24 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

R1

+ V1 − Solution
+ +
R2 V2 VS2 + Known Quantities:
−
+ − R −
4
+
_ VS1 VS1 = 12 V VS2 = −4 V V2 = 2 V V3 = 6 V V5 = 12 V
− + V4 −
+ +
Find: V1 , V4 .
R3 V3 R5 V5
− −
Analysis: To determine the unknown voltages, we apply KVL clockwise around each of the
three meshes:

Figure 2.21 Circuit for VS1 − V1 − V2 − V3 = 0

Example 2.7 V2 − VS2 + V4 = 0
V3 − V4 − V5 = 0

Next, we substitute numerical values:

12 − V1 − 2 − 6 = 0
V1 = 4 V
2 − (−4) + V4 = 0
V4 = −6 V
6 − (−6) − V5 = 0
V5 = 12 V
Comments: In Chapter 3 we develop a systematic procedure called mesh analysis to solve
this kind of problem.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Use the outer loop (around the outside perimeter of the circuit) to solve for V1 .

Answer: same as above

2.4 ELECTRIC POWER AND SIGN CONVENTION

The definition of voltage as work per unit charge lends itself very conveniently to
the introduction of power. Recall that power is defined as the work done per unit
time. Thus, the power P either generated or dissipated by a circuit element can be
represented by the following relationship:

work work charge

Power = = = voltage × current (2.9)
time charge time

Thus,
 Part I Circuits 25

The electric power generated by an active element, or that dissipated or stored

by a passive element, is equal to the product of the voltage across the element
➲LO3
and the current flowing through it.

P = VI (2.10)

It is easy to verify that the units of voltage (joules per coulomb) times current
(coulombs per second) are indeed those of power (joules per second, or watts).
It is important to realize that, just like voltage, power is a signed quantity, i
and it is necessary to make a distinction between positive and negative power. This
+
distinction can be understood with reference to Figure 2.22, in which two circuits are
shown side by side. The polarity of the voltage across circuit A and the direction of v Circuit
A
the current through it indicate that the circuit is doing work in moving charge from –
a lower potential to a higher potential. On the other hand, circuit B is dissipating
energy, because the direction of the current indicates that charge is being displaced Power dissipated =
v (–i) = (–v) i = –vi
from a higher potential to a lower potential. To avoid confusion with regard to the Power generated = vi
sign of power, the electrical engineering community uniformly adopts the passive
i
sign convention, which simply states that the power dissipated by a load is a positive
quantity (or, conversely, that the power generated by a source is a positive quantity).
+
Another way of phrasing the same concept is to state that if current flows from a
Circuit v
higher to a lower voltage (plus to minus), the power is dissipated and will be a B
–
positive quantity.
It is important to note also that the actual numerical values of voltages and
Power dissipated = vi
currents do not matter: Once the proper reference directions have been established Power generated =
and the passive sign convention has been applied consistently, the answer will be v (–i) = (–v) i = –vi
correct regardless of the reference direction chosen. Examples 2.8 and 2.9 illustrate Figure 2.22 The passive
this point. sign convention

F O C U S O N M ET H O D O L O GY ➲LO3
THE PASSIVE SIGN CONVENTION
1. Choose an arbitrary direction of current flow.
2. Label polarities of all active elements (voltage and current sources).
3. Assign polarities to all passive elements (resistors and other loads); for
passive elements, current always flows into the positive terminal.
4. Compute the power dissipated by each element according to the following
rule: If positive current flows into the positive terminal of an element, then
the power dissipated is positive (i.e., the element absorbs power); if the
current leaves the positive terminal of an element, then the power
dissipated is negative (i.e., the element delivers power).
26 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

➲LO3 EXAMPLE 2.8 Use of the Passive Sign Convention

Problem

Load 1 Apply the passive sign convention to the circuit of Figure 2.23.

+
Load 2

vB
–
Solution

Known Quantities: Voltages across each circuit element; current in circuit.

Figure 2.23
Find: Power dissipated or generated by each element.

+ v1 – Schematics, Diagrams, Circuits, and Given Data: Figure 2.24(a) and (b). The voltage drop
Load 1
across load 1 is 8 V, that across load 2 is 4 V; the current in the circuit is 0.1 A.

+
+ Assumptions: None.
Load 2

vB v2
Analysis: Note that the sign convention is independent of the current direction we choose.
– –
i We now apply the method twice to the same circuit. Following the passive sign convention,
we first select an arbitrary direction for the current in the circuit; the example will be re-
vB = 12 V v1 = 8 V peated for both possible directions of current flow to demonstrate that the methodology is
i = 0.1 A v2 = 4 V sound.
(a) 1. Assume clockwise direction of current flow, as shown in Figure 2.24(a).
2. Label polarity of voltage source, as shown in Figure 2.24(a); since the arbitrarily chosen
– v1 + direction of the current is consistent with the true polarity of the voltage source, the source
Load 1 voltage will be a positive quantity.
– 3. Assign polarity to each passive element, as shown in Figure 2.24(a).
–
Load 2

vB v2 4. Compute the power dissipated by each element: Since current flows from − to + through
+ +
i the battery, the power dissipated by this element will be a negative quantity:

PB = −vB × i = −12 V × 0.1 A = −1.2 W

vB = –12 V v1 = –8 V
i = –0.1 A v2 = –4 V that is, the battery generates 1.2 watts (W). The power dissipated by the two loads will
(b) be a positive quantity in both cases, since current flows from plus to minus:
Figure 2.24 P1 = v1 × i = 8 V × 0.1 A = 0.8 W
P2 = v2 × i = 4 V × 0.1 A = 0.4 W

Next, we repeat the analysis, assuming counterclockwise current direction.

