Introduction To Latin

Second Edition
 Introduction To Latin
Second Edition

Susan C. Shelmerdine

Focus Publishing
Newburyport, Massachusetts
 In memory of
Gerda M. Seligson and Glenn M. Knudsvig,
teachers, scholars, friends

Introduction To Latin Second Edition

© 2013 Susan C. Shelmerdine
Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Company
PO Box 369
Newburyport, MA 01950
www.pullins.com
ISBN: 978-1-58510-627-1
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_____
The Library of Congress has cataloged the printed edition as follows:
Shelmerdine, Susan Chadwick.
Introduction to Latin / Susan C. Shelmerdine. -- Second edition.
pages. cm.
ISBN 978-1-58510-390-4
1. Latin language--Grammar. I. Title.
PA2080.2.S47 2013
478.2’421--dc23
2013002909
Last updated Februray 2013
 Introduction to Latin
List of Illustrations.................................................................................................xii
Preface ..........................................................................................................xiii
Preface to the Second Edition................................................................................. xv
The Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation.....................................................................1
Chapter One............................................................................................................5
The Sentence 5
Parts of Speech 5
What Words Do (Function) 6
Sentence Patterns: 6
Intransitive 7
Transitive 7
The Verb 7
Present Active Indicative 8
Present Active Infinitive 8
Principal Parts 9
Indicative Uses: Statements and Questions 9
Infinitive Use: Complementary 9
Chapter Two..........................................................................................................13
Latin Cases 13
Nominative and Accusative Case Uses 13
The Noun 14
Gender 14
Dictionary Entry 15
First Declension 15
Second Declension: Masculine 16
Second Declension: Neuter 17
The Conjunction 18
Reading Latin: Using Expectations 18
Chapter Three........................................................................................................23
Imperative: Commands 23
Vocative Case: Direct Address 24
Genitive Case 24
Possession 24
Of the Whole (Partitive) 24
Dative Case 25
Indirect Object 25
Reference (Interest) 25
Expectations 25
v
vi Introduction to Latin

Chapter Four..........................................................................................................29
The Adverb 29
The Preposition 29
Ablative Case 30
Means (Instrument) 30
Expressions of Place 30
Place to Which 30
Place Where 31
Place from Which 31
Adverbial Modification (Summary) 31
Word Order 32
Reading Skills 32
Chapter Five...........................................................................................................37
The Adjective: First and Second Declensions 37
Agreement 39
Substantive Use 40
More Uses of the Genitive 40
Explanatory 41
Objective 41
Subjective 41
Adjectival Modification (Summary) 41
Sum: Present Indicative and Infinitive 41
Sentence Pattern: Linking 41
More Uses of the Ablative 42
Accompaniment 42
Manner 42
Reading Chapter I..................................................................................................47
Narrative Reading I: Fall of Troy 47
Dictionary Practice/Form Identification 48
Review of the Sentence and its Parts 48
Question Words for Extra Practice 48
Word Derivations 49
English Abbreviations 50
Chapter Six ...........................................................................................................51
Imperfect Active Indicative: First and Second Conjugations 51
Future Active Indicative: First and Second Conjugations 52
Sum: Imperfect and Future Indicative 52
The Gap 53
Infinitive Use: As a Noun 54
Dative of Possession 54
Chapter Seven........................................................................................................59
Third Declension Nouns: Consonant Stem 59
Third Declension: Masculine and Feminine 59
 Table of Contents vii

Third Declension: Neuter 60

Gender Patterns 61
The Pronoun: Personal (1) 62
ego; tū 62
Possum: Present, Imperfect and Future Indicative 63
Sentence Pattern: Special Intransitive 63
Chapter Eight........................................................................................................69
Third and Fourth Conjugations 69
Present Active Indicative and Infinitive 69
Present Active Imperative 70
The Pronoun: Personal (2) 71
is, ea, id as a Personal Pronoun 71
Sentence Pattern: Factitive 71
Chapter Nine.........................................................................................................77
Imperfect Active Indicative: Third and Fourth Conjugations 77
Future Active Indicative: Third and Fourth Conjugations 77
The Pronoun: Demonstrative 78
hic, haec, hoc 79
ille, illa, illud 79
is, ea, id 79
Adjectival Use 80
Chapter Ten ...........................................................................................................85
Third Declension Nouns: i-Stem 85
Third Declension Adjectives 86
Expressions of Cause 89
Reading Chapter II................................................................................................93
Narrative Reading II: Aeneas in Italy 93
Dictionary Practice/Form Identification 94
Review of the Sentence and its Parts 95
Questions Words for Extra Practice 95
Word Building 95
Roots 95
Vowel Weakening 96
English Abbreviations and Phrases 96
Chapter Eleven.......................................................................................................97
Perfect Active Indicative 97
Pluperfect Active Indicative 99
Future Perfect Active Indicative 100
Special Adjectives in –īus 101
Numerals 102
Expressions of Time 103
viii Introduction to Latin

Chapter Twelve....................................................................................................109
Dependent Clauses 109
Adverbial Use 109
Word Order 111
Accusative of Extent and Degree 111
Dative with Adjectives 112
Chapter Thirteen..................................................................................................117
The Pronoun: Relative 117
Adjectival Use: Relative Clause 118
The Pronoun: Reflexive 119
Chapter Fourteen.................................................................................................125
Passive Voice (1) 125
Present Passive Indicative 126
Imperfect Passive Indicative 127
Future Passive Indicative 127
Present Passive Infinitive 128
Sentence Pattern: Passive 129
Ablative of Agent 129
Chapter Fifteen....................................................................................................135
Passive Voice (2) 135
Perfect Passive Indicative 135
Pluperfect Passive Indicative 136
Future Perfect Passive Indicative 136
Perfect Passive Infinitive 137
Linking Sentence Pattern Revisited 137
Possessive Adjectives and Possession Using eius 138
Ablative of Specification (Respect) 139
Chapter Sixteen....................................................................................................143
Fourth Declension 143
Fifth Declension 144
Locative Case 145
Other Place Expressions 145
Reading Chapter III.............................................................................................151
Narrative Reading III: Numa 151
Dictionary Practice/Form Identification 152
Review of the Sentence and its Parts 153
Question Words for Extra Practice 153
Word Building 153
Families of Words 153
Consonant Changes 154
English Abbreviations and Phrases 154
Chapter Seventeen...............................................................................................155
Participles 155
 Table of Contents ix

Tenses of the Participle 157

Participle Uses 158
Ablative Absolute 159
Chapter Eighteen.................................................................................................165
Dependent Clauses: Noun Use – Relative Clause 165
The Interrogative Pronoun: quis, quid 166
The Interrogative Adjective: quī, quae, quod 166
Intensive Pronouns: ipse; īdem 167
Chapter Nineteen.................................................................................................173
Infinitive Forms 173
Perfect Active Infinitive 173
Future Active Infinitive 173
Review of all Infinitive Forms 174
Noun Clause: Indirect Statement 175
Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Statement 176
Chapter Twenty....................................................................................................183
Irregular Verbs: volō, nōlō, mālō 183
Negative Commands with nōlō 183
Noun Clauses: Objective Infinitive 184
Chapter Twenty-One............................................................................................189
Comparison of Adjectives 189
Declension of Comparatives 190
Irregular Comparison 191
Comparison with quam and Ablative of Comparison 192
Indefinite Pronoun: quīdam, quaedam, quoddam 192
Reading Chapter IV.............................................................................................197
Narrative Reading IV: Tullus and the Treachery of Mettius 197
Dictionary Practice/Form Identification 199
Review of the Sentence and its Parts 200
Question Words for Extra Practice 200
Word Building: Compounds 201
English Abbreviations and Phrases 202
Chapter Twenty-Two............................................................................................203
Comparison of Adverbs 203
More on quam 204
Deponent Verbs 204
Special Intransitive: Deponent Verbs used with an Ablative Object 206
Chapter Twenty-Three..........................................................................................211
Irregular Verbs 211
eō, īre, iī (īvī), itūrus (to go) 211
Compounds of eō 212
ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus (to carry, bear) 212
x Introduction to Latin

Compounds of ferō 213

Paradigm of vīs, vīs, ƒ. 213
Chapter Twenty-Four...........................................................................................219
Present Active Subjunctive 219
Present Passive Subjunctive 220
Present Subjunctive of sum, possum and volō 221
Independent Uses of the Subjunctive 221
Exhortation/Command 221
Wish 222
Doubt 222
Possibility 222
Chapter Twenty-Five............................................................................................227
Imperfect Active Subjunctive 227
Imperfect Passive Subjunctive 227
Imperfect Subjunctive of sum, possum and volō 228
Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Adverbial Clauses 228
Purpose 228
Result 229
Chapter Twenty-Six..............................................................................................235
Perfect Active Subjunctive 235
Pluperfect Active Subjunctive 236
Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive of sum and possum 236
Tenses in Independent Uses of the Subjunctive 237
Tenses in Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Sequence of Tenses 238
Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Adverbial Clauses 239
Circumstances, Cause, Concession 239
Time, with anticipation 239
Chapter Twenty-Seven.........................................................................................245
Perfect and Pluperfect Passive Subjunctive 245
Adverbial Clauses: Conditions 246
Simple conditions 246
Subjunctive conditions 246
Chapter Twenty-Eight..........................................................................................253
Irregular Verbs: fīō, fierī, factus sum 253
Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Noun Clauses 253
Noun Result 254
Indirect Question 254
Indirect Command 255
Clauses of Fearing 256
Chapter Twenty-Nine...........................................................................................261
The Gerund 261
The Gerundive 263
Passive Periphrastic and Dative of Agent 265
 Table of Contents xi

Chapter Thirty.....................................................................................................271
More on Relative Pronouns 271
Connecting Relative 271
Clauses of Characteristic 272
Clauses of Purpose 273
Review of Cases 273
Nominative 273
Vocative 273
Accusative 274
Dictionary Practice/Form Identification 274
Chapter Thirty-One.............................................................................................281
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Speech 281
Impersonal Constructions 282
More on the Dative 283
Dative with Compound Verbs 283
Dative of Purpose 284
Review of Cases 285
Genitive 285
Dative 285
Dictionary Practice/Form Identification 286
Chapter Thirty-Two.............................................................................................291
The Supine 291
Ut + Indicative 292
More on the Ablative 293
Description (Quality) 293
Degree of Difference 293
Review of Cases 294
Ablative 294
Locative 294
Dictionary Practice/Form Identification 295
List of Latin Sources.............................................................................................301
Morphology Reference Section.............................................................................307
Vocabulary by Chapter.........................................................................................323
English-Latin Vocabulary.....................................................................................341
Latin-English Vocabulary ....................................................................................353
List of Intransitive Verbs.......................................................................................367
Index .........................................................................................................369
xii Introduction to Latin

List of Illustrations
Maps
Italy .......................................................................................................... xiv
Troy and the Aegean...............................................................................................46
Caesar’s Gaul........................................................................................................134

Illustrations
Amphitrite on a Sea Horse. Mosaic from Ostia, 2nd c. A.D.....................................4
Altar in the Forum. Pompeii, 1st c. A.D. ...............................................................22
Chariot and Triton (sea-god). Mosaic from Ostia, 2nd c. A.D................................68
Snack Bar. Pompeii, 1st c. A.D. ...........................................................................108
Mosaics outside Merchant’s Office Complex, Ostia, end 2nd c. A.D. ..................182
Street. Pompeii, 1st c. A.D...................................................................................234
Neptune on his Chariot and Sea Creatures. Mosaic from Ostia, 2nd c. A.D. .......260
Forum with Mt. Vesuvius in the distance. Pompeii, 1st c. A.D. ...........................290
 Preface
There are many textbooks for learning Latin, and different approaches have
worked for different students over the years. This book is primarily intended for
college level students who do not have the luxury of time to explore the language
through a true “reading” method and still gain exposure to the ancient authors. The
aims of this book can be stated briefly:
• to provide a streamlined text that can be completed in one year, even for
courses which meet only three days a week
• to provide brief explanations of English grammar as needed within the text
itself so students will have an easy reference point for the Latin material
• to provide “real Latin” readings early and often, in the form of both
sentences and short passages. In all but one or two cases the Readings in
each chapter are unconnected to those in the previous chapter, so they can
be easily used or skipped as each instructor wishes
• to offer a variety of different kinds of exercises, especially in the early chapters
• to get out of the way of the instructor. Rather than trying to explain every
nuance of the grammar in detail, this text offers concise explanations and
allows the instructor to expand those explanations as he or she wishes
• not to overwhelm the student. Some texts provide so much explanation,
study hints, cultural sidebars, and the like that students have trouble
distinguishing between the “need to know” and the “nice to know” material.
This text tries to focus on the “need to know” material.
A few words of explanation about the style of the text and the presentation
of vocabulary may also be in order. The writing is intentionally informal because
college students have said they prefer this. Chapter Vocabulary is placed at the end
of each chapter where it can be found easily, although students should be encouraged
to memorize it before doing the chapter exercises. This vocabulary provides a core
of common words for students to memorize and has been limited to a manageable
20-25 words in most cases, with the total number of words indicated in parentheses.
Full listings of all forms are given in the Chapter Vocabulary and in the Latin to
English Vocabulary at the end of the book. Intransitive verbs, with the exception of
sum and eo with its compounds in Chapter 23, are listed without a fourth principal
part to help students distinguish them from transitive verbs. A complete list of the
intransitive verbs with the future active participle in the fourth principal part slot is
included at the end of the Latin to English Vocabulary. Vocabulary help for Readings
and Practice Sentences uses abbreviated listings of the kind students are likely to see
in dictionaries and notes accompanying upper level texts. It is important that students
learn basic vocabulary meanings and practice the skill of deciding what meaning is
appropriate in different contexts. Therefore this book does not annotate many idioms
xiii
xiv Introduction to Latin

or include many specialized meanings for Latin words. Words which can reasonably
be guessed in the Readings and Practice Sentences are printed in bold to encourage
students to make informed guesses.
This book uses traditional terms for the most part and avoids jargon wherever
possible, but it also tries to incorporate advances in language pedagogy pioneered by
several generations of scholars at the University of Michigan. So readers will occasionally
see an unfamiliar but very useful term, such as Gap or Expectations, and will benefit
from several types of exercises developed at Michigan, such as the Dictionary Practice
exercises in the Reading Chapters. My debt to my own teachers and colleagues, Gerda
M. Seligson and Glenn M. Knudsvig, will be obvious to many and is an honor to
acknowledge here, even though this is not a book they would have written.
My colleagues at The University of North Carolina, Greensboro offered kind and
helpful comments on many drafts of this text. My grateful thanks go to them, as well as
colleagues at Bowdoin College, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and Wake
Forest University, and students at all four institutions for their willingness to try the text in its
early stages. They have all helped to make the book better, as have colleagues elsewhere who
offered suggestions along the way. John Traupman provided invaluable help with his careful
reading of the final draft. Special thanks also go to Cynthia Shelmerdine for her help on the
index, to Maura Heyn for the pictures and to Jeffrey Patton for creating the maps.
Note: The short narrative used in exercise 103 was adapted from part of a now
defunct web page, so I am unable to give proper credit to the original author.

Italy
 Preface to the Second Edition
I am most grateful to colleagues, readers, students, and instructors who were
generous enough to offer constructive criticism of the 1st edition and suggestions to
improve the book. As before, I have put the needs of a beginning learner ahead of
elegantly written Latin and strict adherence to all rules of usage. (In Reading Chapter
I, for example, bellum pugnant appears in place of bellum gerunt, because the 3rd
conjugation has not yet been taught.) Students who go on to read more Latin will
absorb these things as they go, but no first year student should be expected to master
all the details at once.
Thanks to my colleagues at The University of North Carolina, Greensboro who
were willing to talk over specific issues as I tried to chart a course between the different
approaches of traditional classicists and linguists. Special thanks to Maura Heyn and
Sarah Wright for reading so many drafts and providing feedback that was at the same
time helpful and humane. Thanks also to Sarah Wright for heroic efforts in helping
with proofs and the index.
Most of the changes in this edition are in response to student and colleague
comments. They aim to spread material out more evenly between the first and second
halves of the book, and to afford additional time for the more complex syntax in the
second half of the book. In a college course meeting 3 days a week, it should be possible
to cover Ch. 1-15 (or 16) in the first semester. Major changes are detailed below:
• A Derivatives exercise has been added after each Chapter Vocabulary
through Chapter 29, asking students to define English words and link them
with the Chapter Vocabulary to which they are related. These exercises can
be assigned at the beginning of each chapter to encourage students to learn
the vocabulary first.
• Chapters 1-5 are substantially the same, with two changes in the order of
material presented. Imperatives and Vocatives have been moved from Ch.
6 to Ch. 3 and, in Ch. 4 the Preposition is introduced before the Ablative
case. For those wanting more formal explication of syntax, Ch. 4 and 5
have short summaries of Adverbial and Adjectival Modification. Ch. 5
has added an explanation of three Genitive uses which were not included
in the previous edition, but were used in readings and practice sentences;
instructors can decide if they want their students to learn these uses at this
early stage. Principal parts have been handled as in the 1st edition (see p.
xiii).
• Four Reading Chapters are included, with narrative readings accompanied
by comprehension questions in Latin. (The “question words for extra
practice” can be used with the material in the regular chapters as well.)
xv
xvi Introduction to Latin

These chapters also include a review of material in the preceding chapters,

and a short list of English abbreviations and phrases derived from Latin.
• Personal and Demonstrative pronouns have been spread among 3 chapters
(Ch. 7-9), and Interrogative and Reflexive pronouns appear in separate
chapters later on.
• Introduction of 3rd and 4th conjugation verbs has been consolidated and is
presented in Ch. 8 and 9, before the Perfect system which is now presented
for all conjugations at once in Ch. 11.
• 3rd declension i-stem nouns have been separated from consonant stems and
are now introduced with 3rd declension adjectives in Ch. 10. These nouns
are marked in the vocabulary with an asterisk.
• Adverbial and Adjectival dependent clauses have been moved to Ch. 12-13
(from Ch. 18-19).
• The Passive verb system has been moved to Ch. 14-15 (from Ch. 17 and 20).
• Participles are introduced early in the second half of the book, Ch. 17
(instead of Ch. 24), and Indirect Statement has been moved to Ch. 19
(from Ch. 22).
• The Subjunctive material has been rearranged and spread out. The most
common uses are now covered in Ch. 24-28.
• Ch. 30-32 are intended as a bridge to the next level of Latin; they
concentrate on reading and do not have English to Latin exercises. They
introduce some constructions likely to be found at the next level of Latin,
provide a review of case uses, and include a variety of readings with minimal
editing.
• Long marks (macrons) have been a constant battle to correct and, in some
cases, different dictionaries handle them differently. I have done my best to
standardize the usage in this book, but apologize in advance for the errors
that remain.

Susan C. Shelmerdine
December, 2012
 The Latin Alphabet and
Pronunciation
A. The Alphabet
The Latin alphabet has 24 letters, the same letters as in the English alphabet, but
without j and w. Latin vowels are the same as in English: a, e, i, o, u and y. The
letter i was used as both a vowel and a consonant; before another vowel in the
same syllable, it is the consonant and is written as a j in some books: Iūlius = Julius
(yule-ee-us), adiuvō (ad-you-woh).

Pronunciation

B. Vowels
Vowels in Latin are either long or short by nature. Long vowels are marked with a
macron (a long mark - so called from the Greek for “long,” makros).
Long Short
ā father a alike
ē they e pet
ī unique i it
ō obey o off
ū rude u put

y occurs in words borrowed from Greek and is pronounced like French tu, a
sound that doesn’t occur in English dialects, but can be produced by putting your
lips in place to say “ooo,” and saying “eee” instead.

C. Diphthongs
Two vowels pronounced as one sound are called diphthongs. Latin has six
diphthongs, which are pronounced as follows:
ae like the ai in aisle haec, aequor
au like the ou in out laudō, aut
ei like the ei in weigh deinde
eu eh-oo as in feud heu
oe like the oi in soil proelium, coepit
ui oo-ee as in tweed cui, huic

D. Consonants
Most Latin consonants are pronounced like their English counterparts. Note the
following additional points: 1
2 Introduction to Latin

c is always a hard sound like the c in cat, never as in cent cēna, cum
g is always a hard sound like the g in goat, never as in gentle glōria, gēns
i (j) as a consonant is always like the y in yellow iam
r is produced by tapping the tip of the tongue against the Rōma, fortūna
roof of the mouth, and probably sounded like the r in
pearl pronounced with a Scottish accent
s is always like the s in sea, never as in please senātus,
puellās
t is always like the t in time, never as in nation ratiō
v sounds like English w in wine (not vine) vīnum, vēritās
x sounds like English ks; like the x in extinct (not exert) ex

Combinations
bs is pronounced like ps in eclipse abstulit, urbs
gu, qu sound like gw, qw and the u is not counted as a vowel lingua;
inquit, quī
ch sounds like English k in backhand, (not cheese) chorus,
pulcher
ph originally sounded like the ph in shepherd (not philosophia
philosophy) - but over time came to be pronounced
like our f.
th sounds like the th in hothouse (not theater) theātrum
double consonants were pronounced as two distinct sounds ecce, puella,
with a slight pause between the two: (e.g.) out-take terra, mittō

E. Syllables
There are no silent letters in Latin, so a Latin word has as many syllables as it has
vowels and/or diphthongs:
vē-ri-tā-te, con-ci-li-um 4
for-tū-na, pu-el-la 3
lau-dō, er-rat 2
mē, quī 1
Words are divided as follows:
1. between two vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong:
ā-ēr, vi-ae
2. between double consonants (usually):
an-nus, mag-nus
3. a single consonant between two vowels goes with the second vowel:
a-mor, me-mo-ri-a
 The Latin Alphabet and Pronunciation 3

Syllable Quantity
Knowing the quantity of a syllable is important for accenting a word properly and
for understanding verses in poetry later on.
A syllable is long by nature if it contains a long vowel or a diphthong:
Rō-ma, lau-dem
A syllable is usually long by position if it has a short vowel followed by x or z or
by two (or more) consonants:
op-tō, sa-pi-en-ti-a
The letter h is not counted as a consonant when determining the quantity of a
syllable.

F. Accent
A Latin word is accented either on the second or third syllable from the end of
the word.
Words of two syllables are accented on the next to last syllable:
a´-mor
du´-cem
Words of more than two syllables are accented on the next to last syllable if it is
long:
mo-nē´-mus
for-tū´-na
otherwise on the third to last syllable:
re´-gi-tur
a-gri´-co-la
Some little words, called enclitics (from the Greek because they “lean on” the
preceding word), are added to and pronounced with other words. The most
common enclitics are: -que, -ve, -ne. When one of these is added to another
word, the accent is always on the syllable before the enclitic: po-pu-lus´-que, de-
a´-ve.
Amphitrite on a Sea Horse. Mosaic from Ostia, 2nd c. A.D.
 CHAPTER 1
The Sentence
Parts of Speech
What Words Do (Function)
Sentence Patterns
Intransitive
Transitive
The Verb
Present Active Indicative
Present Active Infinitive
Principal Parts
Indicative Uses: Statements and Questions
Infinitive Use: Complementary

1. The Sentence
A sentence in Latin, as in English, is made up of words that express a complete thought.
The simplest form of a sentence includes only a subject and a verb:
The farmer works. They walk.
In order to understand sentences in English, we depend on knowing some rules of
word order, for example: subjects come before verbs. Latin, however, uses a system
that adds different endings onto certain words to make their function and meaning
clear, so you will need to learn those endings before you can read Latin. You will also
need to understand the different types of words that make up a sentence and what
each of those words does.
2. Parts of Speech
Latin does not have an article (the, a, an), but otherwise has the same parts of speech
as English:
Part of Speech Definition English Examples
• verb a verb expresses existence, action, is, hits, teaches, happens
occurrence
• noun a noun names a person, place, or farmer, house, truth, Frank
thing (including an idea or a quality)
• adjective an adjective adds to (modifies) the large, old, good, true
meaning of a noun or pronoun to
specify a quality

5
6 Introduction to Latin

Part of Speech Definition English Examples

• adverb an adverb usually modifies a verb, today, often, here, well
giving information about time, place,
manner or degree
• preposition a preposition connects a noun or from, into, with, by
pronoun to another word in the
sentence and shows a relationship
between the two
• pronoun a pronoun substitutes for a noun, he, who, it, this, that
referring to something without
naming it
• conjunction a conjunction connects words or and, but, if, when
groups of words
• interjection an interjection is an exclamation oh!, alas, huh?

Each of the different parts of speech just listed has a function in the sentence, which
will be the focus of this and future chapters. Chapter vocabulary will be listed by part
of speech. This chapter includes only verbs and nouns.
3. What Words Do (Function)
The subject of a sentence is the person or thing the sentence is about. To identify the
subject, use the verb of the sentence and ask “who/what s?” – the answer will be
the subject. It is usually a noun or pronoun.
The woman praises the boy. > who praises? > woman = subject
The verb of a sentence expresses an action or occurrence. The same term, “verb,”
names both the part of speech and its function.
The woman praises the boy. > what is happening? > someone praises = verb
The direct object of a sentence is the person or thing that receives the action of the
verb directly. Like the subject, it is usually a noun or pronoun.
The woman praises the boy. > who receives praise? > the boy = direct object
4. Sentence Patterns
Reading Latin (or any language) becomes easier if you know what to expect in a
sentence. It is therefore very useful to recognize certain common sentence patterns
and their core parts. The verb sets the pattern for a sentence. The meaning of the
verb determines what items are necessary to complete the action it expresses, and
this allows you to know what other core items to expect. This chapter began with a
sentence pattern that included only a subject and a verb (The farmer works), but other
sentences also include a direct object (The woman praises the boy).
This chapter will teach you the two common patterns just mentioned, and future
chapters will add four more. While you don’t need to know the names of these patterns
to read Latin, it will be easier to talk about them if you learn the terms in bold below.
 Chapter One 7

1) Intransitive
• subject
• verb
The intransitive pattern requires only a subject and a verb to express a complete
thought:
The farmer works. Subject = farmer Verb = works
They walk. Subject = they Verb = walk
Verbs that do not take a direct object are called intransitive verbs.
2) Transitive
• subject
• verb
• direct object - in the accusative case
The transitive pattern requires a direct object to complete the action of the verb:
The woman has a rose. Subject = woman Verb = has D.O. = rose
We call the farmer. Subject = we Verb = call D.O. = farmer
Verbs that take a direct object are called transitive verbs.
5. The Verb
Verbs in Latin fall into four regular groups, called conjugations. Each conjugation
has a common set of endings, which are added to the stem of the verb. The verb stem
carries the meaning of the verb and a characteristic vowel:
1st Conjugation [-ā-] 2nd Conjugation [-ē-]
amā- love monē- advise
laudā- praise vidē- see

The endings are called personal endings because they carry information about who
the subject of the verb is. These endings are traditionally identified by person (first,
second, or third) and number (singular or plural) as follows:
Singular Plural
1st person -ō I -mus we
2nd person -s you -tis you, you all
3rd person -t he, she, it -nt they

Verb forms with personal endings are called finite forms (from the Latin for “limit,”
fīnis) because they are limited by identifying the subject.
Verbs are also identified by
• Tense - when an action happens (e.g., present, future)
• Voice - whether the subject is doing the action (active) or receiving the
action (passive)
• Mood - whether the verb is a simple statement or question (indicative), or a
command (imperative), etc.
8 Introduction to Latin

These items will be discussed in future chapters.

Present Active Indicative

This chapter introduces present active indicative verb forms of the first and second
conjugations:
1st Conjugation 2nd Conjugation
1st sg. amō I love moneō I advise
2nd sg. amās You love monēs You advise
3rd sg. amat He, she, it loves monet He, she, it advises
1st pl. amāmus We love monēmus We advise
2nd pl. amātis You (all) love monētis You (all) advise
3rd pl. amant They love monent They advise

Notice that the personal endings are the same for both conjugations and are added
directly to the stem of the verb in each form. In the “I” form (first person singular) of
the first conjugation, the stem vowel -a- contracts with the personal ending to produce
the form amō rather than amaō.
Two important points should be noted here:
• The present tense can be translated “I love,” “I am loving,” or “I do love.”
• Because the ending on the verb tells you who the subject is, Latin does not
have to use a separate word for the subject as we do in English: vident =
they see
Exercise 1. Identify the person of each singular verb form. Then change each form
to plural.
Example: amō 1st person; amāmus
1. terreō 4. vocās
2. laudat 5. timēs
3. habet 6. superō
Present Active Infinitive
The infinitive is a verbal noun, a form of the verb that is not limited (infinitus) by
a personal ending. Here are the present active infinitive verb forms of the first and
second conjugations:
1st Conjugation 2nd Conjugation
amāre to love monēre to advise
laudāre to praise vidēre to see

To find the present stem of a verb, drop the -re from the present active infinitive. The
vowel on the verb stem will show what conjugation the verb belongs to:
amā (re) - first conjugation
monē (re) - second conjugation
 Chapter One 9

Exercise 2. Identify the conjugation of each verb by looking at the stem vowel.
1. laudāre 4. iuvāre
2. terrēre 5. habēre
3. timēre 6. vocāre
6. Principal Parts
The dictionary entry for a verb includes the first person singular indicative form (I
love) and the present infinitive form (to love), along with two other forms, which will
be introduced in future chapters. These forms are called principal parts because they
contain the verb stems on which all other forms are built. Because it is not always
possible to predict these stems, it is important to memorize all the principal parts for
each verb. Here are some examples for the first and second conjugations:
1st Conjugation
amō amāre amāvī amātus
I love   to love   I have loved   having been loved
laudō laudāre laudāvī laudātus
I praise   to praise   I have praised   having been praised
2nd Conjugation
moneō monēre monuī monitus
I advise   to advise   I have advised   having been advised
videō vidēre vīdī vīsus
I see   to see   I have seen   having been seen

Some verbs do not have all four principal parts (and are often called “defective”
because they are missing forms). You will notice this in the dictionary listing when it
happens. This book also uses -ūrus for the fourth principal part of most intransitive
verbs: tacitūrus “about to be silent”.
7a. Indicative Uses: Statements and Questions
Indicative verb forms are used to make simple statements and to ask simple
questions:
Fēmina labōrat. The woman works.
Fēminane labōrat? Labōratne fēmina? Is the woman working? Does the
woman work?
Notice that Latin does not require any change of word order to signal a question.
Often the enclitic -ne (§F) is added on the end of the first word of a question.
7b. Infinitive Use: Complementary
Infinitives have properties of both verbs and nouns, and have several different uses.
One of the most common is to complete the meaning of another verb. This use of
the infinitive is called the complementary infinitive:
Labōrāre dēbeō. I ought to work.
Optatne tacēre? Does he desire to be silent?
For now when you see an infinitive, it should lead you to expect either dēbeō or optō;
10 Introduction to Latin

future chapters will add to the list of verbs which can be completed by a complementary
infinitive. Uses of the infinitive as a noun will be introduced in Chapter 6 and later
chapters.
Exercise 3. Identify the person and number of each verb, then translate into English
in 3 different ways.
Example: amant third person, plural; “they love,” “they are loving,” “they do love”
1. optat 6. vocās
2. vident 7. terrēs
3. habēmus 8. iacētis
4. labōrātis 9. superant
5. timeō        10. iuvāmus
Exercise 4. Identify the person and number of each English verb, then translate into
Latin. Make sure to use the proper stem vowel for each Latin form.
Example: they are afraid third person, plural; timent
1. he is working 6. am I silent?
2. do they love? 7. she warns
3. it scares 8. you (pl.) call
4. you (sg.) desire 9. they are seeing
5. we owe        10. do you (sg.) have?
Exercise 5. Using the stem meanings given below, translate each of the following into
English. Then, paying attention to the stem vowel in each form, see if you can write
the first two principal parts, which would appear in the dictionary for each verb.
Example: errant (wander) “they wander”; errō, errāre
1. pugnās (fight) 6. nāvigāmus (sail)
2. miscet (mix) 7. tenēs (hold)
3. volant (fly) 8. servātis (save)
4. dolētis (grieve) 9. rīdēmus (laugh)
5. audent (dare)      10. stat (stand)
Exercise 6. Some of the following sentences contain nouns that will be explained
in Chapter 2. For now, if the noun ends in -a, it is the subject; if it ends in -am, it is
the direct object. Note that if you see the -am ending, it should lead you to expect
a transitive sentence pattern with a transitive verb; absence of this form should lead
you to expect an intransitive pattern and an intransitive verb. Translate each of the
following sentences into English.
1. Agricola labōrat. 6. Aquane nautam terret?
2. Fēminam laudant. 7. Optāsne labōrāre?
3. Fēmina rosam habet. 8. Fortūna nautam iuvat.
4. Timētis. 9. Tacēre dēbeō.
5. Videtne nauta aquam? 10. Pecūniam amāmus.
 Chapter One 11

Chapter 1 Vocabulary

Nouns (these forms will be explained in Chapter 2)

agricola, agricolae m. farmer
aqua, aquae f. water
fēmina, fēminae f. woman
fortūna, fortūnae f. chance, luck, fortune
nauta, nautae m. sailor
pecūnia, pecūniae f. money, property
rosa, rosae f. rose
Verbs (English translations will be given in the infinitive form)
amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus to love
dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus “ought to, should”; to owe; to be
  obligated to
habeō, habēre, habuī, habitus to have; consider
iaceō, iacēre, iacuī, iacitūrus to lie (e.g., on the ground)
iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtus to help; please
labōrō, labōrāre, labōrāvī, labōrātus to work, strive
laudō, laudāre, laudāvī, laudātus to praise
moneō, monēre, monuī, monitus to advise, warn, remind
optō, optāre, optāvī, optātus to choose, desire, wish for
superō, superāre, superāvī, superātus to overcome, conquer, surpass
taceō, tacēre, tacuī, tacitūrus to be silent (“I am silent”)
terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus to terrify, scare
timeō, timēre, timuī to fear, be afraid (of )
videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus to see
vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus to call, summon
Other
-ne (attached to the end of the first signals a yes-no question
 word in the sentence, usually the (no English translation)
 most important word in the question)
(23)
12 Introduction to Latin

Derivatives: One way to help learn new Latin words is to connect them with English
words that are derived from the Latin roots. For each English word below, give the
Latin word from the Chapter 1 Vocabulary to which it is related and the English
word’s meaning.
Example: adopt Latin word: optō; Meaning of adopt: to take by choice
1. labor 11. timid
2. fortunate 12. nautical
3. terrify 13. tacit
4. laudable 14. adjacent
5. habit 15. agriculture
6. aquarium 16. debt
7. adjutant 17. feminine
8. rosette 18. insuperable
9. vocal 19. impecunious
10. admonition 20. amorous
 CHAPTER 2
Latin Cases:
Nominative and Accusative Case Uses
The Noun
Gender
Dictionary Entry
First Declension
Second Declension: Masculine
Second Declension: Neuter
The Conjunction
Reading Latin: Using Expectations

8a. Latin Cases

Instead of using word order to identify subjects and other elements in a sentence,
Latin uses forms, called cases, which provide information about what each noun,
pronoun, or adjective is doing in a sentence. Sometimes the function is equivalent
to an English subject or direct object (as you saw in the sentences in Chapter 1), but
sometimes the case must be translated with an English preposition in addition to the
noun. Latin has six common cases (and a seventh less common one). Each case may
signal more than one function, but the most common uses are these:
Case Name Common Use
Nominative subject of a finite verb
genitive possession; “of ___”
dative indirect object; “to ___,” or “for ___”
Accusative direct object
ablative “by, with, from, in ______” (often with a preposition)
vocative direct address
locative place

This chapter includes only the nominative and accusative case uses. The other cases
will be introduced in Chapters 3, 4 and 16. Sample paradigms will typically list only
the first five cases.
8b. Nominative and Accusative Case Uses
Nominative
• Subject of a finite verb (a verb with a personal ending - §5)
Agricola labōrat. The farmer works.
13
14 Introduction to Latin

Accusative
• Direct Object
Fēminam amant. They love the woman.
9. The Noun
Nouns in Latin fall into five regular groups, called declensions according to the
vowel that originally appeared at the end of the noun stem. Sound changes over time
have made this vowel disappear in many of the forms. The easiest way to identify the
declension of a noun is to look at the genitive singular case ending, which is unique
to each declension:
Declension Genitive singular Characteristic
ending vowel
1 -ae ā
2 -ī o
3 -is ī (or a consonant)
4 -ūs u
5 -ēī, eī ē

The stem carries the meaning of the noun and the case endings indicate its function in
the sentence. To find the stem of a noun, drop the genitive singular ending:
agricol -ae first declension
amīc -ī second declension
In addition to being marked for case, the endings on a noun, like the personal endings
on verbs, are also marked for number (singular or plural).
Exercise 7. Identify the declension of each noun from its genitive singular ending.
1. aquae 4. bellī 7. senātūs
2. amīcī 5. ignis 8. cōnsiliī
3. nautae 6. diēī 9. puellae
10. Gender
Latin nouns are also identified by gender (masculine, feminine or neuter). Grammatical
gender does not necessarily correspond to biological gender; it can be predicted for
some words but not for others. You will need to memorize the gender of each noun
when you learn it. Some general patterns, however, are useful to remember:
• Most first declension nouns are feminine. The common exceptions are often
remembered as the “PAIN” words, which are all masculine:
Poēta poet
Agricola farmer
Incola inhabitant
Nauta sailor
 Chapter Two 15

• Most second declension nouns with a nominative in -us or -er are masculine.
The most common exceptions are:
humus ground feminine
vulgus crowd neuter (sometimes masculine)
pelagus sea neuter
Names of trees, towns and islands (e.g., quercus “oak”) are feminine.
• Second declension nouns with a nominative in -um are neuter.
11. Dictionary Entry
The dictionary entry for a noun lists the nominative singular form, the genitive
singular form, and the gender of the noun. The genitive singular form identifies the
noun’s declension:
puella, puellae f. girl Gen. -ae =   first declension
amīcus, amīcī m. friend Gen. -ī =   second declension
rēgnum, rēgnī n. kingdom Gen. -ī =   second declension
Here are sample nouns for the first and second declensions, with the case endings
listed separately to the right.
12. First Declension
Singular Noun English meaning Endings
Nominative fēmina a woman ______s -a
Genitive fēminae of a woman -ae
Dative fēminae to/for a woman -ae
Accusative fēminam ___ ___s a woman -am
Ablative fēminā (by, with, from) a woman -ā
Plural
Nominative fēminae women______ -ae
Genitive fēminārum of women -ārum
Dative fēminīs to/for women -īs
Accusative fēminās ___ ___s women -ās
Ablative fēminīs (by, with, from) women -īs

Notice the following:

• The long -ā of the ablative singular ending distinguishes it from the
nominative singular, so it should be memorized from the outset.
• The dative and ablative plural have the same ending, -īs. In a sentence, the
context will usually make the identification of the case clear. The same is
true for the genitive and dative singular and the nominative plural endings
(-ae).
16 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 8. Identify each of the following first declension nouns by case and number.
If the ending is ambiguous, include all possibilities.
Example: nautam accusative singular
1. lūnā 4. fortūnae
2. nātūra 5. agricolārum
3. aquīs 6. puellās
Exercise 9. Following the pattern of fēmina, decline nauta and aqua in all cases,
singular and plural.
Exercise 10. Identify the case of each singular noun form. Then change each form to
plural. (Some forms will have more than one answer.)
Example: fortūnā ablative; fortūnīs
1. casam 4. aquā
2. agricola 5. nātūrae
3. pecūniae 6. puellā
13a. Second Declension: Masculine
Singular Noun Noun Endings
Nominative animus puer -us or -er
Genitive animī puerī -ī
Dative animō puerō -ō
Accusative animum puerum -um
Ablative animō puerō -ō
Plural
Nominative animī puerī -ī
Genitive animōrum puerōrum -ōrum
Dative animīs puerīs -īs
Accusative animōs puerōs -ōs
Ablative animīs puerīs -īs

Notice the following:

• As in the first declension, the dative and ablative plural have the ending -īs.
The dative and ablative singular of the second declension also have the same
ending, -ō.
• Also as in the first declension, the genitive singular and nominative plural
endings (-ī) are the same. Once again, the context will usually make the
identification of the case clear.
• Some words in -er drop the -e- from the stem in all but the nominative
singular. Compare puer, puerī with ager, agrī. The genitive singular shows
you the stem that will be used for the remaining forms.
 Chapter Two 17

13b. Second Declension: Neuter

Singular Noun Endings
Nominative rēgnum -um
Genitive rēgnī -ī
Dative rēgnō -ō
Accusative rēgnum -um
Ablative rēgnō -ō
Plural
Nominative rēgna -a
Genitive rēgnōrum -ōrum
Dative rēgnīs -īs
Accusative rēgna -a
Ablative rēgnīs -īs
Notice the following:
• In the neuter pattern, the nominative and accusative case endings are
always the same, both in the singular and the plural. Use the context of the
sentence to decide which case is being used.
• All other endings are the same as those for the masculine pattern.
Exercise 11. Given the gender indicated, identify each of the following second declension
nouns by case and number. If the ending is ambiguous, include all possibilities.
Example: dominōs accusative plural
1. amīcum (m.) 4. dōna (n.)
2. bellum (n.) 5. animī (m.)
3. locōrum (m.) 6. virīs (m.)
Exercise 12. Following the second declension patterns above, decline amīcus, ager
and bellum in all cases, singular and plural.
Exercise 13. In each of the following sentences, replace the underlined word with the
correct form of the word in parentheses; if the subject changes, make sure the verb
agrees with the new number. Write out the whole sentence.
Example: Fēmina puellās amat. (puer pl.) > Puerī puellās amant.
1. Rosās habeō. (ager pl.) 4. Puer timet. (agricola pl.)
2. Puellam vocāmus. (vir) 5. Dominus puerōs ridet. (puella pl.)
3. Vidēsne lūnam? (rēgnum) 6. Dominī consilium habent. (dōnum pl.)
Exercise 14. Identify the case of each noun and the person and number of each verb.
Remember that the nominative case marks the subject and the accusative marks the
direct object; translate each of the following sentences into English.
1. Virī clāmant. 6. Nautae clāmāre audent.
2. Agricola agrum videt. 7. Cōnsilium laudāmus.
3. Monēsne puellās? 8. Fēmina dōna optat.
4. Dōnum amīcī amant. 9. Iuvātisne dominōs?
5. Animum bellum terret. 10. Rēgna superāre dubitant.
18 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 15. Identify the function of each English noun or pronoun as Subject or
Direct Object and list the Latin case needed to express that function; ignore the article
(“the”). Identify the person and number of each English verb. Then translate into
Latin.
1. I see the gifts. 4. The woman loves the man.
2. Are the boys scaring (their) friends? 5. The sailors are accustomed to
3. We ought to help (our) friend.   working.
6. You (sg.) are afraid.
14. The Conjunction
Latin uses “coordinating” conjunctions (words like and, but, or) just as English does,
to connect words, phrases and sentences. The most important thing to notice is that
the words being connected always have the same function (e.g., 2 subjects, 2 verbs;
never a subject and a verb, or a subject and direct object):
The sailor helps and works. 2 verbs: help + work
The woman and the man hesitate. 2 subjects: woman + man
The boy shouts but the man is silent. 2 sentences: boy shouts + man is silent
As in English, conjunctions in Latin are commonly placed between the words or
phrases they connect. An exception to this is the enclitic -que, which is added to the
second item of those being connected:
puer et puella boy and girl
et puer et puella both the boy and the girl
puer puellaque boy and girl
rīdēmus clāmāmusque we are laughing and shouting
A coordinating conjunction should lead you to expect another word or phrase with
the same function as that in the first item. If two subjects are joined by a conjunction,
the verb will usually be plural:
Agricola et puer labōrant. The farmer and the boy are working.
Exercise 16. In the following sentences, identify the two items being connected and
their function; then translate the sentence into English.
Example: Puerī labōrant et clāmant. labōrant + clāmant: verbs
The boys are working and shouting.
1. Puer puellaque labōrant. 4. Timent virī et fēminae amīcōs vocant.
2. Pecūniam videt sed tacet. 5. Bellum et puerōs et puellās terret.
3. Habēmusne aquam et rosās? 6. Agricola nautaque dōna laudant.
15. Reading Latin: Using Expectations
In order to read successfully (in any language), it is necessary to have a sense of what
makes a complete sentence. In English we expect a simple statement to appear in the
order subject + verb + direct object (“the woman praises the boy”), and we become
so accustomed to this pattern that we don’t think about it as we read. Similarly, if we
see the verb “hit,” we know the sentence is not complete without a direct object (§4).
Since Latin does not use the same word order as English, it is more difficult to know
 Chapter Two 19

at first when a sentence is complete. Once you learn to notice certain clues, however,
you will find that you can predict what will come next even in a Latin sentence and
you will be able to read sentences from left to right in the Latin word order.
Chapter 1 introduced two common sentence patterns and some endings that help you
to identify verbs. This chapter has introduced endings that help you identify the case
of a noun and therefore its use in a sentence. With these tools, you should be able to
predict what to expect as you read a Latin sentence.
Intransitive:   agricola labōrat.   The farmer works.
• subject nominative case ending
• verb verb ending
Transitive:   fēmina rosam habet.   The woman has a rose.
• subject nominative case ending
• verb verb ending
• direct object accusative case ending
Because conjunctions connect items with the same function (§14), you should also
be able to predict what form is coming next when you see a phrase such as “puella et
_______” (another nominative). If you pay close attention to the endings on words
and practice the art of expecting what is likely to come next in a sentence, you will
soon find yourself reading Latin successfully.
Exercise 17. In the following sentences, use your knowledge of sentence patterns,
verb and noun endings, vocabulary, and how conjunctions work to fill in the blank
with the form needed to complete each sentence.
Example: Puer iuva___. Puer iuvat.
(Puer is nominative singular, so the verb needs a third singular ending)
1. Fēmina iace___. 6. Naut___ agricolaeque locum laudant.
2. Habetne puell___ rosās? 7. Terretne puerōs bell___ ?
3. Vir amīc___ (sg.) amat. 8. Virum vidē___ et vocāmus.
4. Dominī dōn___ (pl.) optant. 9. Amīc___ pecūniam habent.
5. Vir___ clāmant.      10. Vir labōrā____ solet.
Exercise 18. Identify the function of each word as you read it (Subject, Object, Verb,
Complementary Infinitive, Connector), then translate the following sentences.
1.Vir puerque casam vident. 7. He desires to see the gift.
2.Puella clāmat et fēmina timet. 8. The woman praises the fields.
3.Nauta iacet sed amīcus labōrat. 9. Is she laughing at the boy?
4.Vidēsne dōna?        10. They ought to see the place.
5.Cōnsilium habētis.      11. We conquer the kingdoms.
6.Agricolam iuvāre solent.    12. Both the farmer and the lord are
  calling the sailors.
20 Introduction to Latin

Narrative A
A short description of Italy before wars with neighbors and with foreigners
interrupted the peaceful life of the people:
Ītalia agrōs et agricolās habet. Nātūra aquam cibumque dat et
bellum puerōs puellāsque nōn terret. Locum virī fēminaeque
laudant. Iuvat fortūna populum!
Vocabulary:
Ītalia, Ītaliae f. Italy dō, dare to give
cibus, cibī m. food populus, populī m. the people

Chapter 2 Vocabulary

Nouns
ager, agrī m. (cultivated) field; countryside
amīcus, amīcī m. friend
animus, animī m. mind, spirit, courage; soul
bellum, bellī n. war
casa, casae f. house, hut
cōnsilium, cōnsiliī n. plan, advice
dominus, dominī m. master, lord
dōnum, dōnī n. gift, present
locus, locī m. place, position
(in pl. sometimes also neuter)
lūna, lūnae f. moon
nātūra, nātūrae f. nature
puer, puerī m. boy
puella, puellae f. girl
rēgnum, rēgnī n. kingdom, royal power
vir, virī m. man; occasionally “husband”
Verbs
audeō, audēre, ausus sum to dare
clāmō, clāmāre, clāmāvī, clāmātus to shout
dubitō, dubitāre, dubitāvī, dubitātus to hesitate, doubt
rīdeō, rīdēre, rīsī, rīsus to laugh, laugh at
soleō, solēre, solitus sum to be accustomed
Coordinating Conjunctions
et and
et ... et   both ... and
-que and
sed but
(23)
 Chapter Two 21

Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 2
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. dominate 9. audacious
2. puerile 10. donate
3. virile 11. clamorous
4. counselor 12. dubious
5. risible 13. lunar
6. amicable 14. bellicose
7. locale 15. casino
8. obsolete 16. animosity
Altar in the Forum. Pompeii, 1st c. A.D.
 CHAPTER 3
Imperative: Commands
Vocative Case: Direct Address
Genitive Case
Possession
Of the Whole (Partitive)
Dative Case
Indirect Object
Reference (Interest)
Expectations

So far you have learned the core items of a sentence: the subject (nominative case),
the verb, and the direct object (accusative case). This chapter introduces a new verb
form used to give commands and three new cases, two of which are used most often
as modifiers of these core items.
16. Imperative: Commands
In Chapter 1 you learned that Latin expresses simple statements and simple questions
by using the indicative mood (§7 A). To indicate a direct command, Latin uses a
mood called the imperative (from the Latin verb imperō, to command), which usually
appears in the second person (singular or plural) and present tense:
1st Conjugation 2nd Conjugation
2nd sg. amā (you) love! monē (you) advise!
2nd pl. amāte (you all) love! monēte (you all) advise!

Notice that
• The singular form is usually the same as the present stem, found by
dropping -re from the present active infinitive (§5).
• The plural form adds -te to the present stem.
Negative commands will be introduced in a future lesson.
Exercise 19. Identify each of the following singular verbs as indicative or imperative.
Then change each form to plural and translate.
Example: amat Indicative; amant; they love
1. rideō 4. iuvās
2. vocā 5. tacē
3. implet 6. nārrō
23
24 Introduction to Latin

17. Vocative Case: Direct Address

The vocative case in Latin is used to address a person (or thing) directly. Its form is
identical to the nominative in both the singular and the plural of all declensions, except
for the singular of 2nd declension nouns ending in -us or -ius. 2nd declension nouns in
-us use the vocative singular ending -e; those ending in -ius use the ending -ī:
1st Declension 2nd Declension
singular fēmina amīce fīlī vir
plural fēminae amīcī fīliī virī

Sometimes the vocative is preceded by ō and, in modern texts, it is often set off
from the rest of the sentence by commas. The vocative can appear in statements and
questions, but it is especially common in commands:
statement: Agricola, ō amīcī, semper labōrat. (Oh) friends, the farmer is
always working.
question: Nārrāsne, nauta, fābulam? Sailor, are you telling a story?
command: Amīce, puerīs fābulam nārrā! Friend, tell the boys a story!
Exercise 20. Identify each of the following sentences as statements or commands,
then translate.
1. Puellae cēnam parant. 4. Puer amīcōs vocā.
2. Puellae cēnam parāte. 5. Amīcus tacet.
3. Puer amīcōs vocat. 6. Amīce tacē.
18. Genitive Case
Remember that the genitive singular is the second form listed in the dictionary entry
for nouns and helps identify the declension of the noun (§11):
1st Declension 2nd Declension
Gen. sg. puellae locī
Gen. pl. puellārum locōrum

The genitive case is usually best translated “of ______” and can indicate several
different relationships between a noun and another word. Two of the most common
uses of the genitive are to show:
• Possession
liber puellae the book of the girl (the girl’s book)
animus virī the spirit of the man (the man’s spirit)
• Of the Whole (Partitive) - the genitive expresses the whole of which a part
is mentioned
turba virōrum a crowd of men
nēmō fēminārum no one of the women (none of the women)
Exercise 21. Change each genitive form to the plural, then translate the new sentence.
1. Amīcus fēminae tacet. 3. Arma virī habet.
2. Habēsne dominī librōs? 4. Templum deī vidēmus.
 Chapter Three 25

19. Dative Case

The dative singular forms have different endings in the first and second declensions,
but the dative plural forms are the same in both declensions:
1st Declension 2nd Declension
Dat. sg. puellae locō
Dat. pl. puellīs locīs

The dative case is usually best translated “to ______” or “for ______” and, like the
genitive, has a number of different uses. Two of the most common uses are to show:
• Indirect Object - the person to whom something is given, said or done
Puellae dōnum dat. He gives a gift to the girl.
(= he gives the girl a gift)
Virō fābulās nārrāmus. We tell stories to the man.
(= we tell the man stories)
Notice that, in the translations in parentheses above, a shift of English word
order replaces the word “to” before the indirect object.
• Reference (Interest) - the person to whom a statement refers or is of interest
Dominō labōrat. He is working for the master.
Puerīs dōnum habet. He has a gift for the boys.
Nautae pontus est pulcher. To a sailor (in the eyes of a
 sailor) the ocean is beautiful.
(est and pulcher will be taught in Chapter 5)
Exercise 22. Change each dative form from singular to plural, then translate the new
sentence.
1. Turba rēgnō labōrat. 4. Arma dominī puerō pārāmus.
2. Nautae fābulam nārrat. 5. Fīlius virō pecūniam dēbēre solet.
3. Habēsne puellae librōs? 6. Nēmō aquam agricolae portat.
Exercise 23. In each of the following English sentences, identify the words that Latin
would express with a genitive or dative form, and say how they are used.
Example: We give the girl the man’s book. girl = dative - indirect object
man’s = genitive - possession
1. Some of the men destroyed the house of the king.
2. Tell the king this.
3. The prince’s army is fighting for the king.
4. I will show the king part of the treasure.
20. Expectations
With the addition of the genitive and dative cases, reading Latin becomes more
complicated, and it becomes even more important to pay attention to the context of
the sentence. The first declension ending -ae can signal either a nominative plural, or
a genitive or dative singular, and the second declension ending -ī can signal either a
nominative plural or a genitive singular. However the number of the verb (singular or
26 Introduction to Latin

plural) will help you resolve these ambiguities since a nominative plural noun should
be accompanied by a plural verb.
Similarly, in the first two chapters, an accusative noun led you to expect a transitive
verb. Now, verbs with the meanings “show,” “tell,” and “give” regularly occur not only
with an accusative direct object, but also a dative indirect object:
dō I give a gift to him. (= I give him a gift.)
nārrō We tell a story to her. (= We tell her a story.)
mōnstrō They show a book to us. (= They show us a book.)
Since Latin often places the verb at the end of a sentence, the presence of both an
accusative and a dative should lead you to expect one of these verbs. Practicing the
fine art of expecting what might come next will make you a better (and faster) reader.
Exercise 24. Identify the case and use of the underlined form and then translate the
sentence.
Example: Rosās fēminae puellīs dant. fēminae = Nominative, plural, feminine
The women give roses to the girls. or
The women give the girls roses.
1. Mōnstrāsne silvam fīliīs? 5. Fēmina puellae virōque cēnam pārat.
2. Templum dīs aedificant. 6. Arma virumque laudō.
3. Turba virōrum caelum videt. 7. Agrōs agricolae laudāre solēmus.
4. Puerī, fābulam nārrāte. 8. Imperium dominī fīlium terret.
Exercise 25. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Puerī puellaeque clāmāre solent. 5. Dī turbae imperium mōnstrant.
2. Templum deārum implēte! 6. Silva virum fēminamque terret.
3. Habēsne rēgnō cōnsilium, ō Rōmule? 7. Animum virō nātūra dat.
4. Amīcōs iuvāre dēbēmus. 8. Vocāte, ō puellae, agricolās.
Exercise 26. Translate into Latin. Remember to identify the function of each English
word first and decide what Latin case and number is needed for each noun, and what
person and number is needed for each verb.
1. They are building the man’s house. 5. A man is bringing weapons for
2. The girls desire to see the forest   the farmers.
  and ocean. 6. We ought to have gifts for the women.
3. O gods, winds fill up the sky. 7. Does the ocean’s water scare
4. Are you (pl.) telling stories to   the sailors?
  the boys? 8. She hesitates to laugh.
 Chapter Three 27

Narrative B
Sometimes we learn about early wars from the accounts of poets. The war here is
fictional.
Poētae fābulās nārrant et mōnstrant animum virōrum: Advenae
ad terram Ītaliae nāvigant. Pugnāre solent et bellum portant.
Puerī puellaeque timent. Populus templum aedificat et dīs
dōna dat. Sed virī Ītaliae imperium habent et nautās superant.
Turba virōs laudat et populus gaudet.
Vocabulary:
poēta, -ae m. poet Ītalia, Ītaliae f. Italy
advena, advenae m. foreigner populus, populī m. the people
ad terram “to the land” gaudeō, gaudēre to rejoice
nāvigō, nāvigāre to sail

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
Example: Amīcus puerō librum dat. dative - indirect object of dat
A friend gives a book to the boy.
1. Mūsa, virō causās bellī memorā. (Vergil - adapted; the poet asks
the Muse to help him with his
poem)
2. Bella parat Mīnōs. (Ovid; the city of Athens is about
to be attacked)
3. Dēbēmus vidēre templa deōrum. (Sallust – adapted; urging people
to consider the simple buildings
constructed by their ancestors)

Vocabulary:
Mūsa, -ae f. Muse Mīnōs (nom.) Minos, legendary
causa, -ae f. cause, reason   king of Crete
memorō, -āre recall, tell
28 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 3 Vocabulary

Nouns
arma, armōrum n. (pl.) arms, weapons
caelum, caelī n. sky, heavens
cēna, cēnae f. dinner
dea, deae f. goddess
dat. pl. and abl. pl. = deābus
deus, deī m. god
nom. pl. = dī; dat. pl. and abl. pl. = dīs
fābula, fābulae f. story
fīlius, fīliī m. (voc. sg. = fīlī ) son
imperium, imperiī n. command, (military) power
liber, librī m. book
nēmō m. no one
acc. sg. = nēminem
pontus, pontī m. sea, ocean
Rōmulus, Rōmulī m. Romulus (legendary founder of Rome)
silva, silvae f. forest, wood
templum, templī n. temple, shrine
turba, turbae f. crowd
ventus, ventī m. wind, breeze
Verbs
aedificō, aedificāre, aedificāvī, aedificātus to build
dō, dare, dedī, datus to give
impleō, implēre, implēvī, implētus to fill, fill up; complete
mōnstrō, mōnstrāre, to show, demonstrate
mōnstrāvī, mōnstrātus
nārrō, nārrāre, nārrāvī, nārrātus to tell (a story)
parō, parāre, parāvī, parātus to prepare
portō, portāre, portāvī, portātus to carry, bring
pugnō, pugnāre, pugnāvī, pugnātus to fight
(24)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 3
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. edifice 9. celestial
2. fabulous 10. deify
3. narrative 11. ventilate
4. turbulence 12. pugnacious
5. armory 13. library
6. data 14. apparatus
7. filial 15. monstrosity
8. sylvan 16. imperious
 CHAPTER 4
The Adverb
The Preposition
Ablative Case
Means (Instrument)
Expressions of Place
Place to Which
Place Where
Place From Which
Adverbial Modification (Summary)
Word Order
Reading Skills

This chapter introduces two new parts of speech (adverb and preposition) commonly
involved in modifying the action of the verb. It also introduces the ablative case.
21. The Adverb
Adverbs give information about time, place, manner or degree, and answer questions
such as when?, where?, how?, how much?, to what extent? They usually modify verbs,
although they may also modify adjectives, other adverbs, or even a whole sentence:
They live there.
He is almost seven.
They work very quickly.
This is indeed an interesting topic.
Unlike nouns, adverbs in Latin are not declined. Many adverbs end in -ter or -ē, but
the form of others must be memorized:
fortiter bravely
hodiē today
facile easily
ibi there
tandem finally
22. The Preposition
Like adverbs, Latin prepositions are not declined. In Latin as in English, a preposition
never appears alone in a sentence. It occurs with a noun (or pronoun) called the object
of the preposition, which is either in the accusative or the ablative case. Like adverbs,
prepositional phrases give information about (e.g.) where, with whom, or why the
action of the verb occurs:
29
30 Introduction to Latin

Agricola trāns agrum ambulat. The farmer walks across the field.
Puer in casā sedet. The boy is sitting in the house.
The dictionary entry for a preposition will indicate which case it is used with, and
this case should be memorized when you learn each new preposition. Note that some
prepositions can be used with either case and will have different meanings with each
case:
in (+ abl.) in, on
in (+ acc.) into, onto, against
A preposition usually comes before its object. Chapter 2 introduced the idea of using
expectations as you read Latin (§20). Remember, when you see a preposition in Latin
it should lead you to expect a noun in either the accusative or ablative.

