Twisted Lattice Nanocavity Based on Mode Locking

in Momentum Space
Ren-Min Ma1,2,3,4*, Hong-Yi Luan1, Zi-Wei Zhao1, Wen-Zhi Mao1, Shao-Lei Wang1,
Yun-Hao Ouyang1, Zeng-Kai Shao1
1
State Key Laboratory for Mesoscopic Physics and Frontiers Science Center for
Nano-optoelectronics, School of Physics, Peking University, China
2
Collaborative Innovation Center of Quantum Matter, Beijing, China
3
Peking University Yangtze Delta Institute of Optoelectronics, Nantong, Jiangsu,
China
4
National Biomedical Imaging Center, Peking University, China
* Correspondence to: [email protected]

Abstract: Simultaneous localization of light to extreme spatial and spectral scales

is of high importance for testing fundamental physics and various applications.
However, there is a long-standing trade-off between localizing light field in space
and in frequency. Here we discover a new class of twisted lattice nanocavities based
on mode locking in momentum space. The twisted lattice nanocavity hosts a
strongly localized light field in a 0.048 3 mode volume with a quality factor
exceeding 2.9×1011 (~250 s photon lifetime), which presents a record high figure
of merit of light localization among all reported optical cavities. Based on the
discovery, we have demonstrated silicon based twisted lattice nanocavities with
quality factor over 1 million. Our result provides a powerful platform to study
light-matter interaction in extreme condition for tests of fundamental physics and
applications in nanolasing, ultrasensing, nonlinear optics, optomechanics and
quantum-optical devices.

1
Introduction
From Planck’s law on blackbody radiation to Fermi Golden rule and Purcell effect,
the notion that a radiation process depends not only on the intrinsic properties of an
emitter but also on its surrounding environment lays the foundation for the
understanding and developing of light-matter interaction related fields [1-6]. However,
light matter interaction is in general a weak process due to the mismatched wavelength
of photons and electrons. In decades, artificial microstructures represented by
metamaterials have been developed to enlarge and manipulate photon density of states
to enhance light matter interaction [3,7-19]. In terms of that, the ratio of quality factor
over mode volume (Q/V) represents a key figure of merit, because it characterizes how
strong a light field can be confined in both spatial and spectral scales.

Because the applicable finite potential well in photonics, there is a long-standing

trade-off between confining light field in space and in frequency. Localization
mechanisms including total internal reflection [20-27], photonic bandgap [28-37],
plasmonic resonance [38-43] and bound states in the continuum (BICs) [44-48] have
been developed for decades to design optical cavities with high Q/V for high-
performance lasers, nonlinear optics, optomechanics and quantum-optical devices and
so on. However, the trade-off limits the highest figure of merit of Q/V available.
Dielectric whispering-gallery-mode microcavities based on total internal reflection can
achieve quality factor over a billion, but with a mode volume orders of magnitude larger
than 3 (free space wavelength) [20,22,27]. Plasmonic nanocavity employing
atomistic protrusion on a host nanoparticle can achieve mode volume as small as 1 nm3,
but with a limited quality factor around 10 [43]. Photonic crystal nanocavities can
achieve near diffraction-limited mode volume, but to achieve high quality factor needs
complicated design for a full band gap and judiciously tuned wavefunction [28-37]. For
instance, deep learning has been employed to optimize the quality factor of photonic
crystal nanocavities, where a Q factor of 1.58×109 was obtained after optimizing the
positions of 50 holes over ~106 iterations [35]. BICs can be used to localize light field
in one out-of-plane dimension with infinite quality factor but at the cost of a fully
delocalized field in the other two lateral dimensions. With lateral confinement to have
2
a finite V, the highest Q/V realized in BICs cavities is about 2.5×106 -3, where the
quality factor and mode volume are 1.09×106 and 0.43 3 respectively [48].

Recently, flatband induced wavefunction localization in moiré superlattices has

drawn great attention in electronic [49-51], photonic [52-57] and phononic systems [58-
63]. Compared to conventional laser cavities where discontinuity of material property
or disorder is required of light field localization, flatband induced field localization can
be realized in periodic moiré superlattices. However, notwithstanding the fast
development of work on photonic moiré cavities, the highest Q/V achieved is yet many
orders of magnitude lower than conventional laser cavities.

