitude.

1 𝑅2
𝑓𝑟 =
4𝑅1 𝐶 𝑅3

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A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

• Example 16-4: Determine the frequency of oscillation of the

circuit in Figure 16–30. To what value must R1 be changed to
make the frequency 20 kHz?

FIGURE 16–30
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A Triangular-Wave Oscillator

• Solution:

1 𝑅2 1 33 𝑘Ω
𝑓𝑟 = = = 8.25 𝑘𝐻𝑧
4𝑅1 𝐶 𝑅3 4 10 𝑘Ω 0.01 𝜇𝐹 10 𝑘Ω

• To make f=20 kHz,

1 𝑅2 1 33 𝑘Ω
𝑅1 = = = 4.13 𝑘Ω
4𝑓𝑟 𝐶 𝑅3 4 20 𝑘Hz 0.01 𝜇𝐹 10 𝑘Ω

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A Square-Wave Oscillator

• The basic square-wave oscillator shown in Figure 16–34 is a

type of relaxation oscillator because its operation is based on
the charging and discharging of a capacitor.

FIGURE 16–34: A square-wave relaxation oscillator.

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A Square-Wave Oscillator

• Notice that the op-amp’s inverting input is the capacitor

voltage and the noninverting input is a portion of the output
fed back through resistors R2 and R3 and to provide hysteresis.
• When the circuit is first turned on, the capacitor is uncharged,
and thus the inverting input is at 0 V.
• This makes the output a positive maximum, and the capacitor
begins to charge toward Vout through R1.
• When the capacitor voltage (VC) reaches a value equal to the
feedback voltage (Vf) on the noninverting input, the op-amp
switches to the maximum negative state.

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A Square-Wave Oscillator

• At this point, the capacitor begins to discharge from +Vf

toward -Vf.
• When the capacitor voltage reaches -Vf, the op-amp switches
back to the maximum positive state.
• This action continues to repeat, as shown in Figure 16–35, and
a square-wave output voltage is obtained.

FIGURE 16–35
Waveforms for the square-
wave relaxation oscillator.

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The Integrated Timer

• It was introduced by Signetics in 1972.

• Most popular among timer ICs is NE555 by STM electronics
and Fairchild electronics.
• The 555 timer IC is used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications.
• 555 can be configured as an astable or free-running
multivibrator, which is essentially a square-wave oscillator.
• The use of the 555 timer as a voltage controlled oscillator
(VCO) is another application.

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The Integrated Timer

• The 555 timer consists basically of two comparators, a flip-

flop, a discharge transistor, and a resistive voltage divider, as
shown in Figure 16–36.
• Briefly, it is a two-state device whose output can be at either a
high voltage level (set, S) or a low voltage level (reset, R). The
state of the output can be changed with proper input signals.
• The resistive voltage divider is used to set the voltage
comparator levels.
• All three resistors are of equal value; therefore, the upper
comparator has a reference of 2⁄3VCC, and the lower
comparator has a reference of 1/3 VCC.

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The Integrated Timer

FIGURE 16–36
Internal diagram of a 555 integrated circuit timer. (IC pin numbers are in parentheses.)
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The Integrated Timer

• The comparators’ outputs control the state of the flip-flop.

• When the trigger voltage goes below 1⁄3 VCC, the flip-flop sets and
the output jumps to its high level.
• The threshold input is normally connected to an external RC timing
circuit.
• When the external capacitor voltage exceeds 2⁄3 VCC, the upper
comparator resets the flip-flop, which in turn switches the output
back to its low level.
• When the device output is low, the discharge transistor (Qd) is
turned on and provides a path for rapid discharge of the external
timing capacitor.
• This basic operation allows the timer to be configured with external
components as an oscillator, a one-shot (Monostable Multivibrator),
or a time delay element.

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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

• A 555 timer connected to
operate in the astable mode as
a free-running relaxation
oscillator (astable
multivibrator) is shown in
Figure 16–37.
• Notice that the threshold input
(THRESH) is now connected
to the trigger input (TRIG).
• The external components R1,
R2 and Cext and form the timing
circuit that sets the frequency
of oscillation.
FIGURE 16–37 : The 555 timer connected
as an astable multivibrator.
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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

• Pin 1. – Ground, The ground pin connects the 555 timer to the negative
(0v) supply rail.

• Pin 2. – Trigger, The negative input to comparator No 1. A negative pulse

on this pin “sets” the internal Flip-flop when the voltage drops below
1/3Vcc causing the output to switch from a “LOW” to a “HIGH” state.

• Pin 3. – Output, The output pin can drive any TTL circuit and is capable of
sourcing or sinking up to 200 mA of current at an output voltage equal to
approximately Vcc – 1.5V so small speakers, LEDs or motors can be
connected directly to the output.

• Pin 4. – Reset, This pin is used to “reset” the internal Flip-flop controlling
the state of the output, pin 3. This is an active-low input and is generally
connected to a logic “1” level when not used to prevent any unwanted
resetting of the output.

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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

• Pin 5. – Control Voltage, This pin controls the timing of the 555 by overriding
the 2/3Vcc level of the voltage divider network. By applying a voltage to this
pin the width of the output signal can be varied independently of the RC timing
network. When not used it is connected to ground via a 10 nF capacitor to
eliminate any noise.