23. Ablative Case

The ablative singular always ends in a vowel, usually long. In the first and second
declensions the ablative plural forms are the same and are also identical to the dative
plural:
1st Declension 2nd Declension
Abl. sg. puellā locō
Abl. pl. puellīs locīs

Remember that in the first declension, the long -ā of the ablative singular ending
distinguishes it from the nominative singular, which ends in a short -a.
The ablative case has been called the “junk case” by students over the years because
it seems to have so many meanings. This is not far from the truth, since the ablative
case in Latin combines three distinct cases from an earlier language. As a result, there
is no single way to translate the ablative, although using a phrase with the English
prepositions by, with, from, in, or at will cover most of the common uses.
One important use of the ablative without a preposition is to show:
• Means (Instrument) — the thing by or with which something is done
Oculīs videō. I see with my eyes.
Armīs pugnant. They fight with weapons.
Verbīs mōnstrāmus. We show [this] by (means of ) words.
24. Expressions of Place
Latin regularly uses prepositional phrases to indicate where or in what direction an
action happens:
• Preposition with Accusative
Place to Which (Motion Towards)
Portāsne aquam ad virōs? Are you carrying water to the men?
In templum ambulat. She walks into the temple.
 Chapter Four 31

• Preposition with Ablative

Place Where
Agricola in agrō labōrat. The farmer works in the field.
Prō templīs sedent. They sit in front of the shrines.
Place from Which (Motion From)
Puella ā turbā errat. The girl wanders away from the crowd.
Puerī ē pontō festīnant. The boys hurry out of the ocean.
Notice that with either place from which or place to which, you should expect a verb
of motion in the sentence.
Exercise 27. Choose the verb that best meets the expectation raised by the
prepositional phrase, then translate the phrase.
1. in silvam A) iacet B) festīnant
2. in casā A) labōrātis B) errās
3. ab agrō A) clāmat B) ambulant
4. ad agrum A) rīdēmus B) festīnāmus
5. ex templō A) ambulō B) sedeō
Exercise 28. Identify the case and use of each of the underlined words, then translate
the sentence.
Example: Virī in agrīs pugnant. ablative - place where; object of prep. in
The men are fighting in the fields.
1. Puella, ad fēminam librum portā. 5. Ad templum deō dōna semper
2. In viā dominus iacet.   portāmus.
3. Superātisne armīs virōs? 6. Vir fēminaque ē turbā ambulant.
4. Nautae in pontō nāvigant. 7. Prō casīs fābulās nārrāre solēmus.
8. Virī prō rēgnō pugnant.
You have now learned three different Latin forms that can be translated into English
with the preposition “to.” Be careful as you read to distinguish among these very
different uses:
• laudāre to praise infinitive
• puerō to the boy dative indirect object
• ad locum to the place preposition + accusative (motion towards)
Exercise 29. For the following sentences, indicate how you would express the
underlined phrase in Latin. Do not translate the phrases.
Example: We give a gift to the girls. dative indirect object
1. They are walking to the forest. 4. He delivered your letter to us.
2. We want to learn Latin! 5. Will you come to the city?
3. She told a story to the children. 6. I ought to stay with them.
25. Adverbial Modification (Summary)
Adverbial modifiers modify a verb, adverb, or adjective (§27), but not a noun. The new
items you have just learned (adverbs, prepositional phrases, ablative of means) and the
32 Introduction to Latin

dative of reference from the last chapter (§19) function as adverbial modifiers. These
modifiers are not part of the core of a sentence. While the “core” items (subject, verb
and, sometimes, direct object) are required for a sentence to be complete, adverbial
modifiers are not required, but can be added to provide extra information about what
is going on in the sentence. It is useful to note that the following underlined modifiers
are all equivalent in function:
simple sentence (core only): The boy runs.
plus adverbial modifier (adverb): The boy runs quickly.
plus adverbial modifier (prep. phrase): The boy runs into the house.
plus adverbial modifier (abl. of means): The boy runs on his feet.
26. Word Order
Word order in Latin is much more variable than in English, which has strict word
order rules. In general, the first and last words of the sentence in Latin are the
most important, so an author may put in those places whatever words he wants to
emphasize. If no special emphasis is intended, usually the subject will appear first and
the verb last. Word order in poetry and in highly rhetorical works, however, may be
quite different from “normal” word order in a prose narrative. With these cautions,
and an extra warning not to take the following as any kind of “rule,” here is a “normal”
word order pattern for a Latin sentence in which no particular emphasis is intended:
Amīcus virī puerō in agrō aquam saepe dat.
The man’s friend often gives water to the boy in the field.
subject amīcus nominative
modifier of the subject virī genitive
indirect object puerō dative
modifier of the verb (e.g. place) in agrō prep. phrase
direct object aquam accusative
adverb saepe adverb
verb dat verb

Reading Skills
As you continue to build expectations in reading Latin, one of the best skills to practice
is that of recognizing words and phrases that naturally go together. Good readers do
not read a sentence one word at a time, but automatically group portions of text into
short, meaningful phrases. Linguists call these word groups “chunks.” The more words
we can group together into meaningful “chunks,” the faster we read. This is true in
Latin as well as English, but it takes practice. Different readers will identify chunks
of different lengths. In the sentence above, for instance, there are at least two chunks:
amīcus virī the man’s friend subject plus modifier
in agrō in the field prepositional phrase
Some readers will also see a third chunk:
saepe dat (he) often gives adverb plus verb
 Chapter Four 33

And others will automatically see the direct object with the verb in this third chunk:
aquam saepe dat (he) often gives water
Notice that puerō in agrō is not a meaningful phrase, despite the similarity of the
endings on agrō and puerō.
Exercise 30. In the following sentences, copy each chunk you see and identify its
function as in the examples above.
1. Puellīs fābulam nārrāre nōn solet.
2. Vir fēminaque ex agrō festīnant.
3. Nēmō puerōrum in silvam ambulāre audet.
4. Pontum et caelum oculīs facile vidēmus.
5. Vidētisne saepe lūnam in caelō?
Exercise 31. Identify the sentence pattern(s) in each of the following sentences and
then translate each of the following.
1. In saxō post casam, ō puerī, sedēte. 5. Turbae viam monstrā.
2. Ventus aquaque caelum implent. 6. Dāsne amīcīs Rōmulōque cōnsilia?
3. Agricola trāns agrum tandem festīnat. 7. Nēmō saxa ē silvā portat.
4. Fēmina puerōs ad cēnam vocat et 8. Dominus virōs verbīs facile terret,
  in casam festīnant.   sed amīcī rīdent.
Exercise 32. Translate into Latin.
1. A stone is lying in the road. 5. We often praise the achievements of the sailors.
2. Do the sons desire to see the money? 6. They give the crowd of men weapons.
3. Fight on behalf of (your) friends! 7. The gods always fill the sky with winds.
4. The farmer is finally building a 8. Boys and men hurry out of the crowd
  house for his friend.   and toward the temple of the goddess.

Reading 1 (adapted)
The early Latin poet Ennius (239-169 B.C.) tells how the god Neptune got his
domain from Jupiter:
Iuppiter Neptūnō imperium dat
   pontī et Neptūnus īnsulās et loca prope pontum rēgnat.
Vocabulary:
īnsula, īnsulae f. island pontī – this use of the gen. at §30
Iuppiter (nom.) Jupiter (a god) prope (+ acc.) near
Neptūnus, -ī m. Neptune (a god) rēgnō, rēgnāre to rule over
34 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined word, then translate.
Example: Turba virōrum in viā errat. genitive - partitive (of the whole)
A crowd of men wanders in the road.
1. In oculīs animus habitat. (Pliny the Elder)
2. In terrīs imperium Caelum habet. (Ennius – adapted; talking about
the order of the universe)
3. Neptūnus ventīs implet vēla. (Vergil – adapted; Neptune helps
the Trojans on their sea voyage)

Vocabulary:
habitō, habitāre to live vēlum, vēlī n. sail
terra, terrae f. land, earth

Chapter 4 Vocabulary

Nouns
factum, factī n. deed, act, exploit, achievement
oculus, oculī m. eye
saxum, saxī n. rock, stone; cliff
verbum, verbī n. word
via, viae f. road; way
Verbs
ambulō, ambulāre, ambulāvī, to walk
ambulātūrus
errō, errāre, errāvī, errātus to wander; err
festīnō, festīnāre, festīnāvī, festīnātus to hurry, hasten
nāvigō, nāvigāre, nāvigāvī, nāvigātus to sail, sail over (across), navigate
sedeō, sedēre, sēdī, sessūrus to sit
Adverbs
facile easily
nōn not
saepe often
semper always
tandem finally
tum then, at that time; next
 Chapter Four 35

Prepositions
ā, ab (+ abl.) away from
ad (+ acc.) to, toward
ē, ex (+ abl.) out of, from
in (+ abl.) in, on
in (+ acc.) into, onto, against
post (+ acc) behind; after
prō (+ abl.) in front of; on behalf of; instead of
trāns (+ acc.) across, beyond
(23)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 4
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. verbose 6. perambulate
2. erratic 7. transport
3. sedentary 8. postscript
4. binoculars 9. viaduct
5. absent 10. sempiternal
 CHAPTER 5
The Adjective: First and Second Declensions
Agreement
Substantive Use
More Uses of the Genitive
Explanatory
Objective
Subjective
Adjectival Modification (Summary)
Sum: Present Indicative and Infinitive
Sentence Pattern: Linking
More Uses of the Ablative
Accompaniment
Manner

So far, you have learned about the core of a sentence (§3, 4) and adverbial modifiers
(§25). This chapter introduces a new part of speech (adjective) that modifies nouns. It also
introduces a new sentence pattern and additional uses of the genitive and ablative cases.
27. The Adjective: First and Second Declensions
Adjectives in Latin look like nouns and use most of the same endings. Unlike nouns,
which have only one gender, adjectives have masculine, feminine and neuter forms.
The dictionary entry for an adjective lists the nominative singular form of each gender:
bonus, bona, bonum. Adjectives fall into two groups; one uses the endings of the first
and second declensions, and the other uses endings of the third declension. There are
no fourth or fifth declension adjectives.
This chapter introduces adjectives of the first and second declensions, which follow
the patterns for nouns that you have already seen (§12, 13). Adjectives of the third
declension will be introduced in Chapter 10.

37
38 Introduction to Latin

Here is a sample adjective of the first and second declension:

bonus, bona, bonum good
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative bonus bona bonum
Genitive bonī bonae bonī
Dative bonō bonae bonō
Accusative bonum bonam bonum
Ablative bonō bonā bonō
Plural
Nominative bonī bonae bona
Genitive bonōrum bonārum bonōrum
Dative bonīs bonīs bonīs
Accusative bonōs bonās bona
Ablative bonīs bonīs bonīs

Some adjectives follow the pattern of puer (§13):

līber lībera līberum
līberī līberae līberī
etc.
Some follow the pattern of ager (§13):
noster nostra nostrum
nostrī nostrae nostrī
etc.
Note that the stem of these adjectives can be determined by dropping the nominative
feminine or neuter singular ending:
līber (a) līber (um)
nostr (a) nostr (um)
Exercise 33. Given the dictionary entries below, identify each of the following forms
by part of speech (adjective or noun), case, number and gender. If the ending is
ambiguous, include all possibilities.
altus, alta, altum pontus, pontī m.
imperium, imperiī n. pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum
parvus, parva, parvum rosa, rosae f.
 Chapter Five 39

Item Part of Speech Case Number Gender

Example:
rosam noun accusative singular feminine
parvōrum adjective genitive plural masc. or neuter
1. pontōs
2. parvō
3. pontī
4. rosīs
5. altīs
6. pulchrā
7. imperia
8. altum

28. Agreement
Adjectives agree with the nouns they modify in case, number and gender. This does
not mean that they belong to the same declension or that their endings always look
the same:
pulchra puella (nominative, singular, feminine) beautiful girl
pulcher amīcus (nominative, singular, masculine) handsome friend
bonum agricolam (accusative, singular, masculine) good farmer
malus vir (nominative, singular, masculine) evil man
For a while you will only see first and second declension nouns and adjectives.
Beginning in Chapter 7 you will begin to see combinations of nouns and adjectives
from different declensions.
When one adjective modifies two or more nouns of different genders, it often agrees
with the nearest noun.
ager et casa tua your field and house
See also §33 below for adjectives in the “predicate position.”
Because Latin uses agreement in case, number and gender to indicate what noun an
adjective modifies, the adjective and noun do not have to appear next to each other, or
in a particular order, as they usually do in English. This is especially true in poetry, but
you should expect that a noun and its adjective may be separated in any text that you
are reading. Often an adjective will precede the word it modifies and help to resolve
the form of that word if it is otherwise ambiguous.
Exercise 34. Identify each of the following nouns by case, number and gender, then
say which adjective(s) could modify the noun listed with them. Be prepared to say
why the others could not modify the noun.
40 Introduction to Latin

Example: pontus: alta, magnus, pulcher, parvī

pontus (nom. sg. m.) magnus, pulcher (also nom. sg. m.)
(alta is not m., parvī can be nom. m., but not sg., or m. sg., but not nom.)
1. vir: magnus malum pulcher bonī
2. puellā: parva pulchrā tuās līberā
3. pontōs: altus parvās multōs pulchrum
4. rēgnīs: tuī aegrā meās pulchrīs
5. locō: altā magnus parvō bonōs
6. dōnum: pulchrum parvus meum magnōrum
7. nauta: bona bonus līber malae
8. nātūra: bona prīmus dīvīnā tua
Exercise 35. Translate each of the following noun-adjective pairs into the Latin case
indicated.
1. good sailor (nom.) 4. beautiful roses (acc.)
2. large gifts (acc.) 5. bad fortune (dat.)
3. small field (nom.) 6. our places (nom.)
29. Substantive Use
In Latin, as in English, an adjective can be used without an accompanying noun (this
is called the “substantive” use), as in the following:
the land of the free and the home of the brave
In this use, the adjective functions as a noun, and the meaning is understood from
the context (the land of the free people...). In Latin, the gender and number of the
adjective give you extra help at filling in the missing noun. If the adjective has a
masculine ending, it usually indicates men (or people in general); if it is feminine,
women; if neuter, things:
bonus a good man
bonī (nom. pl.) good men; good people
aegra (nom. sg.) sick woman
magnum (neuter) large thing
mala (nom. pl.) bad things
Exercise 36. Translate the underlined word or phrase in the context of the sentence
given.
1. Multa vidēmus. 4. Do you like beautiful things?
2. Altum nāvigant. 5. The free man is not afraid.
3. Malī puellae aquam nōn dant. 6. We help the good women.
30. More Uses of the Genitive
In Chapter 3 you learned that the genitive case can indicate possession or the whole
of which a part is mentioned (§18). The genitive can also indicate other relationships
between two nouns, although it may still be translated into English with “of .”
Here are three common uses:
 Chapter Five 41

• Explanatory — the genitive explains more about the noun

deus pontī god of the sea
• Objective — the genitive would be the object if the other noun were a verb
imperium pontī command of the sea (he commands the sea)
• Subjective — the genitive would be the subject if the other noun were a verb
cōnsilium turbae the advice of the crowd (the crowd advises)
Without context, it can sometimes be hard to distinguish between the objective
and subjective uses: “fear of the enemy” could mean either someone fears the enemy
(objective) or the enemy fears someone or thing (subjective).
31. Adjectival Modification (Summary)
Adjectival modifiers modify nouns. The adjective and the uses of the Genitive case that
you have learned so far function as adjectival modifiers. Like adverbial modifiers, they
are not part of the sentence core and, thus, are not required elements in a sentence.
Adjectival modifiers provide extra information about a noun in the sentence. It is
useful to note that the following underlined modifiers are equivalent in function:
simple sentence (core only): The boy sees the temple.
plus adjectival modifier (adjective): The boy sees the large temple.
plus adjectival modifier (genitive): The boy sees the temple of the gods.
plus adjectival modifier (genitive): The boy sees a crowd of people.
32. Sum: Present Indicative and Infinitive
In Latin, as in most languages, the verb to be is irregular and must be memorized. Here
is the present indicative of sum:
1st sg. sum I am
2nd sg. es you are
3rd sg. est he, she, it, there is
1st pl. sumus we are
2nd pl. estis you (all) are
3rd pl. sunt they, there are
Infinitive esse to be

33. Sentence Pattern: Linking

So far you have had two regular sentence patterns (§4):
1) Intransitive Agricola labōrat. The farmer works.
• subject
• verb
42 Introduction to Latin

2) Transitive Fēmina rosam habet. The woman has a rose.

• subject
• verb
• direct object - in the accusative
A third common pattern is called linking. In this pattern the verb functions like an
equal sign, linking the subject to an adjective or noun that describes the subject: the
man is (=) good. The adjective or noun that completes the picture of the subject is
commonly called the subject complement. Since the subject of a finite verb is always
nominative, the subject complement is also nominative: vir est bonus. = The man is
good. Here are the elements of this sentence pattern:
3) Linking
• subject
• linking verb
• subject complement (= predicate nominative)
Future chapters will introduce other verbs that can occur in a linking pattern, but
sum is one of the most common. Note that sum may occur in both a linking and an
intransitive pattern:
Linking: Virī sunt līberī. The men are free.
Virī sunt. They are men.
Intransitive: Sum. I am.
Sunt virī. Men exist. (or) There are men.
When this verb appears as the first word in the sentence, it is frequently a signal of the
intransitive pattern: there is, there are. Sometimes, as in the second and fourth examples (virī
sunt / sunt virī), you will need to use the context of the sentence to decide the meaning.
When an adjective in the subject complement or “predicate” modifies multiple nouns of
different genders, it is regularly plural and, if the nouns refer to people, it is usually masculine:
Vir et fēmina sunt bonī. The man and woman are good.
34. More Uses of the Ablative
In Chapter 4 you learned that the ablative case could be used without a preposition
to indicate the means or instrument by which something is done (§23), and with a
preposition to indicate place where or place from which (§24). With the preposition
cum the ablative can indicate two different things, depending whether the noun is
animate (a person) or inanimate (not a person):
• Accompaniment — the person/people with whom something is done
Cum amīcīs labōrat. She works with her friends.
• Manner — the way in which something is done
Cum cūrā labōrat. She works with care.
When the noun is modified by an adjective in an ablative of manner, the adjective
regularly comes first and the preposition may be omitted. If it is included, it often
appears between the two words:
 Chapter Five 43

Magnā cum cūrā labōrat. She works with great care.

These uses of the ablative, like the earlier ones, function as Adverbial Modifiers.
Exercise 37. Fill in the blank(s) with the form(s) needed to complete each sentence.
Remember to use your knowledge of sentence patterns, noun and verb endings,
chunks (§26) etc. to help you know what to expect (§15, 20).
1. Fīliī ad silv festīnant.
2. Nautae cum amīc nāvig solent.
3. Me liber nōn magn est.
4. Esne bon ?
5. Agricola magn sapienti habet.
6. Nēmō vir saxum iact audet.
7. Amīce, animum hab !
8. Puerī puellaeque parv sunt.
Exercise 38. Identify the sentence pattern(s) in each of the following sentences and
then translate.
1. Multī in nostrā terrā multa nōn habent.
2. Pontus magnus aquā viās silvāsque implet.
3. Bonus tacet sed malus saepe clāmat.
4. Facta bonōrum virōrum sunt bona.
5. Dominus virōs puerōsque ad bellum vocāre parat.
6. Sunt in meīs agrīs bonī agricolae.
7. Aegrae prō templō sedēre solent.
8. Fēmina multōs amīcōs nautae iuvat.
9. Iactāsne post casam tuās rosās?
10. Pontus est altus.
Exercise 39. Translate into Latin.
1. There are many gods of the winds.
2. I do not hesitate to wander in the forest.
3. No one wishes to set [use a form of dō] a bad example.
4. He is hurrying to the divine temple of the gods.
5. The man’s kingdom lies across the sea.
6. He finally gives the girl beautiful gifts.
7. They are preparing a plan with great care.
8. The men often work in the field with (their) sons.
9. The rose is beautiful.
10. Girls, call the farmers out of the fields.
In the Readings and Practice Sentences from now on, try to guess the meanings of the
words in bold before looking for them in the accompanying vocabulary.
44 Introduction to Latin

Reading 2 (adapted)
Ennius describes a calm crossing from Italy to Africa.
Mundus caelī vastus tacet
   et Neptūnus saevus undīs asperīs pausam dat.
Vocabulary:
mundus, -ī m. universe, unda, -ae f. wave
  firmament asper, -a, -um rough
vastus, -a, -um vast, huge pausa, -ae f. rest, pause
saevus, -a, -um savage

Reading 3 (adapted) (practice guessing words in bold)

Lucius Annaeus Florus (c. 120 A.D.) wrote an abridged version of Roman history,
from the founding of Rome to the time of Augustus. The following passage is
adapted from the beginning of his account. The story begins with Romulus and
Remus, twin sons of a priestess, Rhea Silvia, and the Roman god, Mars. These
twins were born during the reign of Amulius.
Note: The Romans did not use capital letters to signal the beginning of a
sentence, and some modern Latin texts also follow this practice. Some of the
narrative readings in this book will only use capitals for proper names and the
beginning of paragraphs and some quotations.
Prīmus et Rōmae et imperiī conditor Rōmulus est, fīlius
deī, Martis, et Rhēae Silviae. Rōmulum cum Remō frātre in
Tiberīnum rēx, Amulius, iactat. sed īnfantēs clāmant et lupa
puerōs iuvat. tum sub arbore Faustulus pāstor parvōs puerōs
videt et portat īnfantēs in casam et puerōs ēducat.
Vocabulary:
Rōma, -ae f. Rome rēx (nom.) king
conditor (nom.) founder īnfantēs (nom. pl.) infants
Martis (gen.) Mars (a god) lupa, -ae f. she-wolf
Rhea Silvia, -ae f. Rhea Silvia pāstor (nom.) shepherd
  (a priestess) arbore (abl.) tree
Remus, -ī m. Remus ēducō, -āre to bring
frātre (abl.) brother   up, rear
Tiberīnus, -ī m. Tiber
  (river in Rome)
 Chapter Five 45

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Nēmō ad altum ambulat locum sī timet. (Publilius Syrus - adapted)
2. Sī virum multī timent, multōs timēre (Publilius Syrus - adapted)
dēbet.
3. Nec vīta nec fortūna propria est virīs. (Publilius Syrus - adapted)
4. Fortūna caeca est. (Cicero)
5. Cogitō cum meō animō. (Plautus)
6. Hīc dea silvārum solet nāre. (Ovid – adapted; describing the
goddess, Diana)

Vocabulary:
sī if caecus, -a, -um blind
nec ... nec neither ... nor cogitō, -āre to think,
vīta, -ae f. life  ponder
proprius, -a, -um one’s own; hīc (adv.) here
  permanent nō, nāre to bathe

Chapter 5 Vocabulary

Nouns
cūra, cūrae f. care, anxiety
exemplum, exemplī n. example, model
sapientia, sapientiae f. wisdom
silva, silvae f. forest, wood
terra, terrae f. land, earth, soil; country
Verbs
iactō, iactāre, iactāvī, iactātus to throw
sum, esse, fuī, futūrus to be, exist
Adjectives
aeger, aegra, aegrum sick, weak
altus, alta, altum high, deep
bonus, bona, bonum good
dīvīnus, dīvīna, dīvīnum divine, of the gods; prophetic
līber, lībera, līberum free
longus, longa, longum long
magnus, magna, magnum large, great
malus, mala, malum bad
meus, mea, meum my, mine
multus, multa, multum much; many (pl.)
noster, nostra, nostrum our, ours
parvus, parva, parvum small
46 Introduction to Latin

prīmus, prīma, prīmum first

pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum beautiful, handsome; fine
tuus, tua, tuum your, yours, your own (sg.)
vester, vestra, vestrum your, yours (pl.)
Prepositions
cum (+ abl.) with
sub (+ abl.) under, beneath
sub (+ acc.) to the foot/base of, along under
 (implying motion)
(23)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 5
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. liberate 7. primordial
2. eject 8. multitude
3. malice 9. essential
4. altimeter 10. submarine
5. curator 11. territory
6. magnificent 12. pulchritude

Troy and the Aegean

 READING CHAPTER I
Narrative Reading I: Fall of Troy
Dictionary Practice / Form Identification
Review of the Sentence and its Parts
Question Words for Extra Practice
Word Derivations
English Abbreviations

The first five chapters have introduced you to the basics of Latin verbs, nouns, adjectives,
prepositions and conjunctions. This chapter and the reading chapters that occur
periodically throughout the book will include review material for extra practice.

Narrative Reading I: Fall of Troy (practice guessing words in bold)

This passage describes how the Trojan War came to an end after ten years of
fighting between the Greeks and Trojans.
Graecī et Trōiānī bellum longum pugnant. tandem aliī
Graecōrum ad īnsulam Tenedum nāvigant et aliī in ligneō
equō latent. ignārī dolī Trōiānī in Trōiam equum portant. laetī
sunt et multa convīvia multō cum vīnō parant. tum somnus
Trōiānōs habet. Graecī ab īnsulā ad terram Trōiae nāvigant;
amīcī ex equō festīnant et portās Trōiae reserant. ūnus Trōiānus
ex somnō aliōs excitat, “ō amīcī, ad arma festīnāte!” sed Graecī
Trōiānōs dolō armīsque superant.
Vocabulary:
Graecus, -a, -um Greek dolus, -ī m. trick, deceit
Trōiānus, -a, -um Trojan Trōia, -ae f. Troy
longus, -a, -um long laetus, -a, -um happy
aliī ... aliī some ... others convīvium, -ī n. feast
alius, -a, -um   other vīnum, -ī n. wine
īnsula, -ae f. island (Tenedos) somnus, -ī m. sleep
ligneus, -a, -um wooden, of wood porta, -ae f. gate
equus, -ī m. horse reserō, -āre to open,
lateō, -ēre to lie hidden   unlock
ignārus, -a, -um unaware of, not ūnus, -a, -um one
(+ gen.)   knowing excitō, -āre wake up, rouse
* See map of Troy and the Aegean. 47
48 Introduction to Latin

Dictionary Practice/Form Identification

Identify the words below based on the dictionary entries given. Be sure to indicate the
entry from which each is taken, and the part of speech and to give all possibilities for
ambiguous forms.
For nouns and adjectives: give case, number, and gender
For verbs: give person, number and mood (Indicative)
*all verb forms so far are Present and Active
A. doleō, dolēre, doluī: to grieve, suffer pain
B. dolō, dolāre, dolāvī, dolātus: to chop with an ax
C. dolus, dolī m.: trick, device
D. dolōsus, dolōsa, dolōsum: crafty, deceitful
Entry Part of Speech Form ID
1. dolat B verb third person singular indicative
2. dolent
3. dolīs
4. dolōsārum
5. dolōs
6. dolātis
7. dolēs
8. dolōsum
9. dolō
10. dolāmus

Review of the Sentence and its Parts

One way to review old material, and to place new material in the context of what
has already been introduced, is to organize the information graphically. Here is one
example of how you could map out the parts of a sentence covered so far:

Sentence

Core Modifiers Connectors

Adjectival Adverbial Coordinating

• Subject • adjective • adverbs • and (et, -que)

• Verb • genitives • prep. phrases • but (sed)
• Direct Object • dative of reference
• Subject Complement • ablatives

Question Words for Extra Practice

In Chapters 1-5 you have seen “yes-no” questions signalled by the placement of -ne at
the end of the first word in the sentence. Later in the book you will learn the details
 Reading Chapter I 49

of how Latin asks other questions but, for now, learning a few “question words” will
allow you to study and review in a very useful way, and to work orally if you want.
Here are some basic question words/phrases:
Quis (sg.)/Quī (pl.) who? asks for an animate subject
Quem (sg.)/Quōs (pl.) whom? asks for an animate direct object
Quid (sg.) what? asks for an inanimate subject or direct object
Ubi where?
Unde from where?
Quō to where?
Quōcum with whom?
Quō modō in what manner?
A) Underline any answer that makes sense for each of the following questions.
1. Quis in agrō labōrat? saepe puerum agricola ā casā
2. Quem dominus laudat? puer virum puellās locum
3. Quō fīliī festīnant? in silvam in viā ad templum ab agrō
4. Quōcum ambulāmus? cum cūrā facile prō fēminā cum amīcīs
5. Quid puerōs terret? bellum pontus dominus trāns aquam
6. Quō modō labōrant? facile in agrō cum cūrā longī
B) Based on the narrative reading at the beginning of this chapter, answer the
following questions in Latin.
1. Quī pugnant? 6. Quid Trōiānōs habet?
2. Quō aliī Graecōrum nāvigant? 7. Unde Graecī nāvigant?
3. Ubi aliī Graecōrum latent? 8. Unde amīcī festīnant?
4. Quid Trōiānī in Trōiam portant? 9. Quis clāmat, “ad arma festīnāte!”?
5. Quī laetī sunt? 10. Quōs Graecī superant?
These kinds of questions can be used for any of the readings and many of the sentences
in each chapter.

Word Derivations
Each Chapter Vocabulary has included a Derivatives exercise asking you to look at
English words and connect them with the new Latin vocabulary in that chapter.
Another way to build your knowledge of Latin (and English) vocabulary is to look at
Latin words and stems and see if you can collect English words that are derived from
them. For each of the following Latin words, write down as many English derivatives
as you can.
Example: fortūna: fortune, fortunate, unfortunate (etc.)
1. ab 7. imperium
2. ager 8. magnus
3. ambulō 9. nauta
4. clāmō 10. taceō
5. dominus 11. terreō
6. errō 12. vocō
50 Introduction to Latin

English Abbreviations
Many common abbreviations in English come from Latin words. Note the following
(n.b.):
• cp. comparā compare
• et al. et aliī and others
• etc. et cetera and the rest
• n.b. notā bene note well
• pro prō in favor (of )
 CHAPTER 6
Imperfect Active Indicative: First and Second Conjugations
Future Active Indicative: First and Second Conjugations
Sum: Imperfect and Future Indicative
The Gap
Infinitive Use: As a Noun
Dative of Possession

Chapter 1 introduced the present tense of first and second conjugation verbs and
showed how finite verbs in Latin have a set of personal endings that are added to the
stem of the verb. In the Latin system, the stem carries the meaning of the verb, and the
endings carry information about the subject. This chapter introduces two new tenses
that indicate action in the past and in the future. These tenses are marked by a tense
sign, which appears between the verb stem and the personal ending. It also introduces
a new use of the infinitive and a use of the dative with the verb to be.
35. Imperfect Active Indicative: First and Second Conjugations
The imperfect is one of three past tenses in Latin and is easily recognized by the tense
sign -bā- between the verb stem and the personal endings:
1st Conjugation 2nd Conjugation
1st sg. amābam I was loving, etc. monēbam I was advising, etc.
2nd sg. amābās You were loving monēbās You were advising
3rd sg. amābat He/she was loving monēbat He/she was advising
1st pl. amābāmus We were loving monēbāmus We were advising
2nd pl. amābātis You (all) were loving monēbātis You (all) were advising
3rd pl. amābant They were loving monēbant They were advising

Notice that:
• The personal endings are the same as those used in the present tense (§5)
except for the first person singular where -m replaces -ō.
• A long vowel (here in -bā-) shortens before final -m, -t, -nt. This is a general
rule, which you have already seen in the present tense (§5 - notice the third
person singular and plural forms of amō and moneō) and will see again in
other verb forms.
The imperfect tense in Latin usually indicates an action going on in the past but not
completed. It can be translated into English in a variety of ways, depending on the
context of the sentence:
51
52 Introduction to Latin

Continuous action he was advising or he kept advising

Repeated or Habitual action he used to advise or he advised every year
Attempted action he tried to advise
Beginning of an action he began to advise
36. Future Active Indicative: First and Second Conjugations
The future of first and second conjugation verbs can be recognized by the tense sign
-bi- between the verb stem and the personal endings:
1st Conjugation 2nd Conjugation
1st sg. amābō I shall love monēbō I shall advise
2nd sg. amābis You will love monēbis You will advise
3rd sg. amābit He/she will love monēbit He/she will mix
1st pl. amābimus We shall love monēbimus We shall advise
2nd pl. amābitis You (all) will love monēbitis You (all) will advise
3rd pl. amābunt They will love monēbunt They will advise

Again, the personal endings are the same as those used in the present tense. Notice
two points here:
• In the first person singular, the ending -bō is contracted from -biō.
• In the third person plural, -bu- replaces -bi-.
Exercise 40. Using the stem meanings given below, translate each of the following
into English. Then, paying attention to the stem vowel in each form, see if you can
write the first two principal parts as they would appear in the dictionary for each verb.
Example: errant (wander) “they wander”; errō, errāre
1. explōrābās (investigate) 6. praebēbant (offer)
2. pārēbō (obey) 7. exspectābit (wait for)
3. intrābunt (enter) 8. sustinēbam (support)
4. turbāmus (disturb) 9. favēbat (support)
5. miscēbis (mix) 10. mūtābātis (change)
Exercise 41. Identify each of the following forms by person, number, tense (present,
imperfect or future) and mood (indicative or imperative), then translate into English.
Example: amābant third person, plural, imperfect, indicative;
“they used to love”
1. iactābit 6. tenēbam
2. iacēbat 7. pugnāte
3. superābimus 8. nūntiātis
4. movēbō 9. sedē
5. errā 10. manēbunt
37. Sum: Imperfect and Future Indicative
Like the present tense of sum (§32), the imperfect and future tenses are irregular and
must be memorized. These forms, like the present tense forms, will be used to form
other tenses of regular verbs, so you will see them frequently as you read Latin.
 Chapter Six 53

Imperfect Future
1st sg. eram I was, used to be, etc. erō I shall be
2nd sg. erās You were eris You will be
3rd sg. erat He, she, it, there was erit He, she, it, there will be
1st pl. erāmus We were erimus We shall be
2nd pl. erātis You (all) were eritis You (all) will be
3rd pl. erant They, there were erunt They, there will be

Notice that
• The endings for each tense are regular.
• The imperfect has era- (erā-) throughout.
• The future has eri- throughout except in the first singular and third plural
forms.
Remember that the imperfect tense can be translated into English in a variety of ways,
depending on the context of the sentence (§35):
Continuous action he was or he kept being
Repeated or Habitual action he used to be or he (always) was
Attempted action he tried to be
Beginning of an action he began to be
Exercise 42. Translate each of the verbs into the correct Latin form of sum. Do not
translate the whole sentence.
Example: She is good. est
1. The man was unhappy. 5. You (pl.) are free men.
2. Will they be our friends? 6. The queen will be angry.
3. We are in the house. 7. Were they being bad?
4. I used to be sick. 8. I will be brave.
38. The Gap
Latin can leave out (“gap”) words in a sentence that are expected. This is especially
common when a coordinating conjunction (§14) is present, but can occur without a
conjunction too. When a gap is present it is important to pay close attention to the
case of each word and to make use of your skill at expecting what should be present in
the sentence. In Latin identical subjects, verbs or direct objects can be gapped in either
the first or second coordinate clause; in the example below, laudat (verb) is gapped in
the first clause, and virum (direct object) is gapped in the second:
Puer virum sed nōn puella laudat. The boy praises the man, but the girl does not.
  or The boy praises the man, but the girl
  does not praise the man.
Rules for gapping in English are more strict than those for Latin, so care must be taken
if you are translating. Note that the boy praises the man, but not the girl would have
been an ambiguous translation of the above sentence. Why?
54 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 43. Translate each of the following sentences in which one or more items are
gapped. Be ready to identify the function of the gapped word(s).
Example: Nauta ventōs nōn aquam timet. A sailor fears winds, not water.
A sailor fears winds, (he does) not
  (fear) water.
timet - verb is gapped in 1st Latin clause
1. Rosās optāmus, bellum nōn. 3. Agricola agrum, nauta pontum amat.
2. Dōna ad templum portābāmus 4. Via ad pontum bona sed longa est.
  et rēgīna dīs dabit.
39. Infinitive Use: As a Noun
The infinitive in Latin, just as in English, is a verbal noun, which retains properties of
both verbs and nouns. When used as a complementary infinitive (§7b), it functions
to complete the meaning of another verb. When used as a noun, the infinitive is
considered neuter and singular, but retains its ability to govern an object and is
modified by an adverb (not an adjective). This use of the infinitive is particularly
common as the subject or subject complement of sum and with certain impersonal
verbs.
Amāre est bonum. To love is good; Loving is a good thing.
Vidēre loca bella iuvat. To see beautiful places is pleasing; Seeing beautiful
places is pleasing; It is pleasing to see
beautiful places.
Note that in both examples, the Latin infinitive can be translated with either an
infinitive or a gerund (loving, seeing).
Exercise 44. Translate the sentences below into Latin.
1. To be afraid is not good. 3. To sail will be strange for the girls.
2. Laughing pleases the boys. 4. Owing money is bad.

40. Dative of Possession

In Chapter 3 you learned two common uses of the dative case (§19): to show the
indirect object and for more general reference. Another common use is the dative with
a form of sum to show possession:
• Possession - the person who possesses
Virō est liber. The man has a book.
(the book belongs to the man)
Puerīs pecūnia erat. The boys used to have money.
In expressing possession, the Dative with sum emphasizes the fact of possession, while
the Genitive signals the possessor as a subordinate point in the sentence.
Does the man have a book? Virō est liber. The man has a book.
Whose book is it? Virī est liber. The book is the man’s.
 Chapter Six 55

Exercise 45. Using the Dative of Possession, translate the sentences below into Latin.
1. The master has fame. 3. The unhappy crowd does not have courage.
2. The sailors used to have money. 4. The good men will have wisdom.
Exercise 46. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Templum novum sine exemplō aedificāre malum erit.
2. Nunc caelum pulchrum est et lūna magna.
3. Dē viā in silvam turba multa saxa movēbat.
4. Fīliō vestrō multī amīcī erunt.
5. Vir bonam vītam habēre solēbit?
6. Fīlia mea rēgīnae dōna pulchra dabat.
7. Puer agricolam aquam saepe ōrābat.
8. Manēbisne, fīlī, in silvīs cum amīcīs tuīs?
9. Terra laeta est sed propter bellum agricolae labōrāre nōn optant.
10. In casā fēminae puellaeque cēnam parābunt et amīcīs multās fābulās nārrābunt.
Exercise 47. Translate into Latin.
1. Friends, your house is small, but beautiful.
2. The daughter used to have a good reputation. [use sum]
3. The girls kept throwing rocks without a care.
4. The master’s son used to give money to men in front of the temple.
5. We will praise the Romans, for their fame is great.
6. Will the sick women be happy after the war?
7. Report the new rumor to the sailors now.
8. For a long time, the queen did not desire to give her kingdom to her son.
9. They will beg the gods for great wisdom and a long life.
10. Boys and girls, be quiet and I will tell the people a strange story.
56 Introduction to Latin

Reading 4 (loosely modeled) (practice guessing words in bold)

Florus continues the story of Romulus and Remus (review Reading 3). Usually the
eldest brother was king, but since these brothers were twins, they asked the gods for
help in deciding who should rule.
Rōmulus et Remus nunc virī erant. Alba tunc erat Latiō caput
et Amulius rēgnābat. sed Rōmulus urbem novam aedificāre
optābat et rēgnāre. Rōmulus et Remus deōs cōnsilium
ōrābant; geminī enim erant. dī ōrāculum dabant: vulturiōs
exspectāte! Remus prīmus paucōs vulturiōs, tum Rōmulus
multōs vulturiōs vidēbat. Rōmulus igitur geminum superābat
et Remus miser erat. Rōmulus moenia aedificābat sed propter
magnitūdinem parvam Remus rīdēbat et facile trāns moenia
ambulābat. Rōmulus magnā cum īrā clāmābat et geminum
necābat.
Vocabulary:
Remus, -ī m. Remus ōrāculum, -ī n. oracle
Alba, -ae, f. Alba (a city) exspectō, -āre watch for
Latium, -iī, n. Latium (an area vulturius, -ī, m. vulture
  of Italy) paucī, -ae, -a (pl.) few
caput (nom.) “chief city” igitur (adv.) so, therefore
Amulius, -iī m. Amulius (a king) moenia (acc. pl.) (city) walls
rēgnō, -āre to rule, be king magnitūdinem (acc. f.) size
urbem (acc. f.) city necō, -āre to kill
geminus, -a, -um twin
 Chapter Six 57

Practice Sentences (practice guessing words in bold)

Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Errāre est hūmānum. (attributed to St. Jerome)
2. Sum pius Aenēās et fāma super (Vergil - adapted; the hero,
caelum est. Aeneas, introduces himself)
3. Avāritia enim sine poenā nōn est. (Seneca - adapted)
4. Animīs deōrum tanta īra est? (Vergil - adapted; the poet wonders
at the anger of the goddess Juno)
5. Magnam pecūniam dēbēbat. (Sallust – adapted; describing
Caesar, whose generosity leads to
difficulties for him)
6. Dolēre malum est. (Cicero)

Vocabulary:
hūmānus, -a, -um human avāritia, -ae f. greed, avarice
pius, -a, -um pious poena, -ae f. penalty,
Aenēās (nom. sg.) Aeneas (a Trojan   punishment
  hero) tantus, -a, -um such great

Chapter 6 Vocabulary

Nouns
fāma, fāmae f. fame, report, reputation; rumor
fīlia, fīliae f. daughter
dat. pl. and abl. pl. = fīliābus
īra, īrae f. anger
Ītalia, Ītaliae f. Italy
populus, populī m. the people, a people, nation
rēgīna, rēgīnae f. queen
vīta, vītae f. life
Verbs
doleō, dolēre, doluī, dolitūrus to grieve, mourn, suffer pain
maneō, manēre, mānsī, mānsūrus to remain, stay
moveō, movēre, mōvī, mōtus to move; excite; affect
nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus to announce, report
ōrō, ōrāre, ōrāvī, ōrātus to pray, beg, beg for (often with 2 accusatives,
  one of the person, the other of the thing:
 dōnum virum ōrant. “they are asking the
 man for a present.”)
teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentus to hold, possess, keep; restrain
58 Introduction to Latin

Adjectives
laetus, laeta, laetum happy; fertile
miser, misera, miserum miserable, unhappy
novus, nova, novum new; strange
Rōmānus, Rōmāna, Rōmānum; Roman
Rōmānī, Rōmānōrum m. (pl.)   the Romans
(as a noun)
Adverbs
diū for a long time
nunc now, at present
tunc then
Prepositions
dē (+ abl.) down from; about, concerning
propter (+ acc.) because of, on account of
sine (+ abl.) without
Coordinating Conjunction
enim (never appears as the first word for; in fact; yes, truly
in a sentence - “postpositive”)
(24)

Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 6
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. tenacious 7. affiliation
2. descent 8. mansion
3. commiserate 9. famous
4. irascible 10. emotion
5. novice 11. populous
6. vitamin 12. sinecure
 CHAPTER 7
Third Declension Nouns: Consonant Stem
Masculine and Feminine
Neuter
Gender Patterns
The Pronoun: Personal (1)
ego; tū
Forms of Possum
Sentence Pattern: Special Intransitive

So far all the nouns you have learned have been in either the first or the second declension.
This chapter introduces nouns in the third declension, with a new set of case endings
that must be memorized. It also introduces the personal pronouns I, you, we and you
(pl.), forms of an irregular verb that resemble the forms of sum you have already learned
(§32 and §37) and a few verbs whose objects are in the Dative or Ablative case.
41. Third Declension Nouns: Consonant Stem
Nouns of the third declension fall into two general categories: those whose stems end in
a consonant, and those whose stems end in -i- (these will be introduced in Chapter 10).
Consonant stem nouns can be divided into two groups: those that have no distinct ending
in the nominative singular, and those that add -s to form the nominative singular. In either
consonant group, you can always identify the stem by removing the case ending from the
genitive singular form. Masculine and feminine nouns in the third declension use the same
set of endings. The Vocative is identical to the Nominative in the singular and plural.
41a. Third Declension: Masculine and Feminine
Singular [—-] [-s] Endings
Nominative cōnsul rēx —-, -s
Genitive cōnsulis rēgis -is
Dative cōnsulī rēgī -ī
Accusative cōnsulem rēgem -em
Ablative cōnsule rēge -e
Plural
Nominative cōnsulēs rēgēs -ēs
Genitive cōnsulum rēgum -um
Dative cōnsulibus rēgibus -ibus
Accusative cōnsulēs rēgēs -ēs
Ablative cōnsulibus rēgibus -ibus
59
60 Introduction to Latin

Note the following:

• The consonant of the stem may combine with the -s ending of the
nominative singular to produce a different spelling; try pronouncing the
combined form aloud to predict the result:
rēg + s > rēx
noct + s > nox
• In the plural, the nominative and accusative endings are the same, -ēs,
and the dative and ablative endings are the same, -ibus. As in the first and
second declensions, the context of the sentence should help you determine
what case the noun is in.
Exercise 48. Identify each of the following third declension nouns by case and
number. If the ending is ambiguous, include all possibilities.
Example: hominī dative singular
1. pāce 5. patrum
2. lēgēs 6. hominis
3. ducibus 7. frātrī
4. virtūtem 8. cīvitās
Exercise 49. Following the third declension consonant patterns above, decline virtūs,
dux and frāter in all cases, singular and plural. Be sure to check the genitive singular
forms in the Chapter Vocabulary in order to learn what stem to use for each noun.
41b. Third Declension: Neuter
Singular Endings
Nominative caput —-
Genitive capitis -is
Dative capitī -ī
Accusative caput —-
Ablative capite -e
Plural
Nominative capita -a
Genitive capitum -um
Dative capitibus -ibus
Accusative capita -a
Ablative capitibus -ibus

Like the first group of masculine and feminine nouns in this declension (e.g. cōnsul),
neuter nouns add no ending to the nominative singular. Because the nominative
and accusative case endings are always the same for all neuter nouns, this means
the accusative singular will also lack a distinct ending. Neuter plural nouns in the
nominative and accusative always end in –a; this is true in all declensions.
 Chapter Seven 61

Gender Patterns
The gender of a noun in the third declension may be masculine, feminine or neuter and
must be memorized when you learn the word. As in the first and second declensions
(§10), however, some general patterns are very useful to remember:
• Masculine
Words Ending Examples
-tor, -tōris victor, victōris; gladiātor, gladiātōris
• Feminine
Words Ending Examples
-tās, -tātis cīvitās, cīvitātis; vēritās, vēritātis; libertās, libertātis
-tūs, -tūtis virtūs, virtūtis; senectūs, senectūtis
-tūdō, -tūdinis multitūdō, multitūdinis; necessitūdō, necessitūdinis
-tiō, -tiōnis ōrātiō, ōrātiōnis; imitātiō, imitātiōnis; ratiō, ratiōnis
• Neuter
Words Ending Examples
-al, ālis animal, animālis; capital, capitālis
-us, -oris tempus, temporis; corpus, corporis; lītus, lītoris
-men, -minis flūmen, flūminis; nōmen, nōminis; carmen, carminis
-e, -is mare, maris; cubīle, cubīlis
Exercise 50. Identify each of the following third declension nouns by case, number
and gender, then say which adjectives could modify the noun listed with them. Be
prepared to say why the others could NOT modify the noun.
Example: rēx: nova, Rōmānus, līber, parvī
rēx (nom. sg. m.) Rōmānus, līber (also nom. sg. m.)
1. cīvitās: magnās parva pulchrīs līberā
2. luce: parva pulchrā multīs novō
3. homō: bonus Rōmānō miser multōs
4. ducum: nostrum aegrōs meī novōrum
5. māter: mea vester laetae bonā
6. corporī: pulchrī parvus meō magnīs
7. frātris: tuīs bonī laeta malae
8. lībertāte: novā nostrō magna prīmī
9. pācem: novum longam prīma bonārum
10. virtūs: vestra meus magnās bonī
Exercise 51. Translate each of the following noun-adjective pairs into the Latin case
indicated.
1. great states (nom.) 4. good king (dat.)
2. happy mother (acc.) 5. our father (gen.)
3. small head (abl.) 6. strange rights (abl.)
62 Introduction to Latin

42. The Pronoun: Personal (1)

While a noun is a name (nōmen) for something, a pronoun is a word that can be
used instead of a noun (prō nōmine) to refer to it without naming it (§2). Latin, like
English, has different kinds of pronouns. This chapter will introduce one important
group of pronouns, and the rest will be introduced in future chapters.
Personal pronouns in Latin, like nouns (and adjectives), have case and number, but
they do not fit into regular declensions and are differentiated by person rather than
gender: first person (I, we) and second person (you, y’all). For third person (he, she, it,
they) Latin uses another pronoun, which you will learn in Chapter 8. Because a Latin
finite verb identified the subject by means of its ending, the nominative forms of the
personal pronouns were generally used only for emphasis, contrast or clarity.
Personal Pronouns: ego; tū
Singular    1st Person    2nd Person
Nominative ego I tū you
Genitive meī of me tuī of you
Dative mihi to/for me tibi to/for you
Accusative mē me tē you
Ablative mē (by/with...) me tē (by/with…) you
Plural
Nominative nōs we vōs you
Genitive nostrum, vestrum,
nostrī of us vestrī of you
Dative nōbīs to/for us vōbīs to/for you
Accusative nōs us vōs you
Ablative nōbīs (by/with...) us vōbīs (by/with...) you

Note the following:

• In the plural, the nominative and accusative forms end with -ōs, and the
dative and ablative endings with -ōbīs. As with nouns, the context of the
sentence should help you determine what case the pronoun is in.
• In the genitive plural, the forms nostrum and vestrum are used as partitive
genitives; nostrī and vestrī, like meī and tuī, are used objectively (§30; e.g.,
“love of you,” “fear of us”)
• When the ablative of these pronouns is used with cum, the preposition is
written after the pronoun in one word: mēcum, tēcum, nōbīscum, vōbīscum.
Exercise 52. Translate the underlined word(s) in each sentence with the correct Latin
form.
1. She was walking with us. 5. Tell me a story!
2. I like him, but you (pl.) don’t. 6. He is conquering you (pl.).
3. Who gave you (sg.) that book? 7. They led you (sg.) and me home.
4. A few of us will stay. 8. Did she run away from you (sg.)?
 Chapter Seven 63

43. Possum: Present, Imperfect and Future Indicative

Possum is an irregular verb that comes from the combination of the verb sum with
potis, an old adjective meaning able. The -t- of the adjective’s stem changes to -s-
when followed by a form of sum beginning with s, and the resulting forms all follow
the conjugation of sum, which you have already learned.
Indicative
Present Imperfect Future
1st sg. possum I am able, I can poteram poterō
2nd sg. potes You are able, can poterās poteris
3rd sg. potest He, she, it is able, can poterat poterit
1st pl. possumus We are able, can poterāmus poterimus
2nd pl. potestis You (all) are able, can poterātis poteritis
3rd pl. possunt They are able, can poterant poterunt
Infinitive posse to be able

As with certain other verbs you have learned (dēbeō, dubitō, optō, soleō), possum
very often occurs with a complementary infinitive (§7b). When you see an infinitive,
therefore, you might expect to see a form of possum in the same sentence.
Nēmō ventum vidēre potest. No one can see (is able to see) the wind.
44. Sentence Pattern: Special Intransitive
So far you have learned three sentence patterns 1) Transitive (§4), 2) Intransitive
(§4), and 3) Linking (§33).
In a fourth, less common, sentence pattern, certain intransitive verbs take their
object in the dative or ablative instead of the accusative case; (a very few verbs take a
genitive object, but they are not included in the Chapter Vocabulary for this book).
In this pattern the dative or ablative is a necessary core item in the sentence, just as
the accusative direct object is with other verbs. The previous uses of the dative and
ablative you have learned have all been as modifiers, which give extra information in
the sentence.
4) Special Intransitive
• subject
• verb
• object - in the dative or ablative
The special intransitive pattern only occurs with a small group of special verbs, so it is
best to memorize the case of the object when you learn the verb. The dictionary listing
for verbs that take a dative object or an ablative object will indicate this as follows:
careō, carēre, caruī, caritūrus (+ abl.) to be without, free from; need, miss
noceō, nocēre, nocuī (+ dat.) to harm, be harmful to
pāreō, pārēre, pāruī (+ dat.) to obey, be obedient to
placeō, placēre, placuī, placitūrus (+ dat.) to please, be pleasing to
64 Introduction to Latin

Notice that when sentences with one of these special verbs are translated into English,
the object often sounds just like a direct object:
careō —  Vir Ītaliā caret. The man misses Italy.
noceō —  Arma virīs nocent. The weapons harm the men.
The weapons are harmful to the men.
pāreō —  Dominō pārent. They obey the master.
They are obedient to the master.
placeō — Rosa fēminae placet. The rose pleases the woman.
The rose is pleasing to the woman.
Exercise 53. Identify the sentence pattern in each of the following, then translate.
Example: Bellum cīvitātī nocet. Special Intransitive; “war harms the state”
1. Nōbīs fābulam nārrāte. 5. Terrentne ventī pontusque tē?
2. Fīlius pecūniā caret. 6. Nēmō deō pārēre dubitat.
3. Virtūs tua erit magna. 7. Turba puerōrum puellārumque timet.
4. Templum dīs placet. 8. Turba corpus terret.
Exercise 54. Fill in the blank(s) with the form(s) needed to complete each sentence.
1.Ducēs cōnsilium parā_____. (future) 4. Tum cōnsul____ pārēbāmus.
2.Lūx magn____ et pulch_____ erat. 5. Māter pat____que laetī erant.
3.Dī virtūt____ hominibus dant. 6. Popul____ magna sapientia ____.
  (use present tense of sum)
Exercise 55. Identify obvious chunks and then translate each of the following
sentences.
1. Frātribus virtūs magna erit. 6. Malane fortūna tuō patrī semper erat?
2. Lūcem lūnae in caelō vidēre poterās? 7. Rēx rēgīnaque bonī esse optant.
3. Nōs rīdēbāmus sed nōn tū. 8. Ventus aquaque agrīs nocent.
4. Corpus miserī rēgis in viā iacēbat et 9. Frāter, patrī nostrō nunc pārē!
Rōmānī caput in urbem portābant. 10. Cōnsulibus magnum imperium erat.
5. Ducēs populum Rōmānum ad
arma vocābunt.
Exercise 56. Translate into Latin.
1. The Roman temples were pleasing to the god of war.
2. To see the ocean will be pleasing to you.
3. The men were obeying their leader but were not able to work without light.
4. Brother, announce the freedom of your king to the people now.
5. Italy always needs good consuls.
6. Will the men be able to be happy in the new state?
7. The summit was high.
8. Our leader has many sons. [use sum]
9. The Roman farmer was praising the courage and reputation of his brothers.
10. Your (pl.) mother will prepare many gifts for you and me.
 Chapter Seven 65

Reading 5 (loosely modeled) (practice guessing words in bold)

The poet Ovid (43 B.C.-17 A.D.) tells a story about the only man (Deucalion)
and woman (Pyrrha) to survive a great flood sent by Jupiter. In this passage, the
couple asks the goddess Themis what they should do to repopulate the earth and
they get a surprising answer.
Deucaliōn Pyrrhae dīcēbat: “nōs duo turba sumus; habet cētera
pontus. hominumque sōla exempla manēmus.” diū dolēbant
sed tandem dīs ōrāre placēbat. īram deōrum timēbant sed ad
templum deae ambulābant. humī iacēbant gelidōque ōscula
saxō templī dabant et ōrābant: “Ō dea, nōs iuvā et tuō imperiō
pārēbimus!” dea ōrāculum dabat: “movēte vōs ā templō et
vēlāte caput ossaque post tergum iactāte magnae mātris!” diū
tacēbant et imperiīs deae pārēre dubitābant. tandem Deucaliōn:
“magna māter terra est; saxa in corpore terrae ossa sunt.” tum
pārēbant et iactābant post tergum multa saxa. formae saxōrum
subitō formae virōrum fēminārumque erant!
Vocabulary:
dīcō, dīcere to say, speak ōrāculum, -ī n. oracle
duo (adj.) two vēlō, -āre to cover
cētera (acc. pl. n.) “the rest” os, ossis n. bone
sōlus,-a, -um only tergum, -ī n. back
humī “on the ground” forma, -ae f. shape
gelidus, -a, -um cold subitō (adv.) suddenly
ōsculum, -ī n. kiss

Reading 6 (adapted) (practice guessing words in bold)

Ennius tells how Jupiter forbade the eating of human flesh.
Sāturnus et Ops cēterīque tunc
hominēs hūmānam carnem solēbant edere;
sed prīmus Iuppiter lēgēs hominibus
mōrēsque dabat et ēdictō prohibēbat
hūmānam carnem.
Vocabulary:
Sāturnus (nom.) early Roman god edere (inf.) to eat
Ops (nom.) goddess of plenty Iuppiter (nom.) Jupiter
cēterī, -ae, -a other mōs, mōris m. custom
hūmānus, -a, -um human ēdictum, -ī n. edict
carō, carnis f. flesh prohibeō, -ēre to prohibit
66 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences (practice guessing words in bold)

Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Dōnā nōbīs pācem, Domine. (traditional hymn)
2. Bona fāma in tenebrīs proprium (Publilius Syrus)
splendōrem tenet.
3. Iūra dabat lēgēsque virīs. (Vergil; describing Queen Dido
ruling her people)
4. Virum bonum et magnum hominem (Cicero – adapted; on the death
dolēmus. of Lentulus)
5. “Egō sum lūx mundī; mēcum homō (Vulgate – adapted; Jesus speaks
habēbit lūcem vītae.” to the Pharisees)
6. Deō placēre nōn possunt. (Vulgate; St. Paul describes people
who live by their desires, not
believing in Jesus)
7. Corpus animus sempiternus movet. (Cicero)
8. Dux fēmina factī. (Vergil; describing Dido’s role in
the founding of Carthage)

Vocabulary:
dōnō, -āre to give splendor, -ōris m. splendor
tenebrae, the lower world; sempiternus, -a, -um eternal
-ārum f. (pl.)  darkness
proprius, -a, -um one’s own; permanent
 Chapter Seven 67

Chapter 7 Vocabulary

Nouns
caput, capitis n. head; summit
cīvitās, cīvitātis f. state; citizenship
cōnsul, cōnsulis m. consul (one of two supreme
magistrates elected annually in the
  Roman Republic)
corpus, corporis n. body, corpse
dux, ducis m. (military) leader, commander
frāter, frātris m. brother
homō, hominis m. human being, man
iūs, iūris n. right, law; justice
lex, lēgis f. law
lībertās, lībertātis f. freedom, liberty
lūx, lūcis f. light
māter, mātris f. mother
nōmen, nōminis n. name
pater, patris m. father; senator
pāx, pācis f. peace
rēx, rēgis m. king
virtūs, virtūtis f. courage, excellence, virtue
Pronouns
ego, nōs I, we
tū, vōs you, you (pl.)
Verbs
careō, carēre, caruī, caritūrus (+ abl.) to be without, free from; need, miss
noceō, nocēre, nocuī (+ dat.) to harm, be harmful to
pāreō, pārēre, pāruī (+ dat.) to obey, be obedient to
placeō, placēre, placuī, placitūrus (+ dat.) to please, be pleasing to
possum, posse, potuī to be able, “I can”
(24)

Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 7
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. regal 9. legislator
2. homicide 10. plea
3. translucent 11. jury
4. decapitate 12. virtuous
5. innocent 13. matrimony
6. fraternity 14. pacifist
7. incorporate 15. possible
8. paternity 16. egocentric
Chariot and Triton (sea-god). Mosaic from Ostia, 2nd c. A.D.
 CHAPTER 8
Third and Fourth Conjugations
Present Active Indicative and Infinitive
Present Active Imperative
The Pronoun: Personal (2)
is, ea, id as a Personal Pronoun
Sentence Pattern: Factitive

So far all the verbs you have seen, with the exceptions of sum and possum, have been
in the first or second conjugation. This chapter introduces verbs in the third and
fourth conjugations. It also introduces a pronoun often used for the third person (he,
she, it, they), and introduces a new sentence pattern.
45. Third and Fourth Conjugations
Verbs in the third and fourth conjugations use the same personal endings you learned
for the first and second conjugations (§5). 3rd conjugation verbs are characterized by
having a short -e- on their stem; the short -e- becomes -u- in the third person plural
and a short -i- in the other forms. This is the same pattern you have already seen in
the future tense of sum (§37).
A few common verbs in this conjugation also have an -i- in their stem, which is visible
in the first singular and third plural forms, but usually disappears before another -i or
short -e. These verbs are typically called third conjugation -iō verbs from their first
singular form. 4th conjugation verbs have a stem that ends in -ī-. This -i shortens
before a vowel or final -t but is visible in all the forms.

