University of Bahrain

College of Engineering
Institute for Transport Studies
Department of Civil Engineering
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 3
Geometric Design of Highway Facilities
(Page 737)

Prepared by: Dr. Rashed Abdulrahman

Introduction
▪ Geometric design deals with the dimensioning of the highway elements:
o Such as vertical and horizontal curves, cross sections, and parking facilities

▪ The characteristics of driver, pedestrian, vehicle, and road serve as the

basis for determining the physical dimensions of these elements
▪ The fundamental objective of geometric design is to produce a smooth-
flowing and safe highway facility
▪ AASHTO serves a critical function in developing guidelines and
standards used in highway geometric design
Factors Influencing Highway Design
▪ Highway design is based on specified design standards and controls
which depend on the following roadway system factors:
Traffic volume
Functional
and vehicle Design speed Design vehicle
classification
mix

Cross section Presence of

Topography of Level of
of the HGVs on steep
the area service
highway grades

Social and
Available
Safety environmental
funds
factors
University of Bahrain
College of Engineering
Institute for Transport Studies
Department of Civil Engineering
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 3 (Section 1)
Highway Functional Classification
(Page 738)
Highway Functional Classification (1)
▪ Highways are classified according to their functions in terms of the
service they provide
▪ Highways and streets are categorized as rural or urban roads,
depending on the area in which they are located
o This initial classification is necessary because
urban and rural areas have significantly
different characteristics with respect to the
type of land use and population density,
which in turn influences travel patterns
Urban Rural
Highway Functional Classification (2)
▪ Within the classification of urban and rural, highways are categorized
into the following groups:

Principle arterials

Minor arterials

Collectors

Local roads and streets

Functional System of Urban Roads (1)
▪ Highly populated areas
▪ Urban roads are functionally
classified into:
o Principal arterials, minor arterials,
collectors, and local roads

▪ Different countries have different

classification and categories
Functional System of Urban Roads (2)
▪ Urban Principle Arterial System:
o This system of highways serves the major activity centers of the urban areas

o Consists mainly of the highest-traffic-volume roads

✓ It carries a high proportion of the total vehicle-miles of travel within the urban area
including most trips with an origin or destination within the urban area

o Highways within this system are further divided into three subclasses:
1) Interstate: fully-controlled access and grade-separated interchanges
2) Expressways: Have controlled access but may also include at-grade intersections
3) Other principal arterials: with partial or no controlled access
Functional System of Urban Roads (3)
▪ Urban Minor Arterial System:
o This system serves trips of moderate length and places more emphasis on land
access than the primary (principle) type

o Can serve as local bus routes and may connect communities within the urban
areas
o The spacing of minor arterial streets in fully developed areas is usually not less
than 1 mile, but the spacing can be 2 to 3 miles in suburban areas
Functional System of Urban Roads (4)
▪ Urban Collector Street System:
o The main purpose of streets within this system is to collect traffic from local
streets in residential or in commercial areas and convey it to the arterial system

▪ Urban Local Street System:

o This system consists of all other streets within the urban area that are not
included in the previous systems
o The main purposes of these streets are to provide access to lands and houses,
and to the collector streets
o Through traffic is discouraged on these streets
Functional System of Urban Roads (5)
Functional System of Rural Roads (1)
▪ Highway facilities outside urban
areas comprise the rural road
system

▪ These highways are categorized as:

o Principal arterials, minor arterials, major
collectors, minor collectors, and locals
Functional System of Rural Roads (2)
▪ Rural Principle Arterial Systems:
o Virtually all highway trips between urbanized areas and a high percentage of trips
between small urban areas are made on this system
o The system is further divided into freeways (which are divided highways with fully
controlled access and no at-grade intersections) and other principal arterials

▪ Rural Minor Arterial Systems:

o This system augments the principal arterial system in the formation of a network of
roads that connects cities, large towns & other traffic generators (e.g. large resorts)
o Travel speeds on these roads are relatively high
Functional System of Rural Roads (3)
▪ Rural Collector System:
o Highways within this system carry traffic primarily within individual counties

o Trip distances are usually shorter than those on the arterial roads

o This system of roads is subdivided into:

