Dr.

Dheeraj Mandloi 1
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Describe role of various Natural resources in
Engineering and development. (including
their role/ impact in our life )
NATURAL RESOURSES
Resources provided by Nature including
Forests, Water, Minerals, Food, Cultivars, Energy, Land
etc.
Include our interaction with these natural resources
and what role they play in our life and economy.
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Adverse Impacts of Development on our Environment

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Air, Water, Land, Noise Pollution
Including-
Definition
List and classification of pollutants with examples
Their sources
Harmful effects
Control measures

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Green House Effect and Global Warming

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Explain concept of Green house effect and Global
warming, green houses gases are increasing (why?),
effects, control measures

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Chlorinated compounds are present in very small amount but
causing maximum damage to Ozone layer in stratosphere. Why
and how? (Chain reactions, more life of Cl.)

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What causes Acid rains and what are its adverse effects to
our environment? (SOx, NOx, sources, effects, control )

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What is Eutrophication? What factors are responsible for
this? Why this is considered very serious problem associated
with water bodies? (gradual death of a water body)

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Why Rain water harvesting is essentially required in present
times? Explain various methods available for Rain water
harvesting. (with examples)
Awareness, methods of rain water harvesting, its importance

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What is Environment Impact Assessment? What steps
are involved in EIA? How it is helpful in environment
protection and pollution control?
EIA is considered as one of the most effective engineering
and management tool to control pollution.
Now, mandatory in India also.
It includes prior assessment of various adverse impacts on
environment before start of a project.
Need to compensate these adverse effects and then
proceed with the project.

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Explain the concept and need for Sustainable development.
(including Smart cities, local is vocal, economy, health,
education, environment, good governance).
5 R – Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, Residue disposal, Research.
Take at least one example of each R

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 ACR1C2 Chemistry and Environmental Science

UNIT I- Water

Q.1 What is hardness? Discuss its type.

Soap consuming capacity of water is called hardness.

Definition: Hardness is the property of water which prevents the formation of lather or foam
and needs large quantities of soap'. The water which does not produce lather with soap
solution readily, but forms a white curd is called hard water. It forms scales in hot water
pipes, heaters, boilers where the temperature of water is increased.

Hardness can be defined as "the soap consuming capacity of water simple" or it prevents
the lathering of soap.
2C17H35COONa + CaCl2 → [C17H35COO]2Ca ↓+ 2NaCl
Soluble Soap Hardwater Insoluble Soap

Causes: This is caused due to dissolve salts of calcium and magnesium and other heavy
metal ions.

Types of hardness

There are two types of hardness temporary and permanent hardness

1. TEMPORARY HARDNESS : Caused due to presence of carbonates and bicarbonates

of calcium and magnesium this can be removed by boiling or by adding lime solution
in water. Temporary hardness is also called carbonate hardness.

2. PERMENET HARDNESS : Caused due to the presence of sulphates, chlorites and

nitrates of calcium and magnesium. They cannot be removed by simple boiling and
require special treatment of water softening it is also called as Non-=carbonate hardness.

Difference between temporary and permanent hardness

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Q.2 Write a note on degree of hardness. Why it is express in term of Calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) equivalent hardness?

The hardness of water is expressed in terms of calcium carbonate equivalent hardness

known as degree of hardness.

Formula
CaCO3 equivalent hardness =

(𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑯𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆) ∗ (𝑪𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝐂𝐚𝐂𝐎𝟑)

𝑪𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇𝑯𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒖𝒃𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

Reason for expressing hardness in term of CaCO3 equivalent hardness

1. The molecular weight of calcium carbonate is 100gm/mol. It is easy to calculate.

2. Calcium carbonate is insoluble in water therefore it is easy to calculate its amount in
water.

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 Example 1

Q.3 Discuss sludge and scale formation in boiler. Write disadvantages of sludge and scale
formation.
In boilers, water evaporates continuously and the concentration of the dissolved salts
increases progressively. It leads to formation of precipitates in boiler.

Scale: If the precipitated matter forms a hard, adhering crust/coating on the inner walls
of the boiler, it is called scale.

Sludge: If the precipitation takes place in the form of loose and slimy precipitate, it is
called sludge. On the other hand, if the precipitated matter forms a hard, adhering
crust/coating on the inner walls of the boiler, it is called scale.

Sludge is a soft, loosy and slimy precipitate formed within the boiler. It is formed at
comparatively colder portions of the boiler and collects in the area where flow rate is slow.
Ex: MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4.

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 Disadvantages of sludges:

1. Sludges are bad conductors of heat and results in the wastage of heat and fuel.
2. Excessive sludge formation leads to the settling of sludge in slow circulation areas
such as pipe connections, plug openings, gauge–glass connections leading to the
choking of the pipes.