Present Active Indicative and Infinitive

Third Conjugation Fourth Conjugation
Indicative [-e-] Indicative [-ī-]
3rd Regular 3rd –iō 4th
1st sg. regō I rule capiō audiō
2nd sg. regis You rule capis audīs
3rd sg. regit He, she it rules capit audit
1st pl. regimus We rule capimus audīmus
2nd pl. regitis You (all) rule capitis audītis
3rd pl. regunt They rule capiunt audiunt

69
70 Introduction to Latin

The Present Active Infinitive, as in the first and second conjugations, adds -re to the
verb stem:
Stem Infinitive Meaning Stem Infinitive Meaning
rege- regere to rule audī- audīre to hear
cape- capere to take venī- venīre to come

Remember that the infinitive of the second conjugation has a long -ē-, while that of
the third conjugation has a short -e:
2nd Conjugation 3rd Conjugation
docēre regere
vidēre capere

Present Active Imperative

The Present Active Imperative, as in the first and second conjugations (§16), uses the
present verb stem for the second singular form and adds -te to present stem for the
second plural; 3rd conjugation has short -i- in the plural
3rd Regular 3rd –iō 4th
2nd sg. rege (you) rule! cape (you) take! audī (you) listen!
2nd pl. regite (you all) rule! capite (you all) take! audīte (you all) listen!

Three common third conjugation verbs, and an irregular verb you will learn in Chapter
23 (ferō), form their second singular imperatives without the stem vowel:
Verb 2nd sg. Imperative 2nd pl. Imperative
dīcō dīc dīcite
dūcō dūc dūcite
faciō fac facite
ferō fer ferte

Students through the ages have remembered these forms with the following rhyme:
dīc, dūc, fac, and fer
Should have an -e, but it isn’t there.
Exercise 57. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number and mood
(indicative or imperative), then translate into English. All forms are present tense.
1. scrībit 7. dīcis 13. regitis
2. sedent 8. dormīs 14. creat
3. agunt 9. capimus 15. audīte
4. faciunt 10. audī 16. iūdicant
5. rege 11. dūc 17. veniunt
6. mittimus 12. docētis 18. valēs
Exercise 58. Following the model verbs above, conjugate dūcō, faciō and veniō in
the present active indicative, singular and plural, and give the infinitive form.
 Chapter Eight 71

46. The Pronoun: Personal (2)

Is, ea, id as a Personal Pronoun
You have already learned the personal pronouns for the first person (I, we) and second
person (you, y’all) (§42). In the next chapter (§50) you will learn about demonstrative
pronouns (this, that). The most common demonstrative pronoun in Latin is often
used as a personal pronoun for the third person. In this chapter it will only be used to
mean he, she, it, they.
Is, ea, id he, she, it, they; (this, that)
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative is ea id
Genitive eius eius eius
Dative eī eī eī
Accusative eum eam id
Ablative eō eā eō
Plural
Nominative eī eae ea
Genitive eōrum eārum eōrum
Dative eīs eīs eīs
Accusative eōs eās ea
Ablative eīs eīs eīs

Notice that this pronoun has regular first and second declension forms in the plural,
but some irregular singular forms. Note especially the genitive and dative singular
forms, which are the same for all three genders.
Exercise 59. Identify each of the following pronouns by case, number and gender. If
the ending is ambiguous, include all possibilities.
1. eius 5. eōrum
2. eīs 6. eī
3. eae 7. eā
4. id 8. ea
Exercise 60. Translate the underlined word(s) in each sentence with the correct Latin
form.
1. She was walking with him. 5. Do you see it?
2. We like him, but they (fem.) don’t. 6. He and she are friends.
3. Who gave her (sg.) that book? 7. We do not know them.
4. A few of them will stay. 8. He is working for her.
47. Sentence Pattern: Factitive
So far you have seen four sentence patterns 1) Transitive (§4), 2) Intransitive (§4), 3)
Linking (§33), and 4) Special Intransitive (§44).
A fifth pattern, called factitive (from faciō, to make), occurs with verbs that require both
a direct object and a second accusative that indicates the effect or consequence of the
72 Introduction to Latin

verb’s action on the direct object: Is mē laetam facit. = He makes me happy. The second
accusative is commonly called the object complement because it is necessary to complete
the sense of the verb’s action. Here are some other examples of factitive sentences in
English with the direct object in bold and the object complement underlined; notice
that the underlined word is required to complete the meaning of each sentence:
You are painting the house purple.
He considers her a friend.
They call the philosopher wise.
We elected him senator.
The elements of this sentence pattern are as follows:
Factitive (uses a special verb with two accusatives)
• subject
• factitive verb
• direct object
• object complement (predicate accusative)
Here are some verbs that commonly take two accusatives in this pattern:
appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātus to call, name
creō, creāre, creāvī, creātus to choose, elect
faciō, facere, fēcī, factus to make
habeō, habēre, habuī, habitus to consider
iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvī, iūdicātus to judge
vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus to call
Note that the verbs that take two accusatives in this sentence pattern can also occur
in a transitive pattern:
transitive: Amīcōs vocābit. He will call his friends.
factitive: Cīvitātem Rōmam vocābit. He will call the state Rome.
transitive: Pācem faciunt. They make peace.
factitive: Eum cōnsulem faciunt. They make him consul.
When the second accusative is an adjective it can be difficult to tell which pattern is
being used:
Cōnsilium bonum facit. He is making a good plan. or
He is making the plan good.
When this happens, depend on the context to help you make your best guess.
You have learned two other verbs (doceō, ōrō) that can take two accusative objects,
but these do not establish a factitive pattern since the second accusative does not refer
to the direct object:
dōnum virum ōrant. they are asking the man for a present.
litterās puerōs docēs. you are teaching the boys literature.
These are transitive sentences with a regular direct object (the person) and a secondary
object (the thing asked for or taught).
 Chapter Eight 73

Exercise 61. Identify each of the following as a transitive or factitive sentence pattern
(and be prepared to say why), then translate.
1. Nēmō mē vocābit. 6. Bellum fēminās miserās facit.
2. Nēmō mē amīcum vocābit. 7. Eius librum habeō.
3. Is eōs novās lēgēs docēbat. 8. Eius facta mala habēmus.
4. Virum ducem creāmus. 9. Dūc nōs ad templum.
5. Cēnam nōbīs facit. 10. Eam pulchram iūdicābam.
Exercise 62. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Eī nihil de iūre lēgibusque sentiunt.
2. In tuā casā dormīre solēbam.
3. Frātrem eius vidēre nōn poterāmus.
4. Docēsne eōs vēritātem?
5. Hominēs veniunt et arma Rōmānōrum capiunt.
6. Tū, rege imperiō populōs, Rōmāne.
7. Rōmānī Rōmulum deum habēbant.
8. Dux litterās dē cīvitāte ad eum mittit.
9. Eratne is sapientiā plēnus?
10. Nōs lībertātem bonam iudicābāmus.
Exercise 63. Translate into Latin.
1. Show (sg.) me the money!
2. We are grieving, for the angry king rules without wisdom.
3. Your (sg.) brother was shouting very angrily (“with great anger”).
4. Many of them hesitate to tell us about the war in Italy.
5. We were sitting in the house, but you (sg.) were not able to stay with us.
6. My mother and father teach me courage.
7. They always consider the sea deep.
8. Will they walk with her into the forest and will they be afraid?
9. There is nothing new under the sky.
10. You (pl.) hear many things, but I do not.

Reading 7 (adapted)
Pliny the Younger (A.D. 61-112), a senator during the Roman Empire, wrote
many letters to friends. In this one, he describes his life and hints that he wants
his friend to write.
Quid agis? Ego vītam laetam – id est, ōtiōsissimam – vīvō.
Epistulās ergō longās nōn scrībō, sed legere optō. Vale.
Vocabulary:
id “that” epistula, -ae f. letter
ōtiōsissimus, -a, -um very idle ergō (adv.) therefore
vīvō, -ere to live
74 Introduction to Latin

Reading 8 (adapted)
The poet Ovid begins his poem, the Metamorphoses, by announcing his theme
and asking the gods for inspiration. He begins with the origins of the universe.
Before translating, draw an arrow from each adjectival modifier (adjective or
genitive noun) to the noun it modifies:
In nova optō mūtātās dīcere fōrmās corpora; dī, (vōs enim
mūtātis illās) adspirāte meō carminī prīmāque ab origine
mundī ad mea dūcite tempora carmen!
Ante pontum et terrās et caelum ūnus erat tōtō nātūrae
vultus in orbe; virī eum dīcunt “chaos.” erat et terra et pontus
et caelum, sed erant īnstabilēs et illōrum fōrma nōn manēbat.
Vocabulary:
mūtātus, -a, -um changed ante (+ acc.) before
fōrma, -ae f. form, shape ūnus, -a, -um one
mūtō, -āre to change tōtus, -a, -um the whole
illās “them” (the forms) vultus (nom. sg. m.) face, appearance
adspīrō, -āre (+ dat.) help, favor orbis, -is m. earth, world
carmen, -inis n. song eum “it” (the
orīgō, -inis f. beginning, origin   appearance)
mundus, -ī m. world, universe īnstabilēs (adj.) unstable
tempus, -oris n. time, period of time illōrum “of these” (earth,
  sea, etc.)

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Magna dī cūrant, parva neglegunt. (Cicero)
2. Vītam regit fortūna, nōn sapientia. (Cicero)
3. Virum bonum nātūra, nōn ōrdō facit. (Publilius Syrus)
4. Lex videt īrātum, īrātus lēgem nōn (Publilius Syrus)
videt.
5. Tū nōbīs carēs. (Cicero; writing a friend who
hasn’t seen him in too long)
6. Monet amīcus meus tē. (Cicero)
7. Ego tamen frūgālitātem, id est (Cicero; on virtue)
modestiam et temperantiam, virtūtem
maximam iūdicō.
8. Ars est enim philosophia vītae. (Cicero)
 Chapter Eight 75

Vocabulary:
cūrō, -āre to care about temperantia, -ae f. moderation
neglegō, -ere to neglect maximus, -a, -um greatest
ōrdō, -inis m. rank, class, station ars, artis f. art
frūgālitās, -tātis f. frugality, economy philosophia, -ae f. philosophy
modestia, -ae f. restraint, freedom
  from excess

Chapter 8 Vocabulary

Nouns
moenia, moenium n. (pl.) walls; fortifications
littera, litterae f. letter (of the alphabet); pl. letter,
 literature
nihil n. (indeclinable) nothing
nīl (contracted form)
vēritās, vēritātis f. truth
Verbs
agō, agere, ēgī, actus to do, perform; drive
quid agis? how are you (doing)?
audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus to hear, listen (to)
capiō, capere, cēpī, captus to take, seize, capture
creō, creāre, creāvī, creātus to create; elect, choose
dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus to say, speak, tell
doceō, docēre, docuī, doctus to teach (often with 2 accusatives, one of
  the person, the other of the thing taught)
dormiō, dormīre, dormīvī, dormitūrus to sleep
dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductus to lead
faciō, facere, fēcī, factus to do; make
iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvī, iūdicātus to judge; to decide
legō, legere, lēgī, lēctus to read; choose, select
mittō, mittere, mīsī, missus to send
regō, regere, rēxī, rēctus to rule
scrībō, scrībere, scrīpsī, scrīptus to write
sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsus to feel, perceive
valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus to be well, healthy; to be strong
valē, valēte (imperative) goodbye, farewell
veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventūrus to come
Adjective
īrātus, īrāta, īrātum angry
plēnus, plēna, plēnum (+ gen. or abl.) full (of ), filled (with)
Pronoun
is, ea, id he, she, it [Ch. 8]; this, that [Ch.9]
(24)
76 Introduction to Latin

Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 8
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. irate 9. adjudicate
2. sentient 10. scribble
3. induce 11. annihilate
4. plentiful 12. auditorium
5. regime 13. verdict
6. dormitory 14. missile
7. prevail 15. event
8. factory 16. document
 CHAPTER 9
Imperfect Active Indicative: Third and Fourth Conjugations
Future Active Indicative: Third and Fourth Conjugations
The Pronoun: Demonstrative
hic, haec, hoc
ille, illa, illud
is, ea, id
Adjectival Use

So far, you have learned the personal pronouns for the first and second persons ego/
nōs and tū/vōs (§42), and a third, demonstrative, pronoun often used to mean he,
she, it, they (§46). This chapter introduces two additional demonstrative pronouns
and their uses. It also introduces the imperfect and future tenses of third and fourth
conjugation verbs.
48. Imperfect Active Indicative: Third and Fourth Conjugations
The imperfect of the third and fourth conjugations is formed exactly like that of the
first and second conjugations (§35), with the tense sign -ba- between the verb stem
and the personal endings:
3rd Regular 3rd –iō 4th
1st sg. regēbam I was ruling, etc. capiēbam audiēbam
2nd sg. regēbās You were ruling capiēbās audiēbās
3rd sg. regēbat He / she was ruling capiēbat audiēbat
1st pl. regēbāmus We were ruling capiēbāmus audiēbāmus
2nd pl. regēbātis You (all) were ruling capiēbātis audiēbātis
3rd pl. regēbant They were ruling capiēbant audiēbant

Note that the stem vowel -i- of third -iō verbs is visible in these forms. While this -i-
usually disappears before a short -e (capiō, capere) (§45), it remains before a long -ē.
49. Future Active Indicative: Third and Fourth Conjugations
The future of the third and fourth conjugations uses the vowel -e- (-a- in the first
singular form) before the ending, instead of the tense sign -bi- that appeared in the
first two conjugations:

77
78 Introduction to Latin

3rd Regular 3rd –iō 4th

1st sg. regam I shall rule capiam audiam
2nd sg. regēs You will rule capiēs audiēs
3rd sg. reget He / she will rule capiet audiet
1st pl. regēmus We shall rule capiēmus audiēmus
2nd pl. regētis You (all) will rule capiētis audiētis
3rd pl. regent They will rule capient audient

The personal endings are again the same as those used in the present tense except in
the 1st. sg., which ends with -m instead of -ō. The stem vowel -i- of third -iō verbs is
visible in all the forms.
Exercise 64. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number, tense (present,
imperfect or future) and mood (indicative or imperative), then translate into English.
1. fugiēbātis 6. serviētis 11. dīc (§45)
2. dūcet 7. scrībam 12. venient
3. agēbam 8. crēdite 13. audī
4. mittēs 9. sentiēbāmus 14. fīniet
5. praebēs 10. incipiunt 15. dormiēbātis
Exercise 65. Write the indicated form of each verb, then translate into English.
Example: discō, discere (third sg. imperfect): discēbat; he/she/it was learning
1. dormiō, dormīre (third pl. present) 6. sedeō, sedēre (third sg. future)
2. legō, legere (first sg. future) 7. relinquō, relinquere (third pl.
3. veniō, venīre (second sg.   imperfect)
  pres. imperative) 8. serviō, servīre (third pl. future)
4. crēdō, crēdere (first pl. imperfect) 9. petō, petere (first sg. imperfect)
5. scrībō, scrībere (third sg. future) 10. incipiō, incipere (second pl. future)
50. The Pronoun: Demonstrative
Demonstrative pronouns are used to point out (dēmōnstrāre) a specific person or
thing: did you hear that?; he likes those. As in English, these pronouns can also be used
as adjectives, modifying a noun: did you see that man?; he likes those books. Like is, ea, id
(§46), the other two demonstrative pronouns in this chapter have regular first and second
declension forms in the plural, but some irregular singular forms. Note again the genitive
and dative singular forms, which are the same for all three genders. The pronouns in this
chapter are very common and should be memorized carefully and drilled regularly.
 Chapter Nine 79

hic, haec, hoc this, these; the latter

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative hic haec hoc
Genitive huius huius huius
Dative huic huic huic
Accusative hunc hanc hoc
Ablative hōc hāc hōc
Plural
Nominative hī hae haec
Genitive hōrum hārum hōrum
Dative hīs hīs hīs
Accusative hōs hās haec
Ablative hīs hīs hīs

ille, illa, illud that, those; the famous; the former

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ille illa illud
Genitive illīus illīus illīus
Dative illī illī illī
Accusative illum illam illud
Ablative illō illā illō
Plural
Nominative illī illae illa
Genitive illōrum illārum illōrum
Dative illīs illīs illīs
Accusative illōs illās illa
Ablative illīs illīs illīs

is, ea, id this, that (see §46)

Note the following:
• Hic and ille are more emphatic than is, which is used when no emphasis is
intended.
• Hic points out someone or something near in space or time: this man (right
here), and often refers to the latter (second) of two people or things already
mentioned.
• Ille points out someone or something further away in space or time: that
man (over there), and often refers to the former (first) of two people or
things already mentioned.
80 Introduction to Latin

Adjectival Use
When used as adjectives, these demonstratives agree in case, number and gender with
a noun in the sentence. Compare the following uses of is, ea, id:
as a pronoun: Is est amīcus. He is a friend.
Amābam eam. I used to love her.
Vidēmus ea. We see those (things).
as an adjective: Is amīcus est bonus. This friend is good.
Amābam eam fēminam. I used to love that woman.
Vidēmus ea loca. We see those places.
When ille is used as an adjective, it may indicate a well-known or famous person or
thing. When it does this, it usually follows the noun it modifies:
Rōmulus ille urbem aedificābat. That (famous) Romulus was building a city.
Exercise 66. Identify each of the following pronouns by case, number and gender. If
the ending is ambiguous, include all possibilities.
1. haec 6. illārum
2. illae 7. eī
3. huius 8. illud
4. id 9. huic
5. hās 10. hanc
Exercise 67. Fill in the blank to complete each sentence and translate.
1. Ill cōnsulem faciēmus. 5. Vēritātī crēd bonum est.
2. Ex silv fugiunt. 6. Multa bona ill dabās.
3. E (= his) coniugī serviam. 7. Ego patrī sed nōn frātr pāreō.
4. Coniūnx h (= this) nōs petit. 8. Mīles plēnus timōr erat.
Exercise 68. Identify the obvious chunks and then translate each of the following
sentences.
1. Inter līberōs virtūs semper erit bona.
2. Dē huius coniuge multa dīcam.
3. Tūne ea iūra fugere audēs?
4. Verba illīus audiēbāmus, sed dormiēbās.
5. Multīs cum lacrimīs fīlius fīliaque ante casam patrem relinquēbant.
6. In illō agrō corpus sine capite iacēbat.
7. Ea mātrī iam servit.
8. Crēdēsne huic? Praebēbisne eī tuam dextram?
9. Ille dux ad Ītaliam cum patre fīliōque veniet.
10. Hic homō nōs factīs dūcere incipit.
11. Placēbantne carmina brevia illīus poētae vōbīs?
12. Rēx hanc turbam īrātam facere nōn optat.
 Chapter Nine 81

Exercise 69. Translate into Latin.

1. You (pl.) are Romans, but I am not.
2. Obey the divine law and tell us the truth now!
3. We were not able to see their tears.
4. This plan will please these (men), but will not restrain those angry (men).
5. The state used to praise the wisdom of our leaders.
6. Boys, either listen or read those books.
7. Do you (pl.) judge his life good?
8. The brothers were fighting about the fertile land of that (man).
9. They are coming from the right (side) in front of the forest.
10. Are you (sg.) beginning to trust these soldiers?

Reading 9 (adapted)
Pliny chides a friend for not writing him.
Ōlim mihi epistulās nōn mittis. ‘nihil est,’ dīcis, ‘quod scrībere
possum.’ sed hoc scrībe, aut, ‘sī valēs, bene est; egō valeō.’ hoc
mihi sufficit; est enim bonum. nōn lūdō, sērius sum. quid agis?
sine sollicitūdine magnā ignārus esse nōn possum. Valē.
Vocabulary:
ōlim (adv.) for a while now sufficit is enough
epistula, -ae f. letter lūdō, -ere to joke, play
quod which (refers sērius, -a, -um serious
  to nihil) sollicitūdō, -inis f. anxiety, uneasiness
sī if ignārus, -a, -um ignorant, unaware
bene (adv.) well (good)
82 Introduction to Latin

Reading 10 (adapted)
Plautus (c. 254 -184 B.C.) was a Roman dramatist who wrote comedies. In his
Pseudolus, two slaves (Harpax and Pseudolus) have met and one lies about his
name before the other cuts the conversation off so they can conduct their business.
HARPAX. Tū servus es aut līber?
PSEUDOLUS. Nunc serviō.
HARP. Esne tū ab illō mīlite Macedoniō, servus eius?
PS. Sum.
HARP. Sed quid est tibi nomen?
PS. Surus sum.
HARP. Surus?
PS. Id est nomen mihi.
HARP. Verba multa facimus.
Vocabulary:
servus, -ī m. slave quid What?
Macedonius, -a, Macedonian Surus, -ī m. Surus
-um

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Cūra mihi pāx est …, frātrī fera bella (Ovid; Ceyx mourns his brother
placēbant. who was not like him)
2. Silent enim lēgēs inter arma. (Cicero)
3. Facta mea, nōn dicta, mīlitēs, (Livy – adapted; a consul
sequiminī et exemplum ā mē petite. encourages his men before battle)
4. Hōc vōcem carmine movet: “Ab Iove, (Ovid – adapted; Orpheus <the
Mūsa, … carmina nostra movē!” subject of movet> begins a song)
5. Forsan et haec ōlim meminisse (Vergil; Aeneas tries to encourage
iuvābit. his men)
6. Vōs vērō patriae fīliōs iūdicō. (Cicero – adapted; honoring men
fallen in battle)
7. Ego hoc tibi dēbeō. (Terence)
8. Eī vōbīs labōrant, vōbīs serviunt. (Cicero – adapted)

Vocabulary:
ferus, -a, -um fierce, savage Mūsa, -ae f. Muse
sileō, -ēre to be silent Iuppiter, Iovis, m. Jupiter
dictum, -ī n. word forsan (adv.) perhaps
sequiminī = “follow” meminisse to
2 pl. imperative   remember
vōx, vōcis f. voice vērō (adv.) in fact,
 truly
 Chapter Nine 83

Chapter 9 Vocabulary

Nouns
carmen, carminis n. song, poem
coniūnx, coniugis m. or f. wife; husband; spouse
lacrima, lacrimae f. tear
mīles, mīlitis m. soldier
patria, patriae f. country, fatherland
poēta, poētae m. poet
timor, timōris m. fear, terror
Verbs
crēdō, crēdere, crēdidī, crēditus to believe, trust (+ dat. of person
 believed; + acc. of thing believed)
fīniō, fīnīre, fīnīvī, fīnītus to end, finish; limit; die
fugiō, fugere, fūgī, fugitūrus to flee (from), escape, avoid
incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus to begin
petō, petere, petīvī or petiī, petītus to seek, go after; ask; attack
praebeō, praebēre, praebuī, praebitus to show; offer, provide
relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus to leave, abandon
serviō, servīre, servīvī or serviī, to serve
servītūrus (+ dat.)
Adjective
clārus, clāra, clārum clear, bright; famous; loud
dexter, dextra, dextrum right (side); right hand; pledge (of
 friendship)
Pronouns
hic, haec, hoc this
ille, illa, illud that
Adverbs
ōlim once (upon a time), one day (in the future)
tamen however, nevertheless, yet
et even; also
Prepositions
ante (+ acc.) before, in front of
inter (+ acc.) between, among
Coordinating Conjunction
aut or
aut ... aut   either ... or
(25)
84 Introduction to Latin

Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 9
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. relinquish 6. timorous
2. military 7. antebellum
3. fugitive 8. charm
4. conjugal 9. incredible
5. petition 10. lacrimose
 CHAPTER 10
Third Declension Nouns: i-Stem
Third Declension Adjectives
Expressions of Cause

So far, all the third declension nouns you have seen have had consonant stems and
all the adjectives you have seen have used endings taken from the first and second
declensions. This chapter introduces nouns with i-stems and adjectives, which both
use third declension endings. It also introduces different ways to express cause in
Latin.
51. Third Declension Nouns: i-Stem
I-stem nouns originally showed an -i- in most of their endings (so, for example, Acc.
sg. -im, Acc. pl. -īs) but, over time, some of these endings were replaced by those
you learned in §41 (e.g. Acc. sg. -em, Acc. pl. -ēs). The usual pattern of i-stems is
illustrated by the following:
Singular Masc./Fem. Neuter Endings
Nominative urbs mare (variable)
Genitive urbis maris -is
Dative urbī marī -ī
Accusative urbem mare -em, —-
Ablative urbe marī -e, - ī
Plural
Nominative urbēs maria -ēs, -ia
Genitive urbium marium -ium
Dative urbibus maribus -ibus
Accusative urbēs maria -ēs, -ia
Ablative urbibus maribus -ibus

With the exception of the ablative singular neuter, the endings of i-stem nouns are
not significantly different from those of regular consonant stem nouns (for example,
Gen. pl. -um and -ium). Below are some general rules for determining what nouns
are i-stems. All i-stem nouns in this book are marked with an asterisk in the Chapter
Vocabulary lists.

85
86 Introduction to Latin

Masculine and Feminine

• nouns that have the same number of syllables in the nominative and
genitive singular; these usually have a nominative singular in -is (sometimes
-ēs). For example:
auris, auris f. ear fīnis, fīnis m. end
caedēs, caedis f. murder, slaughter hostis, hostis m. enemy
cīvis, cīvis m. or f. citizen ignis, ignis m. fire
classis, classis f. fleet (of ships) mōlēs, mōlis f. mass, structure
collis, collis m. hill nāvis, nāvis f. ship
Two common exceptions are: canis, canis (dog) and iuvenis, iuvenis (young
person).
• monosyllables in -s or -x preceded by a consonant. For example:
ars, artis f. skill, art mors, mortis f. death
arx, arcis f. citadel, summit nox, noctis f. night
dēns, dentis m. tooth pars, partis f. part
gēns, gentis f. nation pōns, pontis m. bridge
mēns, mentis f. mind, judgment urbs, urbis f. city
Note that nox, noctis has two consonants in its stem (cf. dux, ducis) and is
counted as an -i stem.

Neuter
• nouns that end in -al, -ar, or -e. For example:
-al -ar -e
animal, animālis animal exemplar, -āris model mare, maris sea
capital, capitālis capital crime cubīle, cubīlis couch
52. Third Declension Adjectives
Adjectives in the third declension follow the declension of i-stem nouns, with
the Ablative sg. in -ī and the Genitive pl. in -ium. Third declension adjectives are
characterized by their nominative singular endings: some use a different ending for
each gender (as the first and second declension adjectives did, §27); others use one
ending for masculine and feminine and a second for neuter; a third group uses one set
of endings for all three genders. An example from each group is given below.
The dictionary listing for each of these adjectives will indicate which group they
belong in as follows:
3-ending: ācer, ācris, ācre (nom. sg. masc. + fem. + neuter forms)
2-ending: omnis, omne (nom. sg. masc./fem. + nom. sg. n. forms)
1-ending: ingēns, ingentis (nom. sg. + gen. sg. forms)
 Chapter Ten 87

Three-Ending Adjectives
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ācer ācris ācre
Genitive ācris ācris ācris
Dative ācrī ācrī ācrī
Accusative ācrem ācrem ācre
Ablative ācrī ācrī ācrī
Plural
Nominative ācrēs ācrēs ācria
Genitive ācrium ācrium ācrium
Dative ācribus ācribus ācribus
Accusative ācrēs ācrēs ācria
Ablative ācribus ācribus ācribus

Note:
• An exception to this pattern is celer, celeris, celere (swift), which keeps the
stem -er throughout. Celer uses the genitive plural ending -um, but that
form only appears as a substantive signifying a military rank.

Two-Ending Adjectives
Singular Masc./Fem. Neuter
Nominative omnis omne
Genitive omnis omnis
Dative omnī omnī
Accusative omnem omne
Ablative omnī omnī
Plural
Nominative omnēs omnia
Genitive omnium omnium
Dative omnibus omnibus
Accusative omnēs omnia
Ablative omnibus omnibus
88 Introduction to Latin

One-Ending Adjectives
Singular Masc./Fem. Neuter
Nominative ingēns ingēns
Genitive ingentis ingentis
Dative ingentī ingentī
Accusative ingentem ingēns
Ablative ingentī ingentī
Plural
Nominative ingentēs ingentia
Genitive ingentium ingentium
Dative ingentibus ingentibus
Accusative ingentēs ingentia
Ablative ingentibus ingentibus

Exercise 70. Identify each of the following third declension adjectives by case,
number and gender. If the ending is ambiguous, include all possibilities.
Example: difficilem Accusative singular masculine or feminine
1. forte 4. celeribus
2. potentium 5. omnia
3. facilī 6. difficilēs
Exercise 71. Identify each of the following nouns by case, number and gender, then
say which adjectives could modify the noun listed with them. Be prepared to say why
the others could NOT modify the noun.
Example: caput: pulcher, magna, omne, ingēns
  caput (nom. or acc. sg. n.)
  omne, ingēns (also nom. or acc. sg. n.)
1. arte: dulcī pulchrum bonā difficilia
2. hōrīs: brevis fēlīcibus prīmī omnēs
3. tempus: celer omne fēlīx longus
4. dominus: fēlīx fortēs noster potēns
5. nūminis: magnā potentia clārī parvīs
6. mēns: pulchra īrātā ācris omne
7. liber: magnus parvum ingentem omnis
8. vītā: facile omnī laeta novō
Exercise 72. Translate each of the following noun-adjective pairs into the Latin case
indicated.
1. short life (gen.) 6. powerful leader (abl.)
2. every mother (nom.) 7. new laws (gen.)
3. huge fields (dat.) 8. pleasant dinner (acc.)
4. strange truth (nom.) 9. lucky daughter (abl.)
5. easy times (acc.) 10. mighty masters (nom.)
 Chapter Ten 89

53. Expressions of Cause

Latin, like English, has a variety of ways to express cause:
• Ablative (without a preposition)
Dux cūrīs aeger erat. The leader was sick with worry (because of cares).
Multa bellī timōre faciunt. They do many things out of a fear of war.
It is sometimes hard to distinguish this use of the ablative from an ablative of means
(§23) or ablative of manner (§34). If you aren’t sure, try translating “because of ,”
“by means of ” and “with ” to see which suits the context best.
• Preposition + accusative or ablative
dē or ex with the ablative
Dux ex vulnere aeger erat. The leader was sick from a wound.
Certīs dē causīs agit. He is acting for definite reasons.
ob and propter with the accusative
Laetī sumus propter pācem. We are happy because of the peace.
Ob iniūriam nōn pugnābit. Because of his injury, he will not fight.
• Causā and grātiā with the genitive
Cīvitātis causā pugnāte! Fight for the sake of the state!
Exemplī grātiā ūnum dīcō. I mention one thing for example.
The genitive precedes these words, as in the examples above.
Exercise 73. In the following paragraph identify those phrases that indicate means,
manner, accompaniment and cause. (Do not translate into Latin.)
The leader marched with his men through the mountains and with great
speed they attacked the city with their weapons. The citizens, terrified by the
attack, ran with their wives and children to the river. But it was swollen with
rain, and they refused to cross through fear. With difficulty they moved along
the banks of the river and finally escaped by a path through the forest.
Exercise 74. Where possible draw an arrow from each adjective (or pronoun used as
an adjective) to the noun it modifies, and then translate each of the following sentences.
1. Bellum breve sed difficile populō erat.
2. Rēgī nostrō pācis grātiā dōna saepe praebēmus.
3. Omnēs propter artem poētae dīs grātiās agunt.
4. Mīlitēs ācrēs patriam timōris causā nōn relinquent.
5. Tibi vīta dulcis longaque erit.
6. Mihi aut lībertātem aut mortem date!
7. Ōlim amīcī potentēs illīus ad urbem venient.
8. Rōmānīs pugnāre prō patriā bonum erat.
9. Ille dux ē timōre ad Ītaliam cum patre fīliōque fugit.
10. Habēbantne Rōmānī omnēs Rōmulum deum?
90 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 75. Translate into Latin.

1. His (use gen. of is) wife had many skills, but no virtue. (use a form of sum + dat.)
2. Is it easy to seek the truth?
3. We are attacking part of the city with fire.
4. That soldier leaves weapons on the field and escapes death.
5. Because of the deeds of those men, our fatherland is strong (use a form of valeō).
6. Good leaders always act with justice.
7. Fortune helps the brave.
8. One day the songs of these poets will be famous.
9. They kept fighting against these soldiers for the sake of your (pl.) freedom
10. Everyone desires a quick and easy death.

Reading 11 (adapted)
Tacitus (c. A.D. 56 – after A.D. 113) describes the Germans’ way of ruling and
doing battle. Among other differences, the Germans organized their battle groups
by families and clans, and encouraged the women to cheer from the sidelines.
Germānī rēgēs ex nōbilitāte, ducēs ex virtūte legunt. Nec
rēgibus īnfīnīta aut lībera potestās, et ducēs exemplō potius
quam imperiō agunt; sī ante aciem pugnant, admīrātiōne
praesunt. Effigiāsque et signa ex silvīs sacrīs in proelium
portant. Ad mātrēs, ad coniugēs vulnera praebent; nec illae
numerāre aut exigere plāgās timent, cibōsque et hortāmina
mīlitibus dant.
Vocabulary:
nōbilitās, -tātis f. noble birth, nobility signum, -ī n. token, sign
īnfīnītus, -a, -um unlimited proelium, -ī n. battle
potestās, -tātis f. power sacer, -cra, -crum sacred
potius quam “rather than” vulnus, -eris n. wound
sī if numerō, -āre to count
aciem (acc.) line of battle exigō, -ere to demand to see
admīrātiō, -iōnis f. admiration plāga, -ae f. wound, blow
praesum to lead cibus, -ī m. food
effigia, -ae f. image (of an animal) hortāmen, -inis n. encouragement

Reading 12 (adapted)
Cicero (106-43 B.C.) talks about the importance of the laws to the Roman state.
Lex est fundāmentum lībertātis; mēns et animus et cōnsilium et
sententia cīvitātis est in lēgibus. ut corpora nostra sine mente,
sīc cīvitās sine lēge partēs adhibēre nōn potest. lēgum ministrī
sunt magistrātūs, lēgum interpretēs iūdicēs, et tandem lēgum
servī sumus itaque līberī esse possumus.
 Chapter Ten 91

Vocabulary:
fundāmentum, -ī n. foundation magistrātūs (nom. pl.) magistrates
sententia, -ae f. purpose, will interpres, -etis m. interpreter
ut (conjunction) just as iūdex, -icis m. judge
sīc (adv.) thus servus, -ī m. servant
adhibeō, -ēre to use itaque and so, therefore
minister, -trī m. administrator

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Terra corpus est sed mēns ignis est. (Ennius - adapted; discussing the
nature of the universe)
2. Per ego hās lacrimās dextramque tuam (Vergil; Dido begs Aeneas to listen
tē ōrō. to her)
3. Īra necessaria est, nec sine illā (Seneca – adapted; quoting
superāre potest, nisi illa implet Aristotle, and will go on to
animum. disagree with this view)
4. Mēns latet in animīs hominum et pars (Cicero - adapted)
animī est.
5. Ars grātia artis. (MGM motto)
6. Ars est cēlāre artem. (Anonymous)
7. Iuvābit hoc tē; mē certē iuvat …. (Pliny; writing to a friend who
Igitur et laudō et grātiās agō. took his advice and pardoned his
freedman)
8. Dēbēs agere dīs gratiās. (Pliny)

Vocabulary:
necessaria, -ae f. necessary lateō, -ēre to lie hidden
nisi “unless” certē (adv.) surely
cēlō, -āre to hide, conceal igitur (adv.) therefore

Chapter 10 Vocabulary

Nouns
*ars, artis f. skill, art
causa, causae f. cause, reason
causā (+ gen.)   for the sake of, because of
grātia, grātiae f. grace; favor, kindness; gratitude
grātiā (+ gen.)   for the sake of, because of
grātiās agere (+ dat.)   to thank
*ignis, ignis m. fire
*mare, maris n. sea
abl. sg. = mare and marī
*mēns, mentis f. mind, judgment, reason
92 Introduction to Latin

*mors, mortis f. death

*pars, partis f. part, share, direction
*urbs, urbis f. city
Adjectives
ācer, ācris, ācre sharp, fierce; eager
brevis, breve brief, short
celer, celeris, celere swift, quick, rapid
difficilis, difficile difficult
dulcis, dulce sweet; pleasant
facilis, facile easy
fēlīx, fēlīcis fortunate, lucky
fortis, forte brave; strong
ingēns, ingentis huge; mighty
omnis, omne all, every
potēns, potentis powerful; able
Prepositions
ob (+ acc.) because of
per (+ acc.) through, along; because of; by (in
  oaths and prayers)
Coordinating Conjunctions
atque, ac and
nec or neque and not, and … not
nec ... nec; neque ... neque   neither ... nor
(24)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 10
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. dulcit 7. potential
2. ignition 8. maritime
3. omniscient 9. fortitude
4. acerbic 10. abridge
5. demented 11. partition
6. celerity 12. urban
READING CHAPTER II
Narrative Reading II: Aeneas in Italy
Dictionary Practice / Form Identification
Review of the Sentence and its Parts
Question Words for Extra Practice
Word Building
Roots
Vowel Weakening
English Abbreviations and Phrases

Narrative Reading II: Aeneas in Italy

Adapted from Livy 1.1
This passage picks up the story of what happens after the end of the Trojan War.
Although the Trojans are defeated by the Greeks, one of their leaders (Aeneas) leads
a group of survivors out of the burning city and travels to found a new city in Italy.
Tandem Graecī Trōiam longum post bellum superant. Aenēās,
fīlius Anchīsae, ex urbe fugit et multīs cum sociīs ad partem
Ītaliae nāvigat. Trōia et huic locō nōmen est. ibi Trōiānī
praedam ex agrīs agere incipiēbant. Latīnus rēx Aborīginēsque,
quī tum ea tenēbant loca, cum armīs ex urbe atque agrīs
concurrunt. Trōiānī arma ad proelium parant, sed ante bellum
Latīnus ducem advenārum vocat ad conloquium. ‘Quī estis?’
rēx dīcit. Aenēās miseram fābulam Trōiae nārrat:
(continued)
Vocabulary:
Graecus, -a, -um Greek Latīnus (nom.) Latinus (an
Trōia, -ae f. Troy early king in Italy)
Aenēās, Aenēae m. Aeneas, Aborīginēs original
Anchises’ son (nom. pl.) inhabitants
Anchīsēs, Anchīsae m. Anchises quī (nom. sg. & pl.) who; who?
socius, -ī m. (pl.) comrades concurrō, -ere to charge, rush
ibi (adv.) there proelium, -ī n. battle
praeda, -ae f. plunder advena, -ae m. foreigner, stranger
(e.g. cattle) conloquium, -ī n. conference
93
94 Introduction to Latin

Narrative Reading II (continued)

‘Trōiānī sumus; ego sum Aenēās, fīlius Anchīsae et Veneris deae;
Penātēs mēcum portō; in hōc locō novam urbem aedificāre
optāmus.’ rēx Latīnus nōbilitātem gentis virīque et Aenēae
animum aut bellō aut pācī parātum videt. huic dextram dat,
fidem futūrae amīcitiae, et ducēs foedus faciunt. tum Latīnus
fīliam, Lāvīniam, Aenēae in mātrimōnium dat. Trōiānī novam
urbem aedificābunt et Aenēās ab nōmine coniugis “Lāvīnium”
hanc urbem appellābit.
Vocabulary:
Venus, Veneris f. Venus fidem (acc.) pledge
Penātēs, -ium m. (pl.) household gods futūrus, -a, -um future
nōbilitās, -tātis f. nobility amīcitia, -ae f. friendship
gēns, gentis f. race, people, foedus, -eris n. treaty
  nation mātrimōnium, -i n. marriage
parātus, -a, -um prepared Lāvīnium, -iī n. Lavinium
Lāvīnia, -ae f. Lavinia appellō, -āre, -āvī to name, call

Dictionary Practice/Form Identification

Identify the words below based on the dictionary entries given. Be sure to indicate the
entry from which each is taken and the part of speech, and to give all possibilities for
ambiguous forms.
For nouns and adjectives: give case, number, and gender
For verbs: give person, number, tense (present, imperfect, future) and mood
(indicative or imperative). *All forms so far are active.
A. amor, amōris m.: love
B. amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus: to love
C. amīcus, amīcī m.: friend
D. amīcitia, amīcitiae f.: friendship
Entry Part of Speech Form ID
1. amābunt
2. amōrī
3. amīcitiās
4. amābās
5. amīcīs
6. amāte
7. amōrēs
8. amāmus
9. amīcō
10. amōre
 Reading Chapter II 95

Review of the Sentence and its Parts

If you are using a “graphic organizer,” you can update it to add new material or refocus your
review items. Here is the chart from Reading Chapter I, with core items replaced by sentence
patterns, and additional coordinating conjunctions from the vocabulary for chapters 6-10:

Sentence

Core Modifiers Connectors

Adjectival Adverbial Coordinating

• Transitive • adjective • adverbs • and (et, -que, atque, ac)

• Intransitive • genitives • prep. phrases • but (sed)
• Linking • dative of reference • for (enim)
• Special Intransitive • ablatives • or (aut)
• Factitive • nor (nec, neque)

Question Words for Extra Practice

Quis (sg.)/Quī (pl.) who? asks for an animate subject
Quem (sg.)/Quōs (pl.) whom? asks for an animate direct object
Quid (sg.) what? asks for an inanimate subject or
  direct object
Ubi where?
Unde from where?
Quō to where?
Quōcum (sg.)/Quibuscum (pl.) with whom?
Quō modō in what manner?
Based on the narrative reading at the beginning of this chapter, answer the following
questions in Latin.
1. Quis est Aenēās? 6. Unde Aborīginēs concurrunt?
2. Unde fugit? 7. Quid Aenēās nārrat?
3. Quibuscum nāvigat? 8. Ubi Trōiānī urbem aedificāre optant?
4. Quō nāvigat? 9. Quid Latīnus videt?
5. Quī tum erat rēx huius partis Ītaliae? 10. Quem Latīnus Aenēae dat?

Word Building
Roots
You have now learned enough vocabulary to begin recognizing families of words that use
the same root. Look, for example, at the following set of words, which use the root am-:
amor, amōris m.: love
amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus: to love
amīcus, amīcī m.: friend
amīcitia, amīcitiae f.: friendship
96 Introduction to Latin

The root meaning for am- is “love.” By learning some of the common roots and root
meanings in Latin, you can simplify your work at building a usable Latin vocabulary.
Vowel Weakening
As you begin to learn Latin roots, you should also be aware of a feature common to all
languages, the tendency for some vowels to weaken. This is especially common with
compound words:
• short a before a single consonant weakens to short i
capiō > incipiō
amīcus > inimīcus
• short a before two consonants weakens to short e
captus > inceptus
For each of the following words, identify the root, guess at its meaning, and list as
many words from the Chapter Vocabulary as you can that use the same root:
Example: capiō Root = CAP, Meaning = “take,” Other words: incipiō
1. faciō 3 rēgnum
2. dūcō 4. timor
Based on the Latin words you have already learned, see if you can guess the meaning
of each of the following:
1. fuga, -ae f. 3 locō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus
2. iūdex, iūdicis m. 4. tacitus, -a, -um

English Abbreviations and Phrases

• e.g.  exemplī grātiā for example
• i.e.   id est that is
• ad hoc for this (purpose)
• in locō parentis in place of a parent
• inter alia among other things
• prō bonō (pūblicō) for the public good
 CHAPTER 11
Perfect Active System
Perfect Active Indicative
Pluperfect Active Indicative
Future Perfect Active Indicative
Special Adjectives in -īus
Numerals
Expressions of Time

So far you have learned three tenses of Latin verbs, all built on the present stem (§5):
present, imperfect, and future. This chapter introduces three new tenses, all built on
the perfect stem, which is found in the third principal part (§6). It also introduces
numerals, and different ways to express time in Latin.

54. Perfect Active Indicative

The perfect is a past tense in Latin that must be distinguished from the imperfect
tense (§35). The perfect is formed by adding personal endings to the stem of the third
principal part. To find the stem, remove the -i- from the third principal part:
amō, amāre, amāv (ī) – first conjugation
moneō, monēre, monu (ī) – second conjugation
regō, regere, rēx (ī) – third conjugation
capiō, capere, cēp (ī) – third conjugation -iō
audiō, audīre, audīv (ī) – fourth conjugation
sum, esse, fu (ī) – sum (the perfect forms of this verb, and of possum, are regular)
Note that some verbs with a -v in the stem may drop the -v:
petō, petere, petīvī or petiī
audiō, audīre, audīvī or audiī
The personal endings for the perfect active indicative are the same for all conjugations:
Singular Plural
1st person -ī I -imus we
2nd person -istī you -istis you, you all
3rd person -it he, she, it -ērunt, -ēre they

Note that in the third person pl. form, the ending has a long -ē-, and that sometimes
(particularly in poetry) the ending is shortened to -ēre. This means you will need to
pay close attention to the verb stem and the context of the sentence to determine
whether the form is an indicative or an infinitive.
97
98 Introduction to Latin

Here are the perfect active indicative verb forms of the each regular conjugation:
1st Conjugation Endings
1st sg. amāvī I loved, I have loved -ī
2nd sg. amāvistī You loved -istī
3rd sg. amāvit He, she, it loved -it
1st pl. amāvimus We loved -imus
2nd pl. amāvistis You (all) loved -istis
3rd pl. amāvērunt, They loved -ērunt, -ēre
amāvēre
2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. Sum, esse, fuī
1st sg. monuī rēxī audīvī fuī
2nd sg. monuistī rēxistī audīvistī fuistī
3rd sg. monuit rēxit audīvit fuit
1st pl. monuimus rēximus audīvimus fuimus
2nd pl. monuistis rēxistis audīvistis fuistis
3rd pl. monuērunt, rēxērunt, audīvērunt, fuērunt,
monuēre rēxēre audīvēre fuēre

The perfect tense in Latin has two distinct meanings:

• The historical perfect corresponds to the simple past tense in English, and
has been described as “the tense of narration (as opposed to the Imperfect,
the tense of description).”
I traveled [perfect] to Italy one summer and, while I was walking [imperfect]
around Rome, I saw [perfect] the Roman Forum.
One way to think about the historical perfect in contrast to the imperfect is to imagine
the historical perfect as a snapshot or digital image, and the imperfect as a video tape
or digital stream.
• The present perfect also refers to an action that happened in the past, but
stresses the present result of that completed action.
I have finished my homework (so I can do something else now).
I have climbed this tree (and am now perched at the top).
I have learned to swim (and don’t need lessons any more).
The context of the sentence will usually make clear how to understand the perfect
tense, and your own competence in English will help you decide which translation
“sounds better.”
 Chapter Eleven 99

Exercise 76. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number and tense, then
translate giving two English translations where possible.
Example: amāvī first person, singular, perfect; “I have loved,” “I loved”
1. errābit 9. tenuērunt 17. dormiēs
2. fūgimus 10. erunt 18. miscēs
3. venit 11. fuī 19. relīquistis
4. vēnit 12. ambulābunt 20. duxērunt
5. carēbās 13. scrībis 21. dīxēre
6. potuit 14. nūntiāvit 22. discessimus
7. cēpī 15. ēgistī 23. sēnsī
8. pāruistī 16. petiī 24. fīniēbant
Exercise 77. Following the model verbs above, conjugate pugnō, doleō and relinquō
in the perfect active indicative, singular and plural. Be sure to check the principal parts
in the Chapter Vocabulary in order to learn what stem to use for each verb.
Exercise 78. Translate the underlined words into Latin.
1. The sailors heard many stories. 5. At that time, I feared the danger.
2. Father, have you been sick? 6. He was a free man for a long time.
3. We missed our children. 7. I used to praise the king.
4. They were sleeping in the house. 8. Has he written the letter?

