RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Reference:
1. Dawson, Catherine, 2002, Practical Research Methods, New Delhi, UBS
Publishers’Distributors
2. Kothari, C.R.,1985, Research Methodology- Methods and Techniques, New Delhi,
Wiley Eastern Limited.
3.Kumar, Ranjit, 2005, Research Methodology-A Step-by-Step Guide for
Beginners,(2nd.ed.),Singapore, Pearson Education.

RESEARCH:
It is a way of examining your practice…
Research is undertaken within most professions.
More than a set of skills, it is a way of thinking: examining critically the various aspects of your
professional work. It is a habit of questioning what you do, and a systematic examination of the
observed information to find answers with a view to instituting appropriate changes for a more
effective professional service.

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a question, you are
implying that the process;
1. is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies ( approaches);
2. uses procedures, methods and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability;
3. is designed to be unbiased and objective .

Philosophies means approaches e.g. qualitative, quantitative and the academic discipline in which
you have been trained.
Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question. Reliability
refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy.
Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each
conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest.
(Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something).

Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called ‘research’.
However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to
discipline and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another. The
difference between research and non-research activity is, in the way we find answers: the process
must meet certain requirements to be called research. We can identify these requirements by
examining some definitions of research.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search.

re is a prefix meaning again, anew or over again
search is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe.

Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and
create new knowledge that is generally applicable.
Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.
Although we engage in such process in our daily life, the difference between our casual day- to-day

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generalisation and the conclusions usually recognized as scientific method lies in the degree of
formality, rigorousness, verifiability and general validity of latter.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But
to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be
controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and
critical.
-Controlled- in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control implies
that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.

This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the
research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is
extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society,
where such controls are not possible.

Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify
their impact.
-Rigorous-you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to
questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigor varies markedly between
the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.
-Systematic-this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain
logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must
follow others.
-Valid and verifiable-this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings
is correct and can be verified by you and others.
-Empirical-this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from
information collected from real life experiences or observations.
-Critical-critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research
enquiry. The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process
adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.
For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
Research can be classified from three perspectives:
1. application of research study
2. objectives in undertaking the research
3. inquiry mode employed

Application:
From the point of view of application, there are two broad categories of research:
- pure research and
- applied research.
Pure research involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually
challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in
the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing
body of research methods.

Applied research is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration
and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory, but is usually descriptive. It is almost

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always done on the basis of basic research. Applied research can be carried out by academic or
industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a university will have a specific applied
research program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program.

Objectives:
From the viewpoint of objectives, a research can be classified as
-descriptive
-correlational
-explanatory
-exploratory

Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service

or programme, or provides information about , say, living condition of a community, or describes
attitudes towards an issue.
Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/
interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.
Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between
two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the
possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study
/ pilot study).
In practice most studies are a combination of the first three categories.
Inquiry Mode:
From the process adopted to find answer to research questions – the two approaches
are:
- Structured approach
- Unstructured approach
Structured approach:

The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research.

Here everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that
you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a
problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation. e.g. how many people have a particular
problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?

Unstructured approach:
The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research. This approach
allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process. It is more appropriate to explore the nature of
a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. Main objective is to describe the variation in
a phenomenon, situation or attitude. e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical
enumeration of events, an account of different opinions different people have about an issue,
description of working condition in a particular industry.

Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.
In many studies you have to combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches. For example,
suppose you have to find the types of cuisine / accommodation available in a city and the extent of
their popularity.

Types of cuisine is the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails description of
the culture and cuisine. The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves
estimating the number of people who visit restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other
indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.

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THE RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process is similar to undertaking a journey.

For a research journey there are two important decisions to make-
1) What you want to find out about
or what research questions (problems) you want to find answers to;
2) How to go about finding their answers.
There are practical steps through which you must pass in your research journey in order to find
answers to your research questions.
The path to finding answers to your research questions constitutes research methodology.

At each operational step in the research process you are required to choose from a multiplicity of
methods, procedures and models of research methodology which will help you to best achieve your
objectives.

This is where your knowledge base of research methodology plays a crucial role.
Steps in Research Process:

1. Formulating the Research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Developing the objectives
4. Preparing the Research Design including Sample Design
5. Collecting the Data
6. Analysis of Data
7. Generalisation and Interpretation
8. Preparation of the Report or Presentation of Results-Formal write ups of conclusions reached.

Step1. Formulating the research problem:

It is the first and most crucial step in the research process
- Main function is to decide what you want to find out about.
- The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that
follows.

Sources of research problems

Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps:

• People- a group of individuals
• Problems- examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives; to ascertain
attitude of a group of people towards an issue
• Programs- to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
• Phenomena- to establish the existence of a regularity.
In practice most research studies are based upon at least a combination of two
Ps.
Every research study has two aspects:
1. Study population-
• People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities
( they provide you with the information or you collect information about them)
2. Subject area- • Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles
• Program : content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions, consumers, Service providers, etc.
• Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon
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Itself (Information that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions)

You can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the four Ps in order to identify
anything that looks interesting.

Considerations in selecting a research problem:

These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will remain motivated.
1. Interest: a research endeavour is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and possibly
unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest to sustain the required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time and
resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and measurement of
concepts (if used) in your study.
4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for the task you are
proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps
and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems can be
overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating stage.