Prevention of sludge formation:

1. By using soft water which is free from dissolved salts like MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2
and MgSO4 can beprevent sludge formation.
2. By blow down operation

Scales: Scales are hard, adhering precipitates formed on the inner walls of the boilers.
Scales are stick very firmly on to the inner walls of the boiler. It is removed with chisel
and hammer.

Reasons for formation of scales:

1. Decomposition of calcium bicarbonate: The calcium bicarbonate at high temperature

decomposes to calcium carbonate which is insoluble salt, forms scale in low pressure
boilers.
Ca(HCO3)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
2. Hydrolysis of Magnesium salts: Magnesium salts gets hydrolyzed at high
temperature forming Mg(OH)2 precipitation which forms salt type scale.
MgCl2 + H2O → Mg(OH)2↓ + 2HCl
3. Decomposition of calcium sulphate: The solubility of CaSO4 in water decreases
with the increase in temperature and forms precipitation on the surface of the boiler
further which forms hard scale. This type of scales is formed in high-pressure boilers.
4. Presence of silica: SiO2 present even in small quantities, deposits as Calcium silicates
(CaSiO3) or Magnesium silicates (MgSiO3). The deposits form hard scale and are very
difficult to remove.
5.
Disadvantages of Scales:

1. Wastage of heat and fuels: Scales poor thermal conductivity so that rate of heat
transformation is reduced.
2. Lowering of boiler safety is due to overheating of the boiler material becomes
softer and weaker, which causes distortion of boiler.
3. Decrease in efficiency of the boiler due to scales deposited in the values and
condensers of the boiler cause choking.
4. Danger of explosion which happens the formation of the scales, If the scale
formation is soft it can be removed by a scrapper, wire brush.

Prevention of scales:

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 1. By giving thermal shocks, by sudden heating and sudden cooling which makes
scale brittle and removed by scrubbing with wire brush.
2. If scale is very hard that is formed by CaCO3 can be removed by washing with 5-
10% HCl and CaSO4 can be removed with EDTA solution.
3.
Q.4 Difference between sludge and scale

Sludge Scale
Sludge are oose and slimy precipitate Scales are hard, adhering crust/coating
Easy to remove Difficult to remove
Less dangerous More dangerous
formed at comparatively colder portions of formed at comparatively hotter portions of
the boiler the boiler
Sludge are formed by salts like MgCO3, Scales are formed by salts like CaSO4,
MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4. MgOH2

Q.5 What is Priming and foaming? Explain its cause effects and preventive measure.
Priming: When a boiler produces steam rapidly, some particles of the liquid water are
carried along with the steam. This process of "Water-steam" formation is called priming.
Priming is caused by the following reasons:

1. The presence of large amount of dissolved solids.

2. High steam velocities.

3. Sudden boiling.

4. Improper boiling design and

5. Sudden increase in steam production rate.

Foaming: The production foam or bubbles in boilers, which do not break easily. Foaming
is due to presence of substances like oil and alkali in boiler feed water.

Prevention

1. By removing oil or sludge by addition of coagulants.e.g FeSO4, NaAlO2

2. By addition of antifoaming chemicals e.g. Caster oil

Priming and foaming usually occur together. They are objectionable because

1. Dissolved salts in boiler water are carried by the wet steam to super-heater
and turbine blades, where they get deposited as water evaporates. This
water reduces their efficiency.

2. Dissolved salts may enter the parts of other machinery, where steam is
being used, thereby decreasing the life of the machinery.

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 3. Actual height of the water column is judged properly; thereby making the
maintenance of the boiler pressure becomes difficult.

Q.6 Write short notes on Boiler Corrosion

Boiler corrosion is decay of boiler material by a chemical or electro-chemical attack by its

environment. Main reasons for boiler corrosion are:

1. Dissolved oxygen : Water usually contains about 8 ml of dissolved oxygen per litre at
room temperature. Dissolved oxygen in water, in presence of prevailing high temperature,
attacks boiler material:

2 Fe + 2H2O + O2 → 2 Fe(OH)2

4 Fe(OH)2 + O2 → 2 (Fe2O3.2H2O)

Ferrous hydroxide (Rust)

Removal of dissolved oxygen :

A. By adding calculated quantity of sodium sulphite or hydrazine or sodium sulphide.

Thus;

2 Na2SO3 + O2 → 2 Na2SO4

N2H4 + O2 → N2 + 2 H2O

Hydrazine

Na2S + 2 O2 → Na2SO4

B. By mechanical de-aeration, i.e., water spraying in a perforated plate-fitted tower,

heated from sides and connected to vacuum pump (see Fig. 2). High temperature, low
pressure and large exposed surface (provided by perforated plates) reduces the
dissolved oxygen in water

2. Dissolved carbon dioxide : CO2 is carbonic acid,

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3

Which has a slow corrosive effect on the boiler material? Carbon dioxide is also released
inside the boiler, if water used for steam generation it contains bicarbonate, e.g.,

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 Mg(HCO3)2 → MgCO3 + H2O + CO2

Removal of CO2 :
By adding calculated quantity of ammonia. Thus,

2NH4OH + CO2 → (NH4)2CO3 + H2O

By mechanical-aeration process along with oxygen.