55. Pluperfect Active Indicative

The pluperfect tense is sometimes called the past perfect because it refers to an action
completed in the past. The pluperfect is formed by adding -era- + the regular endings
(-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt) to the perfect stem. Many students remember these forms
as a combination of the perfect stem + the imperfect of sum (§37):
1st Conjugation Endings
1st sg. amāveram I had loved -era m
2nd sg. amāverās You had loved -erā s
3rd sg. amāverat He, she, it had loved -era t
1st pl. amāverāmus We had loved -erā mus
2nd pl. amāverātis You (all) had loved -erā tis
3rd pl. amāverant They had loved -era nt
2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. Sum, esse, fuī
1st sg. monueram rēxeram audīveram fueram
2nd sg. monuerās rēxerās audīverās fuerās
3rd sg. monuerat rēxerat audīverat fuerat
1st pl. monuerāmus rēxerāmus audīverāmus fuerāmus
2nd pl. monuerātis rēxerātis audīverātis fuerātis
3rd pl. monuerant rēxerant audīverant fuerant
100 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 79. Change each perfect verb form to the pluperfect and translate the new
form.
Example: rēximus rēxerāmus: “we had ruled”
1. sēdistī 7. dūxit
2. pugnāvimus 8. fēcistī
3. ēgī 9. fīnīvistis
4. tenuit 10. miscuēre
5. vēnistis 11. petiī
6. mānsērunt 12. fuit
Exercise 80. Translate into Latin.
1. I reported. 10. It began.
2. I was reporting. 11. It had begun.
3. I had reported. 12. It was beginning.
4. They kept speaking. 13. You (sg.) had mourned.
5. They spoke. 14. You (sg.) mourned.
6. They had spoken. 15. You (sg.) were mourning.
7. We slept. 16. You (pl.) seized.
8. We used to sleep. 17. You (pl.) tried to seize.
9. We had slept. 18. You (pl.) had seized.
56. Future Perfect Active Indicative
The future perfect tense (which is rarely used in English) refers to an action completed
in the future. It is formed by adding -eri- (-er- in the first sg.) + the present endings
(-o, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt) to the perfect stem. Except in the third plural form, these
endings are identical to the future of sum (§37):
1st Conjugation Endings
1st sg. amāverō I shall have loved -er ō
2nd sg. amāveris You will have loved -eri s
3rd sg. amāverit He, she, it will have loved -eri t
1st pl. amāverimus We shall have loved -eri mus
2nd pl. amāveritis You (all) will have loved -eri tis
3rd pl. amāverint They will have loved -eri nt
2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj. Sum, esse, fuī
1st sg. monuerō rēxerō audīverō fuerō
2nd sg. monueris rēxeris audīveris fueris
3rd sg. monuerit rēxerit audīverit fuerit
1st pl. monuerimus rēxerimus audīverimus fuerimus
2nd pl. monueritis rēxeritis audīveritis fueritis
3rd pl. monuerint rēxerint audīverint fuerint
 Chapter Eleven 101

Exercise 81. Change each perfect verb form to the future perfect and translate the
new form.
Example: rēximus rēxerimus: “we shall have ruled”
1. mīsī 6. dēbuit
2. dīxērunt 7. fīnīvimus
3. creāvistī 8. dedī
4. incēpistis 9. iactāvērunt
5. fēcēre 10. vīdistī
Exercise 82. Translate into Latin.
1. I will write. 6. You (sg.) will have taught.
2. I will have written. 7. She came.
3. They will judge. 8. She will have come.
4. They will have judged. 9. You (pl.) will read.
5. You (sg.) will teach. 10. You (pl.) will have read.
Exercise 83. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number and tense, then
translate. Can you write the principal parts of these verbs from memory?
Example: valueram first singular pluperfect of valeō: “I had been well”
1. eram 7. potuerint
2. fuistī 8. ēgerāmus
3. fuerō 9. ēgeris
4. poterant 10. dederant
5. poterunt 11. gessistis
6. potuērunt 12. mōvērunt
57. Special Adjectives in -īus
There are nine irregular first and second declension adjectives in Latin, which follow
the same pattern for the genitive and dative singular that you have seen in the
demonstrative pronouns (§50):
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Gen. sg. -īus -īus -īus
Dat. sg. -ī -ī -ī

With the exception of the genitive and dative singular forms shown above, these
adjectives are declined like bonus, bona, bonum. (See §58 below for ūnus, ūna,
ūnum as a model.)
alius, alia, aliud other, another tōtus, tōta, tōtum whole
alter, altera, alterum the one (of two) ūllus, ūlla, ūllum any
neuter, neutra, neutrum neither (of two) ūnus, ūna, ūnum one
nūllus, nūlla, nūllum none uter, utra, utrum which?
sōlus, sōla, sōlum alone   (of two)
102 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 84. Identify each of the following nouns by case, number and gender, then
say which adjectives could modify the noun listed with them. Be prepared to say why
the others could NOT modify the noun.
1. mortis: meae celer ūllīus facilibus
2. ratiō: celer nūllus omnis ūna
3. populō: aliī huic potēns laeta
4. poētam: fēlīx alterum bonā sōlam
5. aetāte: hōc omnī tōtā dulce
6. nūminis: potentī utrīus hoc magnī

58. Numerals
Cardinal Ordinal
1 ūnus, -a, -um I prīmus, -a, -um first
2 duo, duae, duo II secundus, -a, -um second
3 trēs, tria III tertius, -a, -um third
4 quattuor IV quārtus, -a, -um fourth
5 quīnque V quīntus, -a, -um fifth
6 sex VI sextus, -a, -um sixth
7 septem VII septimus, -a, -um seventh
8 octō VIII octāvus, -a, -um eighth
9 novem IX nōnus, -a, -um ninth
10 decem X decimus, -a, -um tenth
11 ūndecim XI ūndecimus, -a, -um eleventh
12 duodecim XII duodecimus, -a, -um twelfth
20 vīgintī XX
30 trīgintā XXX
40 quadrāgintā XL
50 quīnquāgintā L
100 centum C
500 quīngentī, -ae,-a D
1,000 mīlle M

*Note: mīlle in the plural is a neuter noun (mīlia, mīlium) and is often
followed by a partitive genitive: duo mīlia hominum two thousand men
(literally: “two thousands of men”)

So far all the adjectives you have learned have been declinable. Latin adjectives
representing numerals fall into two groups. All the ordinals are declined like bonus,
-a, -um. The cardinals, except for the first three, are indeclinable. Note the following
paradigms for the first three cardinals.
 Chapter Eleven 103

ūnus, -a, -um

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ūnus ūna ūnum
Genitive ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus
Dative ūnī ūnī ūnī
Accusative ūnum ūnam ūnum
Ablative ūnō ūnā ūnō
duo, duae, duo     trēs, tria
Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter M. & F. Neuter
Nominative duo duae duo trēs tria
Genitive duōrum duārum duōrum trium trium
Dative duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus
Accusative duōs duās duo trēs tria
Ablative duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus

With numerals, Latin often uses ē/ex or dē plus the ablative instead of a partitive
genitive (§18):
duae ex fēminīs two of the women
ūnus dē virīs one of the men
turba virōrum a crowd of men
Exercise 85. Translate each of the following into Latin in the case and number
indicated.
Example: two women (nom.) duae fēminae
1. the other song (gen.) 4. one hundred tears (acc.)
2. the whole truth (nom.) 5. three poets (abl.)
3. any soldier (dat.) 6. second wife (acc.)
59. Expressions of Time
Latin expresses time using the accusative or ablative without a preposition, as follows.
• with Accusative
Length of Time
Trēs annōs manēbāmus. We stayed for three years.
Haec partem aetātis faciēbat. He was doing this for part of his life.
Note: Length of time is sometimes emphasized with the preposition per:
Per annum labōrābam. I worked throughout the year.
• with Ablative
Time When – indicating a point in time
Agricola prīmā lūce labōrat. The farmer works at first light (= dawn).
Discessitne sextā hōrā? Did he depart at the sixth hour (= noon)?
Vēnērunt tertiā nocte. They came on the third night.
104 Introduction to Latin

Time Within Which – indicating a range of time

Mīlitēs tribus annīs discēdent. The soldiers will depart within
  three years.
Tertiō annō templum aedificāvērunt. They built the temple during the
  third year.
Exercise 86. For the following sentences, copy each chunk you see and be prepared
to identify it; then translate the full sentence.
Example: Fīlius agricolae multīs cum amīcīs in agrum errābat
  fīlius agricolae (subject with modifier in the genitive)
  multīs cum amīcīs (prepositional phrase: accompaniment)
  in agrum (prepositional phrase: place to which)
1. Hic homō nōs nōn sōlum verbīs sed 6. Trēs aut quattuor amīcōs in
  etiam factīs dūcere incēpit.   urbe magnā petīvimus.
2. Ille multōs annōs fēlīx potēnsque 7. Omnēs verbīs rēgis rēgīnaeque
 fuerat.  pāruērunt.
3. Deditne fīlius meus tibi pecūniam 8. Nōs ūnīus fēminae causā
 ūllam?  bellum facimus.
4. Puerī brevī tempore labōrāre 9. Ea neque vīderāmus neque
 incipient. audierāmus.
5. Pater frāterque meus īrae grātiā hāc 10. Decem hōrās manēbimus,
  hōrā discēdent.   tum in urbem veniēmus.
Exercise 87. Translate into Latin.
1. The angry men had suddenly attacked the others at the tenth hour.
2. At that time everyone [use a form of omnis] elected him leader of the city.
3. Nine men built that new temple.
4. Life was sweet for the lucky daughter of the second consul.
5. In one year our powerful leader has harmed many men.
6. Will your (sg.) third book be short?
7. They taught your (sg.) two sons the truth.
8. Five of the women were looking for water at noon.
9. The Romans waged war in Italy for seven years.
10. The whole state will thank our great leader.

Reading 13 (adapted)
Cicero, in his writings about the nature of the gods, talks about the ideas of
previous philosophers, including the Greek Xenocrates.
Xenocratēs scrīpsit librōs dē nātūrā deōrum sed nūllam speciem
dīvīnam dēscrīpsit. dīxit enim: “Deī octō sunt, quīnque ex eīs
in stellīs vagīs sunt, ūnus in sīderibus caelī est.” ille septimum
sōlem adiungit octāvamque lūnam.
 Chapter Eleven 105

Vocabulary:
speciem (acc.) form sīdus, sīderis n. star
dēscrībō, -ere, to describe sōl, sōlis m. sun
dēscrīpsī adiungō, -ere “to add x as y”
stellīs vagīs (abl.) planets   factitive here
Reading 14 (adapted)
Cicero writes from Athens to his wife Terentia about his recent trip and the mail
he has received. The Cicero mentioned in the letter is his and Terentia’s son; Tullia
is their daughter.
Sī tū et Tullia, lūx nostra, valētis, ego et Cicerō valēmus. ad
Athēnās tardē et incommodē vēnimus, adversī enim ventī
erant. dē nāve ambulāvimus et nōbīs Acastus cum litterīs
praestō fuit illō tempore. accēpī tuās litterās et ex multīs amīcīs
litterās.
Vocabulary:
sī if nāvis, nāvis f. ship
Athēnās “Athens” Acastus, -ī m. a friend of Cicero’s
tardē slowly praestō (adv.) present, here
incommodē inconveniently accipiō, -ere, to receive
adversus, -a, -um contrary (blowing   accēpī
  the wrong way)

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Nec tōtā tristis locus ūllus in urbe est. (Ovid; all Athens rejoices when
Theseus is saved from death)
2. Tullus magnā glōriā bellī rēgnāvit annōs (Livy; talking about the
duōs et trīgintā. Roman king, Tullus, who
destroyed Alba Longa)
3. Iam caelum terramque meō sine nūmine, ventī, (Vergil; Neptune, god of the
mīscēre audētis? sea, scolds the winds)
4. Maria omnia caelō miscuit. (Vergil; describing a storm the
goddess, Juno, has engineered)
5. Aliās terrās petunt; iūra, lēgēs, agrōs, (Caesar; A Gaul is describing
lībertātem nōbīs relinquunt. what previous conquerors had
done)
6. Habuī noctem plēnam timōris ac miseriae. (Cicero; a friend’s late arrival
caused him to worry)
7. Ūnīus ob īram in pontō mānsīmus. (Vergil – adapted; Juno’s anger
keeps the Trojans at sea)
8. Hunc ego patris causā vocāvī ad cēnam. (Cicero; Cicero treats the badly
-behaved son of a friend well)
106 Introduction to Latin

Vocabulary:
tristis, -e sad rēgnō, -āre, -āvī to rule
Tullus, -ī m. Tullus miseria, -ae f. misery, unhappiness
glōria, -ae f. glory, fame

Chapter 11 Vocabulary

Nouns
aetās, aetātis f. age, life
annus, annī m. year
hōra, hōrae f. hour, season
*nox, noctis f. night
nūmen, nūminis n. divine will, divine power
ratiō, ratiōnis f. reason, judgment; method
tempus, temporis n. time, period of time (e.g. a season);
 opportunity
Verbs
discēdō, discēdere, discessī, discessūrus to depart, go away; separate
misceō, miscēre, miscuī, mixtus to mix, mingle; stir up, disturb
Adjectives
alius, alia, aliud other, another
(alterīus is commonly used for gen. sg.)
aliud ... aliud one thing ... another (thing)
aliī ... aliī some ... others
alter, altera, alterum the one, the other (of two); next, second
neuter, neutra, neutrum neither (of two)
nūllus, nūlla, nūllum not any, no
secundus, secunda, secundum second; favorable
sōlus, sōla, sōlum alone, only
nōn sōlum ... sed etiam not only ... but also
tōtus, tōta, tōtum whole, entire
ūllus, ūlla, ūllum any
ūnus, ūna, ūnum one
uter, utra, utrum which? (of two)
numerals in §58 as assigned by your instructor
Adverbs
etiam also; even
iam now; already
sīc thus, so
subitō suddenly
(23)
 Chapter Eleven 107

Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 11
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. nocturnal 7. ratio
2. neuter 8. solitary
3. annul 9. miscellaneous
4. centennial 10. unite
5. temporary 11. horoscope
6. alias 12. total
Snack bar. Pompeii, 1st c. A.D.
 CHAPTER 12
Dependent Clauses (1)
Adverbial Use
Word Order
Accusative of Extent and Degree
Dative with Adjectives

So far you have been reading simple and compound sentences. These have sometimes
included coordinating conjunctions, which connect either words or phrases with the
same function, or independent sentences (§14). This chapter introduces complex
sentences and subordinating conjunctions, which connect a dependent clause to the
main clause. It also introduces another use of the accusative case and a new use of the
dative case with certain adjectives.
60. Dependent Clauses
A dependent (subordinate) clause is one that can not stand alone as a complete
sentence. Compare the following:
Dependent clause Complete sentence
When we go to Rome, ... We go to Rome.
If it is raining, ... It is raining.

A sentence that has a dependent clause is called a complex sentence. In such sentences,
the main (independent) clause carries the most important information, and the
dependent clause adds extra information. Dependent clauses use exactly the same
sentence patterns as main clauses.

Adverbial Use
The dependent clauses in this chapter are adverbial modifiers (§25), which add
information that answers the questions When?, Why?, Where?, and which usually
modify the verb in the main sentence.
The conjunctions you have seen so far are called coordinating conjunctions
because they connect items on the same level in a sentence. New in this chapter are
subordinating conjunctions, which do NOT connect sames, but instead connect
dependent clauses to main clauses. This book will call these subordinating conjunctions
“clause markers” because they help to mark the beginning of a dependent clause. Be
careful, because although clause markers come first in English word order, they may
not be the first word in a Latin clause.
109
110 Introduction to Latin

The clause markers in this chapter are indeclinables and carry essential information
about the category of information contained in the dependent clause. Memorize
completely the following clause markers for clauses in this chapter:
Adverbial Clause Marker English Meaning Category
antequam before time
cum when time
dum while, as long as time
postquam after time
quia because cause
quod because cause
sī if condition
ubi when time
ubi where place

Note:
• Cum can appear as a preposition with an ablative (§34), so be careful to
distinguish this use from that of cum as a clause marker.
• Dum (“while”) regularly appears with a present tense in Latin to show
continued action in the past. When translating into English, use the
imperfect tense.
Exercise 88. In the following passage, circle each clause marker, and bracket the
entire dependent clause. Be ready to explain how you decided where each dependent
clause begins and ends.
Once upon a time after he had established his worship in Greece, the god,
Bacchus, was traveling with his companion, Silenus, in Phrygia. Shepherds
in the area did not recognize Silenus when they found him drunk in their
fields and so took him to King Midas. Since Midas had accepted the rites
of Bacchus, however, he recognized the god’s friend and after he threw a big
party he sent him back to Bacchus. Because he was grateful, Bacchus granted
Midas one wish, and Midas said, “May everything I touch turn to gold.”
Although Bacchus was sorry the monarch had not chosen better, he granted
this wish. Now when Midas touched a leaf, it turned to gold! And if he picked
up a stone, it turned to gold! While this gift was new, Midas rejoiced in his
luck, but soon he came to regret his wish. For although he became very rich,
he found he could not even eat or drink. When he picked up bread, it also
turned to gold, and when he tried to drink fresh water, it hardened as soon as
his lips touched the liquid. Finally he begged Bacchus for help and the god
told him to go where he could wash away his “magic touch.”
 Chapter Twelve 111

Word Order
In Latin, as in English, a dependent clause may come anywhere in the main sentence:
• If you don’t memorize the clause markers, you will have trouble reading
Latin.
• You may still have trouble although you work hard, but you will succeed
in the end.
• Do it because I said so!
Notice in the examples above (and in those from Ex. 88) that once a dependent clause
starts, the main clause does not interrupt it. Even if one dependent clause interrupts
another in a sentence, the clause that interrupts must finish before the interrupted
clause can continue:
[If the weather <when we leave on our trip> is unpleasant] we will be sorry.
This is also true in Latin. So, as you begin to read complex sentences, a good practice
is to mark each dependent clause as you read the sentence from left to right. Then
concentrate on what the main clause means, before you try to fit the adverbial
dependent clause into your translation.
Exercise 89. Identify the dependent clauses in each of the following sentences and
then translate the main clauses only.
1. Poēta tibi hoc carmen dedit dum in tuā casā sumus.
2. Cum in urbem mīlitēs vēnērunt, omnēs magnō cum timōre fūgimus.
3. Sī potēns cīvitās vestra est omnēs laetī estis.
4. Propter bellum fēminae puellaeque dum virī pugnant Ītaliam relinquēbant.
5. Carēbāsne amīcīs frātribusque, postquam ex patriā nocte discessistī?
6. Illī nōn crēdidī quod multa facta mala fēcerat.
Exercise 90. Now add the dependent clauses to your translations of the sentences in
Exercise 89.
Exercise 91. Identify the dependent clauses in each of the following sentences.
1. When we walked into the forest we saw the huge fire.
2. He fought with courage as long as he was strong.
3. While the house was full of soldiers, our sons and daughters slept in the field.
4. Stay where the gods’ great temples are.
5. Because the king loved him my brother always desired to be good.
6. If you (all) trust that leader, he will easily lead you to the sea.
Exercise 92. Translate each of the sentences from Exercise 91 into Latin.
61. Accusative of Extent and Degree
Just as Latin expresses extent (length) of time by using the accusative without a
preposition (§59), it also expresses extent of space and degree with the accusative
without a preposition. These uses only occur with a few vocabulary words (indicating
measures of space or degree – “miles,” “feet,” “very much,” “not at all,” etc.), and are
not as common as the other uses of the accusative you have seen so far.
112 Introduction to Latin

• Extent of Space
Arborēs octō pedēs altae erant. The trees were eight feet high.
Flūmen iter abest. The river is a day’s march away.
• Degree
Tē tantum amō. I love you so much.
Agricola multum in agrō labōrat. The farmer works a lot (“much”)
  in the field.
Exercise 93. In the following paragraph identify those phrases that indicate length of
time, extent of space and degree. (Do not translate into Latin.)
On the second day after the king’s death, the soldiers left the city at dawn
and marched for many hours. They grieved greatly and cared nothing for the
difficulty of the journey. Having covered fifty miles in a few days, they set up
camp a few paces from a small river and stayed there one month. During the
night of the next full moon, they returned to the city and found a new wall
nine feet high around the town.

62. Dative with Adjectives

The dative is often used with adjectives meaning friendly, unfriendly, similar, dissimilar,
faithful, suitable, fit, equal, near, etc. This use corresponds to the English idiom in most
cases.
Cōnsulēs nōbīs sunt amīcī. The consuls are friendly to us.
Locus aptus erat templō. The place was suitable for a temple.
Rōmānī dissimilēs aliīs erant. The Romans were unlike others.
Exercise 94. Bracket each dependent clause where one exists, identify the sentence
pattern in all clauses, then translate the following sentences.
1. Sī id aedificāveris, venient.
2. Nec ducēs nec mīlitēs trāns flūmen fugere audēbunt, quod aqua duodecim
  pedēs alta est.
3. Amīcus rēgīnae inimicus mihi erat.
4. Prīmā lūce Rōmānī nōbīs ignī saxīsque nocēre facile poterant.
5. Ille arbor ā flūmine vīgintī pedēs āfuit.
6. Postquam iter difficile per silvam fēcerant, nūllus mīles tōtam noctem dormīre potuit.
7. Hic in agrīs per tōtam aetātem labōrābat, sed pecūniā semper caruit.
8. Bonās lēgēs scrībere malīs difficile semper est.
9. Dum bellum gerimus, nostrī ducēs nova cōnsilia cēpērunt.
10. Sī fidēlis nōbīs nōn eris, amīcī tuī esse nōn poterimus.
Exercise 95. Translate into Latin.
1. That sea had been 20 feet deep in this place.
2. In two nights they will have finished the long journey.
3. Soldiers ought to be faithful to the leaders.
4. Because the boy was dear to (his) mother, she taught him many skills.
5. If they are unfriendly to you (pl.), should you be friendly to these nations?
 Chapter Twelve 113

6. Doing these things will be easy for me.

7. Before they came to the city, they had a lot of money.
8. Our laws were equal to those of our fathers.
9. While you (pl.) slept under that tree, another person left the body of the
  consul in the field.
10. For three years no part of these cities was free from fear.

Reading 15 (adapted)
Livy was a Roman historian who lived from 59 B.C. to A.D. 17. In this excerpt
he talks about Romulus, the founder and first king of Rome. He describes Romulus’
success as a leader and his miraculous end in the Campus Martius in Rome.
Rōmulus trēcentōsque mīlitēs ad custōdiam nōn in bellō sōlum
sed etiam in pāce habuit. ob Rōmulum urbs Rōma valuit et
quadrāgintā annōs pācem habuit postquam ille discessit. Titus
Livius fābulam dē “mortī” Rōmulī nārrāvit. Cum Rōmulus
cōntiōnem in Campō Mārtiō habēbat, subitō fuit tempestās
cum magnō fragōre et dēnsō rēgem cēlāvit nimbō, et populus
timuit. ubi post tempestātem lūx erat, Rōmānī Rōmulum nōn
vīdērunt; nec deinde in terrīs Rōmulus fuit. populus in campō
mānsit, diū enim dolēbat. tandem omnēs Rōmulum deum
habuērunt.
Vocabulary:
trēcentōs 300 fragor, -ōris m. crash (of thunder)
ad custōdiam “as a body guard” dēnsus, -a, -um thick, dense
Rōma, -ae f. Rome cēlō, -āre, -āvī to hide
cōntiō, -iōnis f. meeting, assembly nimbus, -ī m. cloud,
campus, -ī m. plain storm cloud
Mārtius, -a, -um of Mars deinde (adv.) then, afterwards
tempestās, -tātis f. storm
114 Introduction to Latin

Reading 16 (adapted)
Varro was a Roman scholar who lived from 116-27 B.C. Called “most learned of
the Romans” by Quintilian, he wrote many books, including surviving works on
the Latin language and on agriculture, the latter begun when he was 80. Here he
talks about two different ways men live and which is older.
Duae vītae sunt hominibus, rustica et urbāna, sed tempore
dīversam orīginem habent. antīquior enim rustica, quod fuit
tempus, cum agrōs colēbant hominēs neque urbem habēbant.
Immānī numerō annōrum urbānōs agricolae praestant. nec
mīrum, quod dīvīna nātūra dat agrōs, ars hūmāna aedificat
urbēs, quia artēs omnēs in Graeciā intrā mille annōrum
fuerant, sed agrī semper erant. itaque nōn sine causā maiōrēs
nostrī ex urbe in agrōs rēvēnērunt, quod et in pāce rusticī
Rōmānī eōs alēbant et in bellō adiuvābant. nec sine causā
terram appellābant mātrem.
Vocabulary:
rusticus, -a, -um rural, in the country hūmānus, -a, -um human
urbānus, -a, -um urban, in the city Graecia, -ae, f. Greece
dīversus, -a, -um different, separate intrā within
orīgō, -inis f. origin, beginning maiōrēs, -ōrum ancestors
antīquior (nom. adj.) older, more ancient m. (pl.)
colō, -ere inhabit; cultivate rēveniō, -īre, -vēnī to return,
immānis, -e huge, enormous   go back
numerus, -ī m. number alō, -ere to feed
praestō, -āre here “pre-date” adiuvō, -āre to help,
mīrus, -a, -um surprising   support
appellō, -āre to call
 Chapter Twelve 115

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. “Uter nostrum tandem, Labiēne, (Cicero; arguing that he has the
populāris est, tūne … an ego?” best interests of the people at heart)
2. Tōtam urbem īrā implēvēre. (Livy; speaking of men wanting
vengeance against the enemy for
plundering their fields)
3. Hoc dum [ea] nārrat, forte audīvī. (Terence; of eavesdropping)
4. Aliud est male dīcere, aliud accūsāre. (Cicero)
5. Sī ratiō dīvīna est, nūllum autem (Seneca)
bonum sine ratiōne est, bonum omne
dīvīnum est.
6. Sīc tōtus mundus deōrum est (Seneca – adapted)
immortālium templum.
7. Ūnā cum gente tōt annōs bella gerō. (Vergil; the goddess, Juno, talks of
her hatred for the Trojans)
8. Is ūnum Deiotarum in tōtō orbe (Cicero; describing Pompey’s
terrārum ex animō amīcum, ūnum regard for Deiotarus, an ally of the
fidēlem populō Rōmānō iūdicāvit. Romans)

Vocabulary:
populāris, -e devoted to the mundus, -ī, m. world, universe
people immortālis, -e immortal
Labiēnus, -ī m. Labienus (an ūnum here = sōlum
opponent) Deiotarus, -ī m. Deiotarus,
autem (coord. conj.) however   a foreign king
male dīcō, -ere to denounce orbis (m.) terrārum the world
accūsō, -āre to accuse

Chapter 12 Vocabulary

Nouns
arbor, arboris f. tree
flūmen, flūminis n. river
*gēns, gentis f. clan, tribe, family; nation; people
iter, itineris n. journey, path, route; a day’s march
pēs, pedis m. foot
Verbs
absum, abesse, āfuī, āfutūrus to be absent, away, distant
gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus to bear, carry on; wear
bellum gerō to wage war
116 Introduction to Latin

Adjectives
amīcus, amīca, amīcum friendly (to)
aptus, apta, aptum fit, suitable (for)
cārus, cāra, cārum dear (to)
fidēlis, fidēle faithful, loyal (to)
inimīcus, inimīca, inimīcum unfriendly, hostile (to)
pār, paris equal (to)
similis, simile similar (to), like
Adverb
forte by chance
Coordinating Conjunction
itaque and so, therefore
Subordinating Conjunctions
antequam before
cum when
dum while, as long as
postquam after; when
quia because
quod because; since
sī if
ubi when; where
(24)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 12
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. inimical 6. gerund
2. verisimilitude 7. itinerant
3. impede 8. infidel
4. adapt 9. parity
5. arboreal 10. ubiquitous
 CHAPTER 13
The Pronoun: Relative
Dependent Clauses (2)
Adjectival Use: Relative Clause
The Pronoun: Reflexive

The last chapter introduced dependent clauses that were adverbial modifiers (used like
adverbs) and marked by indeclinable words such as cum, dum and ubi. This chapter
introduces dependent clauses that are adjectival modifiers (used like adjectives) and
whose clause markers do decline. These clause markers are relative pronouns. The
chapter also introduces a fourth type of pronoun.

63. The Pronoun: Relative

The relative pronouns in English are: who, which, that; whom is the objective
(accusative) case of who, and whose is the possessive. In Latin the relative pronoun is
declined as follows:
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative quī quae quod
Genitive cuius cuius cuius
Dative cui cuī cuī
Accusative quem quam quod
Ablative quō quā quō
Plural
Nominative quī quae quae
Genitive quōrum quārum quōrum
Dative quibus quibus quibus
Accusative quōs quās quae
Ablative quibus quibus quibus

Note:
• When the ablative of these pronouns is used with cum, the preposition
is regularly written after the pronoun in one word: quōcum, quācum,
quibuscum.

117
118 Introduction to Latin

64. Adjectival Use: Relative Clause

Most relative clauses modify a noun in the main clause, playing the same role a simple
adjective plays. Compare the following English examples:
Big monsters scare me. Monsters that are big scare me.
Exercise 96. Rewrite the following sentences replacing the first adjective with a
relative clause.
1. Big monsters are often green.
2. The claws of green monsters are huge.
3. I like purple monsters better.
4. Once I gave my supper to a purple monster.
In English, the relative clause comes immediately after the noun it modifies —
this noun is often called its antecedent. In Latin this is not necessarily true, but the
antecedent will always have the same gender and number as the relative pronoun.
Because the case of a word identifies its function in its own clause, and because a
relative pronoun is in a different clause from its antecedent, the cases of the two words
are likely to be different. Compare the following examples and identify the case and
use of the relative pronoun in each example:
Virum quī fugit vidēmus. We see the man who is escaping.
Vir cuius librum puer āmīsit The man whose book the boy lost is angry.
īrātus est.
Vir cui librum dedī mē laudat. The man to whom I gave the book praises me.
Virum quem monuērunt vidēmus. We see the man whom they advised.
As with the dependent clauses you learned in the last chapter, once the relative clause starts,
the main clause does not interrupt it. Even if one dependent clause interrupts another in
a sentence, the interrupting clause must finish before the interrupted clause can continue:
We elected the man [who saved the state <that Romulus founded>] consul.
It remains a good practice, therefore, to bracket each dependent clause as you read the
sentence from left to right. Then concentrate on what the main clause means, before
you try to fit the relative clause into your translation. In time, you should be able to
read the sentence just as it appears in Latin.
Exercise 97. Bracket all the dependent clauses in the following passage, and then
translate the core items of the main clause only.
Intereā eā legiōne, quam sēcum habēbat, mīlitibusque, quī ex prōvinciā
convēnerant, ā lacū Lemannō, quī in flūmen Rhodānum īnfluit, ad montem
Iūram, quī fīnēs Sequanōrum ab Helvetiīs dīvidit, mīlia passuum XIX mūrum
in altitūdinem pedum XVI fossamque perdūcit.
 Chapter Thirteen 119

Vocabulary:
intereā (adv.) meanwhile mūrum, -ī n. wall
legiō, -iōnis f. legion fossa, -ae f. ditch
conveniō, -īre, -vēnī to gather perdūcō, -ere to construct, extend
lacus, -ūs m. lake mīlia passuum “miles” (= “thousands
īnfluō, -ere to flow into   of paces”)
Exercise 98. Draw an arrow from the dependent clause at the right to the noun in
the main clause that it modifies. Then translate the whole sentence.
1. Epistulam virō dedī. [quī ad rēgem vēnit]
2. Epistulam virō dedī. [quam ad rēgem mīsistī]
3. Epistulam virō dedī. [quem ad rēgem mīsistī]
4. Nautae ā nāvibus discēdēbant. [quōs amāmus.]
5. Nautae ā nāvibus ambulābant. [quī eās aedificāverant]
6. Nautae ā nāvibus discēdēbant. [quae celerēs erant]
Exercise 99. Translate the underlined words into Latin.
1. The laws that this man wrote are good.
2. We left the city in which many people were working.
3. I know a man whose name is Romulus.
4. The woman whom the boys saw was making dinner.
5. The girl to whom I used to give roses was pretty.
6. He sees the soldiers who are fighting.
7. You who are my mother are beautiful.
8. I who am your father will always love you.
65. The Pronoun: Reflexive
The reflexive pronoun is used to refer back to the subject of the sentence (or clause)
in which it occurs: “I see myself,” “you persuade yourself.” Because it refers back to
the subject, this pronoun does not occur in the nominative case.
In Latin, the reflexive pronouns for the first and second persons are the same as the
personal pronouns (§42). The third person reflexive pronoun is different and uses the
same forms for the singular and plural.
Reflexive Pronoun
Singular 3rd person
Genitive suī of himself, herself, itself
Dative sibi to/for himself, herself, itself
Accusative sē, sēsē himself, herself, itself
Ablative sē, sēsē (by/with...) himself, herself, itself
Plural
Genitive suī of themselves
Dative sibi to/for themselves
Accusative sē, sēsē themselves
Ablative sē, sēsē (by/with...) themselves
120 Introduction to Latin

• sēsē is sometimes used for emphasis, with no difference in meaning from sē.
Examples:
Mē laudō. I praise myself.
Tibi persuādēs. You persuade yourself.
Ille sē videt. That man sees himself.
Illa sē videt. That woman sees herself.
Ille eum videt. That man sees him (another person).
Exercise 100. Translate each of the following sentences, which have either a personal
or a reflexive pronoun in them.
1. tē videō. 9. audītisne eōs?
2. mē videō. 10. audītisne vōs?
3. eum videō. 11. audiuntne ea?
4. sē videt. 12. eīs servīmus.
5. nōs videt. 13. eī servīmus.
6. nōs vidēmus. 14. tibi servīmus.
7. eōs vidēmus. 15. mihi servit.
8. sē vident. 16. sibi servit.
Exercise 101. Bracket any dependent clauses, identify the sentence pattern in each
clause, and then translate the following sentences.
1. Paucī omnia quae incipiunt fīniunt.
2. Potēns ad sē uxōrem omnēsque amīcōs vocāvit.
3. Mīlitēs quī hōc tempore pedibus pugnābant fessī saepe fuērunt.
4. Hic quī Rōmam relīquit nec cōnsulibus nec sibi crēdidit.
5. Iter ingēns inter duo flūmina et montem altum fēcimus.
6. Fīne ūnīus annī cōnsulēs quōs Rōmānī creāvērunt discēdent.
7. Vīdistīne forte fēminam cui reliquam pecūniam dedī in mediā urbe?
8. Nāvēs in quibus rēx rēgīnaque trāns mare cum aliīs nāvigāvērunt spectāvimus.
9. Ille poēta cuius epistulam hodiē accēpimus eam partem Ītaliae incolit.
10. Dux quī ratiōnem vertit tōtam gentem quae nōbīs inimīca erat vīcit.
Exercise 102. Translate into Latin.
1. Did you watch the powerful man who said, “I came, I saw, I conquered”?
2. He put a huge rock in the middle of the field that my father had (possessed).
3. Our leaders began to wage war when they discovered new tribes across the
 mountains.
4. We will find the boy who did this before he runs to the master.
5. Have you sent the letter that you wrote to the soldier?
6. They will learn many difficult things if they work for a long time.
7. Rome is a huge city, which is dear to the people.
8. I used to love the man who was speaking.
 Chapter Thirteen 121

Reading 17 (adapted)
Eutropius summarizes the accomplishments of Rome’s last king, Lucius Tarquinius
Superbus, called “superbus” (“proud”) for his arrogance. According to this account,
his son brought about the end of Rome’s rule by kings when he raped Lucretia,
another man’s wife. She demanded that her husband and father avenge this
outrage, and then killed herself, triggering a revolution that led to the Roman
Republic. Lucretia became a famous symbol of chastity and faithfulness for the
Romans.
L. Tarquinius Superbus, septimus atque ultimus rēgum,
Volscōs, gentem quae nōn longē ab urbe est, vīcit, cum Tuscīs
pācem fēcit et templum Iovis in Capitōliō aedificāvit. Posteā
dum Ardeam oppugnat, imperium perdidit. Nam cum fīlius
eius, Tarquinius iunior, nobilissimam fēminam Lucrētiam,
Collātīnī uxōrem, stūprāvit, postquam eā dē iniūriā coniugī
et patrī et amīcīs nārrāvit, in omnium cōnspectū sē occidit.
Propter hanc causam Brūtus, populum concitāvit et Tarquiniō
adēmit imperium.
continued
Vocabulary:
ultimus, -a, -um last nobilissimus, -a, -um most noble
potestās, -tātis, f. power
Volscī, -ōrum m. (pl.) Volscans (Italian tribe) coerceō, -ēre to restrain
in apposition to gentem Lucrētia, -ae f. Lucretia (proper
longē (adv.) far, distant   name)
Tuscī, -ōrum m. (pl.) Tuscans (a neighboring Collātīnus, -ī m. Collatinus (proper
Italian tribe)   name)
Iuppiter, Iovis m. Jupiter stūprō, -āre, -āvī to rape
Capitōlium, -iī n. Capitoline (one of the iniūria, -ae f. injury, violence
  seven hills of Rome) cōnspectū (abl.) sight, view
posteā (adv.) after this, afterwards occīdō, -ere, -īdī to kill
Ardea, -ae f. Ardea (a neighboring Brūtus, -ī m. Brutus, nephew of
 town)   king Tarquinius
oppugnō, -āre to attack concitō, -āre, -āvī to incite, stir up
perdō, -ere, -didī to destroy, lose adimō, -ere, adēmī to deprive, take
iunior (nom.) “junior,” the younger   (+ acc. and dat.)   away from
122 Introduction to Latin

continued
Mox mīlitēs, quī cīvitātem Ardeam cum rēge oppugnābant,
eum relīquērunt, et cum vēnit ad urbem rēx portae clausae
erant. quamquam rēxerat annōs quattuor et vīgintī, cum uxōre
et līberīs fūgit. Ita Rōma rēcta est per septem rēgēs annōs duo
centum et quadrāgintā trēs. Hinc Rōmānī cōnsulēs, prō ūnō
rēge, duo hāc causā creāvērunt: sī ūnus malus esse optāvit, alter,
quī habēbat potestātem similem, eum coercēre potuit.
Vocabulary:
mox (adv.) soon līberī, -ōrum, m. (pl.) children
porta, -ae f. gate rēcta est “was ruled”
clausus, -a, -um shut, closed hinc (adv.) after this (time)

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Nōn omnēs quī habent citharam sunt (Varro)
citharoedī.
2. Hominēs, dum docent, discunt. (Seneca)
3. Nōn caret is quī nōn dēsīderat. (Cicero)
4. Per trepidam turbam sibi fēcerat viam. (Livy – adapted; an assassin tries
to escape in a crowd)
5. Rīsī tē hodiē multum. (Plautus; one character mocks
another)
6. Omnēs, quī tum eōs agrōs, ubi hodiē (Cicero – adapted; describing
est haec urbs, incolēbant, aequō Romulus’ rule)
animō illī pāruērunt.
7. Bis vincit ille quī sē vincit in victōriā. (Publilius Syrus – adapted;
advice on being a humble winner)
8. … mihi Delphica terra (Ovid – adapted; Apollo is trying
et Claros et Tenedos Patareaque rēgia to impress a girl who is fleeing his
servit; Iuppiter est pater; per mē, id advances)
quod eritque fuitque
estque patet.
 Chapter Thirteen 123

Vocabulary:
cithara, -ae f. cithara, lyre Tenedos, -ī f. Tenedos (an island
citharoedus, -ī m. lyre player   near Troy)
dēsīderō, -āre to desire Patareus, -a, -um of Pataraea (a city
trepidus, -a, -um restless, alarmed   in Lycia)
bis (adv.) twice rēgia, -ae f. court, palace
victōria, -ae f. victory pateō, -ēre to lie open, be clear
Delphicus, -a, -um of Delphi
Claros, -ī f. Claros (an island,
  or a city in Asia
 Minor)

Chapter 13 Vocabulary

Nouns
epistula, epistulae f. letter
*fīnis, fīnis m. end; border; (pl.) boundary, territory
*mōns, montis m. mountain
*nāvis, nāvis f. ship
Rōma, Rōmae f. Rome
uxor, uxōris f. wife
Verbs
accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus to receive
currō, currere, cucurrī, cursūrus to run
concurrō, concurrere   to charge, rush together, clash
concucurrī, concursūrus
discō, discere, didicī to learn
incolō, incolere, incoluī to inhabit, to live in
inveniō, invenīre, invēnī, inventus to find; discover, invent
pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus to put, place
spectō, spectāre, spectāvī, spectātus to watch, look at
vertō, vertere, vertī, versus to turn, turn around; destroy; change
vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus to conquer; win
Adjectives
fessus, fessa, fessum tired
medius, media, medium middle; middle of (medium mare =
  “the middle of the sea”)
paucī, paucae, pauca (pl.) few
reliquus, reliqua, reliquum remaining, rest (of )
Adverbs
hodiē today
ita thus, so, in this way
124 Introduction to Latin

Pronouns
quī, quae, quod who, which, that – *functions as a
  subordinating conjunction
suī, sibi, sē himself, herself, itself, themselves
Coordinating Conjunction
nam (sometimes used as a particle) for (= because); indeed, truly
(24)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 13
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. vertigo 6. paucity
2. navy 7. invincible
3. inventory 8. suicide
4. piedmont 9. spectator
5. postpone 10. infinity
 CHAPTER 14
Passive Voice (1)
Present Passive Indicative
Imperfect Passive Indicative
Future Passive Indicative
Present Passive Infinitive
Sentence Pattern: Passive
Ablative of Agent

So far you have learned all the indicative forms in the active voice for all four
conjugations. This chapter introduces the passive voice, with passive forms of the
present, imperfect and future tenses, and a new sentence pattern in which they appear.
It also introduces a new use of the ablative case.
66. Passive Voice (1)
A verb in the active voice indicates that the subject is doing the action. A verb in the
passive voice indicates that the subject is being acted upon.
Active Passive
He is carrying. He is being carried.
They eat. They are being eaten.

Exercise 103. In the following passage, copy out all verbs you think are passive and
see if you can generate a “rule” for forming the passive in English based on your
examples.
As the English language began its formation from the earlier Germanic 1
languages, there were many changes. One was the loss of the passive voice. 2
Although it existed in the Germanic language, as the Indo-European language 3
branched off, the passive voice was not carried over. Thus, the passive voice 4
is nearly nonexistent in Old English. The structure of the language was such 5
that the passive form simply was not used. Slowly, though, the language 6
was changing, and the passive voice was introduced. The first example that 7
is most commonly cited in the history of the English language is that of 8
the verb “building”. In the sentence “The house was building,” the speaker 9
means “the house was being built”, but without the passive form, this was 10
the only structure available. At first only certain verbs could be transformed 11
into the passive, and there was great resistance to its use at all. One scholar 12
has noted that “the usage is fully accepted only in the 16th century, not in 13
literature but in informal and private papers … but [otherwise] it does not 14
125
126 Introduction to Latin

come into the open till the end of the 18th century.” From that point on, 15
use of the passive continued to develop, and today the passive voice is so 16
accepted and frequently used that many people do not even notice it. 17
In Latin, the passive voice for the present, imperfect and future tenses is signalled by
personal endings that are different from those you learned for the active voice (§5).
These endings are added to the stem of the verb just as the active endings are. The
personal endings for the passive indicative are the same for all conjugations:
Singular Plural
1st person -r I am     ed -mur We are     ed
2nd person -ris, -re You are     ed -minī You, you all are     ed
3rd person -tur He, she, it is     ed -ntur They are     ed

Note: The alternate -re ending for the second person singular appears mostly in poetry
and will not be stressed in this book.
Sample translations of the present, imperfect, and future passives:
present: amātur he (she, it) is loved, he is being loved
imperfect: amābātur he was being loved, he kept being loved,
he used to be loved
future: amābitur he will be loved
67. Present Passive Indicative
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. –iō 4th Conj. Endings
1st sg. amor moneor regor capior audior -r
2nd sg. amāris monēris regeris caperis audīris -ris
3rd sg. amātur monētur regitur capitur audītur -tur
1st pl. amāmur monēmur regimur capimur audīmur -mur
2nd pl. amāminī monēminī regiminī capiminī audīminī -minī
3rd pl. amantur monentur reguntur capiuntur audiuntur -ntur

Exercise 104. Following the model verbs above, conjugate praebeō and trahō in the
present passive indicative, singular and plural.
Exercise 105. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number, tense and
voice, then give an English translation.
1. iūdicāmur 8. dūcor
2. audīris 9. tenētur
3. raperis 10. moventur
4. docēminī 11. volvimur
5. laudantur 12. relinquuntur
6. cōnstititur 13. iactātur
7. fīniuntur 14. invenior
 Chapter Fourteen 127

68. Imperfect Passive Indicative

The imperfect passive, like the active (§35, §48), is formed with the tense sign -bā-
between the verb stem and the personal endings in all four conjugations:
1st 2nd 3rd 3rd –iō 4th
1st sg. amābar monēbar regēbar capiēbar audiēbar
2nd sg. amābāris monēbāris regēbāris capiēbāris audiēbāris
3rd sg. amābātur monēbātur regēbātur capiēbātur audiēbātur
1st pl. amābāmur monēbāmur regēbāmur capiēbāmur audiēbāmur
2nd pl. amābāminī monēbāminī regēbāminī capiēbāminī audiēbāminī
3rd pl. amābantur monēbantur regēbantur capiēbantur audiēbantur

Exercise 106. Following the model verbs above, conjugate spectō, teneō and pōnō
in the imperfect passive indicative, singular and plural.
69. Future Passive Indicative
The future passive of first and second conjugation verbs can be recognized by the
tense sign -bi- between the verb stem and the personal endings, with -bo- and -bu- in
the first singular and third plural forms respectively, like the future active (§36), and
-be- in the second person singular. The future passive of third and fourth conjugation
verbs, like the future active (§49), uses the vowel -ē- (-a- in the first singular form,
-e- in the third plural) before the ending:
1st 2nd 3rd 3rd –iō 4th
1st sg. amābor monēbor regar capiar audīar
2nd sg. amāberis monēberis regēris capiēris audiēris
3rd sg. amābitur monēbitur regētur capiētur audiētur
1st pl. amābimur monēbimur regēmur capiēmur audiēmur
2nd pl. amābiminī monēbiminī regēminī capiēminī audiēminī
3rd pl. amābuntur monēbuntur regentur capientur audientur

Note in the second person singular of the third conjugation, the distinction between
present and future is only the length of the stem vowel. This is not an issue for 3rd
-iō forms:
Present (short -e-) Future (long -ē-)
regeris regēris
caperis capiēris

Exercise 107. Following the model verbs above, conjugate iūdicō, vincō and fīniō in
the future passive indicative, singular and plural.
128 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 108. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number, tense and
voice, then give an English translation.
1. pōnēbāminī 8. pōnar
2. docētur 9. monēberis
3. vincentur 10. spectābitur
4. traheris 11. volvuntur
5. āmittēris 12. dūcimur
6. spectābantur 13. rapiēbar
7. cōnstituēbātur 14. iactāris
Exercise 109. Transform each of the following present passive forms into the passive
imperfect or future, as indicated, and then translate the new form.
Example: vincitur (future) vincētur – he will be conquered
1. spectāmur (imperfect) 6. legor (future)
2. cōnstituntur (future) 7. mittor (imperfect)
3. dēbētur (future) 8. vocātur (future)
4. invenīris (imperfect) 9. sentiuntur (imperfect)
5. fīnīminī (future) 10. volvimur (future)
Exercise 110. Translate the underlined words into Latin.
1. He kept being rolled by the waves. 5. We will be sent on a quest soon.
2. You (sg.) will be placed on a throne. 6. The cart is being pulled by the
3. Time was lost while we said   horse.
 goodbye. 7. Were you (pl.) warned repeatedly?
4. The girls are being disturbed. 8. The money will be held by the king.

70. Present Passive Infinitive

The present passive infinitive of the first, second and fourth conjugations is formed
by changing the final -e of the active infinitive to an -ī:
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 4th Conj.
amārī to be loved monērī to be advised audīrī to be heard
laudārī to be praised vidērī to be seen fīnīrī to be finished

The present passive infinitive of the third conjugation is formed by replacing the
whole -ere of the active infinitive with an -i:
3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō
regī to be ruled capī to be taken
pōnī to be put rapī to be seized
 Chapter Fourteen 129

Exercise 111. Transform each of the following active infinitive forms into the passive,
and then translate the new form.
Example: spectāre spectārī – to be watched
1. invenīre 5. habēre
2. miscēre 6. pōnere
3. vincere 7. aedificāre
4. iactāre 8. sentīre

71. Sentence Pattern: Passive

So far you have learned five sentence patterns 1) Transitive (§4), 2) Intransitive (§4),
3) Linking (§33), 4) Special Intransitive (§44), and 5) Factitive (§47).
The last major sentence pattern is the passive. This pattern has two elements:
Passive
• subject
• passive verb
In this pattern, the direct object of the transitive pattern becomes the subject in the
passive pattern, and the subject of the transitive pattern may be omitted altogether.
This is handy when one doesn’t want to name the person doing an action, as in the
sentence “Mistakes were made.” Compare the following:
transitive pattern: Fēmina rosam tenet. The woman holds a rose.
passive pattern: Rosa tenētur. A rose is (being) held.
Exercise 112. Omit the subject of the original sentence for now and transform each
of the following transitive sentences into the passive. Then translate the new sentence.
Example: Dux lēgēs scrībit. Lēgēs scrībuntur. – The laws are (being) written.
1. Vir amīcōs vocābat. 5. Uxor ignem portat.
2. Puellae aquam habent. 6. Homō casam aedificābit.
3. Ego tē amō. 7. Hostēs pecūniam rapiunt.
4. Poēta carmen scrībit. 8. Nōs vidētis.

72. Ablative of Agent

With a passive verb, the person (or animal) by whom something is done is expressed
with the preposition ā/ab plus an animate object. This use is called the ablative of
agent.
• Agent — the person by whom something is done
Puer bonus ā patre laudātur. The good boy is praised by his father.
Aqua ab agricolā portābātur. The water was being carried by the farmer.
If the action is done by a thing rather than a person, Latin uses the same ablative
without a preposition, which you learned in Chapter 4 (§23):
• Means (Instrument) — the thing by or with which something is done
Bellum armīs pugnātur. The war is being fought with (by means of )
 weapons.
130 Introduction to Latin

Remember that an ablative of agent can only occur when the noun is animate. Be
aware that in a passive sentence it is possible to have a prepositional phrase with ā/ab
that does not indicate agent:
Fēminae ab agrīs mittuntur. The women are being sent away from the fields.
Exercise 113. Go back to Exercise 112 and add the ablative of agent to the sentences
you transformed. Follow the example below.
Example: Lēgēs ā duce scrībuntur. The laws are (being) written by the leader.
Exercise 114. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Illa urbs ā Rōmānīs cōnstituitur.
2. Hic puer ā frātre meō laudātur.
3. Uterque nostrum opēs magnās, sed neuter imperium habet.
4. Poēta quī dīcēbat nec ā puerīs nec puellīs audīrī poterat.
5. Arma in proelium ab mīlitibus portābuntur.
6. Caelum in quō ventīs nūbēs aguntur spectāmus.
7. Ingentēs undae ad lītus volvēbantur, dum nautae nāvēs parant.
8. Per tōtum annum contrā Ītaliam bellum gerēbātur.
9. Sī lēgātō inimīcus es, ā duce īrātō in flūmen trahēris.
10. Ad montem pedibus iter longum ab illīs incipitur.
Exercise 115. Translate into Latin.
1. Love conquers many people, but are all things conquered by love?
2. We are led by such a great love of our state.
3. While he was alive, your friend was always received with great honor in Italy.
4. A letter ought to be sent to my wife.
5. These are the two consuls, who were being elected by the Romans.
6. In a short time, many new families will have come into our city.
7. They are running away from the crowd, which is standing opposite the temple.
8. You (pl.) kept being warned to be good.
9. The race of gods is truly free from fear.
10. The soldier’s letter is being read by our brother.

Reading 18 (adapted)
Pliny the Younger writes to a friend who has asked about the eruption of Mt.
Vesuvius in A.D. 79. See the view of Mt. Vesuvius from Pompeii on p. 290.
Praecesserat per multōs diēs tremor terrae; illā vērō
nocte invaluit, et nōn sōlum movērī omnia sed etiam vertī
crēdēbantur. Irrūpit cubiculum meum māter; iam surrēxī
et sēdimus in areā domūs, quae inter mare et tēctum erat.
forsitan propter imprudentiam (agēbam enim XVIII annum)
poscō librum Titī Livī, quod legēbam. Amīcus avunculī quī
ad eum ex Hispāniā vēnerat, ubi mē et mātrem sedentēs, mē
vērō etiam legentem videt, nōs corripuit. Iam hōra diēī prīma,
 Chapter Fourteen 131

et omnia tēcta quassābant; quamquam in apertō locō, angustō

tamen erāmus, magnus ruīnae timor nōbīs est. Tum dēmum
discēdimus ab oppidō multīs cum aliīs.
Multa nova vidēbāmus: mare in sē resorbēbātur et prōcesserat
lītus, multaque animālia maris siccīs harēnīs dētinēbat. Ab
alterō latere nūbēs ātra et horrenda longīs flammīs rumpēbātur.
Tum vērō ille ex Hispāniā amīcus ācrius ‘Sī frāter’ dīxit ‘tuus,
tuus avunculus vīvit, optat vestram salūtem; sī periit, superstitēs
optat.
Vocabulary:
praecēdō, -ere, -cessī to precede angustus, -a, -um narrow
diēs, -ēī m. day ruīna, -ae f. falling down (of a
tremor, -ōris m. tremor, shaking   building)
invalescō, -ere, -valuī to grow strong dēmum (adv.) finally, at last
irrumpō, -ere, -rūpī to rush into oppidum, -ī n. town
cubiculum, -ī n. bedroom resorbeō, -ēre to suck back, swallow
area, -ae f. courtyard   again
domūs (gen. sg.) house prōcēdō, -ere, -cessī to advance
tēctum, -ī n. building, house animāl, -is n. living; subst. “animal”
forsitan perhaps siccīs harēnīs (abl. pl.) “on the dry sand”
imprudentia, -ae f. ignorance dētineō, -ēre to keep back
agēbam annum “I was in my latus, -eris n. side
  year” āter, -tra, -trum black
poscō, -ere to demand, ask for horrendus, -a, -um terrible
Titus Livius m. Livy (the historian) flamma, -ae f. flame
avunculus, -ī m. uncle rumpō, -ere, -rūpī to break
Hispānia, -ae f. Spain ācrius (adv.) more urgently
sedentēs (acc. pl.) “sitting” salūs, -ūtis f. safety
legentem (acc. sg.) “reading” pereō, -ere, -iī to die, be dead
corripiō, -ere, -uī to rebuke, chide superstes, -itis surviving, outliving;
quassō, -āre to shake violently   subst. “survivor”
apertus, -a, -um open
132 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
Identify the form and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Mittuntur etiam ad eās cīvitātēs lēgātī. (Caesar)
2. Erunt etiam altera bella atque iterum ad (Vergil; giving a prophecy for
Trōiam magnus mittētur Achillēs. Rome)
3. Laudātur ab hīs, culpātur ab illīs. (Horace; of a man who goes
to one extreme trying to avoid
another)
4. Ā fīliīs in iūdicium vocābātur. (Cicero)
5. “Ō fortūnātī, quōrum iam moenia surgunt!” (Vergil; Aeneas envies Dido’s
people who are building their city)
6. Nam sī āmittī vīta beāta potest, beāta esse (Cicero)
nōn potest.
7. Semper pauper eris, sī pauper es, Aemiliāne: (Martial)
dantur opēs nūllīs nunc nisi dīvitibus.
8. Flūmen sub undīs scūta virōrum galeāsque (Vergil – adapted; of Trojans
et fortia corpora volvit. killed in the war with the Greeks)

Vocabulary:
iterum (adv.) again, a second beātus, -a, -um happy, blessed
time pauper, -is (adj.) poor
Achillēs (nom.) Achilles (a Greek Aemiliānus, -ī m. Aemilianus
  hero who fought   (proper name)
  at Troy) nisi if … not, unless
culpō, -āre, -āvī, to blame dīvēs, -itis (adj.) rich
-ātus scūtum, ī n. shield
fortūnātus, -a, -um lucky, fortunate galea, -ae f. helmet

Chapter 14 Vocabulary

Nouns
genus, generis n. birth, origin; kind; race
honor, honōris m. honor, respect; public office
*hostis, hostis m. (usually in pl.) enemy
n.b. hostis is an enemy of the state; inimīcus (Ch. 12) is a personal enemy
iūdicium, iūdiciī n. court; trial; judgment
lēgātus, lēgātī m. delegate, envoy, ambassador;
  legion commander
lītus, lītoris n. shore, beach, coast
nūbēs, nūbis f. cloud
ops, opis f. power, help; (pl.) wealth, resources
Trōia, Trōiae, f. Troy
unda, undae f. wave, waters; sea
 Chapter Fourteen 133

Verbs
āmittō, āmittere, āmīsī, āmissus to lose
cōnstituō, cōnstituere, cōnstituī, to decide, appoint, establish
cōnstitūtus
rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptus to seize, snatch, carry off
stō, stāre, stetī, statūrus to stand
surgō, surgere, surrēxī, surrēctus to get up, (a)rise
trahō, trahere, trāxī, tractus to drag, pull; derive
videor, vidērī, vīsus sum to seem (see Ch. 15); be seen
(often with dative of the person) “it seems best to ”
vīvō, vīvere, vīxī to live, be alive
volvō, volvere, volvī, volūtus to roll, turn/twist around
Adjectives
tantus, tanta, tantum so much, so great
tantum  only
uterque, utraque, utrumque both, each (of two)
Adverb
vērō (postpositive) in fact, truly, indeed
Prepositions
ā, ab (+ animate noun, in a passive by
sentence)
contrā (+ acc.) opposite; against; (adv.)
contrā (adv.)   in reply; face to face
(24)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 14
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. vivacious 6. revolve
2. generic 7. insurrection
3. inundate 8. tractor
4. judicial 9. opulent
5. constitution 10. raptor
Caesar’s Gaul
 CHAPTER 15
Passive Voice (2)
Perfect Passive Indicative
Pluperfect Passive Indicative
Future Perfect Passive Indicative
Perfect Passive Infinitive
Linking Sentence Pattern Revisited
Possessive Adjectives and Possession Using Eius
Ablative of Specification (Respect)

So far you have learned the perfect active forms (Ch. 11), and the present, future and
imperfect passive forms of all four conjugations (Ch. 14). This chapter introduces the
perfect passive indicative system for all conjugations.

Passive Voice (2)

Latin constructs passive verb forms in the perfect system by combining the fourth
principal part with different tenses of sum. The fourth principal part is a participle (a
verbal adjective), whose ending agrees with the subject in gender and number (see the
examples in §73 below).
73. Perfect Passive Indicative
The perfect passive indicative is formed by combining the fourth principal part with
the present tense forms of sum.
1st sg. amātus (-a, -um) sum I was loved/have been loved
2nd sg. amātus (-a, -um) es You were loved/have been loved
3rd sg. amātus (-a, -um) est He, she, it was loved/etc.
1st pl. amātī (-ae, -a) sumus We were loved
2nd pl. amātī (-ae, -a) estis You were loved
3rd pl. amātī (-ae, -a) sunt They were loved

Compare the following participle endings, which agree with the subject of the
sentence, in the following examples:
Equus vīsus est. The horse was / has been seen.
Haec cīvitās rēcta est. This state was / has been ruled.
Hoc carmen audītum est. This song was / has been heard.
Hominēs doctī sunt. The men were / have been taught.