Major collector
system Minor collector
system
Functional System of Rural Roads (4)
▪ Rural Local Road System:
o This system consists of all roads within the rural area not classified within the
other systems
o These roads serve trips of relatively short distances and connect adjacent
lands with the collector roads
Functional System of Rural Roads (5)
University of Bahrain
College of Engineering
Institute for Transport Studies
Department of Civil Engineering
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 3 (Section 2)
Highway Design Standards
(Page 742)
Introduction
▪ Highway design standards: CODES TO FOLLOW IN DESIGN

o A set of highway standards to be followed in the design process

▪ Selection of the appropriate set of geometric design standards is the

first step in the design of any highway:
o This is essential because no single set of standards can be used for all highways
o The highway characteristics should be considered in selecting the design standards
o For example: standards that may suitable for a low volume mountain road are
inadequate for a freeway carrying heavy traffic
Factors Influencing Highway Design
▪ Highway design is based on specified design standards and controls
which depend on the following roadway system factors:
Traffic volume
Functional
and vehicle Design speed Design vehicle
classification
mix

Cross section Presence of

Topography of Level of
of the HGVs on steep
the area service
highway grades

Social and
Available
Safety environmental
funds
factors
Design Hourly Volume (DHV)
▪ The design hourly volume (DHV) is the projected hourly volume that is
used for design
▪ This volume is usually taken as a percentage of the expected average
daily traffic (ADT) on the highway
▪ Typically, the 30th highest hourly volume (in the design year) is used as
the DHV:
o For urban highways: It is determined by applying between 8 and 12 % to the ADT
o For rural highways: It is determined by applying between 12 and 18 % to the ADT
Design Speed (1)
▪ Design speed is defined as a selected speed to determine the
various geometric features of the roadway

▪ Design speed depends on:

Length of
Functional The land use
the road
classification Topography of the
(more
of the of the area adjacent
length, more
highway area
speed)
Design Speed (2)
▪ The design speed selected should be consistent with the speed that
drivers will expect to drive

▪ A design speed is selected to achieve a desired level of operation

and safety on the highway

▪ It is one of the first parameters selected in the design process

because of its influence on other design variables
Design Speed (3)

TERRIN = TOPOGRAPHY

FACTORS AFFECTING DESIGN SPEED? S TRAFFIC FLOW INCREASE > HIGHER DESIGN SPEED
`
MORE CHANGE IN TOPOGRAPHY > LOWER DESIGN SPEED

▪ For highway design, Level terrain Mountainous

topography is generally • Relatively flat
ground
Rolling terrain • Sudden changes
in ground
classified into three groups: elevations
Design Speed (4)

>
> 200 NOT 20
>
>
>
Design Vehicle (1)
▪ A design vehicle is selected to represent all vehicles on the highway
o Its weight, dimensions, and operating characteristics are used to establish the
design standards of the highway

▪ The vehicle type selected as the design vehicle is the largest that is
likely to use the highway with considerable frequency
▪ The selected design vehicle is used to determine critical design
features (e.g. radii at intersections and highway grades)
Design Vehicle (2)
▪ The following guidelines apply when selecting a design vehicle:
o Parking lots passenger car may be used
o Intersections at local street single unit truck
o Intersections at city streets that served buses city bus
o Intersections at arterial roads and ramps bigger vehicles (HGVs)
Cross-Section Elements (1)
▪ The principal elements of a highway cross section consist of:
o The travel lanes
o The shoulders
o The medians (for some multilane highways)

▪ Some other minor elements include:

o Road side barriers and guard rails
o Curbs and gutters
o Sidewalks
o Side slops
Cross-Section Elements (2)

Single carriageway Duel carriageway (multilane highways)

Cross-Section Elements (3)
▪ A typical cross section for a two-lane highway:
Cross-Section Elements (4)
▪ A typical cross section for a multilane highway:
Width of Travel Lanes
ARTIREALC > 12 ft
COLLECTOR > 10 - 11 ft

▪ Travel lane widths usually vary from 9 to 12 ft LOCAL > 9 - 10 ft

o 12 ft is the most recommended for ensure safety and capacity

o On two-lane, two-way rural roads, lane widths of 10 ft or 11 ft may be used
o Lane widths of 10 ft are used only on low-speed facilities
o Lanes that are 9 ft wide are used occasionally in urban areas if traffic volume
is low and there are extreme right-of-way constraints
 USUALLY 2 - 12 ft
A > 12 ft

Shoulders (1)
C > 6 - 8 ft
L > 2 ft

▪ The shoulder of a pavement cross section is always

contiguous with the traveled lane to provide an area
along the highway for vehicles to stop when
necessary
▪ In some cases, bicycles are permitted to use a
highway shoulder particularly on rural and collector
roads
▪ Shoulder surfaces range in width from 2 ft on minor
roads to 12 ft on major arterials RUBLE STRIPS
R