Acids from dissolved salts: Water containing dissolved magnesium salts liberate acids on
hydrolysis, e.g.,

MgCl2 + 2H2O → Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl

The liberated acid reacts with iron (of the boiler) in chain like reactions producing HCI
again and again. Thus

Fe + 2HCI → FeCl2 + H2

FeCl2 + 2H2O → Fe(OH)2 + 2HCl

Consequently, presence of even a small amount of MgCl2 will cause corrosion of iron to a
large extent.

Disadvantages/effects
1. Decrease in life of boiler
2. Decrease efficiency
3. Increase repair and maintenance cost
4. Formation of holes and pit
5. Leakage of joints and rivets

Q.7 Enumerate causes and preventive measures of Caustic embrittlement.

Caustic embrittlement:

The material of the boiler is weakened and becomes brittle due to the accumulation of
caustic substances. It is a form of stress corrosion takes place in boilers operating at high
temperature and pressure. Caustic embrittlement focus at stressed part of boilers such as
cracks, rivets, bents, joints etc.

The boiler fed water usually contains some residual sodium carbonate (used for softening
process). At high temperature and pressure it undergoes hydrolysis to form sodium
hydroxide.

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 Na2CO3 + H2O ---------2 NaOH + CO2

The alkali water sweeps through the minute cracks, crevices between the rivets and joints
by capillary action. Inside the cracks water gets evaporated leaving behind NaOH. The
concentrations of the NaOH gradually increase on these sites due to poor circulation of
water. When concentrations of the NaOH reaches a value of 10% it attacks the metal at the
stressed region dissolving it in the form of sodium ferroate ( Na2FeO2). Sodium ferroate
undergoes hydrolysis-depositing magnetite as follows

3Na2FeO2 + 4H2O -------- 6NaOH + Fe3O4 + H2

6Na2FeO2 + 6H2O + O2 -------- 12NaOH + 2Fe3O4

Mechanistically embrittlement arises due to setting up of concentration cell

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 Preventive measure

1. Caustic embrittlement can be prevented by the addition of compounds like sodium sulphite,
tannin, lignin, phosphates etc. which blocks the cracks thereby preventing the infiltration of
alkali.
2. By phosphate conditioning of water

Q.8 Discuss Zeolite process of softening of hard water under following headings

a. Principle b. Process c. Softening and regeneration reactions d.

Advantages

Principle: Zeolite is hydrated sodium alumino silicate. Zeolites are also known as permutits.
Zeolite is capable of exchanging reversibly its sodium ions for hardness-prodcing ions in water.
Chemical Structure : Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O,where X=2-10 and Y=2-6.

Types of Zeolite Zeolites are of two types: Natural zeolite and Synthetic zeolite

Process : For softening of water by zeolite process,hard water is percolated at a specified rate
through a bed of zeolite, kept in a cylinder. The hardness causing ions(Ca2+ ,Mg2+ ,etc.) are
retained by the zeolite as CaZe and MgZe ; while the outgoing water contains sodium salts.

Reactions
Na2Ze + Ca(HCO3)2 = CaZe + 2NaHCO3

Na2Ze + Mg(HCO3)2 = MgZe + 2NaHCO3

(Zeolite) (Hardness)

Na2Ze + CaCl2 = CaZe + 2NaCl

Na2Ze + MgSO4) = MgZe + Na2SO4)

(Zeolite) (Hardness)

Regeneration : After some time, the zeolite is completely is completely converted into calcium
and magnesium zeolite and it ceases to soften water, i.e., it gets exhausted. At this stage, the supply

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of hard water is stopped and the exhausted zeolite is regenerated by treating the bed with a
concentrated (10%) brine (NaCl) solution.
` CaZ + 2NaCl = Na2Ze + CaCl2
MgZe + 2NaCl = Na2Ze + MgCl2

The washing (containing Cacl2 and MgCl2 ) are led to drain and the regenerated zeolite bed
thus-obtained is used again for softening purpose.
Limitations of process:
1. If the supply of water is turbid, it must be remove, otherwise the turbidity will clog the
pores of zeolite bed, thereby making it inactive.
2. If water contains large quantities of coloured ions such as Mn2+ and Fe2+,they must be
removed first, because these ions produce maganese and iron zeolite, which cannot be
easily regenerated.
3. Mineral acids, if present in water, destroy the zeolite bed and,therefore, they must be
neutralised with soda, before admitting the water to the zeolite softening plant.