Here, we reveal a non-flatband effect field localization mechanism of mode

locking in momentum space in artificial twisted lattice system, and demonstrate a new
class of twisted lattice nanocavities with Q/V over 6×1012 -3, which is more than one
order of magnitude higher than all reported optical cavities. We find that the twisted
lattice supplies an adiabatic potential for strongly localizing light field in a deep
subwavelength scale with ever increasing quality factor with the decreasing of the
twisted angle. In stark contrast to the well-studied flatbands induced mode localization,
twisted lattice nanocavities have much smaller footprint and are free from periodicity
requirement - the twisted angle between the two sets of lattices can be arbitrary, which
greatly simplifies fabrication procedure and provides a powerful platform for studying
light-matter interaction in extreme condition and applications. To demonstrate the
applications of twisted lattice nanocavities, we have constructed silicon based twisted
lattice nanocavities silicon on insulator (SOI) substrates, where the experimentally
demonstrated quality factor is over 1 million.

Strong field localization based on mode locking in momentum space

We use photonic graphene lattices to construct the twisted lattice nanocavities (Fig. 1a).
In the structure, two sets of photonic crystals with a twist are introduced to the same
dielectric membrane [54] to simplify the fabrication procedure and to enhance the
coupling strength between Bloch modes of the two sets of the photonic crystals. For

3
those twisted angles that periodic moiré superlattices can be constructed, we use a
single moiré unit cell to construct the nanocavities. For those twisted angles that
periodic moiré superlattices cannot be constructed, we use a quasi-single moiré unit
cell. For the constructed nanocavities, a smaller twisted angle corresponds to a larger
physical cavity size.

FIG. 1. Field localization of twisted lattice nanocavities by mode locking in momentum

space. (a) Schematic of a twisted lattice nanocavity (Top) which is constructed by two sets of
truncated photonic crystals with a twist (Bottom two panels). (b) Schematic of Bloch modes
coupling induced by reciprocal lattice vectors of the two sets of twisted photonic crystals, where
the Bloch mode indicated by purple dot is coupled to six other Bloch modes indicated by red
dots via ±(GF－GS). GF: reciprocal lattice vectors of the first set of photonic crystal. Gs:
reciprocal lattice vectors of the second set of photonic crystal. Three blue arrows indicate GF
of 𝐛 , 𝐛 and (𝐛 +𝐛 ), and three dashed green arrows indicate GS of 𝐛 , 𝐛 and
(𝐛 +𝐛 ), where 𝐛 , 𝐛 are two basis vectors of GF, and 𝐛 , 𝐛 are two basis
vectors of GS. (c) Schematic of the coupling induced mode locking in momentum space, which
results in Bloch modes localization in real space. E, x, and k are electric field, position and
wavevector respectively.

4
 The strong field localization in twisted lattice nanocavities originates from Bloch
mode coupling induced by reciprocal lattice vectors of the two sets of twisted photonic
crystals (Fig. 1b). In a single set of photonic crystal, Bloch modes are delocalized waves
spanning the whole area of the photonic crystal, and only these modes differing in a
reciprocal lattice vector (denoted as GF) can couple to each other. After introducing the
second set of photonic crystal, a Bloch mode can couple to other Bloch modes when
their momenta differ in ±(GF－GS), where GS is denoted as reciprocal lattice vectors
of the second set of photonic crystal. The coupling induces mode locking in momentum
space, which results in localization of originally delocalized Bloch modes in real space
(Fig. 1c).

We can see that the localization mechanism of twisted lattice nanocavities does
not put any constraints on the twisted angle – one can continuously change the twist
angle to obtain a localized light field. As a comparison, to form a moiré superlattice,
the twisting has to be made in a certain set of discrete angles, where ±(GF－GS)
becomes moiré reciprocal lattice vectors corresponding to moiré periodicity.