135
136 Introduction to Latin

Remember (§54) that the perfect tense in Latin can either correspond to the simple
past tense in English (historical perfect: “I was seen”) or stress the present result of a
past action (present perfect: “I have been seen”).
Exercise 116. Following the model verb above, conjugate misceō and vincō in the
perfect passive indicative, singular and plural.
Exercise 117. Change each of the following perfect active forms into perfect passive,
then translate.
Example: rēximus rēctī sumus; “we have been ruled” or “we were ruled”
1. posuit 7. cōnstituimus
2. cēpī 8. rapuit
3. āmīsimus 9. ēgistī
4. trāxērunt 10. volvistis
5. sēnsistis 11. vertērunt
6. petiī 12. spectāvēre
74. Pluperfect Passive Indicative
The pluperfect passive indicative is formed by combining the fourth principal part
with the imperfect forms of sum.
1st sg. amātus (-a, -um) eram I had been loved
2nd sg. amātus (-a, -um) erās You had been loved
3rd sg. amātus (-a, -um) erat He, she, it had been loved
1st pl. amātī (-ae, -a) erāmus We had been loved
2nd pl. amātī (-ae, -a) erātis You had been loved
3rd pl. amātī (-ae, -a) erant They had been loved

Exercise 118. Following the model verb above, conjugate habeō and vertō in the
pluperfect passive indicative, singular and plural.
Exercise 119. Translate into Latin, using the appropriate principal part from below:
audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus to hear
condō, condere, condidī, conditus to found, build, establish
creō, creāre, creāvī, creātus to elect
pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus to put, place
1. we were establishing 8. it had been placed
2. they were established 9. they were being placed
3. he had founded 10. they have been placed
4. it had been founded 11. you (sg.) are elected
5. she was heard 12. you (sg.) were elected
6. she had been heard 13. you (pl.) have been elected
7. she had heard 14. you (pl.) had been elected
75. Future Perfect Passive Indicative
The future perfect passive indicative is formed by combining the fourth principal
part with the future forms of sum.
 Chapter Fifteen 137

1st sg. amātus (-a, -um) erō I shall have been loved
2nd sg. amātus (-a, -um) eris You will have been loved
3rd sg. amātus (-a, -um) erit He, she, it will have been loved
1st pl. amātī (-ae, -a) erimus We shall have been loved
2nd pl. amātī (-ae, -a) eritis You will have been loved
3rd pl. amātī (-ae, -a) erunt They will have been loved

Exercise 120. Following the model verb above, conjugate relinquō and fīniō in the
future perfect passive indicative, singular and plural.
Exercise 121. All the verbs in this exercise are passive. Identify each by person,
number and tense, then translate.
Example: caesus erat third singular pluperfect of caedō: “he had been killed”
1. incēnsum est 6. tractī erant
2. audītī erimus 7. raptus es
3. spectāta erat 8. cōnstitūtum erat
4. ācta sunt 9. monitae erunt
5. scrīpta erunt 10. inventa erant

76. Perfect Passive Infinitive

The perfect passive infinitive is formed by combining the fourth principal part with
the infinitive of sum:
Conjugation
First amātus (-a, -um) esse to have been loved
Second monitus (-a, -um) esse to have been advised
Third rēctus (-a, -um) esse to have been ruled
Fourth audītus (-a, -um) esse to have been heard

Exercise 122. Change each of the following present passive infinitives into perfect
passive infinitives, then translate.
Example: docērī doctus esse; “to have been taught”
1. pōnī 5. frangī
2. fīnīrī 6. clāmārī
3. iactārī 7. gerī
4. prohibērī 8. invenīrī

77. Linking Sentence Pattern Revisited

In Chapter 5 (§33) you learned about the Linking Sentence Pattern, in which a linking
verb connects a subject to a subject complement in the same case: vir est potēns
(the man is powerful). Chapter 8 (§47) introduced the Factitive Sentence Pattern, in
which certain verbs require two accusative objects in a special relationship: vir ducem
bonum habet (the man considers the leader good).
138 Introduction to Latin

Passive forms of these verbs frequently occur in linking sentence patterns:

ille Rōmulus appellātur that man is called Romulus
duo virī cōnsulēs creātī erant two men had been elected consuls
Rōmulus rēx bonus habitus est Romulus was considered a good king
vōs amīcī iūdicāminī you (pl.) are judged (to be) friends/friendly
vocor fortis. I am called brave
Another common verb in a linking sentence pattern is the passive form of videō,
which you saw in Chapter 14:
Rōma vidētur magna Rome seems big

78. Possessive Adjectives and Possession Using Eius

• Possessive Adjectives
Since Chapter 5 you have been seeing “possessive” adjectives for the first and
second persons: meus, -a, -um (“my”); tuus, -a, -um (“your” sg.); noster,
nostra, nostrum (“our”); vester, vestra, vestrum (“your” pl.). These adjectives
may refer back to the subject (reflexive) or not.
Vidēmus casam nostram. We see our (own) house. (reflexive)
Videt casam nostram. He sees our house. (not reflexive)
In Latin, the possessive adjective for the third person is always reflexive,
refering to the subject as the possessor:
suus, -a, -um his (her, its, their) own
Puer videt casam suam. The boy sees his own house.
Puella videt suum equum. The girl sees her own horse.
Remember that since these words are adjectives, they must agree with the
noun they modify in case, number and gender.
• Possession using Eius
To indicate possession for the third person when it is not reflexive, Latin uses
the genitive of the pronoun is, ea, id (§46).
Vidēmus casam eius. We see his house.
  (literally “the house of him”)
Capiō arma eōrum. I am taking their weapons.
  (“the weapons of them”)
Be careful to distinquish between this and the use of suus, -a, -um. Compare
the following examples:
Arma sua videt. He sees his own weapons.
Arma eius videt. He sees his (someone else’s) weapons.
Exercise 123. Translate into Latin.
1. They see our friends. 4. He was carrying her books.
2. They see their own friends. 5. He carries his own books.
3. We teach ourselves. 6. He will carry their books.
 Chapter Fifteen 139

Exercise 124. Translate each of the following sentences, which have pronouns and/
or possessive adjectives.
1. eam relinquit. 11. sē docuit.
2. ea relīquit. 12. ille suam uxōrem amāvit.
3. eius frātrem relīquērunt. 13. ille eius uxōrem amāvit (!)
4. suum frātrem relīquērunt. 14. in tuam urbem vēnīmus.
5. suum frātrem relīquit. 15. in tuam urbem vēnistī.
6. nostram fīliam laudāvimus. 16. in vestram urbem vēnit.
7. eius fīliam laudāvimus. 17. ex vestrā urbī vēnistis.
8. meam fīliam laudāvī. 18. ex suā urbī vēnit.
9. mē laudāvī. 19. sibi crēdidit.
10. eum docuimus. 20. suae coniugī crēdidit.

79. Ablative of Specification (Respect)

The ablative without a preposition is used to show in what respect something is or is
done:
Vir corpore aeger, nōn animō est. The man is weak in body, but not in spirit.
Dux nōmine erat. He was commander in name.
This use of the ablative often occurs with the adjectives dignus and indignus:
Hī laude dignī sunt. They are worthy of praise.
Haec indigna homine līberō sunt. These things are unworthy of a free man.
Exercise 125. List all the uses of the ablative case you have had so far and indicate
which of these uses require a preposition and which do not.
Exercise 126. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Urbs ā reliquīs cīvibus magnō cum dolōre relicta erat.
2. Cum surgunt et in iūdiciō stant, nostrī ducēs bonī esse videntur.
3. Ille fuit locus in quō urbs Rōmāna condita erat.
4. Mīlitēs quī in bellō pugnāverant ab omnibus cīvibus vīsī sunt.
5. Rēx Trōiae dignus magnā laude ā suō populō habitus est.
6. Dī vērō etiam fatō rēctī sunt.
7. Virī in perīcula quae nōn vitārī poterant missī sunt.
8. Hostēs longum tempus hāc urbe prohibitī erant.
9. Postquam proelium incēpit, mīlitēs nūmen secundum ōrāvērunt.
10. Nāvēs cēterae ingentibus undīs et ventīs frāctae sunt.
140 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 127. Translate into Latin.

1. Those dangers had been avoided.
2. The army was led through the countryside of this province by the brave leader.
3. With great labor the truth was discovered by us.
4. Were your letters written during the night?
5. The soldiers were carried around the walls of Troy and into battle by many horses.
6. Romulus seemed to be loved by everyone.
7. Is that delegate considered worthy of our respect?
8. The others will come into their own city, which is on the tall mountain.
9. When the new city was founded, all the Romans were called fortunate.
10. The wealth, which the citizens had received, was suddenly seized by the enemy.

Reading 19 (adapted)
Caesar (102 – 44 B.C.) wrote accounts of two of his great military campaigns.
This selection comes from the beginning of his Gallic Wars and describes the
various peoples and customs of Gaul. See map of Caesar’s Gaul on p. 134.
Gallia est omnis dīvīsa in partēs trēs, quārum ūnam incolunt
Belgae, aliam Aquītānī, tertiam (eī), quī linguā nostrā Gallī
appellantur. hī omnēs linguā, īnstitūtīs, lēgibus inter sē
differunt. Gallōs ab Aquītānīs Garumna flūmen, ā Belgīs
Mātrona et Sēquana dīvidit. hōrum omnium fortissimī sunt
Belgae, quod ā cultū atque hūmānitāte (nostrae) prōvinciae
longissimē absunt, proximīque sunt Germānīs, quī trāns
Rhēnum incolunt, quibuscum semper bellum gerunt. itaque
Helvētiī quoque reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecēdunt, quod saepe
proeliīs cum Germānīs contendunt, cum aut suīs fīnibus eōs
prohibent, aut in eōrum fīnibus bellum gerunt.
Vocabulary:
dīvidō, -ere, -vīsī, to divide fortissimī (nom. pl.) “bravest”
-vīsus cultus, -ūs m. civilization
Belgae, -ārum m. (pl.) Belgians hūmānitās, -tātis f. refinement
Aquītānī, Aquitanians longissimē (adv.) furthest
-ōrum m. (pl.) proximus, -a, -um nearest
Gallī, -ōrum m. (pl.) Gauls Rhēnus, -ī m. Rhine (a river)
lingua, -ae f. language Helvētiī, Helvetians
īnstitūtum, -ī n. way of life   -ōrum m. (pl.)
differō, -ferre to differ quoque (adv.) also
Garumna, -ae f. Garonne (a river) praecēdō, -ere to surpass, excel
Mātrona, -ae f. Marne (a river) contendō, -ere to contend,
Sēquana, -ae f. Seine (a river)   fight
 Chapter Fifteen 141

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Nēmō enim patriam quia magna est (Seneca)
amat, sed quia sua.
2. Condidit urbem Rōmulus quam ex (Eutropius)
nōmine suō Rōmam vocāvit.
3. Vīta enim mortuōrum in memoriā est (Cicero)
posita vīvōrum.
4. Ille mī pār esse deō vidētur, (Catullus – adapted; the poet
ille, sī fās est, superāre dīvōs. envies the man sitting beside
Lesbia, his own beloved)
5. Prīma dedit lēgēs; Cereris sunt omnia (Ovid; a Muse sings in praise of
mūnus; Ceres)
… Certē dea carmine digna est.
6. Ab eō locō in fīnēs Ambianōrum (Caesar; a Gallic tribe reacts to
pervēnit, quī sē suaque omnia sine the arrival of Caesar’s army)
morā dedidērunt.
7. Aliīs ego tē virtūtibus, … gravitātis, (Cicero – adapted; speaking to a
iūstitiae, …, cēterīs omnibus, omnī rival in court)
honōre semper dignum iūdicāvī.
8. Fortibus est fortūna virīs data. (Ennius)

Vocabulary:
mortuus, -a, -um dead mūnus, -eris n. gift
vīvus, -a, -um living, alive certē (adv.) surely
memoria, -ae f. memory Ambianī, -ōrum Ambiani (a tribe
mī = mihi   in Gaul)
dīvōs = deōs perveniō, -īre, vēni to arrive, come
fās (n. indecl.) right   through
Cerēs, -eris f. Ceres, goddess dēdō, -ere, dedidī to surrender
  of grain gravitās, -tātis f. gravity, dignity
iūstitia, -ae f. justice, fairness

142 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 15 Vocabulary

Nouns
*cīvis, cīvis m. or f. citizen
dolor, dolōris m. pain, sorrow
equus, equī m. horse
humus, humī f. ground, earth
Gallia, Galliae f. Gaul
labor, labōris m. work, labor, effort; hardship
laus, laudis f. praise
pectus, pectoris n. breast, chest; heart
perīculum, perīculī n. danger
proelium, proeliī n. battle
prōvincia, prōvinciae f. province
rūs, rūris n. the country(side)
Verbs
condō, condere, condidī, conditus to found, build, establish
frangō, frangere, frēgī, frāctus to break, shatter, wreck
incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus to set fire to, burn; inflame
prohibeō, prohibēre, prohibuī, to prohibit, keep from – to keep
prohibitus   someone (acc.) from something (abl.
 – separation)
vītō, vītāre, vītāvī, vītātus to avoid
Adjectives
aequus, aequa, aequum even, calm, equal
cēterī, cēterae, cētera the rest, the others
dignus, digna, dignum worthy; worth, fitting
indignus, indigna, indignum unworthy; undeserved; shameful
suus, sua, suum his, her, its, their own
Prepositions
circum/circā (+ acc.) around
super (+ acc.) over, above, on (top of )
(24)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 15
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. equanimity 6. humble
2. rural 7. incendiary
3. dolorous 8. civic
4. abscond 9. fractious
5. circumnavigate 10. equestrian
 CHAPTER 16
Fourth Declension
Fifth Declension
Locative Case
Other Place Expressions

This chapter introduces the last two declensions and a final case that is only used rarely
and indicates place where.

80. Fourth Declension

The stem of nouns in the fourth declension ends in -u, which usually weakens to -i
before the plural dative and ablative ending -bus. Masculine and feminine nouns
share the same endings.
Singular Masc./Fem. Neuter Endings
Nominative vultus genū -us -ū
Genitive vultūs genūs -ūs -ūs
Dative vultuī genū -uī -ū
Accusative vultum genū -um -ū
Ablative vultū genū -ū -ū
Plural
Nominative vultūs genua -ūs -ua
Genitive vultuum genuum -uum -uum
Dative vultibus genibus -ibus -ibus
Accusative vultūs genua -ūs -ua
Ablative vultibus genibus -ibus -ibus

Note the following:

• Most nouns in the fourth declension are masculine. The most common
feminine and neuter nouns in this declension are:
Feminine Neuter
domus, -ūs house, home cornū, -ūs wing (of an army); horn
manus, -ūs hand; band (of men) genū, -ūs knee

143
144 Introduction to Latin

• Domus is a fourth declension noun, but also uses some forms from the
second declension:
Acc. sg. domum (to a) home (see §83 below)
Abl. sg. domō from home
Acc. pl. domōs to (more than one) homes
Locative sg. domī at home (see §82 below)
Exercise 128. Identify each of the following nouns by case, number and gender. If
the ending is ambiguous, include all possibilities.
1. impetūs 6. domus
2. flūctibus 7. genū
3. cornua 8. metū
4. humum 9. vultuum
5. manuī 10. cāsum
Exercise 129. Following the fourth declension patterns above, decline cāsus and
cornū in all cases, singular and plural. Be sure to check the genitive singular forms in
the Chapter Vocabulary to learn what stem to use for each noun.
Exercise 130. Translate the underlined words into Latin using vocabulary in this
chapter.
1.Some of the accidents were terrible. 4. He is building the house by hand.
2.They are expecting the army’s attack. 5. She liked his face. [use vultus]
3.The destruction of the city was quick. 6. We are members of the Roman
 senate.
81. Fifth Declension
The stem of nouns in the fifth declension ends in -ē.
Singular Endings
Nominative diēs rēs -ēs
Genitive diēī reī -ēī, -eī
Dative diēī reī -ēī, -eī
Accusative diem rem -em
Ablative diē rē -ē
Plural
Nominative diēs rēs -ēs
Genitive diērum rērum -ērum
Dative diēbus rēbus -ēbus
Accusative diēs rēs -ēs
Ablative diēbus rēbus -ēbus

• The genitive and dative singular endings have -eī (instead of -ēī) after a
consonant.
• Except for diēs and rēs, most fifth declension nouns don’t appear in the
plural.
 Chapter Sixteen 145

Exercise 131. Identify each of the following nouns by case, number and gender. If
the ending is ambiguous, include all possibilities.
1. diērum 4. fidē
2. faciēs 5. rēbus
3. speī 6. spem
Exercise 132. Following the fifth declension patterns above, decline spēs and faciēs
in all cases, singular and plural. Be sure to check the genitive singular forms in the
Chapter Vocabulary to learn what stem to use for each noun.
Exercise 133. Translate the underlined words into Latin using vocabulary in this
chapter where possible.
1. We will leave on the third day. 5. For seven days they sailed in the
2. She thought about his appearance.   ship.
3. Did you see the enemy’s battle lines? 6. You fight us without hope of
4. Do you love the state?  victory.

82. Locative Case

In Chapter 4 you learned that place where is regularly expressed by a preposition + the
ablative case (§24). With the names of towns, small islands and a few other words the
locative case is used instead. The locative endings are the same as the genitive singular
in the first and second declension, and elsewhere usually the same as the ablative:
1st Decl. 2nd Decl. 3rd Decl. 4th Decl. 5th Decl.
Singular -ae -ī -ī or –e [domī] -ē
Plural -īs -īs -ibus

Here are some common examples (with the dictionary listings provided for place
names you have not learned):
Athēnae, Athēnārum, f. Athens Rhodus, Rhodī, m. Rhodes (an island)
Corinthus, Corinthī, m. Corinth
Rōmae at Rome, in Rome Rhodī at Rhodes, on Rhodes
Corinthī at Corinth, in Corinth Athēnīs at Athens, in Athens
domī at home bellī in war
humī on the ground rūrī in the country

83. Other Place Expressions

With the names of towns and small islands, as well as domus and rūs, Latin omits the
preposition in expressions of place to which and place from which:
place to which place from which
Rōmam to (into) Rome Rōmā from Rome
Athēnās to (into) Athens Athēnīs from Athens
domum (to) home domō from home
rūs to (into) the country rūre from the country

The preposition is sometimes also omitted with other words in poetry.

146 Introduction to Latin

In expressions of place to which with towns, small islands, domus and rūs, the
presence of a preposition indicates motion towards but not all the way to:
ad Rōmam to the vicinity of Rome
ad Athēnās towards Athens
ad domum homeward
Exercise 134. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Mīlitēs Rōmae trēs diēs mānēbunt.
2. Domūs Corinthī duōs diēs ardēbant, postquam hostēs eās incendērunt.
3. Cīvēs et rūre et ab urbibus vēnerant.
4. Cāsus reī pūblicae hominibus omnibus nocuit.
5. Rhodī multōs diēs mānēbimus, inde domum veniēmus.
6. Flūctūs trēs pedēs altī in mediō marī erant.
7. Humī paucās hōrās dormiēbāmus, quia erat nēmō domī.
8. Metūne rūre fugitis?
9. Mīles arma in dextrā manū portāvit tōtum iter.
10. Rōmam aliī festīnāvērunt, sed veniēbam ad templum.
Exercise 135. Translate into Latin.
1. He was resting [use a form of pōnō] 6. I stayed in the country for
  his hands on his knees.   seven days.
2. Will our leaders abandon the state, 7. The citizens had great sorrow
  if the enemy attacks?   [use dat. of possession] because
3. You (pl.) will have walked eight miles.   the city was burning.
4. That man had been a leader in the 8. They had warned us about him.
5. senate for many years. 9. The soldiers on the right wing
6. In five days he walked to Athens   were strong, but their fear
  and then sailed home.   was great.
10. We will not conquer Gaul with
  a small band of men.

Reading 20 (adapted from Livy)

Livy tells the story of how the Romans and Albans decided to settle their war
through a battle fought by two sets of triplets, the Horatii and the Curiatii.
Postquam Rōmānī et Albānī utrimque stābant, cum paucīs
mīlitum in medium ducēs prōcēdunt. tum Albānus dux dīcit,
“cupīdō imperiī duōs populōs ad arma stimulat. Sed Etrusca
rēs, quae circā nōs tēque est, pollet. iam cum signum pugnae
dabis, hī mīlitēs pugnābunt et fessī erunt; tum Etruscī petent
et utrēsque nostrum vincentur! itaque sine multō sanguine
utrīusque populī dēcernī potest?” Tullus, quamquam victōriae
ācer erat, cōnsentit et ratiō invenitur cui fortūna praebuit
māteriam.
 Chapter Sixteen 147

Vocabulary:
Albānus, -a, um Alban pugna, -ae f. fight
utrimque (adv.) on both sides sanguis, -inis m. blood
prōcēdō, -ere to proceed, move dēcernō, -ere to decide the issue
forward Tullus, -ī m. Tullus (king of
cupīdō, -inis f. lust, desire the Romans)
stimulō, -āre to spur on victōria, -ae f. victory
Etrusca rēs (nom.) “Etruscan state” cōnsentiō, -ere to agree
polleō, -ēre to be strong māteria, -ae f. means, opportunity
signum, -ī n. signal, sign

Reading 21 (adapted from Livy)

Livy’s story continues.
Forte in duōbus tum exercitibus erant trigeminī frātrēs nec
aetāte nec viribus disparēs, Horātiī et Curiātiī. hī frātrēs
cōnstituērunt prō suā quisque patriā pugnāre ferrō. antequam
pugnāvērunt, foedus īcēbātur inter Rōmānōs et Albānōs hīs
lēgibus: imperium erit victōribus. tum trigeminī arma capiunt
et in medium inter duās aciēs prōcēdunt. cōnsēderant suīs prō
castrīs duo exercitūs et spectāculum spectāre incēpērunt. datur
signum īnfestīsque armīs, velut aciēs, trēs iuvenēs magnōrum
exercituum animōs gerentēs concurrunt. duo Rōmānī super
alium alius exspīrantēs cecidērunt, dum trēs Albānī vulnerantur.
horror ingēns Rōmānōs perstringit et spēs tōta āmittitur, nam
ūnus Rōmānus contrā trēs Curiātiōs stābat. Forte is integer
fuit. ... [continuārī]
Vocabulary:
trigeminus, -a, -um triplet velut just like
virēs, -ium f. (pl.) strength iuvenis, -is m. young man
dispār, disparis unlike, unequal gerentēs (nom. pl.) “displaying”
foedus, -eris n. treaty exspīrantēs (nom. pl.) dying
īcō, -ere, īcī, ictus to make (a treaty) vulnerō, -āre to wound
victor, -ōris m. victor horror, -ōris m. horror,
cōnsīdō, -ere, to sit down   dread
  cōnsēdī perstringō, -ere to paralyze,
īnfestus, -a, -um hostile, dangerous   chill
integer, -gra, -grum unhurt;
 whole
148 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Flēte meōs cāsūs. (Ovid)
2. [Ventī] vastōs volvunt ad lītora flūctūs. (Vergil; describing a storm at sea)
3. Illō diē dux ad iūdicium omnem suam (Caesar – adapted)
familiam cōgit.
4. Īrārum tantōs volvis sub pectore flūctūs. (Vergil; Jupiter, talking to Juno)
5. Rūrī agere vītam cōnstituit. (Livy – adapted; of a retired
general)
6. Rēs est magna tacēre. (Martial)
7. Rōmulus excipiet gentem, et Māvortia condet (Vergil; Jupiter promises a great
moenia, Rōmānōsque suō dē nomine dīcet. future for Rome)
Hīs ego nec mētas rērum nec tempora pōnō;
imperium sine fīne dedī.
8. Certumque eī reī tempus cōnstituitur. (Caesar; enemies agree to a
meeting)

Vocabulary:
fleō, -ēre to weep; mourn for constituō, -ere to decide
vastus, -a, -um huge, vast excipiō, -ere to renew
familia, -ae f. family Māvortius, -a, of Mars =
cōgō, -ere to gather together,   -um of Rome
collect mēta, -ae f. limit
agō, agere to spend (life)

Chapter 16 Vocabulary

Nouns
aciēs, aciēī f. battle line
cāsus, cāsūs m. fall; misfortune, destruction; chance,
 accident
cornū, cornūs n. horn; wing (of an army)
diēs, diēī m. or f. day; fem. used when it is an appointed,
  or set day
domus, domūs f. house(hold), home
exercitus, exercitūs m. army
faciēs, faciēī f. face; appearance
fidēs, fideī f. faith, trust; loyalty, trustworthiness
flūctus, flūctūs m. wave; commotion
genū, genūs n. knee
impetus, impetūs m. attack; charge; impulse
manus, manūs f. hand; band (of men)
metus, metūs m. fear, dread; anxiety
 Chapter Sixteen 149

passus, passūs m. pace, footstep

mille passūs; mīlia passuum (pl.) mile (lit. “1000 paces”); miles
rēs, reī f. thing, matter, business; court case
rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae f.   state, republic
senātus, senātūs m. senate
spēs, speī f. hope
vultus, vultūs m. expression; face
Verbs
ardeō, ardēre, arsī, arsūrus to burn, be on fire, glow
cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus to fall
Adverbs
igitur (postpositive) therefore
inde from there; then, from that time forth
tam so, to such a degree
(23)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 16
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. fluctuation 6. despair
2. meridian 7. impetuous
3. domicile 8. genuflect
4. decadence 9. ardent
5. meticulous 10. manicle
READING CHAPTER III
Narrative Reading III: Numa
Dictionary Practice / Form Identification
Review of the Sentence and its Parts
Question Words for Extra Practice
Word Building
Families of Words
Consonant Changes
English Abbreviations and Phrases

Narrative Reading III: Numa

(Adapted from Livy)
After the death of Romulus, Numa, a Sabine leader, became king of Rome. He
built the famous temple of Janus, established priesthoods and a series of religious
rites, and became known for his piety and peaceful policies.
[Numa] pietāte omnium pectora imbuerat, ita fidēs ac iūs prō
lēgum ac poenārum metū cīvitātem regēbant. Lūcus erat, quem
medium fons rigābat aquā, ubi saepe Numa sōlus ambulābat, et
Camēnīs eum lūcum sacrāvit, quod in hōc locō eārum concilia
cum coniuge suā Egeriā erant. Fideī sollemne īnstituit et multa
alia sacrificia locaque sacrīs quae “Argeōs” pontificēs vocant
dēdicāvit. continued
Vocabulary:
pietās, -tātis f. piety (etc.) Fidēs, -eī f. Faith, personified
imbuō, -ere, -uī to imbue, instill   as a goddess
ac = et sollemne, -is n. festival, ceremony
poēna, -ae f. penalty sacra, -ōrum n. sacrifices
lūcus, -ī m. sacred grove īnstituō, -ere, to establish,
fons, fontis m. spring, stream  īnstituī  institute
rigō, -āre to wet, moisten sacrificium, -ī n. sacrifice
Camēnae, -ārum f. Muses Argeī, -ōrum m. shrines (source
sacrō, -āre, -āvī to consecrate   unknown)
concilium, -iī n. meeting pontifex, -icis m. high priest
Egeria, -ae f. Egeria, a nymph
and Numa’s wife
151
152 Introduction to Latin

continued
Omnium tamen maximum eius operum fuit tūtēla per omne
rēgnī tempus haud mīnor pācis quam rēgnī. ita duo deinceps
rēgēs, alius aliā viā, ille bellō, hic pāce, cīvitātem auxērunt.
Rōmulus septem et trīgintā rēgnāvit annōs, Numa trēs et
quadrāgintā. nōn sōlum valida sed etiam temperāta et bellī et
pācis artibus erat cīvitās.
Vocabulary:
maximus, -a, -um greatest augeō, augēre, to enrich; increase
opus, -eris n. work, act   auxī
tūtēla, -ae f. protection validus, -a, -um strong, powerful
haud mīnor no less temperātus, well-ordered
quam than -a, -um
deinceps (adv.) in order, successively
alius aliā viā “one in one way, the other in another way”

Dictionary Practice/Form Identification

Identify the words below based on the dictionary entries given. Be sure to indicate the
entry from which each is taken, and the part of speech and to give all possibilities for
ambiguous forms.
For nouns and adjectives: give case, number, and gender
For verbs: give person, number, tense (present, imperfect, future, perfect, pluperfect,
future perfect), voice (active or passive) and mood (indicative or imperative)
A. dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductus: to lead
B. duo, duae, duo: two
C. dux, ducis m.: leader
D. ductō, ductāre, ductāvī, ductātus: to cheat
E. ductus, ductūs m.: drawing, form
Entry Part of Speech Form ID
1. ducibus
2. ductus es
3. dūc
4. duce
5. ductāvistī
6. duōs
7. ductābitur
8. ductum
9. dūcēmus
10. duārum
11. dūcunt
12. dūcēbam
13. ductūs
14. dūxērunt
15. ductī erāmus
 Reading Chapter III 153

Review of the Sentence and its Parts

If you are using a “graphic organizer,” you can update it to add new material or refocus
your review items. Here is the chart from Reading Chapter II, with new items for
chapters 11-16:

Sentence

Core Modifiers Connectors

[Sentence Patterns]

Adjectival Adverbial Coordinating Subordinating

• Transitive • adjective • adverbs • et, -que, etc. • cum, si, ubi, etc.
• Intransitive • genitives • prep. phrases • sed (adv. clauses)
• Linking • hic, is ille, etc. • dative of reference • enim, nam • qui, quae, quod
• Special Intransitive • adjectival • ablatives • aut (adj. relative clauses)
• Factitive relative • adverbial clauses • nec, neque
• Passive clauses • itaque

Question Words for Extra Practice

Quis/Quī who? (animate)
Quem/Quōs whom? (animate)
Quid/Quae what? (non-animate)
ā Quō by whom?
Quō auxiliō by what means?
Quam diū how long?
Ubi where?
Cūr why?
Based on the narrative reading at the beginning of this chapter, answer the following
questions in Latin.
1. Quōrum pectora pietāte imbūta sunt? 6. Quae erant Argeōs?
2. Quō auxiliō cīvitās regēbātur? 7. Quī eīs hoc nōmen dedērunt?
3. Ubi Numa ambulābat? 8. Quid fuit maximum opus Numae?
4. Cūr hunc locum Camēnīs sacrāvit? 9. Quam diū Rōmulus rēgnāvit?
5. Quis erat Egeria? 10. Quis fuit rēx secundus Rōmae?

Word Building
Families of Words
Reading Latin is easier and more fun if you can make good guesses at the meaning of
words, rather than always looking everything up. One way to make a good guess is to
focus on common roots (see Reading Chapter II), identify the part of speech of the
new word, and think of other words you have already learned. This takes practice, but
will pay many rewards.
Guess the meaning of each word, and list at least one word you have already learned
that is related to it:
154 Introduction to Latin

Example: iūdex, iūdicis m. “judge”: iūs, iūris n. (justice); iūdicō, iūdicāre (to judge)
1. adventus, adventūs m. 3. servus, servī m.
2. īnfēlīx, īnfēlīcis 4. spērō, spērāre

Consonant Changes
Certain consonants in combination yield predictable changes. Understanding these
patterns can make learning vocabulary (and principal parts) much easier and can help
you see connections between words that may not initially seem related (e.g. cadō and
cāsus):
• b before s or t becomes p • d or t before d, t, or s (dt, tt, ds, ts)
*scrīb-sī > scrīpsī often becomes s
*scrīb-tus > scrīptus *cad-tus > cāsus
• g or h before t becomes c *pat-tus > passus
*āg-tus > āctus *ced-sī > cessī
*trah-tus > tractus *mīlet-s > mīles
• g or c before s becomes x
*rēg-s > rēx
*duc-s > dux
Explain the consonant changes in the bold form of the following dictionary entries:
Example: vōx, vōcis The nominative form was *vocs, but the c + s
  turned into x
1. ars, artis 5. videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus
2. audeō, audēre, ausus sum 6. fēlīx, fēlīcis
3. dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus 7. ardeō, ardēre, arsī, arsus
4. lābor, lābī, lāpsus 8. intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctus

English Abbreviations and Phrases

• A.D. annō dominī in the year of the Lord
• circa (ca., c.) circā around, approximately (used with dates)
• pro tem prō tempore for the time being, temporarily
• rē in rē in the matter of, concerning
• vs or v. versus against
• cum laude with honor (college graduation honorific,
  based on GPA)
• magnā cum laude with great honor (college graduation honorific,
  based on GPA)
• per annum through a year, yearly
• post mortem after death
 CHAPTER 17
Participles
Tenses of the Participle
Participle Uses
Ablative Absolute

So far you have learned one non-finite verb form, the infinitive (“to _____”). This
chapter introduces another non-finite form, the participle. While the infinitive can
be used as a noun (§39), the participle is used as an adjective, with or without a noun
to modify.

84. Participles
A participle is a verbal adjective, so it has attributes of both an adjective and a verb:
The barking dog wagged its tail. The dog barking at me wagged its tail.
We visited the destroyed city. We visited the city destroyed by the storm.
Like any other adjective in Latin a participle must agree with the word it modifies in
case, number and gender. But it also has tense and voice, and may take a direct object:
The dog eating dinner wagged its tail.
Latin participles are formed as follows:
present active participle: present stem (amā) + -ns, -ntis: amāns
It is declined as a one-ending third declension adjective (§52 and see below).
perfect passive participle: participial stem* (amāt) + -us, -a, -um: amātus
*the fourth principal part provides the participial stem
It is declined as an adjective of the first and second declension like bonus,
bona, bonum (§27).
future active participle: participial stem (amāt) + -ūr + -us, -a, -um: amātūrus
It is also declined as an adjective of the first and second declension like bonus,
bona, bonum (§27).

155
156 Introduction to Latin

Here are the participle forms for each conjugation:

Active Passive
Present 1 amāns, amantis
   (loving)
2 docēns, docentis ---------
3 regēns, regentis;
   capiēns, capientis
4 audiēns, audientis
Perfect 1 amātus, -a, -um
   (having been loved)
--------- 2 doctus, -a, -um
3 rēctus, -a, -um
4 audītus, -a, -um
Future 1 amātūrus, -a, -um
   (about to love)
2 doctūrus, -a, -um [Gerundive]
3 rēctūrus, -a, -um
4 audītūrus, -a, -um

Note:
• There is no present passive (“being _______ed”) form.
• There is no perfect active (“having _______ed”) form.
• The future passive (“about to be _______ed”) form is called the gerundive
and will be introduced in Chapter 29.
• Sum has only one participle form, the future active: futūrus, -a, -um.
Declension of the present active participle:
Singular Masc. & Fem. Neuter
Nominative regēns regēns
Genitive regentis regentis
Dative regentī regentī
Accusative regentem regēns
Ablative regente, regentī* regente, regentī*
Plural
Nominative regentēs regentia
Genitive regentium regentium
Dative regentibus regentibus
Accusative regentēs regentia
Ablative regentibus regentibus
 Chapter Seventeen 157

Note:
• When the present active participle is used as a simple adjective, it uses
the -i stem ablative ending (-ī) common to third decelension adjectives:
ab amantī uxōre, by the loving wife
• When it is used as a noun or is extended by an object or prepositional
phrase, it uses the third declension ending common to nouns (-e): ab
amante, by a lover; ā fēminā aquam portante, by a woman carrying
water. The -e ending will also appear on a participle in an ablative
absolute (see §87 below).

Exercise 136. Identify each of the following participles by tense, voice (present active,
perfect passive, or future active), case, number and gender. Give all possibilities.
Example: audītārum perfect passive participle; genitive, pl., f.
1. victae 11. missus
2. condentī 12. currēns
3. parātā 13. interfectus
4. dictum 14. rapientium
5. captūra 15. cantūrō
6. festīnantem 16. cadentī
7. rēctūrīs 17. patentibus
8. scrīpta 18. frāctōs
9. vulnerantēs 19. ardentis
10. monitae 20. vītāns
85. Tenses of the Participle
Sometimes the action of the participle and that of the main verb happen at different
times. Participles in Latin show time relative to the verb with which they occur. If
the action of the participle happens at the same time as that of the main verb, it is
expressed in Latin by a present participle. If the action of the participle happened
before that of the main verb, Latin uses a perfect participle; if the action is expected
but hasn’t happened yet, Latin uses a future participle.
This pattern showing the relation between the time of the main verb and the tense of
the participle is very regular and predictable:
Main Verb
Before Same Time After
<- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ->
Perfect Present Future
Tense of the Participle

The present participle is used when the action of the participle occurs at the same time
as that of the main verb:
I see him running I saw him running I will see him running
158 Introduction to Latin

The perfect participle is used when the action of the participle has already been
completed:
Having been captured, the enemy is dropping their weapons.
Having been captured, the enemy dropped their weapons.
Exercise 137. Using the verbs given below, translate the participle form only into
Latin. Remember the case, number and gender of the participle must agree with that
of the noun it modifies, and the tense of the participle should show time relative to
that of the main verb.
inveniō, invenīre, invēnī, inventus to find
misceō, miscēre, miscuī, mixtus to disturb
spectō, spectāre, spectāvī, spectātus to look at
trahō, -ere, trāxī, tractus to pull
1. Her father called the girl looking at the ships.
2. The ship was overturned by winds disturbing the ocean.
3. Having been pulled out of the ocean and onto the shore, the soldier is happy.
4. Having been pulled out of the ocean and onto the shore, the soldier was tired
  and weak.
5. About to find his weapon, the soldier was killed.
6. We gave gifts to the citizens looking at the temple.
86. Participle Uses
• You have already seen the perfect passive participle used with different tenses
of the verb sum to make passive indicative forms in the perfect system (§73-
75), You have also seen the perfect passive participle with esse to form the
perfect passive infinitive (§76). (The most common use of the future active
participle will be with esse to form the future active infinitive; this use will
be introduced in Chapter 19, §92b).
• Often the present active and perfect passive participles (and sometimes the
future active, especially in poetry) are used, like any adjective, to modify a
noun:
fēmina nōs audiēns The woman hearing us
hostēs captī The enemy having been captured
puer discessūrus The boy about to depart
Latin uses participles all the time instead of the dependent Adverbial (§60)
and Relative Adjectival (§64) clauses you learned in Chapters 12 and 13.
Latin participles are, therefore, often best translated with a dependent clause
in English. Use the context of the sentence to help you decide what kind of
clause to use (if, because, when, who, etc.). Look at the following examples,
which show several ways to translate the same participle clause:
 Chapter Seventeen 159

Iuppiter omnia regēns rēx deōrum erat.

}
Jupiter ruling everything
Jupiter, who ruled everything,
While Jupiter ruled everything, he was king of the gods.
Because Jupiter ruled everything, he
As long as Jupiter ruled everything, he
Hostēs captī arma dēmīsērunt.

}
Having been captured, the enemy
After they were captured, the enemy
When they had been captured, the enemy dropped their weapons
Because they had been captured, the enemy
The enemy was captured and
Notice in the last example that the participle has actually been turned into a main
verb joined to the original main clause by the conjunction “and.” Check with your
instructor about translating participles like this.
Exercise 138. In the following sentences, transform each participial clause into two
different finite clauses in English. Do not translate into Latin.
Example: The barking dog looks at me. The dog that is barking looks at me.
The dog looks at me while it is barking.
1. People jumped off the sinking ship. 5. Do you see the running child?
2. We visited the wounded soldier. 6. Reading this I learn many things.
3. Those teaching Latin are happy. 7. The men picked up the fallen boxes.
4. The letter never having been read 8. The book written by that poet
  was lost. is good.
Exercise 139. Draw an arrow from the participle to the noun it modifies (write in
Latin any gapped nouns/pronouns); then translate the whole sentence into English.
1. Cōnsul exercitum timēns discēdere temptat.
2. Mīles ā Gallīs vulnerātus domum vēnit.
3. In casam pecūniam inventam portāvistī.
4. Huic fēminae prō templō stantī dōnum magnum dedī.
5. Audientēs cōnsilium Rōmānī Caesarem laudāvērunt.
6. Dux victus cum mīlitibus fugiet.
7. Dīmīsit illōs virōs in agrīs dormientēs.
8. Puer epistulam legēns domī mānserat.
9. Mīles aquam portāns multa mīlia passuum ambulāvit.
10. Acceptī in urbe ab multīs amīcīs Rōmae manēre cōnstituimus.
87. Ablative Absolute
One of the most common uses of the participle is in a construction called the ablative
absolute. As the name implies, this construction uses a participle and a noun (or
pronoun) in the ablative; the construction is called “absolute” because it is grammatically
unattached to the rest of the sentence (absolūtus = “free, unconnected”). An ablative
160 Introduction to Latin

absolute is the equivalent of a subordinate (= dependent) clause and usually explains

the time, cause or condition of an action that is expressed in the main clause. Consider
the following examples:
Subordinate Clause Ablative Absolute
Cum dux mīlitēs vocat, hostēs fugiunt. Duce mīlitēs vocante, hostēs fugiunt.
When the leader calls the soldiers,
the enemy flees.
Postquam haec verba dicta sunt, cōnsul Hīs verbīs dictīs, cōnsul discessīt.
discessīt.
After these words were said, the
consul departed.
Quod bellum fīnītur, omnēs gaudent. Bellō fīnītō, omnēs gaudent.
Everyone rejoices because the war
is finished.
Sī ille regit, bonam fortūnam habēbimus. Illō regente, bonam fortūnam
If that man is ruling, we will have good   habēbimus.
fortune.
A literal translation of the ablative absolute can be useful as an intermediate step, but
should not, in most cases, be your final translation.
Duce mīlitēs vocante With the leader calling the soldiers, ...
Hīs verbīs dictīs With these words having been spoken, ...
Bellō fīnītō With the war (having been) finished, ...
Illō regente With that man ruling, ...
Note: Since the verb sum has no present participle, an ablative absolute with a linking
pattern will consist of only the noun and its subject complement, both in the ablative
case:
Caesare duce With Caesar being leader, When Caesar was leader
secundō diē Since the day was favorable
Exercise 140. Translate the ablatives absolute below into English, giving the literal
and then a more colloquial translation.
Example: puellā missā with the girl having been sent; after (since, when) the
girl was sent
1. omnibus parātīs 6. Caesare interfectō
2. puerīs canentibus 7. pāce factā
3. hostibus victīs 8. illīs iūssīs
4. mātre puerōs vocante 9. annīs volventibus
5. cōnsulibus ā populō creātīs 10. hīs rēbus gestīs
 Chapter Seventeen 161

Exercise 141. In the following sentences, transform each dependent clause into an
ablative absolute and then translate the sentence.
1. Dum Rōmam exercitus venit, paucī fūgimus.
2. Sī potēns cīvitās est omnēs laetī sunt.
3. Fēminae puellaeque dum hominēs pugnant in urbe manēbant.
4. Cum clāmōrēs turbae audītī sunt, ad montēs cucurristis.
5. Quod Gallia magna erat, mīlitēs multōs diēs ambulābant.
6. Ubi urbs ab hostibus capta erit, omnēs interficiēmur.
Exercise 142. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Dominō interfectō servus ab urbe cucurrit.
2. Nostrī mīlitēs in hostēs, signō datō, impetum fēcērunt.
3. Crīmine inventō, uterque indignus in iūdicium sextā diē ductus est.
4. Caesar Rōmam virōs captōs dūxit.
5. Moenibus patentibus, equus magnus in urbem Trōiae trahēbātur.
6. Illō duce, nihil timēbimus.
7. Turbā spectante, prīnceps ipse cīvibus persuādēre temptābat.
8. Caesare in Galliā pugnante ducem novum senātus lēgit.
9. Nautae nāvigāre parantēs opēs multās accēpērunt.
10. Propter sua carmina ille poēta Rōmae canēbat.
Exercise 143. Translate into Latin, using participles where possible.
1. When their father walked into the field, the boys began to work.
2. The slave, since he loved his master, came with him to Rome.
3. About to tell a story, the father sat among the boys and girls.
4. Although (their) homes had been burned, the citizens desired to remain in the
  countryside.
5. The leader, seeing the river, hesitated to pitch camp in that place.
6. After his father was killed, the boy grieved for many days.
7. The doubting man sought the truth from the gods.
8. His name, given to him by the soldiers, was discovered by all.
9. Much money was given to the people of that city when Caesar came home
  from Gaul.
10. After the letter from her son was received, (his) mother began to sing.
162 Introduction to Latin

Reading 22 (adapted)
Livy continues the story of how the Romans and Albans decided to settle their war
through a battle fought by two sets of triplets. Two of the Horatii have been killed,
but Horatius remains to fight the three Curiatii.
Ūnus ex Horātiīs integer fuit et contrā trēs Curiātiōs stetit.
Quia sēgregāre pugnam eōrum optābat, cēpit fugam. Iam
aliquantum spatiī ex eō locō ubi pugnāverant fūgerat, cum
respiciēns videt eōs magnīs intervallīs currentēs; ūnus haud
procul ab sēsē abest. In eum magnō impetū rediit; et dum
Albānus exercitus clāmat Curiātiīs, iam Horātius caesō hoste
victor secundam pugnam petēbat. Tunc clāmōre Rōmānī
adiuvant mīlitem suum, et ille optāns fīnīre proelium festīnat.
Antequam alter, quī nōn procul aberat, venīre poterat, alterum
Curiātium cōnficit; iamque duo mīlitēs mānsērunt, sed nec spē
nec vīribus parēs. alter intāctum ferrō corpus et duās victoriās
habēbat, alter, fessum vulnere, fessum cursū trahēns corpus,
obicitur hostī. Nec illud proelium fuit. Rōmānus exsultāns
‘duōs’ dīxit, ‘frātrum Manibus dedī; tertium causae bellī huius
dabō.’ Postquam Horātius tertium cecīdit, Rōmānī eum
accipiunt magnō cum gaudiō.
Vocabulary:
integer, -gra, -grum unhurt; whole victor, -ōris m. victor
sēgregō, -āre to separate, divide adiuvō, -āre to help,
pugna, -ae f. fight, attack   encourage
fuga, -ae f. flight viribus (abl.) strength
aliquantus, -a, -um considerable intāctus, -a, -um unhurt,
 (amount)  untouched
spatium, -iī n. space, distance victōria, -ae, f. victory
respiciō, -ere to look back cursus, -ūs, m. running
intervallum, -ī n interval obiciō, -ere to expose to
haud (adv.) by no means   (with dat.)
procul (adv.) far, at a distance exsultō, -āre to exult, boast
redeō, -īre, -iī to go back Manēs, Shades, spirits
caedō, -ere, to kill   -ium m. (pl.)   of the dead
cecīdī, caesus
 Chapter Seventeen 163

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Caesar, acceptīs litterīs, nūntium mittit. (Caesar)
2. Omnibus rēbus comparātīs diem dīcunt. (Caesar)
3. Invādunt urbem somnō vīnōque sepultam; (Vergil; describing the fall of
caeduntur vigilēs, portīsque patentibus omnīs Troy)
accipiunt sociōs.
4. …; multōsque per annōs (Vergil; describing the Trojans
errābant, āctī fātīs, maria omnia circum. traveling from Troy to Italy)
5. Mē duce carpe viam. (Ovid; Daedalus advises his son
to follow him)
6. Hīs dictīs incēnsō animum inflammāvit amore (Vergil; Queen Dido’s sister
spemque dedit dubiae mentī. encourages her amorous feelings
for Aeneas)
7. Ille nūntiō audītō senātum vocāvit. (Cicero – adapted; Marcus
Antonius (“ille”) arranges to
accuse Caesar of being an enemy
to the state)
8. Germānī post tergum clāmōre audītō, (Caesar – adapted; German
signīs relictīs ex castrīs fūgērunt. soldiers flee when they hear the
Romans killing their countrymen)

Vocabulary:
comparō, -āre, to prepare omnīs = omnēs
-āvī, -ātus carpō, -ere to pick
invādō, -ere to invade inflammō, -āre, -āvī to inflame,
sepeliō, -īre, īvī, to bury   set on fire
sepultus dubius, -a, -um wavering,
caedō, -ere to kill, slaughter   uncertain
vigilēs, -um m. (pl.) guards Germanī, -ōrum Germans
porta, -ae f. gate, entrance m. (pl.)
tergum,-ī n. back
164 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 17 Vocabulary

Nouns
amor, amōris m. love
Caesar, Caesaris m. Julius Caesar (a Roman general)
castra, castrōrum n. (pl.) camp
castra ponere   to pitch camp
clāmor, clāmōris m. shout; cheer
crīmen, crīminis n. crime; accusation, charge
fātum, fātī n. fate, destiny
ferrum, ferrī n. iron; sword
gaudium, gaudiī n. joy, delight
nūntius, nūntiī, m. messenger; message
prīnceps, prīncipis m. leader, chief; first citizen, emperor
servus, servī m. slave, servant
signum, signī n. sign, token, signal; (military) standard
vīnum, vīnī n. wine
vulnus, vulneris n. wound
Verbs
interficiō, interficere, interfēcī, to kill, destroy
interfectus
canō, canere, cecinī, cantus to sing
pateō, patēre, patuī to be open, stand open
persuādeō, persuādēre, persuāsī, to persuade
persuāsus (+ dat.)
vulnerō, vulnerāre, vulnerāvī, vulnerātus to wound
temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus to try, attempt; test, prove
Subordinating Conjunction
quamquam although
(21)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 17
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. announce 6. gaudy
2. invulnerable 7. patent
3. servile 8. vintage
4. paramour 9. exclaim
5. attempt 10. signet
 CHAPTER 18
Dependent Clauses (3)
Noun Use: Relative Clause
Interrogative Pronoun: quis, quid
Interrogative Adjective: quī, quae, quod
Intensive Pronouns: īdem; ipse

So far you have learned about relative adjectival clauses, which modify an antecedent
in the main clause (§64). This chapter introduces relative noun clauses, sometimes
called “indefinite” clauses because they have no antecedent. It also introduces two
new pronouns and an adjective, which follow declension patterns you have already
learned.
88. Dependent Clauses: Noun Use—Relative Clause
Just as a regular adjective can be used as a substantive, without an accompanying
noun, (§29), so too the antecedent of a relative clause may not always be expressed.
In this situation, the relative clause itself functions as a noun in the main clause.
Compare the examples below.
As a Subject
Vir est fortis. The man is strong.
Quī in agrō labōrat fortis est. Whoever/He who works in the field
  is strong.
As a Direct Object
Fortēs laudāmus. We praise the brave (men).
Quōs Caesar amāvit laudāmus. We praise those whom Caesar loved.
When the relative clause has no expressed antecedent, it is often called an indefinite
relative clause. When you translate the clause into English, you will need to supply an
antecedent (he who ... / those who ...) or use the English indefinite form (whoever ...).
Exercise 144. Bracket the relative clauses in the following sentences and identify each
as adjectival or noun. Then translate.
1. Cōnsul cui erant ingentēs oculī nōn pulcher erat.
2. Quī semper vēritātem dīxit laudāvimus.
3. Capiēturne quī hoc scelus fēcit ab mīlitibus?
4. Caelum in quō ventī nūbēs agunt spectāmus.
5. Nautae quōrum nāvis frangitur sunt fortes.
6. Quī hās nāvēs aedificāvit artem magnam habet, sed pecūniā caret.
165
166 Introduction to Latin

89a. The Interrogative Pronoun: quis, quid

The interrogative pronoun asks the question “who?” or “what?”. It occurs more
commonly in the singular, where the masculine and feminine forms are the same. The
plural forms are identical to those of the relative pronoun, with the masculine and
feminine endings distinct from each other.
Singular Masc. & Fem. Neuter
Nominative quis who? quid what?
Genitive cuius of whom?, whose? cuius of what?
Dative cui to/for whom? cui to/for what?
Accusative quem whom? quid what?
Ablative quō (by/with...) whom? quō (by/with...)
 what?
Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative quī quae quae
Genitive quōrum quārum quōrum
Dative quibus quibus quibus
Accusative quōs quās quae
Ablative quibus quibus quibus

Exercise 145. Translate the underlined word(s) in each sentence with the correct
Latin form. Use the singular form unless plural is indicated.
1. Whose wine is this? 4. With what will you write?
2. What are you doing? 5. Who let the dogs out?
3. To whom (pl.) are you talking? 6. Whom (pl.) of the men do you choose?
Exercise 146. Identify the case, number and use of each interrogative pronoun below.
Then translate the questions and their answers.
1. Quid nautīs nocet? Ventus.
2. Quid aedificābit? Casam.
3. Ad quem veniēmus? Ad tē.
4. Cuius carmina audīs? Huius poētae.
5. Quōs vincēbātis? Mīlitēs.
6. Quae tibi dedī? Pulchra dōna.

89b. The Interrogative Adjective: quī, quae, quod

The interrogative adjective looks exactly like the relative pronoun (§63). It modifies
a noun and asks the question “which ?” “what ?”. See the following
examples.
Quī vir est fortis? Which man is brave?
Quem virum vulnerāvistī? Which man did you wound?
Quae nāvis frācta est? Which ship was wrecked?
Cui puellae carmen illud dedit? To which girl did he give that poem?
Quibus armīs mīlitēs interfectī sunt? With which weapons were the soldiers
 killed?
 Chapter Eighteen 167

Exercise 147. Identify each interrogative as a pronoun or adjective; if it is an adjective,

draw an arrow to the noun it modifies. Then translate the whole sentence.
1. Quī erant ducēs?
2. Quī vir illōs mīlitēs ducit?
3. Quās spēs Rōmānī ducibus habuērunt?
4. Cuius ferrum in agrīs āmittēbātur?
5. Quod scelus Rōmae factum est?
6. Quibuscum multōs annōs bellum Caesar gerēbat?

90. Intensive Pronouns: ipse; īdem

Intensive pronouns, like the other demonstrative pronouns hic, ille (§50) and is
(§46), can be used either in place of nouns or as adjectival modifiers, which agree
in case, number and gender with a noun. They are used to emphasize a noun (or
pronoun).
Ipse (except for the nom. sg. masc. form) is declined exactly like the irregular adjectives
you learned in Chapter 11. The “odd” genitive and dative singular forms are in bold
below.
ipse, ipsa, ipsum self, himself, herself, itself, themselves; very
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ipse ipsa ipsum
Genitive ipsīus ipsīus ipsīus
Dative ipsī ipsī ipsī
Accusative ipsum ipsam ipsum
Ablative ipsō ipsā ipsō
Plural
Nominative ipsī ipsae ipsa
Genitive ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum
Dative ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs
Accusative ipsōs ipsās ipsa
Ablative ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs

Because ipse, ipsa, ipsum may refer to a man, woman, thing, or even a pronoun, its
English definition will vary according to the context. Compare the following examples:
Caesar ipse mīlitēs dūcet. Caesar himself will lead the soldiers.
Ipse mīlitēs dūxī. I myself led the soldiers.
Tē ipsum laudāmus. We praise you yourself.
Mīlitēs ipsōs laudāvimus. We praised the soldiers themselves.
It is especially important not to confuse ipse with the reflexive pronoun (§65).
Compare the following examples:
Servus sē videt. The slave sees himself.
Servus ipse signum videt. The slave himself sees the signal.
Servus ipsum signum videt. The slave sees the signal itself.
168 Introduction to Latin

īdem is a compound of is, ea, id (§46). The bold forms below show where letter
changes have occurred, probably for ease of pronunciation: eum + dem = eundem,
is + dem = īdem.
īdem, eadem, idem the same
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative īdem eadem idem
Genitive eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem
Dative eīdem eīdem eīdem
Accusative eundem eandem idem
Ablative eōdem eādem eōdem
Plural
Nominative eīdem eaedem eadem
Genitive eōrundem eārundem eōrundem
Dative eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem
Accusative eōsdem eāsdem eadem
Ablative eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem

Exercise 148. Translate the following.

1. We teach ourselves. 6. Exercitus Caesaris ipsīus fūgit.
2. We ourselves are women. 7. Urbī ipsī magna moenia erant.
3. They themselves obey the same laws. 8. Vōs ipsōs pugnāre dubitāvērunt.
4. I will come to the citadel itself today. 9. Dūxistīne ipse illōs?
5. You (sg.) should fear nothing but 10. Mōs īdem nobīs ipsīs est.
  fear itself.
Exercise 149. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Paucī Trōiānōrum suās nāvēs incendērunt.
2. Quid cognōvistī postquam epistulam prīncipis ipsīus accēpistī?
3. Quī dolōre caret fēlīx est, nam nātūra mortālibus mala saepe facit.
4. Lēgātus cuius equus ab amīcō tenēbātur Rōmam ambulāvit.
5. Quī tibi persuadēbunt? Cui credēs?
6. In quā arce illud aurum inventum est?
7. Quibus librōs dedistī quōs scrīpseram?
8. Prīmā lūce mīlitēs ad eundem locum ubi aciēs prīma cecīderat cucurrērunt.
9. Eadem vōx quae inter hominēs saepe audīta erat nunc tacuit.
10. Ō cīvēs, quae fāta effēcērunt, cum gaudiō accipere temptāte.
 Chapter Eighteen 169

Exercise 150. Translate into Latin.

1. The world itself is large and full of many customs.
2. We praise the same girls who found the gold.
3. Human beings can not avoid what the gods bring about.
4. The farmers by whom the house was being built were Greek.
5. Because of the heat, the same army, which walked many miles during the
  night, will remain at home today.
6. Who is worthy of his own father?
7. After a difficult journey on foot, the army pitched camp between those very
 mountains.
8. The old man with whom we used to sail did not like [use āmō] the heat.
9. Her brother, whom we left in the country, had always been faithful to the state.
10. We were pleased by the arrival of both delegates to whom we had given the
  same message.