Advantages of process:
1. It removes the hardness almost completely and water of about 10 ppm hardness is
producted.
2. The equipment used is compact, occupying a small space.
3. No impurities are precipitated, so there is no danger of sludge formation in the
treatedwater at a later stage.
5. It is quite clean.
6. It requires less time for softening.
7. It requires less skill for maintenance as well as operation.
Disadvantages of process :
1. The treated-water contains more sodium more sodium salts than in lime-soda process.
2. The method only replaces Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions, but leaves all the acidic ions ( like HCO3
-
and CO3 2-) as such in the softened water.

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Q.9 Discuss ion exchange process of softening of hard water under following headings
a. Principle b. Process c. Softening and regeneration reactions
d. Advantages

Ans. Ion-exchange or Deionization or Demineralization Process - Recently ion-exchange resins

have been used to remove all minerals from water. It is a process by which ions held on a porous,
essentially insoluble solid are exchanged for ions in water

Ion-exchange Resin – An ion-exchange resin is a crosslinked organic polymer network having

some ionisable group. It may be of two types depending upon the nature of the ionizable group.

(i) Cation Exchange Resin or Cation Exchanger - Such resins have - SO3H, -- COOH or -OH
(phenolic) group as the ionizable group. Since these resins exchange the cationic portion of minerals
by their hydrogen atom, they are known as cation exchangers.

(ii) Anion Exchange Resin or Anion Exchanger – These resins have -NH2, -NHCH3, -N(CH3)2
or -OH (alcoholic) group. They exchange the anionic portion of the minerals and they are known
as anion exchanger.
Uses of Ion-exchange Resin – Water treatment by ion-exchange resin includes softening
deionization and de-alkalization of water. Therefore, hard water can be converted into soft water
by making use of ion-exchange resins.

Process – In this process first we passed hard water through cation exchange column, which
removes all the cations (like Ca+2, Mg+2 etc.) from it and equivalent amount of H+ ions are
released from this column to water.
Thus,

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 2RH+ + Ca+2 = R2Ca+2 + 2H+
2RH+ + Mg+2 = R2Mg+2 + 2H+
After this process, hard water is passed through anion exchange column, which removes all the
anions (like SO4-2, Cl- etc.) from it, and equivalent amount of OH- ions are released from this
column to water. Thus,

R'OH- + Cl- = R'Cl-+ OH-

H+ and OH - ions get combined to produce water molecule

H+ + OH- + H2O
The water coming out from the exchanger is free from cations as well as anions. Ion-free water is
known as a deionized or demineralized water.

Advantages
1. It is very effective and efficient method of water softening.
2. The process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline waters.
3. It produces water of very low hardness (say 2 ppm).

Disadvantages

1. Expensive
2. Problem of disposal of waste

Q.10 A sample of water is found to contains following dissolving salts in milligrams per
litre Mg(HCO3)2 = 73, CaCl2 = 111, Ca(HCO3)2 = 81, MgSO4 = 40 and MgCl2 =
95. Calculate temporary and permanent hardness and total hardness.

Solution:

Name of the Amount of the Molecular Multiplicatio CaCO3 equivalent

hardness hardness weight of n factor hardness
causing salts causing hardness (mg/L)
salts(mg/L) causing salts

Mg(HCO3)2 73 146 100/146 73×100/146 = 50

CaCl2 111 100/111 111×100/111 = 100

111
Ca(HCO3)2 81 162 100/162 81×100/162 = 50

MgSO4 40 100/120 40×100/120 = 33.3

120
MgCl2 95 100/95 95×100/95 = 100
95
NaCl 5 NaCl does not impart hardness

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 Temporary hardness = Mg(HCO3)2+ Ca(HCO3)2
= 50 + 50 = 100mg/L
= 100×0.07°Cl = 7°Cl
= 100×0.1°Fr = 10°Fr

Permanent hardness = CaCl2 + MgSO4 + MgCl2

= 100 + 33.3 + 100 = 233.3mg/L
= 233.3×0.07°Cl = 16.33°Cl
= 233.3×0.1°Fr = 23.33°Fr

Total hardness = Temporary hardness + Permanent hardness

= 100 + 233.3 = 333.3mg/L.
= 333.3×0.07°Cl = 23.33°Cl
= 333.3×0.1°Fr = 33.33°Fr

Q.11 Water quality (fitness) Parameters

Physical- Color, Taste, odor, turbidity, temperature, etc.

Chemical- Hardness, pH, Acidity, Alkalinity, Chlorine, TDS, DO, BOD, COD, Tests for specific
chemicals, etc.
Biological- Coliforms (E Coli), Tests for specific pathogens etc.

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