TO WARN THE DRIVER

Shoulders (2)
▪ The shoulder width is known as either graded or usable
o The usable width is the same as the graded width when the side slope is equal to or
flatter than 4:1 (horizontal: vertical)
▪ A minimum shoulder width of 2 ft may be used on the lowest type of
highways, but 6 to 8 ft width should be preferably used
▪ When pedestrians and bicyclists are permitted, the minimum shoulder
width should be 4 ft
▪ For heavy traffic with high HGVs prefer higher width
▪ Shoulders should be sloped (to facilitate drainage) and rumple
strips might be used (to warn drivers)
Medians (1) IF 4 LANE HIGHWAY > 10 FT
IF 6 LANE HIGHWAY > 22 OR 26 FT
THE STEEL IS CALLED BREAER

▪ A median is the section of a divided highway that separates the lanes in

opposing directions
▪ The width of a median is the distance between the edges of the inside
lanes, including the median shoulders
▪ Medians can either be raised, flush, or depressed
▪ A minimum width of 10 ft is recommended for four-
lane urban freeways
▪ A minimum of 22 ft, preferably 26 ft, is
recommended for six or more lanes of freeway
Medians (2)
▪ The functions of a median include:
Recovery area for out-of-control vehicles
EXAM

Separating opposing traffic

Stopping areas for emergencies

Storage areas for left-turning or U-turning vehicles

Provide refuge for pedestrians

Reduce the effect of headlight glare

Provide temporary lanes during maintenance

Roadside and Median Barriers (1)
▪ A median barrier is used to prevent vehicles from crossing the portion
of a divided highway by separating the opposing traffic
o Highly recommended when traffic volume is high capacity

▪ Roadside barriers should be provided whenever conditions exist

requiring the protection for vehicles along the side of the road
o Their main function is to prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway
o Highly recommended when the slope of an embankment is high or when
traveling at an overhead bridge

▪ Different types of barriers (concrete, timber, guard rails)

Roadside and Median Barriers (2)
Curbs and Gutters (1)
▪ Curbs are raised structures that are used mainly on urban highways to
delineate pavement edges and pedestrian walkways
o They are also used to control drainage, improve aesthetics, and reduce right of way

▪ Curbs can be generally classified as either

vertical or sloping
o Vertical curbs should also be avoided on highways
with design speeds greater than 40 mi/h
NOT USED FOR ARTIRIAL
Curbs and Gutters (2)
▪ Gutters are drainage ditches located on the pavement side of a
curb to provide the drainage facility for the highway

▪ Examples:

Slot gutters Beany kerbs

Sidewalks (1)
▪ Sidewalks are usually provided on roads in urban areas, but are
uncommon in rural areas
▪ Sidewalks should be provided when pedestrian traffic is high along main
or high-speed roads in either rural or urban areas
▪ Minimum clear width of Sidewalks: 4 ft in residential areas and 4 to 8 ft
in commercial areas
▪ To encourage pedestrians to use sidewalks, they should have all-
weather surfaces since pedestrians will tend to use traffic lanes rather
than unpaved sidewalks
Sidewalks (2)
Cross Slopes DIFFERNCE BETWEEN SIDE SLOPE AND CROSS SLOPE

▪ Pavements on straight sections of highways without medians are sloped

from the middle downward to both sides of the highway
o Resulting in a cross slope (mainly for water drainage)

▪ Recommended rates of cross slopes:

o 1.5 to 2% for high-type pavements BETTER DEAL WITH 2

o 2 to 6% for low-type pavements DELETE

 Side Slopes
▪ Side slopes are provided on embankments and fills to provide stability
for earthworks
▪ They also serve as a safety feature by providing a recovery area for out-
of-control vehicles SOME SITUATIONS WE DONT HAVE SIDE SLOPE LIKE BRIDGES WE PUT A BIREAR

SIDE SLOPE FROM THIS TABLE

H V
Right of Way
▪ The right of way is the total land area acquired for the construction of a
highway
o The width should be sufficient to accommodate all the elements of the highway
cross section, any planned widening of the highway, and public-utility facilities that
will be installed along the highway