1. Assume counterclockwise direction of current flow, as shown in Figure 2.24(b).
2. Label polarity of voltage source, as shown in Figure 2.24(b); since the arbitrarily chosen
direction of the current is not consistent with the true polarity of the voltage source, the
source voltage will be a negative quantity.
3. Assign polarity to each passive element, as shown in Figure 2.24(b).
4. Compute the power dissipated by each element: Since current flows from plus to minus
through the battery, the power dissipated by this element will be a positive quantity;
however, the source voltage is a negative quantity:

PB = vB × i = (−12 V)(0.1 A) = −1.2 W

that is, the battery generates 1.2 W, as in the previous case. The power dissipated by the
 Part I Circuits 27

two loads will be a positive quantity in both cases, since current flows from plus to minus:
P1 = v1 × i = 8 V × 0.1 A = 0.8 W
P2 = v2 × i = 4 V × 0.1 A = 0.4 W
Comments: It should be apparent that the most important step in the example is the correct
assignment of source voltage; passive elements will always result in positive power dissipation.
Note also that energy is conserved, as the sum of the power dissipated by source and loads is
zero. In other words: Power supplied always equals power dissipated.

EXAMPLE 2.9
➲LO3
Problem
For the circuit shown in Figure 2.25, determine which components are absorbing power and
which are delivering power. Is conservation of power satisfied? Explain your answer.
–3 V + 2A
B

Solution +
A D 10 V E
Known Quantities: Current through elements D and E; voltage across elements B, C, E. –
3A
–5 V +
Find: Which components are absorbing power, which are supplying power; verify the con- C
servation of power.
Figure 2.25
Analysis: By KCL, the current through element B is 5 A, to the right. By KVL,

−va − 3 + 10 + 5 = 0

Therefore, the voltage across element A is

va = 12 V (positive at the top)

A supplies (12 V)(5 A) = 60 W

B supplies (3 V)(5 A) = 15 W
C absorbs (5 V)(5 A) = 25 W
D absorbs (10 V)(3 A) = 30 W
E absorbs (10 V)(2 A) = 20 W
Total power supplied = 60 W + 15 W = 75 W
Total power absorbed = 25 W + 30 W + 20 W = 75 W
Total power supplied = Total power absorbed, so conservation of power is satisfied

Comments: The procedure described in this example can be easily conducted experimentally,
by performing simple voltage and current measurements. Measuring devices are introduced in
Section 2.8.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

Compute the current flowing through each of the headlights of Example 2.2 if each headlight
has a power rating of 50 W. How much power is the battery providing?
Determine which circuit element in the following illustration (left) is supplying power and
which is dissipating power. Also determine the amount of power dissipated and supplied.
28 Chapter 2 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits

+
2.2 A
4V +
+ _
A 14 V B
i1 i2 i3
– –

If the battery in the accompanying diagram (above, right) supplies a total of 10 mW to the three
elements shown and i1 = 2 mA and i2 = 1.5 mA, what is the current i3 ? If i1 = 1 mA and
i3 = 1.5 mA, what is i2 ?

i2 = 0 mA.
Answers: IP = ID = 4.17 A; 100 W. A supplies 30.8 W; B dissipates 30.8 W. i3 = −1 mA;

2.5 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS AND THEIR i-v

CHARACTERISTICS
The relationship between current and voltage at the terminals of a circuit element
defines the behavior of that element within the circuit. In this section we introduce a
graphical means of representing the terminal characteristics of circuit elements. Figure
2.26 depicts the representation that is employed throughout the chapter to denote a
+ i generalized circuit element: The variable i represents the current flowing through the
element, while v is the potential difference, or voltage, across the element.
v Suppose now that a known voltage were imposed across a circuit element. The
current that would flow, as a consequence of this voltage, and the voltage itself form a
–
unique pair of values. If the voltage applied to the element were varied and the resulting
current measured, it would be possible to construct a functional relationship between
Figure 2.26 Generalized voltage and current known as the i-v characteristic (or volt-ampere characteristic).
representation of circuit
Such a relationship defines the circuit element, in the sense that if we impose any
elements
prescribed voltage (or current), the resulting current (or voltage) is directly obtainable
from the i-v characteristic. A direct consequence is that the power dissipated (or
generated) by the element may also be determined from the i-v curve.
Figure 2.27 depicts an experiment for empirically determining the i-v charac-
teristic of a tungsten filament lightbulb. A variable voltage source is used to apply
various voltages, and the current flowing through the element is measured for each
applied voltage.
We could certainly express the i-v characteristic of a circuit element in func-
tional form:

i = f (v) v = g(i) (2.11)

In some circumstances, however, the graphical representation is more desirable,

especially if there is no simple functional form relating voltage to current. The sim-
plest form of the i-v characteristic for a circuit element is a straight line, that is,

i = kv (2.12)

with k being a constant.