Reading 23 (adapted)
Caesar describes a disaster at sea with his transport ships.
Hīs rēbus pāce cōnfīrmātā, diē quartō postquam in Britanniam
vēnimus, nāvēs XVIII, quae equitēs sustulerant, ex portū levī
ventō navigāvērunt. cum adpropinquābant Britanniae et ex
castrīs vidērentur, magna tempestās subitō coorta est et nūlla
eārum cursum tenēre potuit.
continued
Vocabulary:
cōnfīrmō, -āre, -āvī to confirm, ratify portus, -ūs m. port, harbor
-ātus adpropinquō, -āre to approach
Britannia, -ae f. Britain coorta est “arose, appeared”
eques, equitis m. horseman cursus, -ūs m. course, direction
tollō, -ere, sustulī to carry, transport
170 Introduction to Latin

continued
Eādem nocte cum erat lūna plēna, is diēs, quī maritimōs aestūs
maximōs in ōceanō efficere cōnsuēvit, vēnit nostrīsque id erat
incognitum. ita ūnō tempore et longās nāvēs, quibus Caesar
exercitum trānsportāverat quāsque in āridum subdūxerat,
aestus complēbat, et eās <nāvēs>, quae ad ancorās erant
dēligātae, tempestās adflictābat, neque ūllum nostrīs auxilium
dabātur. multīs nāvibus fractīs, reliquae, fūnibus, ancorīs,
reliquīsque armāmentīs āmīssīs, nāvigāre nōn poterant. magna,
id quod necesse erat, tōtīus exercitūs perturbātiō facta est.
neque enim nāvēs erant aliae, quibus portārī poterant.
Vocabulary:
maritimus, -a, -um of the sea, marine dēligō, -āre, -āvī, to fasten
maximus, -a, -um greatest, very big -ātus
ōceanus, -ī m. ocean adflictō, -āre, -āvī to knock
cōnsuēscō, -ere, -ēvī to be accustomed   about
(+ inf.)   (to), usually fūnis, -is m. rope
incognitus, -a, -um unknown armāmenta, equipment
āridum, -ī n. dry land -ōrum n. (pl.)
subdūcō, -ere, -dūxī to pull up, necesse (adv.) necessary,
 haul  inevitable
compleō, -ēre, -ēvī to fill perturbātiō, disturbance,
ancora, -ae f. anchor -iōnis f. commotion

Reading 24 (adapted)
In this selection Ovid adopts the voice of a lover chiding his girlfriend, Corinna.
She has bleached her hair and it is now falling out.
Dīcēbam, “Medicāre tuōs dēsiste capillōs!”
tingere quam potes, iam tibi nūlla coma est.
Cui est coma tam longa, tam pulchra?
nec tamen āter erat neque erat tamen aureus ille
sed, quamvīs neuter, mixtus uterque color.
Adde quod et docilēs et centum flexibus aptī
et tibi nūllīus causa dolōris erant.
quam sē praebuērunt ferrō patienter et ignī,
clāmābam: “scelus est illōs, scelus ūrere crīnēs!”
Nunc tibi captīvōs mittet Germānia crīnēs.
tūta triumphatae munere gentis eris.
Saepe comās aliquō laudante, rubēbis
et dīcēs, “ēmptā nunc ego merce laudar!”
 Chapter Eighteen 171

Vocabulary:
tingō, -ere to dye quam (adv.) how
medicō, -āre to treat patienter (adv.) patiently
(complementary inf.) ūrō, -ere to burn, scorch
dēsistō, -ere to stop crīnis, -is m. hair
capillus, -ī m. (a single) hair captīvus, -a, -um captive, of
coma, -ae f. hair  captives
tam (adv.) so Germānia, -ae f. Germany
āter, ātra, ātrum black, dark tūtus, -a, -um safe
quamvīs although triumphatae “conquered”
mixtus = mixtus est munus, -eris n. gift
color, -ōris m. color aliquis, aliquid someone,
adde quod “and besides”   something
docilis, -e manageable rubeō, -ēre to blush
flexus, -ūs m. “style” ēmptus, -a, -um bought
merx, mercis f. merchandise – i.e.
   a wig – (§53 abl.
  of cause)

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Nam quis hoc nōn intellegit? Quis hoc nōn (Cicero; prosecuting a former
perspicit? proconsul for flagrant abuses)
2. Frangitur ipsa suīs Rōma superba bonīs. (Propertius)
3. Quis est quī mē vocat? (Plautus)
4. Quid ab hīs tot malefīciīs sceleris abesse (Cicero; defending a man
vidētur? charged with parricide, Cicero
talks about the many crimes of
the accusers)
5. Stultum est timēre quod vītāriī nōn potest. (Publilius Syrus)
6. Quī hoc dicunt videntur mihi errāre. (Seneca)
7. Ante mare et terrās et quod tegit omnia caelum (Ovid; describing the very
ūnus erat tōtō nātūrae vultus in orbe, beginning of the universe)
quem dīxēre “chaos”.
8. Sed Caesar lēgī pāruit ipse suae; — (Martial; two evenly-matched
lex erat. gladiators fight, and the crowd
wants both to be released, but
that would be against the rules)

Vocabulary:
intellegō, -ere to understand malefīcium, -iī n. wrong,
perspiciō, -ere to see through, observe   misdeed
superbus, -a, -um proud stultus, -a, -um stupid
tegō, -ere to cover
172 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 18 Vocabulary

Nouns
adventus, adventūs m. arrival
aestus, aestūs m. heat; tide
*arx, arcis f. citadel, summit
aurum, aurī n. gold
auxilium, auxiliī n. aid, help; in pl. often auxiliary troops
mōs, mōris m. custom, tradition
*orbis, orbis m. circle; universe
orbis terrārum the world
scelus, sceleris n. crime, wicked deed, wickedness
senex, senis m. old man
vōx, vōcis f. voice
Verbs
cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī to learn, recognize, understand
cognitus
efficiō, efficere, effēcī, effectus to bring about, produce
Adjectives
aureus, aurea, aureum golden, of gold
Graecus, Graeca, Graecum Greek
levis, leve light, easy; swift
quī, quae, quod which ?, what ?
tot so many, as many
Pronouns
īdem, eadem, idem the same
ipse, ipsa, ipsum self; himself, herself, itself,
  themselves; very
quis, quid who?, what?
(20)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 18
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. auxiliary 6. orbit
2. mores 7. effect
3. cognitive 8. adventure
4. aleve 9. vociferous
5. senile 10. auriferous
 CHAPTER 19
Infinitive Forms
Perfect Active Infinitive
Future Active Infinitive
Review of All Infinitive Forms
Noun Clause: Indirect Statement
Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Statement

This chapter provides a review of the infinitive forms you have already learned and
introduces the perfect and future active infinitives. It also introduces an infinitive
noun clause called the indirect statement.

91. Infinitive Forms

In previous chapters you have learned the regular Present Active (§5, 45), Passive
(§70) and Perfect Passive (§76) infinitive forms. The two new forms of the infinitive
follow the patterns you have already seen.
91a. Perfect Active Infinitive
The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding -isse to the perfect stem in each
conjugation:
Conjugation
First amāvisse to have loved
Second monuisse to have advised
Third rēxisse to have ruled
Fourth audīvisse to have heard

91b. Future Active Infinitive

The future active infinitive is formed by combining the future active participle with
the infinitive of sum:
Conjugation
First amātūrus (-a, -um) esse to be about to love
Second monitūrus (-a, -um) esse to be about to advise
Third rēctūrus (-a, -um) esse to be about to rule
Fourth audītūrus (-a, -um) esse to be about to hear

173
174 Introduction to Latin

91c. Review of all Infinitive Forms

The formation of infinitives is very regular and therefore predictable:
present active infinitive = present stem + -re: amāre
present passive infinitive = present stem + -rī: amārī
(except third conj.) > present stem + -ī: capī
perfect active infinitive = perfect stem + -isse: amāvisse
perfect passive infinitive = participial stem* + -us, -a, -um + esse: amātus esse
* the fourth principal part provides the participial stem
future active infinitive = participial stem + -ūr + -us, -a, -um + esse: amātūrus esse
The future passive infinitive is very rare and its form is given in the chart of endings
below only for reference.
Summary of infinitive endings:
Active Passive
Present -re to -rī (-ī) to be ed
Perfect -isse to have ed -us esse* to have been ed
Future -ūrus esse* to be about to [-um īrī] [to be about to be ed]

Note: esse is sometimes omitted from the infinitive in these forms. When this
happens, the infinitive looks like a participle and it is necessary to depend on
the context to decide whether the form is a participle or infinitive.

Here is a review of the infinitive forms for each conjugation:

Active Passive
Present 1 amāre 1 amārī
2 monēre 2 monērī
3 regere 3 regī
4 audīre 4 audīrī
Perfect 1 amāvisse 1 amātus (-a, -um) esse
2 monuisse 2 monitus (-a, -um) esse
3 rēxisse 3 rēctus (-a, -um) esse
4 audīvisse 4 audītus (-a, -um) esse
Future 1 amātūrus (-a, -um) esse
2 doctūrus (-a, -um) esse _________
3 rēctūrus (-a, -um) esse
4 audītūrus (-a, -um) esse

The infinitives of sum and possum are:

Present esse posse
Perfect fuisse potuisse
Future futūrus esse or fore -------
 Chapter Nineteen 175

Exercise 151. Write the principal parts and give all the infinitive forms (except the
future passive) for the following verbs:
1. vītō 5. caedō
2. pōnō 6. inveniō
3. iubeō 7. dīcō
4. capiō 8. spērō
92. Noun Clause: Indirect Statement
A dependent noun clause with an infinitive verb and accusative subject can be
expected with verbs of saying, thinking, and perceiving. This clause is called an
indirect statement (sometimes also indirect discourse, or ōrātiō oblīqua). Unlike the
other dependent clauses you have learned, an indirect statement has no clause marker
in Latin. To recognize this construction, therefore, you need to recognize the presence
of these three elements:
• infinitive
• accusative subject of the infinitive
• main verb of saying, thinking, perceiving (some people call these verbs of
mental action “head” verbs)
Although Latin indirect statements use a non-finite verb (the infinitive), they are often
best translated by a finite clause in English, with or without the clause marker “that”:
Videt tē manēre. He sees (that) you are staying.
Gaudent nōs venīre. They are glad (that) we are coming.
Crēdimus eōs pugnāre. We believe (that) they are fighting.
Caesar respondit sē ventūrum esse. Caesar replied that he (Caesar) would come.

Note:
• If the perfect passive or future active infinitive is used in an indirect
statement, the participle ending must agree with the subject of the
infinitive in case (accusative), number, and gender.
• The reflexive pronoun (sē) in indirect statement typically refers to the
subject of the main (governing) verb.

Here are some verbs that may be followed by an indirect statement:

Verbs of saying, speaking, telling:
ait, aiunt; āiō he says, they say; I say
dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus to say
moneō, monēre, monuī, monitus to warn, advise
nārrō, nārrāre, nārrāvī, nārrātus to tell
negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus to deny, say that ... not
nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus to announce, report
respondeō, respondēre, respondī, respōnsus to answer, reply
trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus to report
176 Introduction to Latin

Verbs of thinking:
cōgitō, cōgitāre, cōgitāvī, cōgitātus to think
iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvī, iūdicātus to judge, decide
putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus to think, consider
spērō, spērāre, spērāvī, spērātus to hope
Verbs of knowing, believing:
cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus to know, recognize, understand
crēdō, crēdere, crēdidī, crēditus to believe
nesciō, nescīre, nescīvī, nescītus not to know
sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus to know
Verbs of perceiving:
audiō, audīre, audīvī or audīī, audītus to hear
cernō, cernere, crēvī, crētus to see, discern, perceive, decide
intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctus to understand, perceive, realize
sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsus to feel, perceive
videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus to see
Others:
gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum to rejoice, be glad
ostendō, ostendere, ostendī, ostentus/ostēnsus to show, reveal
scrībō, scrībere, scrīpsī, scrīptus to write
Exercise 152. Translate each of the following into Latin.
1. I say that all men love the gods.
2. He writes that we are coming.
3. The leaders know the men are brave.
4. We see that those boys are running.
5. Do you think the ship is being wrecked?
6. The messenger announces that the king is preparing to rule.

93. Tenses of the Infinitive in Indirect Statement

Sometimes the action of the infinitive and that of the main verb happen at different
times. Latin uses the same pattern of tenses for the infinitive that you learned with
participles (§85). In all the sentences from Exercise 152, the action of the infinitive
happens at the same time as that of the main verb and is expressed in Latin by a
present infinitive. If the action of the infinitive happened before that of the main verb,
Latin uses a perfect infinitive; if the action is expected, but hasn’t happened yet, Latin
uses a future infinitive.
This pattern showing the relation between the time of the main verb and the tense of
the infinitive is very regular and predictable:
 Chapter Nineteen 177

Main Verb
Before Same Time After
<- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ->
Perfect Present Future
Tense of the Participle

Study the following examples:

Time of Main Verb Action of Infinitive
Present Dīcō eum vēnisse. I say that he came. already happened
Dīcō eum venīre. I say that he is coming. same time
Dīcō eum ventūrum esse. I say that he will come. hasn’t happened yet
Past Dīxī eum vēnisse. I said that he had come. already happened
Dīxī eum venīre. I said that he was coming. same time
Dīxī eum ventūrum esse. I said that he would come. hasn’t happened yet

Exercise 153. Translate each of the following into Latin

1. We say that all men used to love the gods.
2. He says that all men will love the gods.
3. They said that all men used to love (= had loved) the gods.
4. She said that all men would love the gods.
5. You (sg.) deny that the war was fought there.
6. I denied that the war had been fought there.
7. He answered that the women would take the water.
8. He answered that the women were being taken.
9. He answered that the men had been taken.
10. They thought the citizens were appointing a new leader.
11. Do you think the leaders are ruling well?
12. He thinks that he will rule well.
13. The envoy believes that we are burning the city.
14. The envoy believed that you (pl.) were burning the city.
15. The enemy will report that they burned the city.
Exercise 154. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Nūntius ipse nōs timēre cernit? 6. Caesar ante dīxit sē ducem copiīs
2. Lēgātī dīxērunt hostēs urbem   fore.*
  trādidisse. 7. Putant id esse dolum, sed nōn est.
3. Servus negāvit sē dominum suum 8. Poēta dīcēbat montēs verbīs suīs
 interfēcisse.  mōtōs esse.
4. Epistula senātuī nūntiāvit Galliam 9. Intellegō ratiōnem mentem sed
  ā Caesare superātam esse.   gaudium timōremque pectus
5. Senēs spērant līberōs mātrēs   regere.
  patrēsque audītūrōs esse. 10. Scīvistīne caedem aciēī illīus
 factūram esse?
* see §91c
178 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 155. Translate into Latin.

1. The boy’s father said he was brave, but had a loud voice.
2. The god of the sea says he will help the Roman sailors.
3. After he read our letter, (our) son wrote that he would come home in three days.
4. The emperor revealed that he had great wealth and much gold.
5. The farmer, whose house had been burned by the soldiers, desires to build a
 new house.
6. Children should be seen and not heard.
7. Before the enemy attacked, the people believed the gods would help them.
8. I know that you (sg.) listened to the plan of the consuls before.
9. Did the messenger report that the consuls had been called to Rome?
10. The poet wrote that the winds were swift but the ocean itself calm.

Reading 25 (adapted)
Cornelius Nepos (c. 99-24 B.C.) writes about Themistocles’ trip to Asia, preferring
the Greek historian Thucydides as a source about whether Themistocles made the
trip during the reign of the Persian ruler Xerxes or Artaxerxes.
Sciō multōs scrīpsisse Themistoclēn Xerxē rēgnante in Asiam
trānsisse. Sed egō potissimum Thūcydidī crēdō, quod aetāte
proximus dē iīs, quī illōrum tempōrum historiam relīquērunt,
et eiusdem cīvitātis fuit. Is ait ad Artaxerxēn eum vēnisse
atque hīs verbīs epistulam mīsisse: Themistoclēs vēnī ad tē,
quī plūrima mala omnium Graecōrum in domum tuam intulī
quam diū mihi necesse fuit adversum patrem tuum bellāre
patriamque meam dēfendere.
Vocabulary:
Themistoclēs, -is m. Themistoclēs iīs = eīs
Themistoclēn (Greek acc. form) historia, -ae f. history
Xerxēs, -is m. Xerxes Artaxerxēn Artaxerxes
rēgnō, -āre to reign, to rule Greek acc. form
Asia, -ae f. Asia plūrimus, -a, -um most
trānseō, trānsīre, to cross, go across īnferō, īnferre, to bring
trānsiī intulī
potissimum (adv.) above all, chiefly quam diū as long as
Thūcydidēs, -is m. Thucydides adversum (+ acc.) against
proximus, -a, -um closest, nearest bellō, -āre to fight a war
dē (+ abl.) among dēfendō, -ere to defend
 Chapter Nineteen 179

Reading 26 (adapted)
Livy tells how the Romans, under the leadership of Scipio, capture the city of New
Carthage, a settlement established by the Carthaginians in Spain. Mago is the
Carthaginian commander (and the brother of Hannibal).
inde [Scipiō], cum fugientēs vīdit hostēs, aliōs ad tumulum,
quī tenēbātur D mīlitum praesidiō, aliōs in arcem, in quam et
ipse Māgo cum omnibus ferē armātīs quī mūrīs pulsī fuerant,
refūgerat, partem cōpiārum ad tumulum mittit, partem ipse
ad arcem dūcit. et tumulus prīmō impetū est captus, et Māgo
arcem temptāvit dēfendere, sed cum omnia hostium plēna
vīdit neque spem ūllam esse, sē arcemque et praesidium dēdidit.
quia dēdita arx est, caedēs totā urbe passim factae sunt et omnis
pūbēs quī obvius fuit interficiēbātur; tum signō datō caedibus
fīnis factus est et ad praedam victōrēs versī sunt, quae ingēns
fuit. inde quī cīvēs Novae Carthāginis erant dīmīsit urbemque
et sua omnia restituit.
Vocabulary:
tumulus, -ī m. hill dēfendō, -ere to defend
Māgo, -ōnis m. Mago dēdō, -ere, -idī, -itus to surrender
praesidium, -ī n. garrison passim here and there
armō, -āre, -avī, -ātus to arm, equip pūbēs, puberis adult
ferē (adv.) almost obvius, -a, -um at hand, in the way
mūrus, -ī m. wall victor, -ōris m. victor
pellō, -ere, -pulsus to drive back Carthāgō, -inis f. Carthage
refugiō, -ere, rēfūgī to take refuge dīmittō, -ere, -mīsī to let go, send away
restituō, -ere to restore, give back
180 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
Identify the form and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Tamen putābat … causam calumniae sē (Cicero; explaining one of Verres’
repertūrum [esse]. schemes)
2. “Omnēs” inquit “iūrant esse mē Iovis (Seneca; quoting Alexander)
fīlium, sed vulnus hoc hominem esse mē
clāmat”
3. Lāocoōn ardēns summā dēcurrit ab arce, (Vergil; Laocoon was the only
et procul: “ō miserī, quae tanta insānia, Trojan to warn against accepting
cīvēs? Crēditis āvectōs [esse] hostēs? Aut the Trojan Horse)
ūlla putātis dōna carēre dolīs Danaum?”
4. “Āiō tē, Aiacida, Rōmānōs vincere posse.” (Ennius; quoting a famously
ambiguous oracle)
5. Nōn amō tē, Sabidī, nec possum dīcere quārē: (Martial)
hoc tantum possum dīcere, nōn amō tē.
6. Crēdō equidem, …, genus esse deōrum. (Vergil; Dido describing Aeneas to
her sister)
7. Multīque cogitant bellum eō diē potuisse (Caesar – adapted)
finīrī.
8. Fuit ōlim, quasi ego sum, senex; eī filiae (Plautus; a father begins telling a
duae erant, quasi nunc meae sunt; eae story to two brothers)
erant duōbus nuptae frātribus, quasi nunc
meae sunt vōbīs.

Vocabulary:
calumnia, -ae f. false charge
reperiō, -īre, repperī, repertus to discover, find
iūrō, -āre to swear
Iuppiter, Iovis m. Jupiter, Jove (king of the Roman gods)
summus, -a, -um the top of
dēcurrō, -ere = dē + currō to run down (from)
insānia, -ae f. madness, folly
āvehō, -ere, -vēxī, -vectus to carry away; (passive) sail away, be carried
Danaum = Graecōrum
Aiacida (= Greek acc. form) descendant of Aeacus (i.e. Achilles’ son,
  Pyrrhus) *Pyrrhus asked the Delphic
  oracle if he should fight the Romans
Sabidius, -ī m. Sabidius (proper name)
quārē (adv.) why
equidem truly, indeed
quasi just as
nūbō, -ere, -psī, -ptus to marry
 Chapter Nineteen 181

Chapter 19 Vocabulary

Nouns
*caedēs, caedis f. slaughter, murder
cōpia, cōpiae f. abundance, plenty, resources, wealth; (pl.) troops
dolus, dolī m. trick, deceit
līberī, līberōrum m. (pl.) children
Verbs
ait, aiunt; āiō he says, they say; I say
caedō, caedere, cecīdī, caesus to kill, cut; sacrifice (of animals)
cernō, cernere, crēvī, crētus to see, discern, perceive, decide
cōgitō, cōgitāre, cōgitāvī, cōgitātus to think, consider
gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum to rejoice, be glad; delight in (+ abl.)
inquit he said (introduces a direct quotation)
negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus to deny, say that ... not
nesciō, nescīre, nescīvī, nescītus not to know
ostendō, ostendere, ostendī, to show, reveal
ostentus/ostēnsus
putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus to think, consider; suppose
respondeō, respondēre, respondī, to answer, reply; correspond to
respōnsus
sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus to know; know how to (+ inf.)
spērō, spērāre, spērāvī, spērātus to hope, hope for (+ acc. and future inf.)
trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus to hand over, surrender; hand down, report
Adverbs
ante before (of space or time), in front; previously
bene well
ibi there
(21)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 19
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. despair 6. responsive
2. homicide 7. compute
3. benefactor 8. ostensibly
4. gaudy 9. science
5. tradition 10. negate
Mosaics outside Merchant’s Office Complex, Ostia, end 2nd c. A.D.
 CHAPTER 20
Irregular Verbs: volō, nōlō, mālō
Negative Commands with nōlō
Noun Clause: Objective Infinitive

So far you have learned the irregular verbs sum and possum. This chapter introduces
three more common irregular verbs. In the previous chapter, you learned that the
infinitive could be used as the verb of a noun clause following verbs of speaking,
thinking (etc.). This chapter introduces another infinitive noun clause, this time
dependent on verbs of commanding, preventing, wishing and the like.
94. Irregular Verbs: volō, nōlō, mālō
The verbs volō, nōlō, mālō have irregular forms in the present tense. They have no
passive forms, and their perfect forms are completely regular.
Here is the present active indicative of these irregular verbs, followed by the present
infinitive, imperative and participle forms where they exist:
To Want Not To Want To Prefer
1st sg. volō nōlō mālō
2nd sg. vīs nōn vīs māvīs
3rd sg. vult nōn vult māvult
1st pl. volumus nōlumus mālumus
2nd pl. vultis nōn vultis māvultis
3rd pl. volunt nōlunt mālunt
Infinitive velle nōlle mālle
Imperative (none) nōlī (none)
nōlīte
Participle volēns, -entis nōlēns, -ntis (none)

95. Negative Commands with nōlō

The imperative forms of nōlō are often used with a complementary infinitive (§7b) to
express a negative command:
Nōlī hoc facere. Do not do this!
Nōlīte rapere illa. Do not take those things!

183
184 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 156. Translate each of the following into Latin.

1. He wants. 6. Do not kill (pl.) us!
2. They prefer. 7. I do not want to flee.
3. Do not speak! (sg.) 8. You (sg.) prefer to do that.
4. We are unwilling. 9. They dare to want these things.
5. Are you (sg.) willing? 10. You (pl.) are unwilling to wage war.

96. Noun Clause: Objective Infinitive

Verbs with the meaning “to order” or “to wish” (and the like) often appear with an
infinitive clause as their object. This use is therefore called the objective infinitive. It
is similar to the complementary infinitive (§7b), except that the objective infinitive
has its own subject:
I want to stay. complementary They dare to fight. complementary
I want you to stay. objective We advise them to fight. objective
In Latin, the subject of the infinitive is in the accusative case:
Volō tē manēre. I want you to stay.
Vetāmus eōs pugnāre. We forbid them to fight.
Nōlunt nōs venīre. They do not want us to come.
Prohibet mīlitēs pugnāre. He prevents the soldiers from fighting.
Here are some of the common verbs that may be followed by this construction:
cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus to force, compel
cupiō, cupere, cupīvī or cupiī, cupītus to want, desire
iubeō, iubēre, iūssī, iūssus to order, command
mālō, mālle, māluī to prefer, want (something) more
nōlō, nōlle, nōluī to be unwilling, not want
postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus to demand
prohibeō, prohibēre, prohibuī, prohibitus to prevent
sinō, sinere, sīvī, sītus to allow, permit; let alone
vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus to forbid; order ... not
volō, velle, voluī to wish, want, be willing
You have now had four uses of the infinitive:
complementary §7b Chapter 1
as a noun (“subjective”) §39 Chapter 8
verb in indirect statement §92 Chapter 19
objective §96 Chapter 20
Review these uses before you do the next exercise.
 Chapter Twenty 185

Exercise 157. In each of the following sentences, identify the form and use of each
infinitive.
Example: Ille prohibet mīlitēs pugnāre. pugnāre: present active inf.; objective
1. Cōnsul haec audīre solēbat. 7. Caesar iūssit arma rapī.
2. Semper multa cupere bonum nōn est. 8. Virī dīxērunt hostēs arma trādidisse.
3. Nōluit fugere. 9. Virī hostēs arma trādere postulābant.
4. Nōluērunt vōs fugere. 10. Vidēre est crēdere.
5. Senex multōs annōs vīvere potuerat. 11. Dolōs illīus fugere volumus.
6. Rōmānīs dulce erat prō patriā 12. Hostēs ab nostrīs mīlitibus vincī
 pugnāvisse.  posse putās?
Exercise 158. Translate the sentences from Ex. 157.
Exercise 159. List all the uses of the accusative case you have had so far and indicate
which of these uses require a preposition and which do not.
Exercise 160. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Ab hostibus capī nōlumus. 6. Graecīs multae nāvēs erant.
2. Uxor tristis Rōmam cum coniuge 7. Cōgitāsne Caesarem ipsum cēterōs
 venīre vult.  victūrum esse?
3. Patriam tuam amāre dēbēs et 8. Superī vetant illōs sacra ē templō
  quī eī nocent fortiter pugnāre.   capere.
4. Nōlīte vestram urbem in tālī 9. Post vīnum multum postulāvērunt
  locō condere!   poētam carmina tristia clārā cum
5. Caesar mīlitēs celeriter moenia   vōce canere.
  decem pedēs alta condere iūssit. 10. Multī senēs in Graeciā sapientēs
  sunt, sed nōn omnēs.
Exercise 161. Translate into Latin.
1. Do you (pl.) prefer to be mortal?
2. I want this money to be given to him within six days.
3. Many of the Greeks who sailed to Troy did not want to fight.
4. It is the custom to praise one wise man, but not the multitude.
5. It was necessary to move the sacred gifts quickly when the temple began to burn.
6. He forbids those soldiers to flee and sends a messenger to Caesar.
7. Caesar was not willing to send troops into this province.
8. Our father allowed us to sing songs at night.
9. The destruction of the citadel had been desired by many.
10. Free men prefer to live with war (rather) than without freedom.
186 Introduction to Latin

Reading 27 (adapted)
Caesar describes how Cicero’s brother, Quintus Cicero, managed to get important
letters through to Caesar and his legion commanders when he was besieged during
the Roman campaign in Gaul.
Multae litterae nuntiīque ad Caesarem mittēbantur, quōrum
pars dēprehensa in conspectū nostrōrum mīlitum necābatur.
erat ūnus intus Nervius, nōmine Verticō, quī ā prīmā obsidiōne
ad Cicerōnem perfūgerat suamque eī fidem praestiterat. hic
servō spē lībertātis magnīsque persuadet praemiīs, ita servus
litterās ad Caesarem portat. hās ille iaculō inligātās effert et
Gallus inter Gallōs sine ūllā suspiciōne versātus ad Caesarem
pervenit. ab eō dē perīculīs Cicerōnis legiōnisque cognōscit.
Caesar acceptīs litterīs hōrā circiter ūndecimā diēī statim
nūntium ad Marcum Crassum quaestōrem mittit, cuius
hīberna aberant ab eō mīlia passuum xxv; iubet mediā nocte
legiōnem castra relinquere celeriterque ad sē venīre. exit cum
nūntiō Crassus. alterum ad Gāium Fabium lēgātum mittit, et
iubet eum in Atrebatium fīnēs legiōnem addūcere.
Vocabulary:
dēprehendō, -ere, to seize, catch suspiciō, -ōnis f. suspicion
-dī, -sus versātus, -a, -um coming and
conspectus, -ūs m. sight  going
necō, -āre to kill perveniō, -īre to reach
intus (adv.) within, “in the army” legiō, -iōnis f. Roman legion
Nervius, -a, -um a Nervian (Nervians circiter (adv.) around, about
  were a tribe in Gaul) statim (adv.) immediately
obsidiō, -iōnis f. siege quaestor, -ōris m. quaestor
perfugio, -ere, to desert, flee for hīberna, -ōrum winter quarters
perfūgī  refuge  n. (pl.)
praestō, -āre, -stitī to show, prove exeō, -īre to leave, go out
praemium, -iī n. reward Atrebatēs, Atrebates
iaculum, -ī n. javelin -ium m. (pl.) (Gallic tribe)
inligātus, -a, -um attached
efferō, efferre, to carry out
extulī, ēlātus

Reading 28
Terence was born in North Africa and came to Rome as a slave, but was later freed
because of his education and abilities. He wrote six comedies that have survived,
including the Heauton Timoroumenos (“Self-Tormenter”), which was produced
in 163 B.C. and was modeled on an earlier Greek play. This reading comes from
 Chapter Twenty 187

the prologue, in which the speaker does not summarize the plot of the play, as
most prologue-speakers did. Instead he explains that the poet wants him to be an
“advocate,” to convince the spectators they should judge the play themselves, rather
than relying on critics who complain that the author was just copying earlier
Greek plays.
Ōrātōrem voluit esse mē, nōn prologum.
Vestrum iūdicium fēcit; mē actōrem dedit.
Sed hic actor tantum poterit ā fācundiā,
Quantum ille potuit cōgitāre commodē
Quī oratiōnem hanc scrīpsit, quam dictūrus sum. 5
Nam quod rūmōrēs distulērunt malevolī,
Multās contāminasse Graecās, dum facit
Paucās Latīnās, id esse factum hic nōn negat,
… et deinde factūrum (esse) autumat.
Vocabulary:
ōrātō, -iōnis m. advocate rūmor, -ōris m. rumor
voluit (subject differō, -ferre, distulī to spread abroad
is the poet, Terence) malevolus, -a, -um spiteful (people)
prologus, -ī m. prologue speaker multās many (plays)
actor, -ōris m. advocate contāminasse, -āre to blend, unite
tantum poterit “will have as much (infinitive in indirect statement with
  power” Terence as the understood subject)
fācundia, -ae, f. eloquence paucās few (plays)
quantum “as” Latīnus, -a, -um Latin
commodē (adv.) skilfully, well hic = Terence
ōrātio, -iōnis f. speech deinde (adv.) “again”
nam quod “as for the fact autumō, -āre to say
 that”

Practice Sentences
Identify the form and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. [Catō] esse quam vidērī bonus mālēbat. (Sallust)
2. Magna sunt ea quae dīcō, mihi crēde; (Cicero)
nōlī haec contemnere.
3. Nōlīte perturbārī. (Petronius)
4. Hominēs id quod volunt crēdunt. (Caesar)
5. Omnēs diēs iubēmus esse iūridicōs. (C.Th. 2.8.18)
6. Multa ēveniunt hominī quae vult, (Plautus – adapted)
quae nōn vult.
7. Ō superī, mortālia facta vidētis? (Ovid; a spurned lover complains
to the gods)
8. Simul cēnāre et in eōdem locō (Cicero)
somnum capere voluērunt.
188 Introduction to Latin

Vocabulary:
contemnō, -ere to disparage, ēveniō, -īre to happen, turn out
think light of simul at the same time
perturbō, -āre to confuse, disturb cēnō, -āre to dine, eat
iūridicus, -a, -um open for court somnus, -ī m. sleep
proceedings

Chapter 20 Vocabulary
Nouns
multitūdō, multitūdinis f. multitude, great number, crowd
Graecia, Graeciae f. Greece
Verbs
cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus to force, compel; collect
cupiō, cupere, cupīvī or cupiī, cupītus to want, desire
iubeō, iubēre, iūssī, iūssus to order, command
mālō, mālle, māluī to prefer, want (something) more
necesse est it is necessary
nōlō, nōlle, nōluī to be unwilling, not want
postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus to demand, claim; prosecute
sinō, sinere, sīvī, sītus to allow, permit
vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus to forbid; order ... not
volō, velle, voluī to wish, want, be willing
Adjectives
mortālis, mortāle mortal, transient; human
sacer, sacra, sacrum sacred
sapiēns, sapientis wise, sensible
superus, supera, superum upper, higher, above
superī, superōrum m. (pl.) gods
tālis, tāle such, of such a kind
tristis, triste sad; gloomy
Adverbs
celeriter quickly
fortiter bravely, forcefully
numquam never
(21)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 20
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. superior 6. sapient
2. postulate 7. veto
3. benevolent 8. fortitude
4. multitude 9. jussive
5. cogitate 10. cupidity
 CHAPTER 21
Comparison of Adjectives
Declension of Comparatives
Irregular Comparison
Comparison with quam & Ablative of Comparison
Indefinite Pronoun: quīdam, quaedam, quoddam

So far most of the adjectives you have learned have been in the positive degree (“big”).
This chapter introduces forms of the comparative (“bigger”) and superlative (“biggest”)
degrees. It also introduces a new use of the ablative case, and another pronoun.

97. Comparison of Adjectives

Positive:
This is the form you learned in Chapters 5 (first and second declension adjectives)
and 10 (third declension adjectives). The stem of a Latin adjective can be found
by dropping the genitive singular ending.
Comparative:
In English, we usually form the comparative of an adjective by adding -er to its
positive stem, or by using more (rather, or quite) with the positive form: dearer,
more dear, rather dear, quite dear
In Latin, most adjectives form the comparative by adding -ior, -ius to their stem.
The comparative always uses third declension endings (see §98 below).
Superlative:
In English, we usually form the superlative of an adjective by adding -est to its
stem, or by using most or very with the positive form: dearest, most dear, very dear
In Latin, most adjectives form the superlative by adding -issim- to the stem,
followed by first and second declension endings. Superlatives decline like bonus,
bona, bonum (§27).

189
190 Introduction to Latin

Positive Comparative Superlative

longus, longa, longum longior, longius longissimus, longissima,
(long)  (longer)  longissimum
 (longest)
dignus, digna, dignum dignior, dignius dignissimus, dignissima,
(worthy)  (more worthy)  dignissimum
  (most worthy)
laetus, laeta, laetum laetior, laetius laetissimus, -a,-um
(happy)  (happier)  (happiest)
tristis, triste tristior, tristius tristissimus, -a, -um
(sad)  (sadder)  (saddest)
sapiēns, sapientis sapientior, sapientius sapientissimus, -a, -um
(wise)  (wiser)  (wisest)

Exercise 162. Using the models above, form the comparative and superlative of the
following adjectives.
1. iūstus, iūsta, iūstum 5. potēns, potentis
2. fortis, forte 6. novus, nova, novum
3. plēnus, plēna, plēnum 7. turpis, turpe
4. brevis, breve 8. ingēns, ingentis
Regular Exceptions:
1) Adjectives in -er form the superlative by adding -rimus (-a, -um) to the
nominative singular masculine of the positive.
2) Four common adjectives in -lis form the superlative by adding -limus (-a,
-um) to the stem of the positive.
Positive Comparative Superlative
miser, misera, miserum miserior, miserius miserrimus, -a, -um
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum pulchrior, pulchrius pulcherrimus, -a, -um
ācer, ācris, ācre ācrior, ācrius ācerrimus, -a, -um
facilis, facile facilior, facilius facillimus, -a, -um
difficilis, difficile difficilior, difficilius difficillimus, -a, -um
similis, simile similior, similius simillimus, -a, -um
dissimilis, dissimile dissimilior, -ius dissimillimus, -a, -um

98. Declension of Comparatives

Comparatives follow the declension of consonant stem nouns, which you learned in
Chapter 7 (§41). This means that, unlike third declension adjectives in the positive,
they have -e (not -ī) in the ablative singular, and they lack the -ī in genitive plural and
nom./acc. pl. neuter.
 Chapter Twenty-One 191

Singular Plural
Masc./Fem. Neuter Masc./Fem. Neuter
Nominative longior longius longiōrēs longiōra
Genitive longiōris longiōris longiōrum longiōrum
Dative longiōrī longiōrī longiōribus longiōribus
Accusative longiōrem longius longiōrēs longiōra
Ablative longiōre longiōre longiōribus longiōribus

99. Irregular Comparison

As in English, some Latin adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms.
Because these forms are not predictable, they must be memorized carefully.
Positive Comparative Superlative
bonus, -a, -um melior, melius optimus, -a, -um
(good)  (better)  (best)
magnus, -a, -um maior, maius maximus, -a, -um
(big)  (bigger)  (biggest)
malus, -a, -um pēior, pēius pessimus, -a, -um
(bad)  (worse)  (worst)
multus, -a, -um plūs, plūris* plūrimus, -a, -um
(much; many)  (more)  (most)
parvus, -a, -um minor, minus minimus, -a, -um
(small)  (smaller, less)  (smallest, least)
superus, -a, -um superior, superius summus, -a, -um
(upper)   (higher)   (highest, furthest; top of )
suprēmus, -a, -um
  (highest, last)

*Note: plūs, plūris in the singular is a neuter noun and is often followed by
a partitive genitive:
plūs pecūniae more money (literally: “more of money”)
In the plural plūrēs, plūra is an adjective:
plūrēs mīlitēs more soldiers
For the declension of plūs, see the Morphology Reference Section at the back
of the book.
 192 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 163. Identify the following adjectives by degree, case, number and gender.
Include all possibilities for ambiguous forms. Then translate each form.
Example: sapientissimum superlative, acc. sg. m. or nom./acc. sg. n.,
“wisest, very wise”
1. dulcissimā 8. plūrimīs
2. maius 9. meliōre
3. clārissimōs 10. sacerrima
4. longior 11. fortēs
5. summī 12. potentiōra
6. celerrimus 13. pēiōrum
7. fidēliōrem 14. facillimō
100. Comparison with quam & Ablative of Comparison
When you see a comparative form, you should be ready to expect a comparison
between two items. Latin can express this comparison in two different ways:
• quam — quam (than) can be used as a coordinating conjunction linking
the two items being compared. The connected items are in the same case.
Pater sapientior est quam fīlius. The father is wiser than (his) son.
Is laude dignior quam culpā est. He is more worthy of praise than blame.
• ablative of comparison — the ablative (than) can be used instead of quam
when the first item is in the nominative or accusative case.
Pater sapientior est fīliō. The father is wiser than (his) son.
Crēdunt hanc viam breviōrem esse illā. They believe that this path is
  shorter than that (one).
Exercise 164. Translate each of the following sentences using both comparative
constructions where applicable.
1. We think that he is stronger than she.
2. These things were more difficult than those.
3. Are bigger cities better than smaller ones?
4. He denied that the mind of men was swifter than the body.
5. Some kings are stronger than others.
6. They held the most beautiful gifts.
101. Indefinite Pronoun: quīdam, quaedam, quoddam
The pronoun quīdam, quaedam, quoddam (“a certain, a sort of ”) is declined like the
relative pronoun quī, quae, quod (§63) with -dam appended to the end of the word.
Note that -m becomes -n before -d: eundam, eōrundam; quendam, quandam, etc.
Like the other demonstratives you have learned, these pronouns can be used in place
of nouns or as adjectival modifiers:
Quīdam in urbem vēnit. A certain (man) came into the city.
Quīdam dux bene pugnat. A certain leader fights well.
Quaedam ab agrīs currit. A certain (woman) is running away from the fields.
Quaedam dōna accēpimus. We received certain gifts.
 Chapter Twenty-One 193

Exercise 165. Translate each of the following sentences.

1. Erantne lēgēs Rōmānae iūstiōrēs lēgibus Graecīs?
2. Sapientēs intellēxērunt nihil esse vēritātis lūce dulcius.
3. Numquam rēs pūblica nec melior nec iūstior fuit.
4. Quīdam ad urbem adveniēbant, quamquam aliī nōlēbant.
5. Contrā commūne perīculum dux noster fortissimus omnium erat.
6. Quis omnium dignissimus fuit?
7. Putant eam aptiōrem rūrī quam urbī esse.
8. Rēgīna amōris causā infēlicissima sē cōnfēcit.
9. Rōmānī numquam maius aut pulchrius templum vīderant.
10. Plūs aurī quam sapientiae mālunt.
Exercise 166. Translate into Latin.
1. The longest journey begins with one step.
2. My love is deeper than the deepest sea.
3. Are two heads in fact better than one in a trial?
4. A certain poet was the ugliest of all men, but he used to sing with the sweetest
 words.
5. He answered that this was easier to say than to do.
6. The emperor commanded the troops to wage war bravely.
7. When the battle was made, the enemy were fighting more with deceit than
 force.
8. Some men prefer good wine, others water.
9. Since the dangers were quite serious, the crowd (multitude) sought help.
10. That man was full of loyalty and accomplished very many things for the
  public good.
194 Introduction to Latin

Reading 29 (adapted)
Cicero writes a remorseful letter from exile to his beloved wife, Terentia, who had
to bring up their son, look after their 20-year-old daughter, and manage Cicero’s
estate and affairs in his absence, as well as work for his return. He blames himself
for putting his wife and children in this situation and says he wishes he had
followed another course.
Accēpī ab Aristocritō trēs epistulās, quās ego lacrimīs prope
dēlēvī. cōnficior enim maerōre, mea Terentia, nec meae mē
miseriae magis excruciant quam tuae vestraeque. Ego autem
hōc miserior sum quam tū, quae es miserrima, quod ipsa
calamitās commūnis est utrīusque nostrum, sed culpa mea
propria est. Meum fuit officium vel lēgātiōne vitāre perīculum
vel dīligentiā et cōpiīs resistere vel cadere fortiter. Hōc miserius,
turpius, indignius nōbīs nihil fuit. quārē cum dolōre cōnficior
tum etiam pudōre; pudet enim mē uxōrī meae optimae,
suāvissimīs līberīs virtūtem et diligentiam nōn praestitisse ....
Tū modo ad mē omnia dīligentissimē scrībe; etsī magis iam
rem quam litterās dēbeō spectāre. Curā et tibi persuadē, mihi tē
cārius nihil esse nec umquam fuisse. Valē, mea Terentia, quam
ego vidēre videor itaque dēbilitor lacrimīs. Valē.
Vocabulary:
Aristocritus, -ī m. Aristocritus, a pudor, -ōris m. shame
  friend of Cicero pudeō, -ēre to cause shame
prope (adv.) nearly   (with acc. + subjective infinitive)
maeror, -ōris m. grief, sorrow suāvis, -e sweet, delightful
miseria, -ae f. misery, distress praestō, -āre, -stitī to distinguish oneself
excruciō, -āre to torture   (to someone – dat., in some way – abl.)
calamitās, -tātis f. disaster, damage exspectō, -āre to hope for
proprius, -a, -um one’s own dīligentissimē (adv.) very carefully,
officium, -iī n. duty   in greatest detail
vel ... vel ... vel either ... or ... or etsī (conj.) although
lēgātiō, -iōnis f. post of ambassador umquam (adv.) ever
dīligentia, -ae f. careful management dēbilitō, -āre to disable,
quārē (conj.) therefore    weaken
 Chapter Twenty-One 195

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Patria mihi vītā meā est cārior. (Cicero – adapted)
Ipsā rē publicā nihil mihi est cārius. (Cicero)
Potius vītā quam patriā carēbō. (Cicero)
2. Nec enim bonitās est pessimīs esse (Seneca)
meliōrem.
3. Quaedam remedia graviōra ipsīs (Seneca)
perīculīs sunt.
4. Cato enim ipse iam servīre quam (Caesar)
pugnāre māvult.
5. Quid enim nōbīs duōbus, iūdicēs, (Cicero; talking about himself
labōriōsius? and his client)
6. Rēx erat Aenēās nōbīs, quō iūstior alter (Vergil; a Trojan speaks about his
nec pietāte fuit, nec bellō maior et armīs. leader, whom he fears is dead)
7. “Quae mea culpa tuam,” dīxit (Ovid; a wife is upset when her
“cārissime, mentem vertit?” husband plans a long journey)
8. Post pugnam ad Regillum lacum nōn (Livy; Rome conquered the Latins
alia illīs annīs pugna clārior fuit. here in c. 496 B.C.)

Vocabulary:
potius (adv.) rather pietās, -tātis f. piety — abl. of
bonitās, -tātis f. goodness, excellence specification/
remedium, -iī n. remedy, cure respect (§79)
iūdex, -icis m. judge pugna, -ae f. fight
labōriōsus, -a, -um troubled, ad Regillum “at Lake Regillus”
  full of labor   lacum
196 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 21 Vocabulary

Noun
plūs, plūris n. (often + gen.) more
Verbs
adveniō, advenīre, advēnī, adventūrus to arrive, come to; happen
cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectus to finish, accomplish; weaken, kill
cūrō, cūrāre, cūrāvī, cūrātus to care for/about, pay attention to; cure
dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētus to destroy; blot out
intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctus to understand
quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī (-iī), quaesītus to look for, seek; ask
resistō, resistere, restitī (often + dat.) to resist, oppose, make a stand
Adjectives
commūnis, commūne shared, common; public
gravis, grave heavy; serious, important; difficult
iūstus, iūsta, iūstum just, fair
quīdam, quaedam, quoddam a certain , a sort of
turpis, turpe shameful, base; ugly, foul
** irregular comparatives and superlatives in §99
Pronoun
quīdam, quaedam, quoddam a certain , a sort of
*can also be used as an adjectival modifier
Coordinating Conjunction
quam (rather) than, as (in comparison)
Subordinating Conjunction
quoniam since, seeing that
(15 + chart in §99)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 21
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. turpitude 6. gravity
2. intelligence 7. delete
3. confection 8. resistant
4. advent 9. pejorative
5. ameliorate 10. curator
READING CHAPTER IV
Narrative Reading IV: Tullus and the Treachery of Mettius
Dictionary Practice / Form Identification
Review of the Sentence and its Parts
Question Words for Extra Practice
Word Building: Compounds
English Abbreviations and Phrases

Narrative Reading IV: Tullus and the Treachery of Mettius

(Adapted from Livy)
The Albans, after the battle of the Horatii and Curiatii, swear allegiance to the
Romans. But their leader, Mettius, induces two Roman allies, the Fidenates
and the Veientes, to revolt, promising that he will help them. When the battle is
engaged, however, Mettius helps neither the Romans nor the allies, but withdraws
to see which side will be victorious. When Tullus and the Romans win, they invite
the Albans to a thanksgiving ceremony. Tullus offers quite different rewards to the
Albans and their leader.
Nec diū pāx Albāna mānsit. invidia vulgī, quod tribus mīlitibus
fortūna pūblica commissa erat, vānum ingenium dictātōris
corrupit, et quoniam rēcta cōnsilia nōn bene ēvēnerant,
prāvīs reconciliāre populī animōs coepit. igitur ut prius
(continued)
Vocabulary:
Albānus, -a, -um Alban, dictātor, -ōris m. dictator
of the Albans corrumpō, -ere, -rūpī to corrupt
invidia, -ae f. discontent rēctus, -a, -um honest
vulgus, -ī n. people, the masses ēveniō, -īre, -vēnī to turn out
committo, -ere, to entrust prāvus, -a, -um evil, improper
-misī, -missus reconciliō, -āre to win back
vānus, -a, -um weak, idle coepit “he began”
ingenium, -iī n. nature, character ut prius “just as before”

197
198 Introduction to Latin

Narrative Reading IV (continued)

in bellō pācem, sīc in pāce bellum quaerēns, quia suae cīvitātī
animōrum plūs quam vīrium cernēbat esse, bellum gerere aliōs
concitat populōs. Fīdēnātēs, colōnia Rōmāna, et Vēientēs pactō
trānsitiōnis Albānōrum ad bellum atque arma incitantur.
Cum Fīdēnae apertē dēsciērunt, Tullus Mettiō exercitūque eius
ab Albā accītō contrā hostēs dūcit*. Tullus adversus Vēientem
hostem dērigit suōs, Albānōs contrā legiōnem Fīdēnātium
conlocat. Albānō nōn plūs animī erat quam fideī. nec manēre
ergō nec trānsīre apertē ausus est, sed sēnsim ad montēs
succēdit; inde ubi satis discessisse sēsē putāvit, dērigit tōtam
aciem et mānsit. Nōn alia ante Rōmāna pugna ācrior fuit.
Postquam Rōmānī vīcērunt, Albānus exercitus, spectātor
pugnae, vēnit in campōs. Proximō diē, pārātīs omnibus, Tullus
vocārī ad contiōnem utrumque exercitum iubet. Tum ita Tullus
inquit: “Rōmānī, sī umquam ante ūllō in bellō necesse fuit
prīmum dīs immortalibus grātiās agere, tum vestrae virtūtī,
hesternum id proelium fuit. Pugnāvistis enim nōn magis cum
hostibus quam, quae pugna maior atque perīculōsior est, cum
perfidiā sociōrum. Mettius ille est foederis Rōmānī Albānīque
ruptor. Centuriōnēs armātī Mettium circumsistunt et Tullus
inquit: “Albānī, populum omnem Albānum Rōmam trādūcere
in animō est, cīvitātem dare plēbī, prīmōrēs in patrēs legere,
ūnam urbem, ūnam rem pūblicam facere. Mettī, ut ante
animum inter Fīdēnātem Rōmānamque rem dīvīsistī, ita iam
corpus dīvidētur.” itaque Mettius duōs in currūs distentus
inligātus est. tum in partēs dīversās equī concitātī sunt et
lacerum in utrōque currū corpus portāvērunt. avertēre omnēs
ab tantā foeditāte spectāculī oculōs. prīmum ultimumque illud
supplicium apud Rōmānōs exemplī parum memoris lēgum
hūmānārum fuit.
Vocabulary:
vīrēs, -ium f. (pl.) strength pactum, -ī n. promise, pact
concitō, -āre to stir up, rouse trānsitiō, -iōnis f. desertion
colōnia, -ae f. colony incitō, -āre to incite, stir up
Fīdēnātēs, -um m. citizens of Fidenae, Fīdēnae, -ārum f. Fidenae (a town
  a town near Rome   in Latium)
Vēientēs, -um m. citizens of Veii, apertē (adv.) openly
  an Etruscan town dēscīscō, -ere, -iī to revolt
  near Rome
 Reading Chapter IV 199

Tullus, -ī m. Tullus, 3rd foedus, -eris n. treaty

  king of Rome ruptor, -ōris m. breaker
Mettius, -ī, m. Mettius, leader circumsistō, -ere to surround
of the Albans centuriōnēs (pl.) (Roman)
Alba, -ae f. Alba Longa, town   captains
  near Rome trādūcō, -ere to transfer
acciō, -ere, accīvī, to summon plēbs, -is f. common people
-ītus prīmōrēs, -um m. first rank
*dūcō, -ere to march, dīvidō, -ere, -īsī to divide, split
used without an object   move currus, -ūs m. chariot, team of
adversus, -a, -um facing, opposing   horses
dērigō, -ere to direct, turn distentus, -a, -um stretched out
legiō, -iōnis f. legion inligō, -āre, -āvī, to attach
conlocō, -āre to place, station -ātus
ergō (adv.) therefore dīversus, -a, -um opposite
trānseō, -īre to desert lacer, -era, -erum torn
sēnsim (adv.) gradually āvertō, -ere, -tī to avert, turn
succēdō, -ere, -dī to retreat   away
satis (adv.) enough foeditās, -tātis f. horror,
pugna, -ae f. fight, battle   hideousness
spectātor, -ōris m. spectator spectāculum, -ī n. sight
campus, -ī m. plain ultimus, -a, -um last
contiō, -iōnis f. meeting supplicium, -iī n. punishment
umquam (adv.) ever apud (+ acc.) among
hesternus, -a, -um of yesterday exemplī parum “of a type too
perīculōsus, -a, -um dangerous   memoris   little mindful
perfidia, -ae f. treachery  of ”
200 Introduction to Latin

Dictionary Practice/Form Identification

Identify the words below based on the dictionary entries given. Be sure to indicate the
entry from which each is taken, and the part of speech and to give all possibilities for
ambiguous forms.
For nouns and adjectives: give case, number, and gender
For verbs: give person, number, tense, voice (active or passive) and mood
(indicative or imperative); if infinitive, give tense and voice
A. servīlis, servīle: slavish, servile
B. serviō, servīre, servīvī : to be a slave
C. servitūs, servitūtis f.: slavery
D. servō, servāre, servāvī, servātus: to watch over
Entry Part of Speech Form ID
1. servātī erunt
2. servitūtī
3. servīvērunt
4. servābar
5. servīle
6. serviam
7. servīlēs
8. servāvistī
9. servīvisse
10. servitūs
11. servātus sum
12. servī
13. servābunt
14. servīlibus
15. servātum esse

Review of the Sentence and its Parts

Chapters 17-21 have added new dependent clauses, several with non-finite verbs.
Finite clauses are often easier to recognize because they have clause markers, while
non-finite clauses typically do not. Notice that sometimes the function of a non-finite
and a finite clause is the same: participles and adjectival relative clauses both modify
nouns; ablatives absolute and the clauses introduced in Chapter 12 both function as
adverbial modifiers providing information about (e.g.) when, why, and under what
conditions the action of the main verb happens. It may be useful at this stage to review
the old and new dependent clauses by their function in the sentence.
 Reading Chapter IV 201

Adjectival Modifier Adverbial Modifier Noun

Finite Relative Clause Clause (Ch. 12) Relative Clause
(Ch. 13) marked by marked by cum, (Ch. 18) marked by
quī, quae, quod dum, sī, ubi, etc. quī, quae, quod
Non-Finite Participle (Ch. 17) Ablative Absolute Indirect Statement
(Ch. 17) (Ch. 19)
Objective Infinitive
(Ch. 20)

Question Words for Extra Practice

Quis/Quī who? (animate)
Quem/Quōs whom? (animate)
Quid/Quae what? (non-animate)
ā Quō by whom?
Quō auxiliō by what means?
Quam diū how long?
Ubi where?
Cūr why?
Based on the narrative reading at the beginning of this chapter, answer the following
questions in Latin.
1. Quam diū pāx Albāna mānsit? 6. Pugnā inceptā, quid Mettius agit?
2. Quis erat dux Albānōrum? 7. Ubi Albānus exercitus stetit
3. Quid ingenium dictātōris corrupit?   post pugnam?
4. Quō auxiliō reconciliābat populī 8. Cui Tullus cīvitātem dedit?
  animōs? 9. Quid rēx Rōmānus fēcit?
5. Quī ad bellum atque arma incitantur? 10. Cur Mettius interfectus est?
202 Introduction to Latin

Word Building: Compounds

A good way to help build your Latin vocabulary is to watch for compound words made
up of simple stems you already know. Words in Latin are compounded in predictable
ways, so you can learn to pull them apart and make educated guesses even about words
you’ve never seen before. (Review Reading Chapter II for spelling changes!) Here are
some examples:
• Verbs with prefixes that come from prepositions
Preposition Verb Compound Meaning
Word
ā/ab mittere āmittere to send away, lose
ad venīre advenīre to come to, arrive
ante pōnere antepōnere to place before, prefer
circum dare circumdare to put around, surround
cum (com-, con-) currere concurrere to run together, charge
in capere incipere to take in (hand), begin
sub (sup-) iacēre subiacēre to lie under, be close to
super sedēre supersedēre to sit over, preside
• Other compounds
Type of Parts of the Compound Meaning
Formation Compound Word
two adjectives omnis + potēns omnipotēns all-powerful
adjective + noun māgnus + animus magnanimus great-spirited
noun + verb ager + colō (to till, cultivate) agricola farmer
Guess the meaning of each compound below and identify the two parts in each
compound:
1. subscrībō 5. armiger
2. addūcunt 6. dēpōnō
3. excidimus 7. mātricīda
4. manūmittit 8. āmēns

English Abbreviations and Phrases

• c.v. or vita curriculum vitae course of life
• ibid. ibidem in the same place
• id. idem the same (man/author)
• M.A. Magister artium Master of Arts (graduate degree)
• op. cit. opus citatum or the work cited
  opere citato
• p.s. post scriptum after what has been written
• q.v. quod videre which to see (i.e. Go look at)
• deo volente God willing
• quid pro quo this for that
 CHAPTER 22
Comparison of Adverbs
More on quam
Deponent Verbs
Special Intransitive: Deponent Verbs used with an Ablative Object

In Chapter 21 you learned about the comparison of adjectives. This chapter introduces
the comparison of adverbs, as well as a group of verbs that lacks active forms.

102. Comparison of Adverbs

The comparative and superlative of adverbs follows the same pattern as that of the
adjectives to which they are related.
Positive:
Many adverbs are formed from adjectives as follows:
1st and 2nd declension adjectives add -ē to their stem
cārus, -a, -um cārē
miserus, -a, -um miserē
pulcher, -chra, -chrum pulchrē
3rd declension adjectives add -(i)ter to their stem (stems in -nt and -tt > t)
celer, -is, -e celeriter
sapiēns, -ntis sapienter
The positive form of other adverbs must simply be memorized.
Comparative adverbs end in -ius. They are the same as the accusative singular neuter
form of the comparative adjective.
Superlative adverbs are formed by replacing the superlative adjective endings with -ē.
The following chart illustrates sample adverb forms, including five common irregular
ones.