▪ Example: Calculate the right of way of a 4 lanes arterial highway (2 lane

each direction) ESTIMATE

WE CALLED IT ESTIMATION BECAUSE OF PHYSICAL RESTRICTIONS - CROSS SLOPE - OEDESTRIAN

Maximum Highway Grades (1)
▪ In order to limit the effect of grades on vehicular operation, the
maximum grade on any highway should be selected judiciously
▪ Grade has a greater impact on trucks than on passenger cars
▪ The selection of maximum grades depends on:
o The design speed
o The design vehicle
o The type of highway and type of terrain

▪ Minimum grades?
GMAX FROM TABLE
GREIDNT MUST BE LESS THAN OR
MAXIMUM G

GMIN BETWEEN 1.5 T 2.5

University of Bahrain
College of Engineering
Institute for Transport Studies
Department of Civil Engineering
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 3 (Section 3)
Design of the Vertical Alignment
(Page 754)
Introduction
▪ The vertical alignment of a highway consists of straight sections
known as grades (or tangents) connected by vertical curves
▪ The design of the vertical alignment therefore involves:
o The selection of suitable grades for the tangent sections
o The appropriate length of vertical curves

▪ The topography of the area through which the road traverses has a
significant impact on the design of the vertical alignment
Purpose of Vertical Curves
▪ Grounding (crest or sag)
o Used to provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another so that
vehicles may run smoothly as they traverse the highway

▪ Driver and passengers

comfort
▪ Provide adequate visibility
for safety
THE POINT OF INTERSECTION BETWEEN TWO LINES
Length of Crest Vertical Curves (1)
▪ Provision of a minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) is the only
5280/3600 +U^2/30(F=-G)
criterion used for design of a crest vertical curve

▪ There are two possible scenarios that could control the design
length:
(1) The SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve
(2) The SSD is less than the length of the vertical curve
Length of Crest Vertical Curves (2)
Length of Crest Vertical Curves (3)
Length of Crest Vertical Curves (4)
▪ Scenario 1:
o The SSD is greater than the length of the vertical curve

ALGEBRIC A = ALWAYS ABSOLUE

▪ Scenario 2:
o The SSD is less than the length of the vertical curve
Length of Crest Vertical Curves (5)
Length of Crest Vertical Curves (6)
Length of Sag Vertical Curves (1)
▪ The selection of the minimum length of a sag vertical curve is
controlled by the following four criteria:
(1) SSD provided by the headlight
(2) Comfort while driving on the curve
(3) General appearance of the curve
(4) Adequate control of drainage at the low point of the curve AFTERWARD

WE CALCULATE Lmin FOR ALL OF THEM BUT AT THE END WE CHOOSE THE HEIGHEST
Length of Sag Vertical Curves (2)
▪ Minimum length based on SSD criterion:

▪ Minimum length based on comfort criterion:

▪ Minimum length of curve based on appearance criterion:

Length of Sag Vertical Curves (3)
Length of Crest and Sag Vertical Curves
Based on K Factors
▪ Vertical curves should not be shorter than:

▪ Where:
o Lmin = minimum length of the vertical curve (ft)
o A = algebraic difference in gradient
o K = the length of the vertical curve per percent change in A (to be selected from
Table 15.5 for crest vertical curves and from Table 15.6 for sag vertical curves)
Design procedure for crest and sag vertical curves
1) Determine the minimum length of curve to satisfy sight distance requirements and
other criteria for sag curves (comfort, appearance, drainage)
2) Determine the station and elevation of PVI
STATION

3) Compute the elevations of BVC and EVC

4) Compute the offsets (Y) as the distance between the tangent and the curve
(equation 15.12)
5) Compute elevations on the curve for each station (elevation of the tangent + or –
offset of the tangent)
6) Compute the location and elevation of the highest (crest) or lowest (sag) point on
the curve
Example 15.4
Example 15.5
University of Bahrain
College of Engineering
Institute for Transport Studies
Department of Civil Engineering
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 3 (Section 4)
Design of the Horizontal Alignment
(Page 770)
Introduction
VERTICAL TWO GRADES CONNCETED
HORIZENTAL TWO TANGENTS CONNECTED

▪ The horizontal alignment consists of straight sections of the road

(known as tangents) connected by curves
▪ The curves are usually segments of circles, which have radii that will
provide for a smooth flow of traffic
▪ The design of the horizontal alignment involves the determination of:
o The minimum radius of the curve
o The length of the curve
o The horizontal offsets from the tangents to the curve
Types of Horizontal Curves
▪ There are four types of horizontal curves:

Simple Spiral
Compound Reversed
(circular) (transition)
curve curve
curve curve
Simple Curves (1)
▪ The curve is a segment of a circle with radius (R)

o Point of curve (PC) is the point at which curve begins

o Point of tangent (PT) is the point at which curve ends
o Point of intersection (PI) is the point at which the two tangents intersect
o The two tangents are equal (T)
o AB represent the chord length (C)
o E is the external distance
o M is the expression of the middle ordinate
Simple Curves (2)

ARC LENGTH = R*(THETA*PI/180)

Simple Curves (3)
▪ A simple circular curve is described either by its radius (e.g. 200-ft-
radius curve), or by the degree of the curve (e.g. 4 degree curve)
▪ Length of the curve = R . ϴrad
▪ There are two ways to define degree of the curve:
o Based on 100 ft of arc length

o Based on 100 ft of chord length

Simple Curves (4)
Simple Curves (5)
▪ Formulas for
Simple Curves
Simple Curves (5)
▪ Deflection angles on Simple curves:
Simple Curves (6)
Simple Curves (7)
Compound Curves (1)
▪ Compound curves consist of two or more simple curves in succession,
turning in the same direction, with any two successive curves having a
common tangent point
▪ These curves are used mainly to obtain desirable shapes of the horizontal
alignment
o Particularly for at-grade intersections, ramps of interchanges, and highway sections
in difficult topographic areas

▪ To avoid abrupt changes in the alignment, the radii of any two consecutive
simple curves that form a compound curve should not be widely different
o Rbigger:Rsmaller should not be greater than 2:1
Compound Curves (2)
Compound Curves (3)
Compound Curves (4)
Compound Curves (4)
Reverse Curves (1)
▪ Reverse curves usually
consist of two simple curves
with equal radii turning in
opposite directions with a
common tangent

▪ They are generally used to

change the alignment of a
highway
Reverse Curves (2)
▪ Used to change directions in limited areas (rarely used)

▪ Rarely recommended because sudden changes to the alignment

may result in drivers finding it difficult to keep in their lanes
o When it is necessary to reverse the alignment, a preferable design consists of
two simple horizontal curves, separated by a sufficient length of tangent
between them (to achieve full superelevation)
Transition Curves (1)
▪ Transition curves (also known as
spiral curves) are placed
between tangents and circular
curves or between two adjacent
circular curves having
substantially different radii
Transition Curves (2)
▪ The advantage of using transition curves:
o The use of these curves provides a vehicle path that gradually increases or
decreases the radial force as the vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve
o Transition curve length is convenient for applying superelevation
o Visual appearance improved
Length of Superelevation Runoff:
When Spiral Curves Are Not Used (1)
▪ Many highway agencies do not use spiral transition curves since
drivers will usually guide their vehicles into circular curves gradually

▪ Under these conditions, the tangent is joined directly with the main
circular curve lanes
▪ However, if the curve is superelevated, an appropriate transition
length must be provided
o This superelevation transition length is comprised of superelevation runoff and
tangent runout
Length of Superelevation Runoff:
When Spiral Curves Are Not Used (2)
▪ Superelevation runoff is defined as the distance over which the pavement
cross slope on the outside lane changes from zero (flat) to full
superelevation of the curve (e)
▪ Theoretically, superelevation runoff should be placed entirely on the
tangent section thus providing full superelevation between the PC and PT
▪ Typically, the runoff length is divided between the tangent and the curved
section
o Avoid placing the runoff either entirely on the tangent or the curve
o Sharing the runoff between tangent and curve reduces peak lateral acceleration and its
effect on side friction
Length of Superelevation Runoff:
When Spiral Curves Are Not Used (3)
Length of Superelevation Runoff:
For Spiral Curves
▪ AASHTO recommends that when spiral curves are used in transition
design, the superelevation runoff should be achieved over the
length of the spiral curve

▪ Based on this, it is recommended that the length of the spiral curve

should be the length of the superelevation runoff
Attainment of Superelevation (1)
▪ It is essential that the change from a crowned cross section to a
superelevated one be achieved without causing any discomfort to
drivers or creating unsafe conditions

▪ One of four methods can be used to achieve this change:

A crowned A crowned A crowned A straight cross-

pavement is pavement is pavement is slope pavement
rotated about rotated about rotated about is rotated about
the profile of the the profile of the the profile of the the profile of the
centerline inside edge outside edge outside edge
Attainment of Superelevation (2)
▪ Figure 15.25
Page 787
Curve Radii Based on SSD (1)
▪ It was shown before that the min. radius of a
horizontal curve depends on the design speed, the
superelevation, and the coefficient of side friction