• Pin 6. – Threshold, The positive input to comparator No 2. This pin is used to

reset the Flip-flop when the voltage applied to it exceeds 2/3Vcc causing the
output to switch from “HIGH” to “LOW” state. This pin connects directly to
the RC timing circuit.

• Pin 7. – Discharge, The discharge pin is connected directly to the Collector of

an internal NPN transistor which is used to “discharge” the timing capacitor to
ground when the output at pin 3 switches “LOW”.

• Pin 8. – Supply +Vcc, This is the power supply pin and for general purpose
TTL 555 timers is between 4.5V and 15V.

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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

• The capacitor connected to the control (CONT) input is strictly for
decoupling and has no effect on the operation.
• Initially, when the power is turned on, the capacitor Cext is
uncharged and thus the trigger voltage (pin 2) is at 0 V.
• This causes the output of the lower comparator to be high and the
output of the upper comparator to be low, forcing the output of the
flip-flop, and thus the base of Qd, low and keeping the transistor off.
• Now, Cext begins charging through R1 and R2 as indicated in Figure
16–38.
• When the capacitor voltage reaches 1/3 VCC, the lower comparator
switches to its low output state, and when the capacitor voltage
reaches 2/3 VCC, the upper comparator switches to its high output
state.

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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

• This resets the flip-flop, causes the base of Qd to go high, and
turns on the transistor.
• This sequence creates a discharge path for the capacitor
through R2 and the transistor, as indicated.
• The capacitor now begins to discharge, causing the upper
comparator to go low.
• At the point where the capacitor discharges down to 1/3 VCC,
the lower comparator switches high, setting the flip-flop,
which makes the base of Qd low and turns off the transistor.
• Another charging cycle begins, and the entire process repeats.
• The result is a rectangular wave output whose duty cycle
depends on the values of R1 and R2.

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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

FIGURE 16–38
Operation of the 555 timer in the astable mode
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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

• The frequency of oscillation is given by following equation, or it can
be found using the graph in Figure 16–39.
1.44
𝑓𝑟 =
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶𝑒𝑥𝑡
• By selecting R1 and R2, the duty cycle of the output can be adjusted.
• Since Cext charges through R1 + R2 and discharges only through R2,
duty cycles approaching a minimum of 50 percent can be achieved
if R2 >> R1 so that the charging and discharging times are
approximately equal.
• A formula to calculate the duty cycle is developed as follows:
• The time that the output is high (tH) is how long it takes Cext to
charge from 1/3 VCC to 2/3 VCC. It is expressed as:
tH =0.694(R1 + R2) Cext

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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

FIGURE 16–39: Frequency of oscillation (free-running frequency) of a 555 timer in the

astable mode as a function of Cext and R1 +2R2. The sloped lines are values of R1 + 2R2.

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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

• The time that the output is low (tL) is how long it takes Cext to
discharge from 2/3 VCC to 1/3 VCC. It is expressed as:
tL = 0.694R2Cext
• The period, T, of the output waveform is the sum of tH and tL. The
following formula for T is the reciprocal of f in Equation 16–12.
T = tH + tL = 0.694(R1 + 2 R2) Cext
• Finally, the percent duty cycle is
𝑡𝐻 𝑡𝐻
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 100% = 100%
𝑇 𝑡𝐿 + 𝑡𝐻
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 100%
𝑅1 + 2𝑅2

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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

• EXAMPLE 16–6: A 555 timer configured to run in the astable
mode (oscillator) is shown in Figure 16–41. Determine the
frequency of the output and the duty cycle.
• Solution:
1.44 1.44
𝑓𝑟 = = = 5.64 𝑘𝐻𝑧
𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 𝐶𝑒𝑥𝑡 2.2 𝑘Ω + 9.4 𝑘Ω 0.022 𝜇𝐹

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 2.2 𝑘Ω + 4.7 𝑘Ω
𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦 𝐶𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = 100% = 100% = 59.5%
𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 2.2 𝑘Ω + 9.4 𝑘Ω

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Astable Operation of 555 Timer

FIGURE 16–41
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555 Timer as a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

• A 555 timer can be set up to operate as a VCO by using the

same external connections as for astable operation, with the
exception that a variable control voltage is applied to the
CONT input (pin 5), as indicated in Figure 16–42.
• As shown in Figure 16–43, the control voltage (VCONT)
changes the threshold values of 1/3 VCC and 2/3 VCC for the
internal comparators.
• With the control voltage, the upper value is VCONT and the
lower value is 1/2 VCONT, as you can see by examining the
internal diagram of the 555 timer.
• When the control voltage is varied, the output frequency also
varies.

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555 Timer as a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

FIGURE 16–42
The 555 timer connected as a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). Note the
variable control voltage input on pin 5.
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555 Timer as a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

FIGURE 16–43
The VCO output frequency varies inversely with VCONT because the charging and
discharging time of Cext is directly dependent on the control voltage.

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555 Timer as a Voltage-Controlled Oscillator (VCO)

• An increase in VCONT increases the charging and discharging

time of the external capacitor and causes the frequency to
decrease.
• A decrease in VCONT decreases the charging and discharging
time of the capacitor and causes the frequency to increase.
• An interesting application of the VCO is in phase-locked
loops, which are used in various types of communication
receivers to track variations in the frequency of incoming
signals.

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