203
 204 Introduction to Latin

Positive Comparative Superlative

celeriter celerius celerrimē
(quickly)  (more quickly)  (most quickly)
fortiter fortius fortissimē
(bravely)  (more bravely)  (most bravely)
longē longius longissimē
(far)  (farther)  (farthest)
bene melius optimē
(well)  (better)  (best)
male pēius pessimē
(badly)  (worse)  (worst)
multum plūs plūrimum
(much)   (more – quantity)   (most, very much)
magnopere magis maximē
(greatly)   (more – quality)   (most, especially)
parum minus minimē
(little)  (less)  (least)

103. More on quam

Quam is used as a connector with comparative adverbs, just as it is with comparative
adjectives (§100). It appears instead of the Ablative of Comparison, except in poetry:
hic mīles fortius pugnāvit quam ille this soldier fought more bravely than
  that one
Quam can also be used as an adverb to modify the superlative of either an adjective or
an adverb, indicating the greatest possible degree. A common way to translate quam
+ superlative is “as ______ as possible”:
quam laetissimus as happy as possible
quam celerrimē as quickly as possible
104. Deponent Verbs
Deponent verbs have passive forms but active meanings. (They are called “deponent”
because they literally “put down” [dē + pōnere] their passive meanings.) They are
conjugated like the passive of regular verbs.
Present Imperfect Future Perfect
1st sg. cōnor cōnābar cōnābor cōnātus, -a, -um sum
2nd sg. cōnāris cōnābāris cōnāberis cōnātus, -a, -um es
3rd sg. cōnātur cōnābātur cōnābitur cōnātus, -a, -um est
1st pl. cōnāmur cōnābāmur cōnābimur cōnātī, -ae, -a sumus
2nd pl. cōnāminī cōnābāminī cōnābiminī cōnātī, -ae, -a estis
3rd pl. cōnantur cōnābantur cōnābuntur cōnātī, -ae, -a sunt
 Chapter Twenty-Two 205

You will be able to identify a deponent verb from its dictionary listing, because the
first form will end in -or instead of -ō, the second form will be a passive infinitive and
the listing will have only three forms:
Present Indicative Present Infinitive Perfect Indicative
moror “I delay” morārī morātus sum
loquor “I talk” loquī locūtus sum

Note: More than half of all deponent verbs are regular, first conjugation verbs.
Imperatives of deponent verbs are formed as follows:
2nd sg.: Add -re to the verb stem (morāre, loquere) – these forms look like a
present active infinitive for each conjugation
2nd pl.: Add -minī to the verb stem (morāminī, loquiminī) – these forms look
like the 2nd pl. indicative, but the context of the sentence should make
the mood clear
Deponents retain the following Active forms:
Future Infinitive (morātūrus esse, locūtūrus esse)
Present and Future Participles, Gerund and Supine (to be learned later)
See the Morphology Reference Section (pp. 320-331) for imperative, infinitive and
participle forms for all four conjugations.
A few verbs have regular active forms, except in the perfect system where they have
only passive forms. These are called semi-deponent verbs, and you have already
learned three of the most common ones:
audeō, audēre, ausus sum to dare
fīdō, fīdere, fīsus sum to trust
gaudeō, gaudēre, gavīsus sum to rejoice
soleō, solēre, solitus sum to be accustomed
Remember that when you are identifying most forms of deponent verbs, they are
passive, even though their meanings are active.
Exercise 167. From the dictionary entries below, identify which verbs are deponent.
1. cōnfiteor, cōnfitērī, cōnfessus sum 5. carpō, carpere, carpsī, carptus
2. rōdō, rōdere, rōsī, rōsus 6. moror, morārī, morātus sum
3. hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum 7. reor, rērī, ratus sum
4. fateor, fatērī, fassus sum 8. impleō, implēre, implēvī, implētus
 206 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 168. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number, tense, voice,
and mood, and then translate into English.
Example: cōnātus eris second sg., future perfect, deponent, indic.: “you will
  have tried”
1. frūctus esse 7. cōnātī erātis
2. ingredimur 8. ūtor
3. potītus eram 9. fūnctus est
4. ūsī eritis 10. vesceris
5. sequitur 11. ingressus es
6. patimur 12. ausae sumus
105. Special Intransitive: Deponent Verbs used with an Ablative Object
In Chapter 7 (§44) you learned that some verbs take their object in the dative or
ablative case instead of the accusative. The deponent verbs ūtor, fruor, fungor, potior,
vescor (and some of their compounds) typically take their object in the ablative case,
in the same “special intransitive” sentence pattern.
Exercise 169. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Dux ipse mīlitēs ingredī Rōmam sinit.
2. Nōlīte sequī illōs!
3. Vir multa vulnera patī solitus est.
4. Creditisne hīs magis quam illīs?
5. Quōdam tempore lēgātī maius bellum quam pācem cūrābant.
6. Vescī quibusdam cibīs tē aegrum faciet.
7. Prīnceps ipse cibō pōtūque frūctus est dum Rōma ardet.
8. Morārī quam hostem petere māvis?
9. Cōgitāsne Caesarem ipsum Gallōs victūrum esse?
10. Bellō inceptō, Caesar cōpiās ex Ītaliā in Galliam quam celerrimē dūxit.
Exercise 170. Translate into Latin.
1. Certain women will acquire fame.
2. I judged that the fault was mine alone and I am very sad.
3. Tradition forbids women to enter the temple.
4. The senate did not want to make the crowd angry.
5. Those who follow that leader into the hostile province will not live many days.
6. To use deceit was not their custom.
7. We ourselves will depart rather quickly on the seventh day.
8. The children enjoyed the same books.
9. The soldiers were following the leader himself.
10. The part of the city that is near the river was being attacked as fiercely as
  possible by the army.
 Chapter Twenty-Two 207

Reading 30 (slightly edited)

Caesar tells how the Germans were defeated and his summer campaign in Gaul
ended. Labienus was a prominent legion commander in Caesar’s Gallic campaign.
Ita proelium restitūtum est, atque omnēs hostēs terga vertērunt
neque prius fugere dēstitērunt, quam ad flūmen Rhēnum,
mīlia passuum ex eō locō circiter quīndecim, pervēnērunt. ...
hōc proeliō trāns Rhēnum nūntiātō Suēbī, quī ad rīpās Rhēnī
vēnerant, domum revertī coepērunt. quōs ubi, quī proximī
Rhēnum incolunt, perterritōs sēnsērunt, īnsecutī magnum ex
hīs numerum occīdērunt. Caesar ūnā aestāte duōbus maximīs
bellīs cōnfectīs, in hīberna in Sequanōs exercitum dēdūxit.
hībernīs Labiēnum praeposuit, ipse in citeriōrem Galliam
profectus est.
Vocabulary:
restituō, -ere, to restore, renew perterreō, -ēre, per = very
-uī, -ūtus -uī, -itus
tergum, -ī n. back īnsequor, -ī, to pursue
prius ... quam before īnsecūtus sum
dēsistō, -ere, -stitī to stop (+ inf.) aestās, -tātis f. summer
circiter (adv.) around, about cōnficiō, -ere to bring to an end
pervenio, -īre, to arrive hīberna, winter quarters
-vēnī -ōrum n. (pl.)
Rhēnus, -ī m. the Rhine river Sequanī, -ōrum the Sequani (a
Suēbī, -ōrum the Suebi (a m. (pl.) German tribe)
m. (pl.) German tribe) praepōnō, -ere to set as a
rīpa, -ae f. bank (of a river) (+ acc. & dat.) commander (over)
revertor, -ī to turn back dēdūcō, -ere, -xī to lead down
coepērunt (they) began citerior, -ius on this side, nearer
quōs = hōs
208 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Ille, ubi mātrem cognōvit, tālī fugientem (Vergil – adapted; Venus departs
vōce secūtus est. revealing herself to her son, Aeneas
[ille], who calls after her)
2. Ipsī ex silvīs rārī prōpugnābant (Caesar – adapted; describing an
nostrōsque intrā mūnītiōnēs ingredī enemy’s battle strategy)
prohibēbant.
3. Dum loquor, hōra fugit. (Ovid)
4. Nōn omnēs eadem mīrantur amantque. (Horace)
5. Maximum remedium īrae mora est. (Seneca)
6. Somnus in ignōtōs oculōs sibi vēnit, et aurō (Ovid; describing how Jason
hērōs Aesonius potitur. overcame the dragon [sibi], which
guarded the golden fleece)
7. [Eum] populus Rōmānus meliōrem virum (Cicero; speaking of the famous
quam histriōnem esse arbitrātur. actor, Quintus Roscius)
8. [Hannibal,] hāc pugnā pugnātā, (Cornelius Nepos; describing
Rōmam profectus est nūllō resistente. In Hannibal’s march to Rome)
propinquīs urbī montibus morātus est.

Vocabulary:
rārus, -a, -um scattered, here and there sibi refers to the
prōpugnō, -āre to rush out to fight   dragon
intrā (+ acc.) inside, within hērōs (nom. sg.) hero
mūnītiō, -iōnis f. fortification Aesonius, -a, -um descended
remedium, -iī n. remedy, cure   from Aeson,
somnus, -ī m. sleep  Jason
ignōtus, -a, -um not knowing histriō, -iōnis m. actor
 Chapter Twenty-Two 209

Chapter 22 Vocabulary

Nouns
cibus, cibī m. food
culpa, culpae f. fault, blame
mora, morae f. delay
pōtus, pōtūs m. drink
Verbs
arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum to think, judge
cōnor, cōnārī, conātus sum to try
fīdō, fīdere, fīsus sum (+ dat.) to trust, confide in
fruor, fruī, frūctus sum (+ abl.) to enjoy
fungor, fungī, fūnctus sum (+ abl.) to perform, do
ingredior, ingredī, ingressus sum to enter; march, walk
loquor, loquī, locūtus sum to speak, talk, say
mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum to wonder (at), be surprised at; admire
moror, morārī, morātus sum to delay
patior, patī, passus sum to suffer, allow
potior, potīrī, potītus sum (+ abl.) to get hold of, acquire
proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum to set out, depart
sequor, sequī, secūtus sum to follow, accompany; pursue
ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum (+ abl.) to use
vescor, vescī (+ abl.) to eat, feed on
Adjective
propinquus, propinqua, propinquum near (to), neighboring; near, not far off
  (of time)
propinquus, propinquī m.   relative, kinsman
Adverb
quam how, how much; as as possible
  (with superlatives)
(21)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 22
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. loquacious 6. culpable
2. function 7. moratorium
3. arbitrate 8. consequence
4. potable 9. abuse
5. ingress 10. passion
 CHAPTER 23
Irregular Verbs
eō, īre, iī (īvī), itūrus (to go)
Compounds of eō
ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus (to carry, bear)
Compounds of ferō
Paradigm of vīs, vīs, f.

Irregular Verbs
So far you have learned the irregular verbs sum, possum, volō, nōlō and mālō. This
chapter introduces two more common irregular verbs. It also introduces an irregular
noun.
106. eō, īre, iī (īvī), itūrus (to go)
The verb eō (to go) is irregular in the present tense and must be memorized. Its other
forms are regular, but are given here for convenience:
Indicative
Present Imperfect Future Perfect Pluperfect Future
Perfect
1st sg. eō ībam ībō iī, (īvī) ieram ierō
2nd sg. īs ībās ībis iistī > īstī ierās ieris
3rd sg. it ībat ībit iit ierat ierit
1st pl. īmus ībāmus ībimus iimus ierāmus ierimus
2nd pl. ītis ībātis ībitis iistis > īstis ierātis ieritis
3rd pl. eunt ībant ībunt iērunt ierant ierint

Imperatives Infinitives
2nd sg. ī Present īre
2nd pl. īte Perfect īsse
Future itūrus esse

Participles
Present iēns, euntis
Future itūrus, -a, -um

211
 212 Introduction to Latin

Compounds of eō
There are many common compounds of eō. These follow the pattern of forms
given above.
Exercise 171. See if you can guess the principal parts and meanings of the following:
Example: abeō abīre, abiī, abitūrus: to go away, depart
1. adeō 4. redeō
2. exeō 5. subeō
3. ineō 6. trānseō
Exercise 172. Translate the following into Latin using eō or its compounds, and
identify the tense of each form:
Example: I depart abeō; present tense
1. They entered 6. He wants (use volō) to go
2. We will go 7. They will cross
3. He was returning 8. We had undergone
4. You (sg.) approached 9. Are you (pl.) going out?
5. Go away! (pl.) 10. They will have gone away
107. ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus (to carry, bear)
The verb ferō is also irregular in the present tense and must be memorized. The
imperfect and future active and the future passive are given here for convenient
reference, but the perfect (tulī, tulistī, tulit, etc.) can be found in the Morphology
Reference Section at back of the book:
Indicative
Active Passive
Present Imperfect Future Present Future
1st sg. ferō ferēbam feram feror ferar
2nd sg. fers ferēbās ferēs ferris ferēris
3rd sg. fert ferēbat feret fertur ferētur
1st pl. ferimus ferēbāmus ferēmus ferimur ferēmur
2nd pl. fertis ferēbātis ferētis feriminī ferēminī
3rd pl. ferunt ferēbant ferent feruntur ferentur

Imperatives
2nd sg. fer (n.b. §45)
2nd pl. ferte

Infinitives
Active Passive
Present ferre ferrī
Perfect tulisse lātus esse
Future lātūrus esse
 Chapter Twenty-Three 213

Participles
Active Passive
Present ferēns, ferentis
Perfect lātus, -a, -um
Future lātūrus, -a, -um

Compounds of ferō
There are many common compounds of ferō. These follow the pattern of forms given
above. Note especially the following and their principal parts:
auferō, auferre, abstulī, ablātus to carry away
cōnferō, cōnferre, contulī, collātus to bring together, compare; contribute
īnferō, īnferre, intulī, illātus to bring to, introduce
offerō, offerre, obtulī, oblātus to offer
referō, referre, rettulī, relātus to carry back, bring back, report
Exercise 173. Translate the following into Latin using ferō or its compounds, and
identify the tense of each form:
1. They will offer 6. To be introduced
2. It is reported 7. They will contribute
3. She was carried 8. Having been offered (neuter sg.)
4. You (pl.) had been carried away 9. They will have been compared
5. I will bear 10. He was reporting
Exercise 174. Translate each verb form and be ready to identify it by person, number,
tense and voice.
1. adeunt 6. auferēs
2. lātae erātis 7. abībāmus
3. inībit 8. sustulērunt
4. fers 9. fertur
5. tuleris 10. collāta sunt
108. Paradigm of vīs, vīs, f.
The third declension word vīs (stem: vī-) has some unusual forms in the singular,
and in the plural it is easily confused with the second declension noun vir. It is worth
memorizing these forms now so they won’t cause trouble later:
vīs, vīs f. power; pl. strength vir, virī m. man
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative vīs vīrēs vir virī
Genitive [vīs – rarely seen] vīrium virī virōrum
Dative [vī – rarely seen] vīribus virō virīs
Accusative vim vīrēs virum virōs
Ablative vī vīribus virō virīs
214 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 175. Translate each of the following sentences.

1. Clāmōre sublātō hostēs petīvimus prīmā lūce.
2. Eōdemque tempore fortēs virī proelium ineunt et multī perīre incipiunt.
3. Infēlīcēs mīlitēs domum trāns Graeciam sē cōnferunt.
4. Scītisne Caesarem Galliae cunctae bellum intulisse?
5. Quibus vīrēs magnae erant labōrem nōn vītāvērunt.
6. Ā nūntiō territō malum commūne relātum erat.
7. Lēge carēns cīvitās celerius perībit, nam bonī cīvēs abībunt.
8. Auxiliō lātō, fēminae līberīque gaudēbant.
9. Fīlius frātrēsque parēs patrī erant et virtūte et vīribus.
10. Omnēs abiimus, turbā clāmōrem tollente.
Exercise 176. Translate into Latin.
1. Scared by the shouts, the boys ran into the forest.
2. The soldiers collected all their own weapons after the battle.
3. The unlucky band (of men) was killed when the hostile army arrived.
4. In a few days I think I will go to Rome.
5. The sailor’s wife will return home when the ship departs.
6. Because of the heat, we threw ourselves into that river.
7. The king’s servants are carrying fire for their master.
8. About to cross the road, she fell (down).
9. I see many men bearing arms.
10. Although they kept trying to cross the river, they could not bring aid to their
 friends.

Reading 31 (adapted)
Tacitus tells a story of intrigue and murder in the Roman Empire. Agrippina,
the second wife of Emperor Claudius, persuaded him to adopt her son by a
previous marriage, Nero. Four years later, Claudius died — probably poisoned by
Agrippina — and Nero, three or four years older than Claudius’ son, Britannicus,
became emperor. But Agrippina subsequently lost influence over Nero and began
to support her stepson Britannicus as the rightful heir. This prompted Nero to plot
the poisoning death of Britannicus at a banquet in A.D. 55, as Tacitus describes.
Turbātus est Agrippīnae minīs Nerō et, propinquō diē, quō
quartum decimum aetātis annum Britannicus fīniēbat, eum
ōdisse incēpit. quia nūllum crīmen neque iubēre caedem frātris
palam audēbat, occulta mōlītur parārīque venēnum iubet.
Mōs habēbātur prīncipum līberōs cum cēterīs idem aetātis
nōbilibus vescī in aspectū propinquōrum propriā et parciōre
mēnsā. illīc epulānte Britannicō, quia cibōs pōtūsque eius
ūnus ex ministrīs gustū explōrābat, hic dolus inventus est.
innoxius ac praecalidus et libātus pōtus datur Britannicō; tum,
 Chapter Twenty-Three 215

postquam fervōre aspernābātur, frīgidā in aquā adfunditur

venēnum, quod celeriter cunctōs eius artūs pervāsit. celerrimē
et vōx et spīritus raptī sunt. trepidant quī circumsedent,
diffugiunt nesciī; sed, quibus altior intellectus, manent dēfixī
et Nerōnem spectantēs. ille, ut erat reclīnis et nesciō similis,
solitum esse ita ait per comitiālem morbum quō prīmā ab
infantiā adflictārētur Britannicus, et reditūrōs esse paulātim
vīsus sēnsūsque. at Agrippīnae pavor, ea cōnsternātiō mentis,
quamvīs vultū premerētur, ēmicuit. sibi suprēmum auxilium
ēreptum esse intellegēbat. Ita post breve silentium repetīta
convīviī laetitia est.
Vocabulary:
turbō, -āre to disturb circumsedeō, -ēre to sit around
propinquō diē abl. absolute diffugiō, -ere to scatter
mina, -ae f. threat nescius, -a, -um unaware, not
ōdisse (pf. inf.) to dislike, hate   knowing
palam (adv.) openly quibus (+ est) (dative of
occultum, -ī n. secret plan   possession)
mōlior, -īrī, -ītus sum to devise; undertake altior (adj.) better
venēnum, -ī n. poison intellēctus, -ūs m. understanding
idem aetātis “of the same age” dēfixus, -a, -um rooted
nōbilis, -e noble   (in their seats)
aspectus, -ūs m. sight ut as
propriā et parciōre “at their own, less reclīnis, -e reclining
mēnsā luxurious table” solitus, -a, -um normal,
illīc (adv.) there   customary
epulor, -ārī, -ātus sum to feast comitiālis, -is m. epilepsy
minister, -trī m. servant morbus, -ī m. illness,
gustus, -ūs m. tasting  ailment
explōrō, -are to investigate, test īnfantia, -ae f. infancy
innoxius, -a, -um harmless adflictārētur “(he) had been
praecalidus, -a, very hot   afflicted”
-um paulātim (adv.) gradually
lībō, -āre, -āvī to taste vīsus, -ūs m. sight
-ātus sēnsus, -ūs m. sense;
fervor, -ōris m. boiling heat   consciousness
aspernor, -ārī to reject pavor, -ōris, m. trembling
adfundō, -ere to pour in   (from fear)
pervādō, -ere, to spread, cōnsternātiō, alarm, distress
-vāsī, -vāsus pervade -iōnis f.
spīritus, -ūs m. breath quamvīs although
trepidō, -āre to be afraid, premerētur “she tried to
anxious  conceal”
216 Introduction to Latin

ēmicō, -ere, -uī to be conspicuous repetō, -ere, -īvī, to renew,

sibi   (dative of -ītus begin again
  reference) silentium, -ī n. silence
ēripiō, -ere, -rēpī to take away convīviī laetitia joy of the
 banquet

Reading 32 (adapted)
Ovid, in his Fasti, tells the story of how Persephone, daughter of Ceres and Jupiter,
is abducted by her uncle, Pluto (Jupiter’s brother), to become his wife and queen
of the underworld.
Terram pulchra Cerēs et multās possidet urbēs, 1
in quibus est cultō fertilis Henna solō. 2
Fīlia Persephonē Cereris, comitāta puellīs, 3
errābat nūdō per sua prāta pede. 4
Valle sub umbrōsā locus est plēnus melilōtō 5
et aliīs flōribus quībus nitēbat humus. 6
Quam simul aspexit, “comitēs, accēdite” dīxit 7
“et mēcum plēnōs flōre referte sinūs.” 8
Hanc videt et vīsam patruus vēlōciter aufert, 9
rēgnaque caeruleīs in sua portat equīs. 10
Illa quidem clāmābat, “iō, cārissima māter, 11
auferor!” ipsa suōs abscideratque sinūs. 12
Panditur intereā Dītī via, dum deus ībat 13
in celerī cūrrū virgine perterritā. 14
Attonita est plangōre Cerēs quae vēnerat Hennam. 15
nec mora, “Mē miseram! Fīlia, ” dīxit, “ubi es?” 16
Vocabulary:
Cerēs, Cereris f. Ceres, goddess of umbrōsus, -a, -um shaded
  agriculture melilōtos, -ī m. clover
possideō, -ēre to hold, possess flōs, flōris m. flower
colō, -ere, coluī, to till, cultivate niteō, -ēre to be bright
cultus quam simul as soon as
fertilis, -e fertile, productive aspiciō, -ere, -spexī to see
Henna, -ae f. Henna, a town in comes, -itis m. or f. companion
  Sicily accēdō, -ere to come near
solum, -ī n. ground, soil sinus, -ūs m. fold (of clothing),
comitātus, -a, -um accompanied (by)   lap
nūdus, -a, -um bare patruus, -ī m. uncle
prātum, -ī n. meadow vēlōciter (adv.) quickly
vallis, -is f. valley caeruleus, -a, -um dark blue, dark

 Chapter Twenty-Three 217

quidem (adv.)
indeed perterreō, -ēre, to terrify
 -uī,
abscindō, -ere, to tear -itus  thoroughly

abscidī, -scīssus attonitus, -a, -um stunned

pandō, -ere to open plangor, -ōris m. wailing

Dīs, Dītis m. Pluto, god of the nec mora supply erat

 underworld mē miseram accusative is used
 
currus, -ūs m. chariot for an exclamation

Practice Sentences
Identify the case and use of the underlined words, then translate.
1. Ūnum hoc sciō, quod fors feret ferēmus (Terence)
aequō animō.
2. Ō nāvis, rēferent in mare tē novī flūctūs. Ō (Horace; the poet uses a ship
quid agis? metaphor to refer to the troubles
besetting the state.)
3. Quidquid id est, timeō Danāōs et dōna ferentēs. (Vergil; the priest, Laocoon, tries
to warn the Trojans not to accept
the Greek horse.)
4. Ūnus erit quem tū tollēs in caerula caelī (Ennius; Jupiter foretells to
templa. Mars that only one of his sons
will be deified)
5. Hennā tū simulācrum Cereris tollere (Cicero; this is part of a speech
audēbās, Hennā tū dē manū Cereris against Verres, who is accused of
Victoriam ēripere et deam deae dētrahere stealing sacred statues from the
conātus es? shrine at Henna)
6. Nāvem, scīs, putō, nōn morātur ūnus. (Martial; the same can be said of
airplanes in the modern world)
7. In longum sermōnem mē vocās, Attice, quem (Cicero; the author talks with
tamen, nisi Quīntus aliud quid nōs agere two friends about civil law)
māvult, suscipiam.
8. Gratiās agimus et ducibus vestrīs et (Livy; the dictator of Tusculum
exercitibus, quod oculīs magis quam auribus speaks to the Roman senate)
crēdidērunt.

Vocabulary:
fors, fortis f. chance, fortune sermō, -ōnis m. conversation
quisquis, quidquid whoever, whatever Atticus, -ī m. Atticus, a friend of
Danaī, -ōrum m. the Greeks   Cicero
caerulus, -a, -um dark blue, dark nisi unless
simulācrum, -ī n. image, statue Quīntus, -ī m. Quīntus, a friend of
Victoria, -ae f. the goddess, Victory   Cicero
ēripiō, -ere to snatch aliud quid some other (activity),
dētrahō, -ere, to take away   something else
-xī, -ctus suscipiō, -ere to undertake
auris, -is f. ear
218 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 23 Vocabulary

Noun
vīs, vīs f. power, force, violence;
vīrēs, vīrium (pl.)   strength
Verbs
eō, īre, iī or īvī, itūrus to go
abeō, abīre, abiī, or -īvī, abitūrus to go away, depart
adeō, adīre, adiī, or -īvī, aditūrus to go towards, approach
exeō, exīre, exiī, or -īvī, exitūrus to go out, exit
ineō, inīre, iniī, or -īvī, initūrus to enter; begin
pereō, perīre, periī, or -īvī, peritūrus to perish, die
redeō, redīre, rediī or -īvī, reditūrus to go back, return
subeō, subīre, subiī or -īvī, subitūrus to go up; to undergo; to approach
trānseō, trānsīre, trānsiī, or -īvī, trānsitūrus to go across, cross
ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus to carry, bear, endure; report, say
adferō, adferre, attulī, adlātus to bring to; cause
auferō, auferre, abstulī, ablātus to carry away, take away
cōnferō, cōnferre, contulī, collātus to bring together, collect; compare;
  contribute
sē cōnferre   to proceed, go
īnferō, īnferre, intulī, illātus to bring in, introduce; inflict
offerō, offerre, obtulī, oblātus to offer, bring forward
referō, referre, rettulī, relātus to carry back, bring back, report
tollō, tollere, sustulī, sublātus to lift up, raise; remove, carry off, steal
Adjectives
īnfēlix, īnfēlīcis unhappy, unlucky
cunctus, cuncta, cunctum the whole, all (collectively)
(20)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 23
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. perish 6. adit
2. ablative 7. infelicitous
3. infer 8. collate
4. relative 9. transitory
5. exit 10. violent
 CHAPTER 24
Present Active Subjunctive
Present Passive Subjunctive
Present Subjunctive of sum, possum and volō
Independent Uses of the Subjunctive
Exhortation / Command
Wish
Doubt
Possibility

So far all the finite verbs you have learned have been in the indicative or imperative
mood. This chapter introduces the present tense of the third mood, the subjunctive,
in the active and passive voice of all conjugations, including the irregular verb sum.
It also introduces some common uses of the subjunctive as a main verb. Unlike the
indicative, which indicates real or factual information, the subjunctive often suggests
doubt, possibility or anticipated action.
A note on the subjunctive in English: Use of the subjunctive in English has gradually
decreased over the years so that it now appears only in a few expressions. Among these
are:
• impossible wishes I wish he were here (but he is not).
I wish I were in Italy.
• contrary to fact statements If I were rich, I would feed the hungry.
She acts as if she were my mother!
• clauses after certain verbs I suggest that he come back soon.
of asking, recommending He demanded that she leave.
Even in some of the above examples the indicative replaces the subjunctive in common
speech. Latin uses the subjunctive in several different kinds of expressions, but note
that the English translation of these does not necessarily use an English subjunctive.
109. Present Active Subjunctive
The present active subjunctive uses the same personal endings as the indicative (-m
for -ō in first sg.), but can be recognized by a change in the stem vowel: the signal for
the subjunctive is -ā- in all conjugations except the first, where (because the indicative
already has an -a-) it is an -ē- instead. Note that the long vowel is shortened (as always)
before the first singular and both third person endings.

219
 220 Introduction to Latin

1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. –iō 4th Conj.
(e) (ea) (a) (ia) (ia)
1st sg. amem moneam regam capiam audiam
2nd sg. amēs moneās regās capiās audiās
3rd sg. amet moneat regat capiat audiat
1st pl. amēmus moneāmus regāmus capiāmus audiāmus
2nd pl. amētis moneātis regātis capiātis audiātis
3rd pl. ament moneant regant capiant audiant

There are many mnemonic devices for remembering the vowels for each conjugation.
Two common ones are the following sentences:
First Second Third Third –iō & Fourth
Clem Steams Clams in Siam
She Reads A Diary
110. Present Passive Subjunctive
The present passive subjunctive uses the same stem vowels as the active with the passive
personal endings you already know. Deponent verbs follow the same pattern.
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. –iō 4th Conj. Passive
 (e)   (ea)   (a)   (ia)   (ia) Endings
1st sg. amer monear regar capiar audīar -r
2nd sg. amēris (-re) moneāris (-re) regāris (-re) capiāris (-re) audiāris (-re) -ris (-re)
3rd sg. amētur moneātur regātur capiātur audiātur -tur
1st pl. amēmur moneāmur regāmur capiāmur audiāmur -mur
2nd pl. amēminī moneāminī regāminī capiāminī audiāminī -minī
3rd pl. amentur moneantur regantur capiantur audiantur -ntur

Exercise 177. Following the model verbs just given, conjugate laudō, dēleō and
cernō in the present active and passive subjunctive, singular and plural.
Exercise 178. Identify the conjugation and then transform each of the following
verbs from indicative to subjunctive.
1. rogant 8. spectāris
2. patēs 9. dormīmus
3. resistunt 10. tacent
4. vulnerāmus 11. cadit
5. auditur 12. vetor
6. ardētis 13. trahitis
7. rapiō 14. cernis
 Chapter Twenty-Four 221

111. Present Subjunctive of sum, possum and volō

The subjunctive of sum, possum and volō is signalled by -ī- in the present:
sum possum volō
1st sg. sim possim velim
2nd sg. sīs possīs velīs
3rd sg. sit possit velit
1st pl. sīmus possīmus velīmus
2nd pl. sītis possītis velītis
3rd pl. sint possint velint

The verbs nōlō and mālō follow the pattern of sum (nōlim, nōlīs, nōlit, etc.; mālim,
mālīs, mālit, etc.). The verbs eō and ferō have regular subjunctive forms (eam, eās,
eat, etc.; feram, ferās, ferat, etc.). See the Morphology Reference Section for the
subjunctive paradigms of these verbs (pp. 320-331).
Exercise 179. Identify each of the following verb forms by person, number, tense and
mood and translate the indicative forms.
1. adest 5. absint
2. adeunt 6. adfuērunt
3. redīverim 7. pereās
4. eātis 8. velit
112. Independent Uses of the Subjunctive
While the indicative mood is used to give or get factual information, the subjunctive
is used to convey the opinion or feeling of the speaker (writer). It has a variety of
different uses as an independent (main) verb in Latin, but three common uses are:
1) to urge or demand an action Let’s get pizza! Let them eat cake!
2) to wish for something I wish he would come! (or)
Would that he might come!
3) to indicate doubt, often by asking What should I do?
for advice or expressing surprise Who would have thought it?!
4) to indicate a possibility That may happen. He might come.
These uses of the subjunctive are referred to by different terms in different grammars:
1) Exhortation/Command
hortatory – always 1st person (usually pl.); negative is nē
In urbem eāmus. Let us (Let’s) go into the city.
Nē dēspērēmus. Let us not despair.
jussive – usually 3rd person (sg. or pl.)
Fābulam illam dīcat. Let him/her tell that story.
Omnēs cīvēs veniant. Let all the citizens come.
222 Introduction to Latin

prohibition = negative command – 2nd or 3rd person, usually perfect

subjunctive (§117) + nē
Hoc nē fēcerīs Do not do this!
Nē dēspērāverītis Do not despair!
* compare this with the more common negative imperative construction,
which you have already learned (§95)
Nōlī hoc facere! Do not do this!
Nōlīte dēspērāre Do not despair!
2) Wish
optative – often accompanied by utinam; negative is nē
Utinam fugiat hostēs! I hope he will escape the enemy!
Nē ille pereat! May he not die!
Omnēs laetī sint! If only all people would be happy!
A present tense signals that the wish is possible; an imperfect (§113-114) or
pluperfect (§118, 123) that it is/was not accomplished. The perfect occurs for
wishes only in archaic texts.
3) Doubt
deliberative – expressed as a question; negative is nōn
Quid scrībam? What should I write?
Quid facerem? What should I have done? (imperfect §113-114)
Often a so-called “deliberative question” isn’t so much a question which expects
an answer as it is a rhetorical expression or an exclamation expressing doubt,
disbelief, surprise or indignation. A deliberative question about the present uses
the present subjunctive; one about the past uses the imperfect subjunctive.
4) Possibility
potential – sometimes accompanied by forsitan; negative is nōn
The potential subjunctive is likely to appear in forms such as velim (I would like),
mālim (I would prefer), possim (I could) and in the second person singular of
verbs of perception:
Forsitan dīcat hoc. Perhaps he may say this.
Nōlim pūtēs illud. I wouldn’t want you to think that.
Vidērēs pontum. You could have seen the ocean. (imperfect
  §113-114)
Exercise 180. Identify the following English examples as expressing exhortation/
command, wish, doubt or possibility. (Do not translate these into Latin.)
1. Let’s meet at noon. 5. Let him try to deny his guilt.
2. They might come tomorrow. 6. Would that he is innocent.
3. May they return soon! 7. Who would believe it?
4. What am I to do? 8. Perhaps I am making a mistake.
 Chapter Twenty-Four 223

Exercise 181. Translate each of the following and identify the use of the subjunctive.
Be ready to say how you decided on the use you identify.
1. Hīs celerius serviāmus. 6. Nē morī timeant.
2. Utinam exercitus veniat. 7. Dīcāmus an taceāmus?
3. Quid nunc agam? 8. Nocte eōs audiās.
4. Sit. 9. Omnēs gaudeāmus.
5. Forsitan glōria magna tibi sit. 10. Diū vīvās flōreāsque.
Exercise 182. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Virōs haec dōna ad templa deōrum portāre hortēmur.
2. Ille rēx suōs populōs iūstissimē semper regat.
3. Utinam quī bonus rēctusque est flōreat.
4. Nē putent tē reliquīs aegriōrem esse.
5. Quis eum cognōscat post decem annōs?
6. Rōmam nostrīs cum amīcīs eāmus.
7. Utinam beātam vītam agās et nūlla mala accidant.
8. Nōn illa faciant; nam plūrimī cīvium nōn volunt.
Exercise 183. Translate into Latin.
1. Let us always fight very fiercely on behalf of our country.
2. I wish the citizens would hear many good things about the new consuls.
3. Let him depart; for he was captured trying to save the children.
4. Should I send them away?
5. He might finally enjoy great profits.
6. After the war is finished, let us thank Caesar.
7. Should we sail in a few days or begin to march today?
8. May fortune help the brave and let us keep them in our memory for many years!
224 Introduction to Latin

Reading 33
Cicero exhorts his fellow citizens to live a noble life and defend the state against
evil. He uses the leader of Carthage (Rome’s enemy in the Punic Wars), Hannibal,
and the Bruti and Camilli, famous Roman families, as examples.
Quis Carthāginiēnsium plūris fuit Hannibale cōnsiliō, virtūte,
rēbus gestīs, quī ūnus cum tot imperātoribus nostrīs per tot
annōs dē imperiō et dē glōriā dēcertāvit? hunc suī cīvēs ē cīvitāte
ēiēcērunt: nōs etiam hostem litterīs nostrīs et memoriā vidēmus
esse celēbrātum. quā rē imitēmur nostrōs Brūtōs, Camillōs,
… innumerābilīs aliōs quī hanc rem pūblicam stabilivērunt;
quōs equidem in deōrum immortalium coetū ac numerō
repōnō. amēmus patriam, pāreāmus senātuī, cōnsulāmus bonīs;
praesēntīs frūctūs neglegāmus, posteritātis glōriae serviāmus;
id esse optimum putēmus quod erit rēctissimum; spērēmus
quae volumus, sed quod acciderit ferāmus; cōgitēmus dēnique
corpus virōrum fortium, magnōrum hominum esse mortāle,
animī vērō mōtūs et virtūtis glōriam sempiternam.
Vocabulary:
Carthāgiēnsis, -e Carthaginian immortālis, -e immortal, undying
plūris “of more value” coetus, -ūs m. company; assembly
Hannibal, -alis m. Hannibal numerus, -ī m. number
rēs gestae “military achievements” repōnō, -ere place, put; reckon
imperātor, -tōris m. general  among
dēcertō, -āre, -āvī to fight, contend cōnsulō, to look after, consult
ēiciō, -ere, -iēcī to throw out, expel   -ere (+ dat.)   the interests of
celēbrō, -āre, -āvī, -ātus to celebrate praesēntīs present, immediate
quā rē therefore = praesēntēs (acc. pl.)
imitor, -ārī to imitate posteritās, -tātis f. posterity
innumerābilīs countless, innumerable sempiternus, -a, -um everlasting
= innumerābilēs (acc. pl.)
stabiliō, -īre, -īvī to make stable
 Chapter Twenty-Four 225

Practice Sentences
Identify the form and use of each subjunctive verb and translate.
1. Vivāmus, mea Lesbia, atque amēmus, (Catullus; these lines
rūmōrēsque senum sevēriōrum are addressed to his
omnēs ūnius aestimēmus assis. adulterous lover)
2. Quid ego faciam? Maneam an abeam? (Plautus)
3. Valeant cīvēs meī! sint incolumēs, sint flōrentes, (Cicero; quoting Milo
sint beātī! stet haec urbs praeclāra! while defending him)
4. Commūnis libertātis causā arma capiant. (Caesar – adapted)
5. Quis genus Aeneadum, quis Trōiae nesciat urbem? (Vergil; Dido is
speaking)
6. Quī beneficium dedit, taceat; narret quī accēpit. (Seneca)
7. Commūnem hunc ergō populum paribusque regāmus (Vergil; Juno proposes
auspiciīs. to Venus that they unite
the Carthaginians and
Trojans)
8. Dīxit vērō Deus, “congregentur aquae quae sub (Vulgate; describing the
caelō sunt in locum unum et appāreat ārida,” origin of the world)
factumque est ita et vocāvit Deus āridam ‘terram’
congregātiōnēsque aquārum appellāvit ‘maria’.

Vocabulary:
rūmor, -ōris m. rumor, public Aeneadae, “followers of Aeneas”
opinion -(ār)um m. (pl.)
sevērus, -a, -um severe, stern beneficium, -iī n. favor, kindness
aestimō, -āre, -āvī to value, count as ergō therefore
worth (+ gen. §44) auspicium, -iī n. auspices, power
as, assis m. as; a copper coin congregō, -āre to gather
roughly = “penny” appāreō, -ēre to appear
incolumis, -e safe, unharmed āridus, -a, -um dry
praeclārus, -a, -um glorious, congregātiō, collection
distinguished -iōnis f.
226 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 24 Vocabulary

Nouns
frūctus, frūctūs m. fruit, enjoyment; profit
glōria, glōriae f. glory, fame; ambition, boasting
memoria, memoriae f. memory, recollection; history
mōtus, mōtūs m. emotion, impulse; movement
Verbs
accidō, accidere, accidī to fall at or near; happen
adsum, adesse, adfuī, adfutūrus to be present, be near
appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, to name, call upon, address
appellātus
bibō, bibere, bibī, bibitūrus to drink
dēspērō, dēspērāre, dēspērāvī, dēspērātus to despair
dīmittō, dīmittere, dīmīsī, dīmissus to send away, send forth; dismiss; abandon
flōreō, flōrēre, flōruī to bloom; prosper, flourish
hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum to urge, encourage
neglegō, neglegere, neglēxī, neglēctus to ignore, neglect
Adjectives
beātus, beāta, beātum happy, blessed; prosperous
rēctus, rēcta, rēctum straight, upright; right; virtuous, honest
Adverbs
dēnique finally, at last; in short; in fact
equidem truly, indeed
forsitan perhaps
utinam signals a wish; if only, would that
Coordinating Conjunction
an or
(20)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 24
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. accident 6. appellation
2. rectangle 7. dismiss
3. fructose 8. glorious
4. negligent 9. motor
5. florid 10. exhortation
 CHAPTER 25
Imperfect Active Subjunctive
Imperfect Passive Subjunctive
Imperfect Subjunctive of sum, possum and volō
Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Adverbial Clauses
Purpose
Result

This chapter introduces the imperfect subjunctive, active and passive, of all
conjugations, including deponent and irregular verbs. It also introduces two common
uses of the subjunctive in dependent clauses.
113. Imperfect Active Subjunctive
The imperfect active subjunctive looks like the present active infinitive (second
principal part, -re) with the regular personal endings added. Note that the -e- is short
(as always) before the first singular and both third person endings, but otherwise long.
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. –iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amārem monērem regerem caperem audīrem
2nd sg. amārēs monērēs regerēs caperēs audīrēs
3rd sg. amāret monēret regeret caperet audīret
1st pl. amārēmus monērēmus regerēmus caperēmus audīrēmus
2nd pl. amārētis monērētis regerētis caperētis audīrētis
3rd pl. amārent monērent regerent caperent audīrent

114. Imperfect Passive Subjunctive

The imperfect passive subjunctive looks like the present active infinitive with passive
personal endings added.
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. –iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amārer monērer regerer caperer audīrer
2nd sg. amārēris monērēris regerēris caperēris audīrēris
3rd sg. amārētur monērētur regerētur caperētur audīrētur
1st pl. amārēmur monērēmur regerēmur caperēmur audīrēmur
2nd pl. amārēminī monērēminī regerēminī caperēminī audīrēminī
3rd pl. amārentur monērentur regerentur caperentur audīrentur

227
 228 Introduction to Latin

Deponent verbs form the imperfect subjunctive in the same way, as if they had a
present active infinitive.
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. morārer verērer loquerer potīrer
2nd sg. morārēris verērēris loquerēris potīrēris
3rd sg. morārētur verērētur loquerētur potīrētur
1st pl. morārēmur verērēmur loquerēmur potīrēmur
2nd pl. morārēminī verērēminī loquerēminī potīrēminī
3rd pl. morārentur verērentur loquerentur potīrentur

Exercise 184. Following the model verbs above, conjugate vetō, taceō and neglegō
in the imperfect active and passive subjunctive, singular and plural.
115. Imperfect Subjunctive of sum, possum and volō
The subjunctive of sum, possum and volō is regular:
Sum Possum Volō
1st sg. essem possem vellem
2nd sg. essēs possēs vellēs
3rd sg. esset posset vellet
1st pl. essēmus possēmus vellēmus
2nd pl. essētis possētis vellētis
3rd pl. essent possent vellent

The verbs nōlō, mālō, eō and ferō also have regular imperfect subjunctive forms. See
the Morphology Reference Section for the full paradigms of these verbs (pp. 326-331).
116. Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Adverbial Clauses
The subjunctive is used in a variety of dependent clauses. Two common uses are to
indicate:
1) Purpose – introduced by ut (utī); negative is nē (never ut + nōn)
While English often expresses purpose with an infinitive, Latin uses a
dependent clause with a subjunctive verb to indicate intention or will (rather
than fact). In the examples below, the first translation is the most idiomatic
in English. Because a purpose clause always refers to an incomplete action,
(happening either at the same time or after the main verb), only present and
imperfect tenses of the subjunctive are commonly used; the present after a
present tense main verb, the imperfect after a past tense. More details about
tenses of the subjunctive in dependent clauses will be discussed in the next
chapter (§121).
Ut tē videāmus venimus. We come
{ to see you.
(in order that we may see you.)

Ut tē vidērēmus vēnimus. We came

{ to see you.
(in order that we might see you.)
 Chapter Twenty-Five 229

{
so the enemy will not capture
Currunt nē hostēs sē capiant. They run them (in order that the
enemy not capture them.)

{
so the enemy would not
Cucurrit nē hostēs sē caperent. He ran capture him (in order that
the enemy not capture him.)

A purpose clause (sometimes called a final clause) functions as an adverbial

modifier by giving the purpose of the main verb; it answers the question
“why?” / “for what purpose?”
2) Result – introduced by ut (utī); negative is ut nōn (or another negative word)
Latin uses an adverbial dependent clause with a subjunctive verb to express
the result of an action or condition in the main clause. When there is a result
clause (sometimes called a consecutive clause) in a sentence, the main clause
often has a “signpost word” (an adjective or adverb) such as:
ita thus, so tam so, to such a degree
sīc thus, so tot so many
tālis, tāle such, of such a kind totiēns so often
tantus, -a, -um so much, so great
Even in the absence of a signpost word in the main clause, a result clause
can be identified by asking the question “so that what?” / “with what result?”
Sometimes this is the only way to decide if a clause in Latin (or English!)
is expressing purpose or result. As with purpose clauses, result clauses most
commonly use the present and imperfect subjunctive; the present after a
present tense main verb, the imperfect after a past tense main verb.
Ita facimus ut omnēs nōbīs pāreant. We act in such a way that everyone
will obey us.
Totiēns dīcit ut nōn audīre He speaks so often that we do not
cupiāmus. want to listen.
Tam sapienter rēxit ut nēmō rēgnum He ruled so wisely that no one
relinquere cuperet. wanted to leave the kingdom.
Exercise 185. Bracket and identify each of the dependent clauses as purpose or
result, and then translate the underlined verb into Latin.
Daedalus was such a clever architect that King Minos brought (ferō) him to
Crete to build (aedificō) the labyrinth. The king kept him imprisoned on the
island for so many years that Daedalus wanted (volō) to leave very badly. He
invented wings to escape (fugiō), and he arranged the feathers in such a way
that they were (sum) similar to birds’ wings. Icarus was so bold that he did
not listen (audiō) to his father. To look for (petō) his son, Daedalus flew near
the sea. He is so sad that he doesn’t know (sciō) what to do, so he journeys to
Sicily to find (inveniō) peace. There the king’s admiration was so great that he
received (accipiō) him kindly and gave (dō) Daedalus refuge.
230 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 186.
Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Vēnērunt ut nōs vidērent, sed nēmō domī erat.
2. Reī pūblicae vīrēs ingentēs fuērunt ut hostēs petere nōllent.
3. Tantum vīnī biberam ut ē casā amīcī discēderem et domum īrem.
4. Circum pontem mūrumque pugnāvērunt nē urbs verterētur.
5. Utinam ā nōbīs iūs cīvīle dīscerent.
6. Glōriae cupīdō tē ita aget ut multa perīcula subeās.
7. Tot cīvēs illum cōnsulem creāvērunt ut aliī eī resistere nōn audērent.
8. Pācem dēnique petunt ut bellum quam celerrimē fīniant.
9. Quī scelus facit poenam dare dēbet nē plūrēs scelera faciant.
10. Tollāmusne illud aurum ut opem magnam habeāmus?
Exercise 187.
Translate into Latin.
1. Rome was so great that other nations were afraid to attack.
2. Those soldiers are fleeing in order not to be wounded.
3. His talent was such that everyone admired him.
4. Let them have fair laws in order that they may live more freely.
5. He may perhaps be lying because of his eagerness.
6. The boys ran so quickly that no one saw them.
7. Let us set out at dawn in order to arrive at the specified time.
8. Should I encourage these unhappy men?
9. They had fought fiercely with their weapons in order to defeat the enemy.
10. The messenger will come today to announce delay of the army.

Reading 34 (slightly edited)

The historian Florus reviews the qualities of Rome’s first seven kings: Romulus,
Numa, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus, [Tarquin, Servius,] and Tarquinius Superbus.
Haec est prīma aetās populī Rōmānī et quasi infantia, quam
habuit sub rēgibus septem, quādam fātōrum industriā tam
variīs ingeniō, ut reī pūblicae ratiō et ūtilitās postulābat. nam
quis Rōmulō ardentior? tālī opus fuit, ut invāderet rēgnum. quis
Numā religiōsior? ita rēs poposcit, ut ferōx populus deōrum
metū mītigārētur. quid ille mīlitiae artifex Tullus? bellātōribus
virīs quam necessārius [fuit], ut acueret ratiōne virtūtem!
quid aedificātor Ancus, ut urbem colōniā extenderet, ponte
iungeret, mūrō tuērētur? … Postrēmō Superbī illīus inportūna
dominātiō nōn nihil, plūrimum vērō prōfuit. Sic enim agitātus
iniūriīs populus cupiditāte lībertātis incendēbātur.
 Chapter Twenty-Five 231

Vocabulary:
quasi (adv.) as it were bellātor, -ōris warlike
infantia, -ae f. infancy quam necessārius “how necessary”
industria, -ae f. diligence, activity acuō, -ere to sharpen
tam variīs … ut “so different … as” aedificātor, -ōris m. architect, builder
variīs modifies rēgibus colōnia, -ae f. colony (Ostia)
ūtilitās, -tātis f. advantage, usefulness extendō, -ere to extend, expand
ardēns, -ntis eager, passionate, bold tueor, -ērī to guard, protect
invādō, -ere to seize, take hold of postrēmō (adv.) finally
religiōsus, -a, -um pious, religious inportūnus, -a, -um savage, uncivil
poscō, -ere, poposcī to demand, require dominātiō, -iōnis f. dominion, rule
ferōx, -ōcis fierce, insolent, wild prōsum, -desse, to be useful,
mītigō, -āre to tame, soften   prōfuī   benefit
quid “what about?” agitō, -āre, -āvī, to agitate, disturb
mīlitia, -ae f. army  -ātus
artifex, -ficis m. creator, originator

Reading 35 A-C
Martial wrote several epigrams about not wanting to share his own poems lest
his listeners ask him to hear their own work. The first two selections here are on
this theme, with the first addressed to Theodorus and the second to Pontilianus,
probably a fictitious friend, who is the subject of the third selection too.
A. Nōn dōnem tibi cūr meōs libellōs
Ōrantī totiēns et exigentī,
Mīrāris, Theodōre? Magna causa est:
Dōnēs tū mihi nē tuōs libellōs.
B. Cūr nōn mittō meōs tibi, Pontīliane, libellōs?
nē mihi tū mittās, Pontīliane, tuōs.
C. Mentīris, crēdō: recitās mala carmina, laudō:
Cantās, cantō: bibis, Pontīliane, bibō:
Pēdis, dissimulō: gemmā vīs lūdere, vincor:
Rēs ūna est, sine mē quam facis, et taceō.
Nīl tamen omnīno praestās mihi. “Mortuus,” inquis,
“Accipiam bene tē.” Nīl volō: sed morere.
Vocabulary:
dōnō, -āre to give gemma, -ae, f. gem, precious stone
libellus, -ī m. little book used as a piece in a
exigō, -ere to demand   game like chess
recitō, -āre to recite, read aloud ludō, -ere to play
cantō, -āre to sing nīl omnīno nothing at all
pēdō, -ere to fart praestō, -āre to provide, show
dissimulō, -āre to pretend not to accipiō bene to treat well
notice; conceal, hide
232 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
Identify the form and use of each subjunctive verb and translate.
1. Ea tanta est urbs ut ex quattuor (Cicero; describing the Sicilian
urbibus maximīs cōnstāre dicātur. city, Syracuse)
2. Quis in hanc rem fuit arbiter? (Cicero; the amount of a legal
Utinam is quidem Rōmae esset! claim has already been set by an
Rōmae est. Utinam adesset in iūdiciō! arbiter and now comes before a
Adest. Utinam sedēret in cōnsiliō C. iūdex who will decide if the claim
Pisōnis! Ipse C. Pīsō est. Eundemne tū should be paid, but the plaintiff
arbitrum et iūdicem sūmēbās? wants to argue again about the
amount of the claim)
3. Ita ferī ut sē morī sentiat. (Suetonius; with these words
Caligula ordered men put to death
by multiple small wounds)
4. Quis temperet ā lacrimīs? (Vergil; Aeneas explains that his
story is very sad)
5. Tantus in cūriā clāmor factus est ut (Cicero)
populus concurreret.
6. Utinam populus Rōmānus ūnam (Suetonius; Caligula lashed out
cervīcem habēret! in anger at a crowd which opposed
him)
7. Quis tam dēmēns [est], ut suā (Cicero)
voluntāte maereat?
8. Lēgum omnēs servī sumus ut līberī (Cicero)
esse possīmus.

Vocabulary:
cōnstō, -āre to consist (of ) cūria, -ae f. Curia, senate
arbiter, -trī m. arbitrator   building
sedēre in cōnsiliō to sit in judgment cervīx, -īcis f. neck
C. Pisō, -ōnis m. Gaius Piso dēmēns, -ntis crazy
sūmō, -ere to take, accept voluntās, -tātis f. will, choice
feriō, -īre to strike, kill maereō, -ēre to be sad, mourn
temperō, -āre to refrain, keep from
 Chapter Twenty-Five 233

Chapter 25 Vocabulary
Nouns
cupiditās, cupiditātis f. desire, wish, longing, eagerness
cupīdō, cupidinis f. desire, wish, longing, eagerness
ingenium, ingeniī, n. talent, (innate) nature, character
iniūria, iniūriae f. injury, harm; insult; wrong
opus, operis n. work, labor, task
opus est (+ dat.)   there is a need/use (for)
mūrus, mūrī m. wall; fortification wall for a city
*pons, pontis m. bridge
Verbs
iungō, iungere, iūnxī, iūnctus to join, unite, connect; yoke
mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum to lie, speak or say falsely
morior, morī, mortuus sum to die
Adjectives
certus, certa, certum fixed, established, certain; specified;
  reliable, sure
certē (adv.)   certainly, surely, of course; at least
quantus, quanta, quantum how much
Adverbs
autem (postpositive) however; on the contrary
cūr why?
nē not (used with imperative & perfect
 subjunctive)
quidem (postpositive) indeed, certainly, in fact
nē ... quidem not ... even
totiēns so often
Coordinating Conjunction
at but; at least; then
Subordinating Conjunctions
nē in order that … not (used with subjunctive)
ut in order that; so that
(20)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 25
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. mortality 5. opera
2. pontiff 6. conjunction
3. ingenuity 7. certify
4. quantify 8. mural
Street. Pompeii, 1st c. A.D.
 CHAPTER 26
Perfect Active Subjunctive
Pluperfect Active Subjunctive
Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive of sum and possum
Tenses in Independent Uses of the Subjunctive
Tenses in Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Sequence of Tenses
Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Adverbial Clauses
Circumstance, Cause, Concession
Time, with anticipation

This chapter introduces the active voice of the last two subjunctive tenses: the perfect
and pluperfect; there is no future or future perfect subjunctive. It provides information
about how the four tenses of the subjunctive (present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect)
are used, both in the main and in dependent clauses. It also introduces more uses of
the subjunctive in adverbial dependent clauses.
117. Perfect Active Subjunctive
The perfect active subjunctive adds -erī- to the perfect stem of the third principal part
and uses the same personal endings as the present subjunctive. The long -ī shortens to -i
before -m, -t, and -nt and, over time, shortened in the other endings too, so the perfect
subjunctive and future perfect indicative looked the same, except in the first person
singular. Many texts now print a short -i in all the perfect subjunctive forms, but this book
will retain the original long -ī to help distinguish them from the future perfect indicative.
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amāverim monuerim rēxerim audīverim
2nd sg. amāverīs monuerīs rēxerīs audīverīs
3rd sg. amāverit monuerit rēxerit audīverit
1st pl. amāverīmus monuerīmus rēxerīmus audīverīmus
2nd pl. amāverītis monuerītis rēxerītis audīverītis
3rd pl. amāverint monuerint rēxerint audīverint

Exercise 188. Following the model verbs above, conjugate exspectō, flōreō and
dormiō in the perfect active subjunctive, singular and plural.
Exercise 189. Transform each of the following verbs from indicative to subjunctive.
1. vulnerāvistis 5. sēnsimus
2. scīvērunt 6. nocuistī
3. rēxistī 7. ōrāvit
4. advēnit 8. mānsī 235
 236 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 190. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number, tense and
mood. Include all possibilities for any ambiguous forms.
1. errat 10. clāment
2. iactēs 11. laudāveris
3. audeāmur 12. laudāverīs
4. bibam 13. resistant
5. mentīrer 14. flōrētis
6. docuerō 15. peream
7. sciat 16. advēnērunt
8. ēgeram 17. imperētis
9. dēlēvistī 18. dīmīserint
118. Pluperfect Active Subjunctive
The pluperfect active subjunctive adds -isse- to the perfect stem of the third principal
part and uses the same endings as the present subjunctive. Note that the -e- is short
(as always) before the first singular and both third person endings, but otherwise long.
The pluperfect active subjunctive looks like the perfect active infinitive with personal
endings added.
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amāvissem monuissem rēxissem audīvissem
2nd sg. amāvissēs monuissēs rēxissēs audīvissēs
3rd sg. amāvisset monuisset rēxisset audīvisset
1st pl. amāvissēmus monuissēmus rēxissēmus audīvissēmus
2nd pl. amāvissētis monuissētis rēxissētis audīvissētis
3rd pl. amāvissent monuissent rēxissent audīvissent

Exercise 191. Following the model verbs above, conjugate nuntiō, iubeō and aperiō
in the pluperfect active subjunctive, singular and plural.
119. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive of sum and possum
The subjunctives of sum and possum are regular in the perfect and the pluperfect:
Sum Possum
Perfect Pluperfect Perfect Pluperfect
1st sg. fuerim fuissem potuerim potuissem
2nd sg. fuerīs fuissēs potuerīs potuissēs
3rd sg. fuerit fuisset potuerit potuisset
1st pl. fuerīmus fuissēmus potuerīmus potuissēmus
2nd pl. fuerītis fuissētis potuerītis potuissētis
3rd pl. fuerint fuissent potuerint potuissent
 Chapter Twenty-Six 237

Exercise 192. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number, tense and
mood. Include all possibilities for any ambiguous forms.
1. vēnissēs 6. sītis 11. ferrēmus
2. dent 7. portārēmus 12. ēgit
3. steterat 8. posuerō 13. neglegant
4. mīserint 9. trādideris 14. adfuistis
5. moneātis 10. trāderis 15. adesset
120. Tenses in Independent Uses of the Subjunctive
The present tense is much more common than the perfect in the independent uses of
the subjunctive. Similarly, the imperfect is more common than the pluperfect in these
uses. The following chart is provided as a summary of the most common tense uses;
if no example is given, the tense is not commonly used for that independent use. This
chart is for reference only and need not be memorized!
Sample verb: eō, īre, iī, itūrus to go
Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect
Hortatory eāmus.
let’s go.
Jussive eat. īret.
let him go. he should
have gone.
negative nē ierīs.
(“Prohibition”) don’t go.
Optative (utinam) (utinam) (utinam)
eant. īrent. īssent.
I wish they I wish they I wish they
would go (in were going had gone (in
the future). (now). the past).
Deliberative eam? īrem?
should I go? should I have
gone?
Potential eant. īrent. ierint.
they may go. they might they may/
have gone. might go.
Exercise 193. Translate each of the following and identify the subjunctive use.
1. Utinam plūs aquae portāvissēmus. 6. Should I try (temptō) to speak?
2. Rogāret nōs. 7. I wish our leaders had listened!
3. Domum quam celerrimē currāmus. 8. You could have seen the strangest
4. Forsitan ille scelus fēcerit.   things.
5. Bona sit fortūna cīvibus. 9. Now let us drink wine!
10. He should have come.
 238 Introduction to Latin

121. Tenses in Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Sequence of Tenses

The tense of the subjunctive in a dependent clause shows action relative to that of the
main clause: incomplete (happening at the same time as that of the main clause, or at
some time in the future), or completed (before the action of the main verb). Happily,
there is a clear pattern of usage for what tense to expect in each clause.
Tenses of a Latin verb are grouped in two categories, primary and secondary (or
“historical”).
A primary tense is anything that is not a past tense:
present, future, present perfect (§54; he has come) or future perfect.
A secondary tense is a past tense:
imperfect, historical perfect (§54; he came) or pluperfect.
A primary tense in the main clause is accompanied by a primary tense (either present or
perfect subjunctive) in the dependent clause. If the main clause has a secondary tense,
the verb of the dependent clause will be secondary (either imperfect or pluperfect
subjunctive). This pattern is often called the “sequence of tenses.” The following chart
shows how the typical pattern works:
Main Verb Subjunctive Verb (dependent clause)
Primary Present Present (incomplete action or same
Sequence Future
Present Perfect
Future Perfect (rare)
}     time as main verb)
Perfect (completed action)

}
Secondary Any Imperfect (incomplete action or
Sequence Past      same time as main verb)
Tense Pluperfect (completed action)

Result clauses (§116) do not always follow this sequence of tenses, e.g., the perfect
subjunctive can be used after a secondary tense to emphasize the result:
Vulnus tantum erat ut perierit. The wound was so great that he died.
Exercise 194. Which tense of the subjunctive would you use for each of the underlined
dependent verbs, and why? (Do not translate into Latin.)
1. We are going in order to buy food. 4. He was so strong that he was able to win.
2. We were going in order to buy food. 5. He is so strong that he is able to win.
3. We will go in order to buy food. 6. He is so strong that he will be able to
  win.
Exercise 195. Translate each of the underlined verbs into Latin.
1. If only I were able to leave now. 4. We lied so you would be safe.
2. He may be the next consul. 5. I wish they had been able to come.
3. They work hard so they can live 6. They arrived so late that you could
  well.   not see them.
 Chapter Twenty-Six 239

122. Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Adverbial Clauses

1) Circumstance, Cause, Concession – introduced by cum; negative is nōn
As you learned in Chapter 12 (§60), a cum clause with an indicative verb
indicates a specific time. When the dependent verb is subjunctive, the clause
indicates the situation or circumstances under which an action occurred. The
context of the sentence may suggest the best way to understand or translate
the clause, but it is not always possible to distinguish among these three
uses. Cum circumstantial typically uses only the imperfect and pluperfect
subjunctive.