Steps in formulation of a research problem:

Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of knowledge in the broad subject area
within which the study is to be undertaken. Without such knowledge it is difficult to clearly and
adequately ‘dissect’ a subject area.
Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas.
Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you.
Step 4 Raise research questions.
Step 5 Formulate objectives.
Step 6 Assess your objectives.
Step 7 Double check.

So far we have focused on the basis of your study, the research problem. But every study
in social sciences has a second element, the study population from whom the required information to
find answers to your research questions is obtained.
As you narrow the research problem, similarly you need to decide very specifically who constitutes
your study population, in order to select the appropriate respondents.

Step 2. Reviewing the literature:

-Essential preliminary task in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of knowledge in your
area of interest.
-Literature review is integral part of entire research process and makes valuable contribution to every
operational step.
-Reviewing literature can be time-consuming, daunting and frustrating, but is also rewarding. Its
functions are:
a. Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
b. Improve your methodology;
c. Broaden your knowledge;
d. Contextualise your findings.

a.Bring clarity and focus to your research problem;

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The process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area better and thus helps
you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to understand the
relationship between your research problem and the body of knowledge in the area.

b.Improve your methodology:

A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to the ones that you
are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked well for them, and what problems they
have faced with them. Thus you will be better positioned to select a methodology that is capable of
providing valid answer to your research questions.

c.Broaden your knowledge base in your research area:

It ensures you to read widely around the subject area in which you intend to conduct your research
study. As you are expected to be an expert in your area of study, it helps fulfill this expectation. It
also helps you to understand how the findings of your study fit into the existing body of knowledge.

d..Contextualise your findings:

How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found? What contribution
have you been able to make in to the existing body of knowledge? How are your findings different
from those of others? For you to be able to answer these questions, you need to go back to your
literature review. It is important to place your findings in the context of what is already known in
your field of enquiry.

Procedure for reviewing the literature:

i) search for existing literature in your area of study;
ii) review the literature selected;
iii) develop a theoretical framework;
iv) develop a conceptual framework.
Search for existing literature:
-To effectively search for literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you have
in mind at least some idea of broad subject area and of the problem you wish to
investigate, in order to set parameters for your search.
-Next compile a bibliography for this broad area. Sources are:
1. books
2.journals

BOOKS: comprise a central part of any bibliography.

Advantage-material published generally is of good quality and the findings are integrated with other
research to form a coherent body of knowledge.
Disadvantage-material is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years between the completion
of a work and publication in the form of a book.
Search for books in your area of interest, prepare a final list, locate these books in the libraries or
borrow from other sources. Examine their content, if contents are not found to be relevant to your
topic, delete it from your reading list.

JOURNALS
Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is a gap of two to three
years between the completion of a research project and the publication in a journal.
As with books, you need to prepare a list of journals for identifying literature relevant to your study.
This can be done as follows:
-locate the hard copies of the journal that are appropriate to your study;
- use the internet
- look at the index of research abstracts in the relevant field to identify and read the articles.

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Whichever method you choose, first identify the journals you want to look at in more detail for your
review of literature. Select the latest issue, examine its content page to see if there is an article of
relevance to your research topic. If you feel a particular article is of relevance to you, read its
abstract. If you think you are likely to use it, photocopy or prepare a summary and record it for
reference for later use.

Review the literature selected:

After identifying books and articles as useful, the next step is to start reading them critically to pull
together themes and issues that are associated.
If you do not have a theoretical framework of themes in mind to start with, use separate sheets of
paper for each article or book.
Once you develop a rough framework, slot the findings from the material so far reviewed into that
framework, using a separate sheet of paper for each theme of that framework. As you read further, go
on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the theme so far developed. You may
need to add more themes as you go.

Read critically with particular reference to the following aspects:

• Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework is confirmed beyond doubt.
• Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies adopted and
the criticisms of them.
• Examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations.
Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known-the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.

Develop a theoretical framework:

As you have limited time it is important to set parameters by reviewing the literature in relation to
some main themes pertinent to your research topic.
As you start reading the literature, you will realize that it deals with a number of aspects that have a
direct `and indirect bearing on your research topic. Use these aspects as a basis for developing your
theoretical framework.

Until you go through the literature you cannot develop a theoretical framework and until you have
developed a theoretical framework, you cannot effectively review the literature.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:

- universal;
- more specific( i.e. local trends or specific program)

In writing about such information you should start with the general information, gradually narrowing
down to the specific.

Writing up the literature reviewed:

In order to comply with the first function of literature review i.e. to provide theoretical background
to your study:
-List the main themes that have emerged while reading literature.
-Convert them into subheadings. These subheadings should be precise, descriptive of the theme in
question, and follow a logical progression.
-Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to the theme in question,
highlighting the reasons for and against an argument if they exist, and identify gaps and issues.

In order to comply with the second function of literature review i.e. contextualising the findings of
your study- requires you to very systematically compare your findings with those made by others.
Quote from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them. It places
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your findings in the context of what others have found out. This function is undertaken when writing
about your findings i.e. after analysis of your data.

THE BIBLIOGRAPHY

The bibliography should give a clear, complete description of the sources that were used while
preparing the report. It is an alphabetical list as per the author’s surname.
1. For a Book: Surname of author, name or two initials, Title taken from titlepage-underlined or in
italics, Edition (if more than one), volume if more than one, place of publication, publishers, date on
title page or copyright date.
e.g. Kothari, C.R., Research Methods-Methods and Techniques,1989,New Delhi
:Wiley Eastern Limited,4835/24 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 006.