A photonic graphene lattice can be viewed as a triangular lattice consisting of

hexagonal unit cell with 6 sites. We use 2 degenerate dipole modes of |𝑝 ⟩ and |𝑝

and 2 degenerate quadrupole modes of |𝑑 and |𝑑 of one unit cell of 6 sites

as Wannier functions to construct Bloch modes in a single set of photonic graphene

lattice. Due to the interlayer coupling by ±(GF－GS), these four modes will become
localized modes in the center of twisted lattice nanocavities. Throughout the work, we
focus on the localized dipole modes with smaller mode volume in twisted lattice
nanocavities.

Ultrahigh figure of merit of quality factor over mode volume

Fig. 2a shows field distribution patterns of a twisted lattice nanocavity at 4.41o

obtained by three-dimensional full wave simulation. We can see that the dipole mode
is strongly localized in the center of the nanocavity in all three dimensions. Fig. 2b and
the blue curve of Fig. 2c show the mode profile and the mode volume of the dipole
5
mode at varied twisted angles where all other parameters of the two sets of graphene
photonic crystals are fixed. Clearly, the mode volume of the localized dipole mode
almost does not change with the twisted angle.

FIG. 2. Ultrahigh figure of merit of field localization of twisted lattice nanocavities. (a)
Electric field intensity |E|2 distribution of the localized mode induced by mode locking in
momentum space. Blue dashed hexagon indicates the cavity boundary. Bottom: Electric field
intensity distribution in log scale in a cross-section of the cavity. White boxes: contour of the
cavity structure. (b) Intensity distributions of the localized dipole modes in log scale at five
twisted angles. The mode keeps being strongly localized with the decreasing of the twisted
angle. Arrows indicate cavity boundaries. (c) The scaling laws of quality factor (Q) and mode
volume (V) vs. twisted angle obtained by three-dimensional full wave simulation where all the
parameters of the two sets of graphene photonic crystals are fixed. Dots and circles represent
angles that periodic moiré superlattices can and cannot be constructed respectively. (d) Scaling
laws of in-plane and vertical quality factor of twisted lattice nanocavities. Dots: data. Lines:
fitting. (e) Comparison of quality over mode volume (Q/V) with other representative optical
cavities of whispering-gallery-mode (WGM) microcavities, photonic crystal (PhC)
nanocavities, plasmonic nanocavities, bound-state-in-the-continuum (BIC) microcavities.
Hollow: quality factor obtained by simulation. Solid: quality factor obtained by experiment.

Remarkably, the quality factor of the localized dipole mode continuously increases
with the decreasing of the twisted angle (red curve of Fig. 2c). As shown in figure, the
scaling of quality factor over twisted angle has a kink around 4.41o, which originates
from the transition from in-plane scattering loss dominant region to out-of-plane
scattering loss dominant region (Fig. 2d). A larger angle gives a smaller cavity size,
which results in a comparably stronger field at cavity boundaries that can be coupled to
free propagating modes of the membrane, leading to a larger in-plane scattering loss.
At smaller twisted angles, cavity size becomes larger, therefore such in-plane scattering
loss substantially decreases. Around the twisted angle of 4.41o, out-of-plane scattering
6
loss becomes dominant.

Interestingly, a smaller twisted angle will also suppress out-of-plane scattering loss
to free space. With the decreasing of the twisted angle, the arrangement of nanoholes
from the center to the boundaries of a cavity changes more slowly (SEM images in Fig.
3a-e). However, the intensity distribution of the wavefunction of the localized dipole
modes has almost no change - it keeps being tightly localized in the center of the
nanocavities with the decreased angle. Therefore, at a smaller angle, the wavefunction
of a localized dipole mode experiences a more effective adiabatic change in the
arrangement of nanoholes towards cavity boundaries, leading to a lower scattering loss
to free space and a higher vertical Q. In the out-of-plane scattering loss dominant region,
we can use a truncated cavity with a relatively smaller physical size for easier
fabrication while maintaining a high quality factor.