▪ Normally, this value for R is sufficient for design purposes. However,

there are instances when a constraint may exist
o For example: if an object is located near the inside edge of the road, the driver’s
view may be blocked
o When this situation exists, one solution is to change the radius of curve to
assure adequate SSD
Curve Radii Based on SSD (2)
▪ Figure 15.26(a) shows a horizontal curve with sight distance restrictions
due to an object located within the curve line of sight
Curve Radii Based on SSD (3)

▪ Where:
o m = the Horizontal Sightline Offset, HSO (ft)
o R = radius of horizontal curve (ft)
o S = stopping sight distance (ft)
Curve Radii Based on SSD (4)
 University of Bahrain
College of Engineering
Institute for Transport Studies
Department of Civil Engineering
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 3 (Section 5)
Special Facilities for Heavy Vehicles on Steep Grades
(Page 790)
Introduction
▪ Statistics (in the US) indicate a continual increase in the annual
number of vehicle-miles of large trucks on the nation’s highways
▪ It is necessary to consider the provision of special facilities on
highways with steep grades where high volumes of heavy vehicles
exist
▪ The most common facilities that address this are:
o Climbing lanes
o Emergency escape ramps
Climbing Lanes (1)
▪ A climbing lane is an extra lane in the upgrade
direction for use by heavy vehicles whose
speeds are significantly reduced by the grade

▪ Climbing lanes eliminate the need for drivers

of light vehicles to reduce their speed when
they encounter a heavy slow-moving vehicle

▪ They aim to decrease the rate of crashing and

enhance the capacity of the steep sections
 Climbing Lanes (2)
▪ The need for a climbing lane is evident when a grade is longer than its
critical length, defined as the length that will cause a speed reduction of
the heavy vehicle by at least 10 mi/h
▪ The length of it will depend on the physical characteristics of the grade
o But (in general) the climbing lane should be long enough to facilitate the heavy vehicle’s
re-joining the main traffic stream without causing a hazardous condition

▪ A climbing lane is provided only if the upgrade traffic flow rate is greater
than 200 veh/h and the upgrade truck flow is higher than 20 veh/h
▪ Climbing lanes are not typically used on multilane highways
Emergency Escape Ramps
▪ An emergency escape ramp is provided on the downgrade of a
highway for use by a truck that has lost control and cannot slow down

▪ A lane is provided that diverges such that when a vehicle enters the
escape ramp, its speed is gradually reduced, and eventually it stops
University of Bahrain
College of Engineering
Institute for Transport Studies
Department of Civil Engineering
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENT

Chapter 3 (Section 6)
Parking Facilities
(Page 796)
Introduction
▪ The geometric design of parking facilities involves the dimensioning
and arranging of parking bays
o To provide safe and easy access without restricting the flow of traffic on the
adjacent traveling lanes

On-street
Parking Surface car
facilities parks
Off-street
Garages
Design of On-Street Parking Facilities
▪ On-street parking facilities may be designed with parking bays parallel
or inclined to the curb
▪ The number of parking bays that can be fitted along a given length of
curb increases as the angle of inclination increases:
o From parallel (0 degrees) to perpendicular (90 degrees)

▪ When parking bays are to be provided for

other types of vehicles (e.g. trucks), the
dimensions should be based on the design
vehicle characteristics
 Design of Off-Street Parking Facilities:
Surface Car Parks
▪ The primary aim in designing off-street parking
facilities is to obtain as many spaces as possible
within the area provided
▪ The most important consideration is the layout
should be such that parking a vehicle involves
only one distinct maneuver, without the
necessity to reverse
▪ The next figures show different layouts that can
be used to design a surface parking lot
Design of Off-Street Parking Facilities:
Garages (1)
▪ Parking garages consist of several platforms
o Access ramps connect each level with the one
above

▪ The gradient of these ramps is usually not

greater than 1:10 on straight ramps and
1:12 on the centerline of curved ramps.
▪ The lane width should not be less than 16 ft
for curved ramps and 9 ft for straight ramps
Design of Off-Street Parking Facilities:
Garages (2)
▪ Ramps can be one-way or two-way, with one-way ramps preferred
▪ When two-way ramps are used:
o The lanes must be clearly marked and where possible physically divided at
curves and turning points to avoid head-on collisions, as drivers may cut corners
or swing wide at bends