The quality factor reaches to 2.9×1011 at 0.0138o, with a corresponding mode

volume of 0.048 3, which results in a Q/V of ~6×1012 -3 which is more than one order
of magnitude higher than all reported optical cavities to our knowledge (Fig. 2e). The
highest Q/V presented in Fig. 2 is only limited by our computing power in three-
dimensional full wave simulation. The twisted lattice nanocavities can achieve ever
increasing Q/V by just simply making the twisting angle smaller, which provides a
powerful platform to pursuit ever increasing field enhancement in a nanocavity.

Silicon based twisted lattice nanocavities

Experimentally, we fabricate twisted lattice nanocavities in silicon membrane

from SOI substrates. Fig. 3a-e show the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images
of twisted lattice nanocavities at five twisted angles from 0.596° to 5.08°. The red and
yellow circles indicate two lines of nanoholes from the twisted two graphene lattices.
A tunable continuous wave laser is used to excite the localized dipole mode in the
fabricated nanocavities. While all these cavities hold a localized mode in the center area
that can be excited under resonance condition, the quality factor of the mode increases
with the decreasing angle because the more adiabatic potential as discussed above.

7
FIG. 3. Silicon based twisted lattice nanocavity. (a-e) SEM images of silicon based twisted
lattice nanocavities at five twisted angles from 0.596° to 5.08°. Red and yellow circles guide the
eye to the twisting of the lattices. (f-g) Experimentally excited (f) and full wave simulated (g)
localized dipole mode of the cavity at twisted angle of 0.596°. (h) Intensity distributions of the
localized mode along the white dashed lines in (f) and (g). (i) Experimentally measured
scattering spectrum of the nanocavity at twisted angle of 0.596°. The resonance wavelength
and linewidth of the mode are 1572.38 nm and 1.35 pm respectively, which gives a quality
factor over 1 million. (j) Experimentally obtained quality factor for cavities at 8 different
twisted angles. Line: simulation result.

Fig. 3f-g show the experimentally excited and full wave simulated patterns of
the localized dipole mode in the cavity at the twisted angle of 0.596°, which matches
well with each other (Fig. 3h). In the two sets of twisted photonic graphene lattices of
the cavity, the diameter of the nanoholes is 210 nm, and the lattice constant is 460 nm.
The thickness of the silicon membrane is 220 nm. The resonance wavelength and
linewidth of the mode are 1572.38 nm and 1.35 pm respectively (Fig. 3i), which yields
a quality factor of ~1.16×106, a value among the highest quality factors obtained
experimentally for nanocavities.

Fig. 3j shows the experimentally obtained quality factor for cavities at 8 different
twisted angles from 0.596° to 5.08°. The obtained quality factors for the devices at
0.596° and 1.08o are close to the resolution limit of our measurement system, while the
obtained quality factors for the devices at larger twisted angles are close to the
simulated values. The passive silicon based twisted lattice nanocavities can be
employed to study field enhancement related physics and devices in classical and
quantum regimes [3-6].

Conclusion
8
 We demonstrate a new class of twisted lattice nanocavities based on mode locking
in momentum space which presents a record high figure of merit of light localization
among all reported optical cavities. In stark to the well-studied flatband induced field
localization, the twisted lattice nanocavities is free from periodicity requirement which
greatly simplifies fabrication procedure. The quality factor of the nanocavity increases
continuously with the decreasing of the twisted angle without fine-tuning in any other
structure parameters. The highest quality factor obtained by three-dimensional full
wave simulation exceeds 200 billion with a mode volume of ~0.048 3. We have further
constructed silicon based twisted lattice nanocavities and III-V based twisted lattice
nanolasers based on the design. The measured quality factor for the silicon based
twisted lattice nanocavities is over 1 million. The demonstrated twisted lattice
nanocavities provides a powerful platform to study light-matter interaction for tests of
fundamental physics, and promises new functional devices with unprecedented
performance from classical to quantum regime.

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Acknowledgements

This work is supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (grant no.
2018YFA0704401), the Beijing Natural Science Foundation (grant no. Z180011), and
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant nos. 91950115, 11774014,
61521004 and 62175003).

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