{
when he knew this.
Cum hoc scīret, bellum gessit. He waged war because he knew this.
although he knew this.

Circumstance (When):
Cum litterās mīsisset, discessit. When he had sent the letter,
  he departed.
Cause (Because, Since):
Cum nāvigāre timeat, in lītore manet. He stays on the shore, because
  he is afraid to sail.
Concession (Although):
Cēnam parat cum aegra sit. She prepares dinner, although
  she is sick.
Tamen is commonly found with cum clauses indicating concession.
2) Time, with anticipation – introduced by dum
As you learned in Chapter 12 (§60), dum with a present indicative means
“while, as long as.” With a present or imperfect subjunctive, it means “until,” in
a dependent clause indicating time with the idea of anticipation or expectation.
Exspectāmus dum ille haec dīcat. We are waiting until he says
  these things.
The following rhyme has helped many students remember this use:
These words in feeble minds instill:
dum with subjunctive means “until”
Antequam (“before”) is similarly used with the imperfect subjunctive to
indicate expectation, or even purpose.
Exercise 196. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Scrībēsne ad nōs cum Rōmam vēneris?
2. Bellum gerere Rōmānīs difficile nōn est cum Rōmae multī et fortēs cīvēs sint.
3. Iūdicium ita factum est ut malus poenam dederit.
4. Mīlitēs cum multī dēspērāvissent tamen pugnābant.
5. Vōs exspectāvistis dum nāvis advenīret.
240 Introduction to Latin

6. Cum mīles ab hostibus captus ducem appropinquantem vidēret, timōre

  tremēbat.
7. Oppidum pulchrum vīdī tum cum trānsiī lātum pontem.
8. Oppidum pulchrum vīdī cum trānsīrem lātum pontem.
9. Haec cum ita sint, nē appropinquāverīs.
10. Cum sōlem in caelō videāmus, omnēs noctem appropinquāre scīmus.
Exercise 197. Translate into Latin.
1. The war was so long that the citizens began to despair.
2. Since night is approaching, let them go home with their friends.
3. Although she was very tired, nevertheless she kept on walking in order to find water.
4. The brave soldier was killed when he was fighting.
5. They went into the city since there was no food at home.
6. They went into the city in order to find food.
7. At the time when my mother and father were in Rome, I was away.
8. Let us rejoice because we will be free in a few days.
9. Wait until he comes.
10. When he had heard your (sg.) message, he was silent.

Reading 36 (slightly edited)

Hyginus (c. 64 B.C. – A.D. 17) wrote many works which are lost, but his
collection of 300 mythological stories has survived. This selection summarizes part
of the myth of Hercules and will seem very disjointed to those who know the full
myth; for those who don’t, a list of the proper names follows the Vocabulary section
below.
  Īnfāns cum esset, dracōnēs duōs duābus manibus necāvit,
quōs Iūnō mīserat. Leōnem Nemaeum, quem Lūna nūtrīerat
in antrō, necāvit, cuius pellem prō tegumentō habuit. Hydram
Lernaeam, Typhōnis fīliam, cum capitibus novem ad fontem
Lernaeum interfēcit. Haec tantam vim venēnī habuit, ut afflātū
hominēs necāret, et sī quis eam dormientem trānsīerat, vestīgīa
eius afflābat et maiōrī cruciātū moriēbātur. Hanc Minervā
mōnstrānte interfēcit et exinterāvit et eius venēnō sagittās suās
tinxit; itaque quicquid posteā sagittīs fīxerat, mortem nōn
effugiēbat, unde posteā et ipse periit in Phrygiā.
   Hērculēs cum ad Cerberum esset missus ab Eurystheō
rēge et [cum] Lycus, Neptūnī fīlius, putāvisset eum periisse,
Megaram, uxōrem eius, et fīliōs interficere voluit et rēgnum
occupāre. Hercules eō intervēnit et Lycum interfēcit; posteā,
ab Iūnōne insaniā obiēctā, Megaram et fīliōs suōs interfēcit.
Postquam suam mentem recēpit, ab Apolline petiit darī sibi
responsum, quōmodo scelus pūrgāret. quod eī Apollō sortem
 Chapter Twenty-Six 241

reddere nōluit, Herculēs irātus dē templō eius tripodem

sustulit, quem posteā Iōvis iussū reddidit et nōlentem sortem
dare iussit. Herculēs ob id ā Mercuriō Omphalae rēgīnae in
servitūtem datus est.
Vocabulary:
īnfāns, -ntis m. infant tingō, -ere, tinxī to stain, wet
dracō, -ōnis m. snake fīgō, -ere, -xī to pierce
necō, -āre, -āvī to kill effugiō, -ere to escape
nūtriō, -īre, -īī to nourish, raise, occupō, -āre to take possession of
  nurture eō (adv.) there
pellis, -is f. hide interveniō, -īre to come on
tegumentum, -ī n. armor, protective   the scene
covering recipiō, -ere, -cēpī to regain
fōns, fontis m. spring (of water) quōmodo … “how he could
venēnum, -ī n. venom, poison  pūrgāret clear”
afflātus, -ūs m. breath sors, sortis f. oracular response
quis = aliquis reddō, -ere, -didī to utter in reply; return
vestīgīum, -īī n. track, footprint tripūs, -odis m. tripod, 3-legged stand at
afflō, -are to breathe on   the Delphic oracle
 (subject is Hydra) iussū “by order of ”
cruciātus, -ūs m. severe pain, torture
exinterō, -āre, -āvī to gut, disembowel
sagitta, -ae f. arrow
servitūs, -tūtis f. bondage, servitude
Proper Names:
Iūnō, -ōnis f. Juno, queen of Eurystheus, -ī m. Eurystheus, king who
 the gods  sends Hercules on
Leō, -ōnis m. lion   his labors
Nemaeus, -a, -um of Nemea (a city), Lycus, -ī m. Lycus, a king of
  Nemean Thebes
Lūna, -ae f. Luna, goddess of Neptūnus, -ī m. Neptune, sea god
  the Moon Megara, -ae f. Megara, daughter of
Hydra, -ae, f. Hydra,   king Creon
  monstrous snake Apollo, -inis m. Apollo, god of
Lernaeus, -a, -um of Lerna (a city),  prophecy
 Lernaean Iuppiter, Iovis m. Jupiter, king of the gods
Typhō, -ōnis m. Typhon, a monster Mercurius, -iī m. Mercury, messenger god
Minerva, -ae f. Minerva, goddess   and son of Jupiter
  who helps Hercules Omphala, -ae f. Omphale, queen of
Phrygia, -ae f. Phrygia, an area   Lydia
  in modern Turkey
Cerberus, -ī m. Cerberus, 3-headed
  guard-dog of Hades
242 Introduction to Latin

Reading 37 (slightly edited)

From 55 to 44 B.C. Cicero wrote various philosophical works, among them De
Senectute (On Old Age). In this excerpt he writes about the immortal nature of
the soul and concludes with some comforting words that the Persian leader Cyrus, on
his deathbed, said to his sons. Cicero typically uses long sentences, but to make this
selection more intelligible, it has been broken into shorter sentences joined by “et.”
Sic persuāsī mihi, sic sentiō, cum tanta celeritās animōrum
sit, tanta memoria praeteritōrum futūrōrumque prūdentia, tot
artēs, tantae scientiae, tot inventa, nōn posse eam nātūram,
quae rēs eās contineat, esse mortālem. et cumque semper
agitētur animus nec principium mōtūs habeat, quia sē ipse
moveat, [sentiō] nē fīnem mōtūs quidem habitūrum esse,
quia numquam sē ipse sit relictūrus. et, cum simplex animī
esset nātūra, neque habēret in sē quicquam admixtum dispār
suī atque dissimile, [sentiō] nōn posse eum dīvidī; et, sī nōn
posset [dīvidī], nōn posse interīre; ….
   moriēns Cyrus maiōr haec dīcit: ‘Nōlīte arbitrārī, Ō
mihi cārissimī fīliī, mē, cum ā vōbīs discesserō, nūsquam
aut nūllum fore. Nec enim, dum eram vōbīscum, animum
meum vidēbātis, sed eum esse in hōc corpore ex eīs rēbus quās
gerēbam intellegēbātis. Eundem igitur esse crēdite, etiamsī
nūllum vidēbitis.’
Vocabulary:
celeritās, -tātis f. speed admisceō, -ēre, -uī, to mix, combine
praeteritus, -a, -um past events, the past   -mixtus
futūrus, -a, -um future events, the dispār, -aris different in kind
future dissimilis, -e dissimilar
prūdentia, -ae f. foreknowledge dīvidō, -ere to divide, separate
scientia, -ae f. knowledge, erudition intereō, -īre to perish, die
inventum, -ī n. discovery Cyrus maiōr Cyrus the elder,
contineō, -ēre to contain (§132)   “Cyrus the Great,”
agitō, -āre to move; pass. move oneself   ruler of the
principium, -iī n. primary cause, origin   Persian empire
mōtus, -ūs m. motion, movement nūsquam (adv.) nowhere
simplex, -icis single, consisting of fore = futūrum esse
one element etiamsī (sub. conj.) although

Practice Sentences
Identify the form and the use of each subjunctive verb.
 Chapter Twenty-Six 243

1. Is pāgus appellābātur Tigurīnus; nam (Caesar; telling how a group of the

omnis cīvitās Helvētia in quattuor pāgōs Helvetians had killed one of his
dīvīsa est. Hic pāgus ūnus cum domō ancestors)
exīsset (patrum nostrōrum memoriā)
cōnsulem interfēcerat et eius exercitum
sub iugum mīserat.
2. Dīxerat “Ō mōrēs! Ō tempora!” Tullius ōlim, (Martial)
Sacrilegum strueret cum Catilīna nefās,
Cum gener atque socer dīrīs concurreret armīs
Maestaque cīvīlī caede madēret humus.
3. Multa quoque et bellō passus [est], dum (Vergil; describing Aeneas’ fate)
conderet urbem
īnferretque deōs Latiō.
4. Cum sōlitūdō et vīta sine amīcīs (Cicero)
insidiārum et mētūs plēna sit, ratiō ipsa
monet amīcitiās comparāre.
5. Nōn ut edam vīvō, sed ut vīvam edō. (Quintilian; illustrating
antithesis)
6. Numquam mē rēvocās, veniās cum saepe (Martial; complaining to a
vocātus. friend who never reciprocates his
invitations)
7. Populus autem eōdem annō mē cōnsulem (Augustus; explaining in his Res
[creāvit], cum cōnsul uterque bellō Gestae how he became consul at
cecidisset. only 19 years of age)
8. Rōmānī signa intulērunt: prīma et (Caesar – adapted; describing
secunda aciēs, ut victīs ac summōtīs how he fought the phalanx of the
resisteret, tertia, ut venientēs sustinēret. Gauls)

Vocabulary:
pāgus, -ī m. district, community socer, -erī m. father-in-law
Tigurīnus, -a, -um of Tigurinus, Tigurine madeō, -ēre, -uī to be wet
Helvētia, -ae, f. Helvetia, Switzerland Latium, -iī n. Latium, a city
iugum, -ī n. yoke   Latiō = ad Latium
cūria, -ae f. Curia, senate sōlitūdō, -inis f. solitude, loneliness
building insidiae, -ārum, f. ambush, plot, trap
sacrilegus, -a, -um profane, impious amīcitia, -ae f. friendship
Tullius, -iī m. Cicero comparō, -āre to establish, make
struō, -ere, struxī to devise, edō, -ere, ēdī to eat
  arrange rēvocō, -āre to invite back
Catilīna, -ae m. Catiline, a political summoveō, -ēre, to repulse, push
  enemy of Cicero -mōvī, -mōtus back
gener, -erī m. son-in-law sustineō, -ēre to stop, withstand

244 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 26 Vocabulary

Nouns
nefās n. (indeclinable) sin, crime (against divine law), wrong
poena, poenae f. penalty
poenam dare to pay the penalty
sōl, sōlis m. sun
Verbs
appropinquō, appropinquāre, to approach, draw near
appropinquāvī, appropinquātūrus
exspectō, exspectāre, exspectāvī, to wait for, expect; hope for
exspectātus
tremō, tremere, tremuī to tremble, shake
Adjectives
dīrus, dīra, dīrum awful, horrible
lātus, lāta, lātum wide, broad
maestus, maesta, maestum sad, mournful
Adverbs
posteā afterwards
quoque also
unde from where, whence
Pronouns
aliquis, aliquid someone, something, anyone, anything
quisquis, quicquid (quidquid) whoever, whatever; everyone who
Subordinating Conjunctions
cum when; because, since; although
dum until (with the subjunctive)
(16)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 26
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. dire 4. subpoena
2. nefarious 5. latitude
3. expectation 6. solar
 CHAPTER 27
Perfect and Pluperfect Passive Subjunctive
Adverbial Clauses: Conditions
Simple conditions
Subjunctive conditions

This chapter introduces the perfect and pluperfect subjunctive passive forms. It also
expands on what you have already learned about conditions, adverbial dependent
clauses, and uses of the subjunctive.
123. Perfect and Pluperfect Passive Subjunctive
These tenses are formed like the perfect (amātus sum) and pluperfect (amātus eram)
passive indicative, except that the form of the verb sum is in the subjunctive instead
of the indicative. Deponent verbs follow the same pattern.
Perfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amātus sim monitus sim rēctus sim audītus sim
2nd sg. amātus sīs monitus sīs rēctus sīs audītus sīs
3rd sg. amātus sit monitus sit rēctus sit audītus sit
1st pl. amātī sīmus monitī sīmus rēctī sīmus audītī sīmus
2nd pl. amātī sītis monitī sītis rēctī sītis audītī sītis
3rd pl. amātī sint monitī sint rēctī sint audītī sint

Pluperfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amātus essem monitus essem rēctus essem audītus essem
2nd sg. amātus essēs monitus essēs rēctus essēs audītus essēs
3rd sg. amātus esset monitus esset rēctus esset audītus esset
1st pl. amātī essēmus monitī essēmus rēctī essēmus audītī essēmus
2nd pl. amātī essētis monitī essētis rēctī essētis audītī essētis
3rd pl. amātī essent monitī essent rēctī essent audītī essent

Exercise 198. Following the model verbs above, conjugate dēleō, legō and inveniō
in the perfect and pluperfect passive subjunctive, singular and plural.

245
 246 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 199. Identify each of the following verbs by person, number, tense, voice
and mood.
1. dūcerer 11. trādar
2. cōnātī sumus 12. dīxissent
3. habitae essētis 13. exspectāta sint
4. eāmus 14. scīrētur
5. dēleātur 15. ēripiāmus
6. laudēminī 16. coācta sim
7. vēneris 17. iungerentur
8. missus sit 18. lātus esset
9. invenīrentur 19. pōnam
10. vocātī erāmus 20. agāre
Exercise 200. Transform each of the following from indicative to subjunctive.
1. ductus est 6. inventa es
2. accipiēbāmur 7. clāmātur
3. iūnxeris 8. cōnābantur
4. appellātī erātis 9. interfectī sunt
5. proficīscuntur 10. movēmur

124. Adverbial Clauses: Conditions

A conditional sentence has a main clause and a dependent adverbial clause usually
introduced by sī (if ). You have already seen some conditions in this book, all of which
so far have used the indicative. Conditions in Latin may be divided into two types
according to whether they use the indicative or subjunctive:
1) simple conditions – introduced by sī, nisi, etc.; verbs in the indicative
This type of condition implies nothing about whether or not the situation is
real. The same tense of the indicative is generally used in both the dependent
and main clauses.
Tense of
Time If clause (= protasis) Main clause (= apodosis)
Indicative
past any past tense Sī ēgistī id, sapiēns fuistī.
If you did that, you were wise.
present present Sī agis id, sapiēns es.
If you do that, you are wise.
future future Sī agēs id, sapiēns eris.
If you (will) do that, you will be wise.

2) subjunctive conditions – introduced by sī, nisi, etc.; verbs in the subjunctive

These conditions do imply something about the situation, either that it is not true,
or that there is some doubt about the condition. The same tense of the subjunctive
is generally used in both the main and dependent clause. The following chart shows
the usual pattern, along with the names commonly given to each of these conditions:
 Chapter Twenty-Seven 247

Name of Condition Time Subj. Tense Example

contrary-to-fact past pluperfect Sī id ēgissēs, sapiēns

(not true) fuissēs.
If you had done that, you
would have been wise.
contrary-to-fact present imperfect Sī id agerēs, sapiēns essēs.
(not true) If you were doing that,
you would be wise.
less vivid future present Sī id agās/ēgerīs, sapiēns sīs.
(doubtful) (or perfect in If you should do (were to do)
the sī clause) that, you would be wise.

Special Note: The pronoun aliquis, aliquid (someone, something) which

you learned in the last chapter can sometimes be hard to recognize. After
certain words, the prefix ali- drops off, making this pronoun look like
quis, quid (who?, what?). Use the context to help you decide which word
is intended and use the following jingle to help remember when the prefix
typically drops off:
After sī, nisi, num and nē, all the ali-’s fade away.

This book has encouraged you to read the Latin text as it appears (left to right) and
to let each word lead you to expect what is likely to come next. The following chart
summarizes conditions from the perspective of a careful reader.
Dependent clause Main clause Type of condition

Indicative
past → past = Past Simple
sī, nisi
→
→ present → present = Present Simple
→ future → future = Future Simple
or future perfect or future perfect

Subjunctive
sī, nisi → present → present = Future Less Vivid
or perfect (“should - would”)

pluperfect → pluperfect = Past Contrary to Fact

sī, nisi →
→ imperfect → imperfect = Present Contrary to Fact

Exercise 201. Identify the type of condition and say what person, number, tense,
voice, and mood would be needed in Latin for each verb. Do not translate.
1. They would have been lost at sea, if the storm had come then.
2. If it should rain today, we would not go on a picnic.
3. If you were all rich, you would not be stealing money from others.
4. If we go to the store later today, we will buy you some wine.
5. Would she stay with us if her parents allowed it?
248 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 202. Identify the tense and mood of each underlined verb and name the
condition represented in each sentence. Then translate.
1. Sī iūdex tibi crēdet, nūllam poenam dare cōgēris.
2. Magnam opem cōpiamque habērēs, sī essēs rēx.
3. Sī rēx fuissem, magnā cum sapientiā populum rēxissem.
4. Sī quis nōs videat, ab hostibus celeriter capiāmur.
5. Cīvēs gaudērent, sī imperātor venīret.
Exercise 203. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Hodiē cōnsul in senātum vēnit ut audīrētur.
2. Sī sociī Rōmānī auxilia mittant, nōs omnēs cōnservēmur.
3. Currāmus celerrimē nē videāmur.
4. Cucurrimus tam celeriter ut nōn vidērēmur.
5. Sī sapientēs essētis, fīliōs philosophiam docērētis.
6. Venī mēcum ut mare et multās celerēs nāvēs videās.
7. Sī lūna plēna fuisset, Caesar lītus Galliae cōnspicere potuisset.
8. Ā nostrō duce petimus nē dīmittāmur.
9. Sī amīcitiam sacram habēmus, multī amīcī nōbīs erunt.
10. Sī amīcitiam sacram habeāmus, multī amīcī nōbīs sint.
Exercise 204. Translate into Latin.
1. The city would have fallen if the enemy had burned all the houses and temples.
2. Although a new judge had been chosen, nevertheless the trial did not begin for
  ten days.
3. If someone had brought food, we could have eaten dinner quickly.
4. The wise men will be happy if there is any perception after death.
5. If I were your ally, then I would be able to help you.
6. Few men returned although many had set out.
7. The trees were so tall that the boys could not see their highest parts.
8. If the consuls had announced the victory, the people would have shouted with joy.
9. We would be able to overcome all hardships if we were strong in courage.
10. Our companions laughed when the very serious delegate fell.

Reading 38
In 63 B.C. Catiline attempted to overthrow the Roman government, a plot which
included the assassination of the consul, Cicero. Catiline’s plans were discovered,
and Cicero hastily summoned the senators to a meeting at which Catiline himself
was present. In the following excerpt Cicero expresses surprise that Catiline would
choose to remain in Rome where he is hated and feared by so many.
Servī mehercule meī sī mē metuerent, ut tē metuunt omnēs
cīvēs tuī, domum meam relinquere dēbēre mē putārem; tū
urbem [relinquere dēbēre tē] nōn arbitrāris? et, sī mē meīs
cīvībus indignē suspectum tam grāviter atque offensum [esse]
 Chapter Twenty-Seven 249

vidērem, carēre mē aspectū cīvium quam īnfestīs omnium

oculīs cōnspicī māllem; tū, cum conscientiā scelerum tuōrum
agnōscās odium omnium [esse] iūstum et iam diū tibi
dēbitum, dubitās, quōrum mentēs sēnsūsque vulnerās, eōrum
aspectum praesentiamque vītāre? Sī tē parentēs timērent atque
ōdissent tuī neque eōs ūllā ratiōne plācāre possēs, ut opinor, ab
eōrum oculīs aliquō [locō] concēderes. Nunc tē patria, quae
communis est parens omnium nostrum, ōdit ac metuit et
iam diū nihil tē iūdicat nisi dē parricīdiō suō cōgitāre; huius
tū neque auctoritātem verebere nec iūdicium sequere nec vim
pertimēsces?
Vocabulary:
mehercule “by Hercules!” praesentia, -ae f. presence
ut (+ indic.) as parēns, -ntis m. or f. parent
indignē (adv.) undeservedly plācō, -āre to appease,
suspectus, -a, -um suspected, mistrusted   reconcile (with)
offensus, -a, -um offensive, odious opīnor, -ārī to think, believe
aspectus, -ūs m. sight parricīdium, -iī n. murder of a
īnfestus, -a, -um hostile   parent
conscientia, -ae f. knowledge, auctoritās, -tātis f. authority
  consciousness pertimēscō, -ere to fear greatly
agnōscō, -ere to recognize

Reading 39
In Ovid’s account of the great flood sent by Jupiter (cf. Ch. 7, Reading 5), he
describes what the husband (Deucalion) says to his wife (Pyrrha) about their
situation as the flood’s only survivors.
“namque ego (crēde mihi), sī tē quoque pontus habēret,
tē sequerer, coniunx, et mē quoque pontus habēret.
ō utinam possim populōs reparāre paternīs
artibus atque animās fōrmātae īnfundere terrae!
nunc genus in nōbīs restat mortāle duōbus.
sic vīsum superīs: hominumque exempla manēmus.”
Vocabulary:
namque certainly; for; now īnfundō, to pour into
reparō, -āre to restore, recover -ere (+ dat.)
paternus, -a, -um father’s, paternal restō, -āre to remain, be left
anima, -ae f. breath (of life) vīsum (est) to seem best
fōrmō, -āre, -āvī, to form, fashion,
-ātus  mold
250 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
Identify the form and use of each subjunctive verb then translate the full sentence.
1. Sī vīveret, verba eius audīrētis. (Cicero; explaining why he can’t
call a witness)
2. Ego sī Scipiōnis dēsīderiō mē movērī (Cicero; Laelius here talks about
negem certē mentiar. ... Vīta tālis the life and death of his friend
quidem fuit vel fortūnā vel glōriā, ut Scipio)
nihil posset accēdere.
3. Caesarī cum id nūntiātum esset eōs (Caesar; Caesar hears that the
per prōvinciam nostram iter facere Helvetians are preparing to
cōnārī, mātūrat ab urbe proficīscī. march)
4. Nisi tū āmīsissēs, numquam (Cicero; quoting Fabius, who won
recēpissem. back the town of Tarentum after
the addressee had lost that town to
the enemy)
5. Nōlīte existumāre maiōrēs nostrōs (Sallust)
armīs rem pūblicam ex parvā
magnam fēcisse! Sī ita esset, multō
pulcherrimam eam nōs habērēmus;
quippe sociōrum atque cīvium,
praetereā armōrum atque equōrum
maiōr cōpia nōbīs quam illīs est. Sed
alia fuēre, quae illōs magnōs fēcēre,
quae nōbīs nūlla sunt.
6. Sī tacuissēs, philosophus mānsissēs. (attributed to Boethius)
7. Sit tibi terra levis. (Traditional epitaph)
8. Caveat emptor. (Justinian)

Vocabulary:
Scipiō, -iōnis m. Scipio existumō, -āre to judge, think
(a Roman leader) maiōrēs (nom. pl.) “ancestors”
multō “much” quippe for, inasmuch as
dēsīderium, -iī n. sense of loss praetereā (adv.) besides, moreover
vel ... vel either ... or philosophus, -ī m. philosopher
accēdō, -ere to be added caveō, -ēre to beware
mātūrō, -āre to hasten emptor, -ōris m. buyer
recipiō, -ere, -cēpī to get back, regain
 Chapter Twenty-Seven 251

Chapter 27 Vocabulary

Nouns
amīcitia, amīcitiae f. friendship
imperātor, imperātōris m. general; emperor
iūdex, iūdicis m. judge
odium, odiī n. hatred, unpopularity
philosophia, philosophiae f. philosophy
sēnsus, sēnsūs m. sense, perception; emotion; idea
socius, sociī m. companion, comrade, ally
victōria, victōriae f. victory
Verbs
concēdō, concēdere, concessī, to go away, withdraw; yield to, submit;
concessūrus  allow; forgive
cōnservō, cōnservāre, cōnservāvī, to save, preserve, keep
cōnservātus
cōnspiciō, cōnspicere, cōnspexī, to observe, catch sight of, look at
cōnspectus
metuō, metuere, metuī, metūtus to fear, dread
ōdī, ōdisse to hate; dislike
vereor, verērī, veritus sum to fear, be afraid; respect
Adverb
num signals a question which expects the answer
 “no”; whether (in indirect question §126)
Subordinating Conjunctions
nisi = nī unless, if … not
sīn but if, if however
(17)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 27
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. conservation 5. judge
2. odium 6. conspicuous
3. odious 7. sensory
4. society 8. concession
 CHAPTER 28
Irregular Verb: fīō, fierī, factus sum
Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Noun Clauses
Noun Result
Indirect Question
Indirect Command
Clauses of Fearing

The dependent clauses you learned in the last two chapters function as adverbs,
answering questions like “why?”, “when?”, “with what result?” and “under what
condition?”. This chapter introduces dependent noun clauses that use the subjunctive.
It also gives the irregular forms of fīō, a verb often accompanied by a noun result
clause.
125. Irregular Verb: fīō, fierī, factus sum
The verb fīō has forms of the fourth conjugation except for the infinitive (fierī) and
the imperfect subjunctive (fierem, etc.) which look like third conjugation forms. It
is used as the passive of faciō and has the same passive forms as faciō in the perfect
system.
Indicative Subjunctive
Present Imperfect Future Present Imperfect
1st sg. fīō fīēbam fīam fīam fierem
2nd sg. fīs fīēbās fīēs fīās fierēs
3rd sg. fit fīēbat fīet fīat fieret
1st pl. fīmus fīēbāmus fīēmus fīāmus fierēmus
2nd pl. fītis fīēbātis fīētis fīātis fierētis
3rd pl. fīunt fīēbant fīent fīant fierent

126. Dependent Uses of the Subjunctive: Noun Clauses

Remember that the direct object, or sometimes the subject, of a main verb may be a
dependent clause (§88, 92, 96). The dependent clauses in this chapter all have a clause
marker and a verb in the subjunctive, and generally follow the regular sequence of
tenses (§121). The key to identifying how each clause is used is to know the meaning
of the main verb.

253
254 Introduction to Latin

1) Noun Result – introduced by ut (utī); negative is ut … nōn

The result clauses you have seen before function adverbially and are (usually)
signaled by a signpost word in the main clause (§116, 2). A noun result clause
functions as the direct object or subject (or subject complement) of certain
governing verbs and impersonal expressions with the meaning “bring about”
or “happen.”
Here are some of the common verbs which should lead you to expect a noun
result clause:
Noun Clause
Main Verb Meaning
functions as
faciō (and its compounds) to make direct object
efficiō to bring about direct object
cōnficiō to accomplish direct object
efficitur (passive of above verbs) be brought about subject
accidit happen subject
fit (§125) come about subject
mōs est it is the custom subject/subject complement
necesse est* it is necessary subject/subject complement
*often without ut; also used with an infinitive construction (§39)
Efficiam ut omnēs intellegant. I will make them all understand.
Saepe enim accidit ut nēmō longum For it often happens that no one
iter sōlus facere velit. wants to make a long journey
alone.
Sīc fit ut rēs pūblica valeat. So it happens that the state is
strong.
Erat mōs Rōmānōrum ut deōs It was the custom of the Romans
colerent. to worship the gods.
Exercise 205. Translate into Latin.
1. It is the custom of men to be unwilling 3. Did he cause you to understand
  to seek peace.   these things?
2. The king brought it about that 4. It is often necessary to fight for
  he had all the towns in his power.   our fatherland.

2) Indirect Question – introduced by a question word (e.g., quis?, ubi?, cūr?)

Verbs of asking, telling, seeing, hearing, knowing and the like (§92) are often
accompanied by an indirect question. This construction follows the regular
sequence of tenses (§121), except that it indicates a future action by using the
future participle + either the present or imperfect subjunctive of sum. Study the
following examples:
 Chapter Twenty-Eight 255

Time of Action of
Main Verb Subjunctive Verb
Primary
Present/ Rogō quid fēcerit. I ask what he did. already happened
(Future) Rogō quid faciat. (completed)
Rogō quid factūrus sit. I ask what he is doing. same time
I ask what he will do. hasn’t happened yet
Secondary
Past Rogāvī quid fēcisset.I asked what he had already happened
done. (completed)
Rogāvī quid faceret. I asked what he was same time
doing.
Rogāvī quid factūrus I asked what he hasn’t happened yet
esset. would do.
Exercise 206. Translate each of the underlined dependent clauses into Latin.
1. I know who you (sg.) are. 6. He doesn’t know where they live.
2. I wonder how often they will come? 7. She asked us what we had done.
3. Will you know how to find us? 8. We know who is coming.
4. We didn’t know where they were 9. We knew why he had come.
 staying. 10. They asked how many people were
5. She wondered what he would say?  giving gifts.

3) Indirect Command – introduced by ut (utī); negative is nē

Verbs of asking, telling, advising, persuading, commanding and the like are
often accompanied by an indirect command, which some grammar books
call a substantive clause of purpose. Some common verbs which should lead
you to expect an indirect command are:
hortor to urge petō to ask
imperō to command postulō to demand
moneō to advise, warn precor to pray
ōrō to beg, pray quaerō to ask
persuadeō to persuade rogō to ask
Moneō vōs ut illī ducī crēdātis. I advise you to trust that leader.
Rogābant nōs ut abīrēmus statim. They were asking us to depart
immediately.
Cīvibus persuāsit ut in urbe manērent. He persuaded the citizens to stay
in the city.
Petō ā tē ut scrībās ad tuōs. I beg (from) you to write to your
 (people).
Ōrābat nē sē relinquerēs. He kept begging you not to leave
 him.
256 Introduction to Latin

Note: there are three verbs which do not use this construction. They are
followed instead by an objective infinitive (§96):
iubeō I order
vetō I forbid
cupiō I want
Exercise 207. Translate each of the underlined dependent verbs into Latin.
1. They were begging us to rescue them. 5. He will try to persuade us to fight.
2. She asks that we help her. 6. I urge you (pl.) not to drink that.
3. Did the enemy demand that 7. They wanted us to elect him leader.
he give gifts? 8. We prayed to the gods to save us.
4. He forbade them to burn the temple.
4) Clauses of Fearing – introduced by nē; negative is ut
Verbs of fearing (e.g. timeō, metuō, vereor) often govern clauses introduced
by nē and ut. However, special care needs to be given to the meanings of the
clause markers here, since their meanings are the reverse of what they mean
elsewhere, perhaps because this use of the subjunctive is optative in origin
(§112). The fear is that the wish will not come true: optō ut scrībat (I wish
that he would write) – [but] I fear that he won’t (timeō ut scrībat); optō nē
discēdat (I wish he would not go away) – [but] I fear that he will (timeō nē
discēdat).
Indicates a Fear that Translate as
nē something will happen that, lest
ut something will not happen that … not

Note: nē nōn sometimes replaces ut, and always does when the main clause
has a negative.
Metuō nē veniant. I fear that they will come. or
I fear lest they (may) come.
Metuō ut veniant. I fear that they will not come.
Timuit nē abīssēmus. He feared that we had gone away.
Timuit ut venīrēmus. He feared that we would not come.
Nōn timuit nē nōn venīrēmus He did not fear that we would not come.
Exercise 208. Translate.
1. Prīncipēs verentur nē interficiantur. 5. Caesar fears that the army will be attacked.
2. Metuit ut nūntius audītus esset. 6. Were you (sg.) afraid that he wouldn’t stay?
3. Omnēs timēmus nē hostēs adsint. 7. I kept fearing that the dog would eat
4. Timeō ut tantum iter ingredī   my food.
  possim. 8. They are afraid that you (pl.) won’t
  believe them.
 Chapter Twenty-Eight 257

Exercise 209. Translate each of the following sentences and be ready to identify the
type of each dependent clause.
1. Rogāvit vōs ad quem gladiōs missōs essent.
2. Lēgātus metuēbat ut mīlitēs flūmen altum trānsīre possent.
3. Uxōrēs semper timēbunt nē coniugēs aliās fēminās ament.
4. Pater meus mihi persuāsit nē sōla Rōmae manērem.
5. Nōlī mē rogāre cūr illae arborēs caesae sint.
6. Fit ut rēs pūblica valeat illīs bonīs regentibus.
7. Rēx nōbīs imperāvit ut prō patriā pugnārēmus.
8. Cognōscimus quōmodō tēlīs nostrīs ūtāmur.
9. Vereor nē labōrēs aetātis gaudia vītae vincant.
10. Nauta nōs monuit ut quam celerrimē ante tempestātem nāvigārēmus.
Exercise 210. Translate into Latin.
1. They kept asking who the new king was and whether he was wise.
2. Did you fear that the senate would not make peace with the enemy?
3. The captives (use a participle) begged to be allowed to live.
4. We were surprised how many men were being forced to destroy their homes.
5. They feared that the enemy would burn their camp and carry off their weapons.
6. He had warned the citizens not to try to free your (pl.) slaves.
7. Do you know why the boy was left with his father?
8. The general commanded the Greek towns to surrender immediately.
9. It happened that no one was killed when the enemy attacked the city.
10. The general asked that his soldiers be given more money.

Reading 40
Caesar tells about the Helvetians (one of the tribes in Gaul) and their leader,
Orgetorix, who urges his people to push beyond the natural boundaries of their
territory.
Apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus fuit et dītissimus Orgetorīx.
Is, M. Messālā, M. Pīsōne cōnsulibus, rēgnī cupiditāte inductus
coniūrātiōnem nōbilitātis fēcit, et cīvitātī persuāsit, ut dē
fīnibus suīs cum omnibus cōpiīs exīrent, [dīcēns] facile esse,
cum virtūte omnibus praestārent, tōtius Galliae imperiō potīrī.
Id facilius eīs persuāsit, quod undique locī nātūrā Helvētiī
continued
Vocabulary:
dīs, dītis rich coniūrātiō, -iōnis f. conspiracy
M. Messāla, -ae m. Marcus Messala nōbilitās, -tātis f. nobility
M. Pīsō, -onis m. Marcus Piso praestō, -āre (+ dat.) to be superior to
indūcō, -ere, to lead on,
-dūxī, -ductus induce
258 Introduction to Latin

continued
continentur: ūnā ex parte flūmine Rhēnō, lātissimō et
altissimō, quī agrum Helvētium ā Germānīs dīvidit; alterā ex
parte monte Iūrā altissimō, quī est inter Sēquanōs et Helvētiōs;
tertiā, lacū Lemannō et flūmine Rhodanō, quī prōvinciam
nostram ab Helvētiīs dīvidit. Hīs rēbus fīēbat ut et minus lātē
vagārentur et minus facile fīnitimīs bellum īnferre possent.
Vocabulary:
contineō, -ēre to contain, lacus, -ūs m. lake
  hem in Lemannus, -ī m. (lake) Geneva
Rhēnus, -ī m. Rhine (river) Rhodanus, -ī m. Rhone (river)
Iūra, -ae f. Jura (a mountain) vagor, -ārī to wander
dīvidō, -ere to divide, separate fīnitimus, -a, -um neighboring
Sēquanī, Sequani (a tribe)
-ōrum m. (pl.)

Practice Sentences
Identify the form and use of each subjunctive verb and translate.
1. Eādem nocte accidit ut esset lūna plēna. (Caesar)
2. Timeō nē male facta antīqua mea sint (Plautus; a young man who has
inventa omnia. fathered a child worries the truth
will come out)
3. Quanta multitūdō hominum convēnerit (Cicero; addressing the court at
ad hoc iūdicium, vidēs. the beginning of a speech)
4. Potest fierī ut fallar. (Cicero; admitting that he is not
always right)
5. Albānus exercitus inclāmāvit Curiātiīs utī (Livy)
opem ferant frātrī.
6. Forsitan et Priamī fuerint quae Fāta requīrās. (Vergil; Aeneas tells of the fall of
Troy and its king)
7. Metuōque et timeō, nē hoc tandem (Plautus; a man watches two
prōpalam fiat nimis. lovers)
8. Cīvitās quae sit cōgitā, quid petās, quī sis. (attributed to Cicero; advice to a
budding politician)

Vocabulary:
male (adv.) unfortunately inclāmō, -āre, -āvī to cry out (to),
antīquus, -a, -umold   call upon
conveniō, -īre, to come together, Curiātiī, -ōrum m. the Curiatii (family)
-vēnī assemble Priamus, -ī m. Priam, king of Troy
fallō, -ere to deceive; (pass.) prōpalam (adv.) openly
be mistaken nimis (adv.) too (much)
Albānus, -a, -um Alban
 Chapter Twenty-Eight 259

Chapter 28 Vocabulary

Nouns
canis, canis m. or f. dog
gladius, gladiī m. sword
oppidum, oppidī n. town
tēlum, tēlī n. weapon; spear
tempestās, tempestātis f. storm; weather
Verbs
ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī to snatch away; rescue, free
ēreptus
fīō, fierī, factus sum to happen, occur; be done, be made
imperō, imperāre, imperāvī, to command, order; rule (over)
imperātus (+ dat)
mōs est it is the custom, habit, way
requīrō, requīrere, requīsīvī (-iī), to search for; ask, inquire after; demand
requīsītus
rogō, rogāre, rogāvī, rogātus to ask, ask for
Adjective
quot (indeclinable) how many?
Adverbs
quōmodo how
quotiēns how often?
statim immediately, at once
undique on all sides
Preposition
apud (+ acc.) among, with, near, at (the house of )
(17)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 28
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. interrogate 5. requirement
2. stat! (hospital slang) 6. canine
3. imperative 7. fiat
4. tempestuous 8. quota
Neptune on his Chariot and Sea Creatures. Mosaic from Ostia, 2nd c. A.D.
 CHAPTER 29
The Gerund
The Gerundive
Passive Periphrastic
Dative of Agent

You have already learned that certain verb forms can be used as nouns (infinitives §39)
and others as adjectives (participles §84). This chapter introduces a second type of
verbal noun called the gerund, and a new verbal adjective form called the gerundive,
along with several common uses of these forms.

127. The Gerund

A gerund is a verbal noun, like the infinitive. In English, it can be hard to distinguish
between a gerund (noun) and some participles (adjective) because both end with
-ing. In examples such as the third one below, this can lead to real ambiguity and,
sometimes, humor:
Gerund (= Noun) Participle (= Adjective)
I like hunting rabbits. The hunting dogs are very quick.
hunting is the direct object of “like” hunting describes the dogs
They succeeded by working hard. The man working in the field ate lunch.
working is the object of the working describes the man
preposition “by”
Visiting relatives can be difficult. Visiting relatives can be difficult.
It can be difficult to visit relatives. Relatives who visit can be difficult.

Exercise 211. Identify each -ing word below as either a gerund or a participle. If it is
a participle, draw an arrow to the noun it modifies.
1. She learned to speak Italian by practicing all the time.
2. Did you see him leaving early?
3. Being young, we enjoyed sneaking out at night.
4. While swimming in the lake, the boys saw a huge fish eating insects.
5. He was afraid of answering the questions incorrectly.
6. My dog loves the woman training her.
7. Already running late, he took a cab for the sake of arriving on time.
8. The Romans appointed many days for worshipping the gods.

261
262 Introduction to Latin

Unlike in English, a Latin gerund does not look like a present active participle. The
gerund is formed by adding -nd- to the present stem of the verb, followed by the
neuter singular endings of the second declension. Notice that the vowel before the
-nd- is short, and that there is no nominative form.
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -Iō 4th Conj.
Nominative ----- ----- ----- ----- -----
Genitive amandī docendī regendī capiendī audiendī
Dative amandō docendō regendō capiendō audiendō
Accusative amandum docendum regendum capiendum audiendum
Ablative amandō docendō regendō capiendō audiendō
Deponent verbs follow the same pattern, but the irregular verb eō does not:
morior eō
Nominative ----- -----
Genitive morandī eundī
Dative morandō eundō
Accusative morandum eundum
Ablative morandō eundō

Like the infinitive when used as a noun, the gerund is always neuter and singular, and
can be modified by an adverb (as in the first example below). Unlike in English, a Latin
gerund is never used as the subject or direct object of a verb; instead, the infinitive
plays those roles (§39, 96). The dative case is relatively rare, and the accusative is used
only as the object of a few prepositions.
Here are the most common uses for each case of the gerund:
Genitive
1) with nouns and adjectives as an objective or explanatory genitive (§30)
ars bene vīvendī the art of living well
cupidus discendī desirous of learning; eager to learn
2) with causā or grātiā to show cause/purpose (§53)
pugnandī causā for the sake of fighting; in order to fight
Dative
1) with adjectives denoting fitness or suitability
nāvis apta nāvigandō a ship fit for sailing
Accusative
1) with ad (and sometimes in) to show purpose
ad pugnandum for fighting; in order to fight
ad audiendum convēnērunt they gathered to listen
*in this use, the gerund never takes a direct object in Latin
 Chapter Twenty-Nine 263

Ablative
1) without a preposition, to indicate means (and, less often, manner or cause)
dīcendō dīcere discimus we learn to speak by speaking
2) with certain prepositions (ā/ab, dē, ex or in)
dē bene vīvendō dīxērunt they spoke about living well

Exercise 212. Translate the underlined phrases into Latin using a gerund.
1. They came in order to listen. 5. She has a great love of reading.
2. By fighting well they won the war. 6. Good shoes are useful for walking.
3. He talks for the sake of delaying. 7. He was experienced at speaking.
4. Do you get pleasure from learning? 8. They went inside to sleep.

128. The Gerundive

The gerundive, or future passive participle (§84, Chapter 17), is a verbal adjective. It
looks like the gerund but, like other adjectives, it can occur in the singular or plural
of any case (including the Nominative) or gender. The gerundive uses first and second
declension endings like bonus, bona, bonum:
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative amandus amanda amandum
Genitive amandī amandae amandī
Dative amandō amandae amandō
Accusative amandum amandam amandum
Ablative amandō amandā amandō
Plural
Nominative amandī amandae amanda
Genitive amandōrum amandārum amandōrum
Dative amandīs amandīs amandīs
Accusative amandōs amandās amanda
Ablative amandīs amandīs amandīs

Remember, the gerund is a noun; the gerundive is an adjective.

Exercise 213. Identify each of the following as a gerund, gerundive or present active
participle, and give its case, number and gender. If a form is ambiguous, identify all
possibilities.
1. līberandās 6. flōrentis
2. metuentium 7. ostendendus
3. metuendum 8. cōnspiciendō
4. incendentī 9. iungentem
5. conveniendīs 10. eundī
264 Introduction to Latin

The gerundive has only two common uses in Latin:

1) To show obligation, necessity or propriety (see especially §129 below)
crīmina nōn ferenda crimes not to be tolerated
vir laudandus a man to be praised
librōs legendōs books worth reading
2) To replace the gerund with a direct object
A gerund in the genitive or ablative (without a preposition) can have a direct
object, but most Latin authors prefer to use a gerundive construction instead.
This gerundive construction always replaces a gerund in the dative or a gerund
dependent on a preposition if the gerund would have had a direct object. In this
construction, the noun takes the case the gerund would have been in and, like
any adjective, the gerundive agrees with the noun in case, number and gender:
Gerundive Gerund + Direct Object
cōnsilium bellī gerendī cōnsilium gerendī bellum
literal translation “a plan for the war to be waged” “a plan for waging war”
In the gerundive construction, the deponent verbs that take their object in
the ablative (§105) behave as transitive verbs do:
ad fruendās voluptātēs for enjoying pleasures
Verbs that take a dative object can use the gerund construction:
ad vōbīs pārendum to obey you
The gerundive construction is best understood (and translated) in the same way as the
gerund construction. Here are some additional examples for each case:
Gerundive (preferred) Gerund + Direct Object
Genitive urbis capiendae causā urbem capiendī causā
for the sake of capturing the city for the sake of capturing the city
Ablative pāce petendā pācem petendō
by seeking peace by seeking peace
Dative ūtilis temperandīs animīs (not possible)
useful for governing passions
Accusative ad pācem petendam (not possible)
(in order) to seek peace

Exercise 214. Translate each of the following phrases and say whether a gerund or
gerundive is used.
1. scrībendō 6. studium pugnandī
2. ad virtūtem laudandam 7. studium bellī gerendī
3. victōriae nūntiandae causā 8. ad voluptātem petendam
4. aptus legendō 9. spēs vincendī
5. metus pereundī 10. eīs persuādendī causā
 Chapter Twenty-Nine 265

Exercise 215. Translate the underlined phrases into Latin and say whether a gerund
or gerundive is used.
1. you won by running quickly 4. I came to see the dog
2. you won by wounding the soldier 5. he is writing a book about sailing
3. I came to listen 6. he wrote a book about navigating the sea
129. Passive Periphrastic and Dative of Agent
The most common use of the gerundive is in a construction called the passive
periphrastic, in which the gerundive is used with a form of sum, esse, fuī to indicate
obligation or necessity. If expressed, the person to whom the obligation attaches (the
person who will do the action) is indicated by a dative of agent instead of the ablative,
unless the dative would cause ambiguity (see Ex. 217.6, below). Notice that even
though the Latin expression is passive, colloquial English usually prefers an active
translation:
Carthāgō dēlenda est. Carthage must be destroyed.
We must destroy Carthage.
Hoc mihi faciendum erat. This had to be done by me.
I had to do this.
Dī omnibus colendī sunt. The gods must be worshipped by everyone.
Everyone must worship the gods.
Putō proelium committendum esse. I think the battle must be joined (begun).
I think we must begin the battle.
Exercise 216. Translate each of the following. Use the passive periphrastic where
possible.
1. Equus mittendus est. 6. Caesar must do these things.
2. Omnia fīnienda erant. 7. We must harm the shameful men.
3. Dīxit Caesarem laudandum esse. 8. The army had to destroy the bridge.
4. Fēminae eī cōnservandae fuērunt. 9. You (sg.) ought to drink the wine.
5. Senātuī pārendum est. 10. The city must be founded.
Exercise 217. Translate each of the following sentences.
1. Ex discendō capiunt voluptātem.
2. Multī Athēnās ad vīvendum ierant.
3. Exībant ad condendam urbem.
4. Lēgātī dīxērunt sē Rōmam cōnsulis inveniendī causā vēnisse.
5. Vēnērunt oppidī capiendī causā.
6. Grātiae deīs vōbīs agendae sunt.
7. Arbitrātī sunt cibum pōtumque statim mittendum esse.
8. Spectandō sē in aquā, Narcissus sē amāre incēpit. (Narcissus, -ī m. a boy’s name)
9. Signum datum est ut mīlitēs proelium committerent.
10. Nesciō quid mihi agendum sit.
266 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 218. Translate into Latin, using a gerund or gerundive where possible.
1. This water is not useful for drinking.
2. Caesar had to fight many battles in Gaul.
3. Working at night is difficult.
4. They accomplished many things by working with great care.
5. Did he say we must carry all those weapons?
6. The leader called the soldiers to prepare the great ships.
7. He thought by killing the king he would free the state.
8. Iron is useful for making swords.
9. Do you know why the women had to sing those songs?
10. I will use the whole time for speaking.

Reading 41
Cicero writes for his Roman countrymen about the different Greek schools of
philosophy. Here he is talking about the philosopher Epicurus’ belief that the
Greatest (highest) Good in life is living pleasantly. Epicurus defined pleasure
(voluptās) as the avoidance of pain (dolor).
Fatendum est summum esse bonum iūcundē vīvere. Id, quī in
ūnā virtūte pōnunt et splendōre nōminis captī, quid nātūra
postulet nōn intellegunt, errōre maximō, sī Epicūrum audīre
voluerint, līberābuntur. istae enim vestrae eximiae pulchraeque
virtūtēs nisi voluptātem efficerent, quis eās aut laudābilēs aut
expetendās [esse] arbitrārētur? Ut1 enim medicōrum scientiam
nōn ipsīus artis, sed bonae valetūdinis causā probāmus, et
gubernātōris ars, quia bene nāvigāndī ratiōnem habet, ūtilitāte,
nōn arte laudātur, sīc sapientia, quae ars vīvendī putanda est, nōn
expeterētur, sī nihil efficeret; nunc expetitur, quod est tamquam
artifex conquīrendae et comparandae voluptātis. nam cum
ignōrātiōne rērum bonārum et malārum māximē hominum
vīta vexētur, ob eumque errōrem et voluptātibus māximīs saepe
prīventur et dūrissimīs animī dolōribus torqueantur, sapientia
est adhibenda, quae et terrōribus cupiditātibusque dētractīs et
omnium falsārum opīniōnum temeritāte dēreptā certissimam
sē nōbīs ducem praebeat ad voluptātem.
Note:
1. Ut here = “as,” “just as”
 Chapter Twenty-Nine 267

Vocabulary:
fateor, -ērī to admit, accept as true artifex, -icis m. maker, author
iūcundē (adv.) agreeably, pleasantly conquīrō, -ere to search for
Id refers to iūcundē vīvere comparō, -āre to acquire
splendor, -ōris m. splendor ignōrātiō, -iōnis f. ignorance
error, -ōris m. error (abl. separation) vexō, -āre to trouble, upset
Epicūrus, -ī m. Epicurus prīvō, -āre to deprive (of )
iste, ista, istud that   (+ abl. separation)
eximius, -a, -um fine, excellent torqueō, -ēre to twist; torment
laudābilis, -e worthy of praise adhibeō, -ēre to use
expetō, -ere to seek out, desire terror, -ōris m. fear
medicus, -ī m. doctor dētrahō, -ere to remove
scientia, -ae f. knowledge, skill falsus, -a, -um false
valetūdō, -inis f. health opiniō, -iōnis f. opinion, belief
gubernātor, -ōris m. pilot, navigator temeritās, -tātis f. recklessness
ūtilitās, -tātis f. utility, usefulness dēripiō, -ere, -uī, to remove
  (abl. cause) -reptus
268 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
1. Magna sunt ea quae dīcō, mihi crēde; (Cicero; arguing that he, not
nōlī haec contemnere. Dīcenda, a rival, should take charge of a
dēmōnstranda, explicanda sunt case)
omnia, causa nōn sōlum expōnenda, sed
etiam graviter cōpiōsēque agenda est; n.b. the first sentence here is
perficiendum est, sī quid agere aut proficere Practice Sentence 20.2
vīs, ut hominēs tē nōn sōlum audiant,
vērum etiam lībenter studiōsēque audiant.
2. Nihil hōrum sine timōre mīrāmur. Et cum (Seneca; explaining that
timendī sit causa nescīre, nōn est tantī scīre, earthquakes are not caused by the
nē timeās? gods)
3. Ūnus homō nōbīs cūnctandō restituit rem. (Ennius; speaking of Quintus
Nōn enim rūmōrēs pōnēbat ante salūtem. Fabius Maximus, who saved
Rome in the second Punic War by
refusing to engage in a full battle
with Hannibal)
4. Sed legendī semper occāsiō est, audiendī (Pliny; urging a friend to come
nōn semper. hear an old and masterful
speaker rather than to stay home
and read)
5. Nihil agendō hominēs male agere discunt. (Cato)
6. Naturā inest in mentibus nostrīs (Cicero)
insatiābilis quaedam cupiditās vērī videndī.
7. Ācerrimus ex omnibus nostrīs sēnsibus est (Cicero)
sēnsūs videndī.
8. Sī quis in hōc artem populō nōn nōvit amandī, (Ovid; offering his services as an
hoc legat et lēctō carmine doctus amet. instructor in the ways of love)
Arte citae vēlōque ratēs rēmōque reguntur,
arte levēs currūs: arte regendus Amor.
9. Semper metuendō sapiēns ēvītat malum. (Publilius Syrus)
10. Hominis autem mēns discendō alitur et (Cicero)
cōgitandō, semper aliquid aut anquīrit aut
agit videndīque et audīendī dēlectatiōne
ducitur.

Vocabulary:
contemnō, -ere to disparage, salūs, -ūtis f. safety
condemn rēs = rēs pūblica
dēmōnstrō, -āre to explain; prove insum, -esse to be in, be present in
explicō, -āre to explain, set forth insatiābilis, -e insatiable
expōnō, -ere to explain, set forth nōscō, -ere, nōvī to know
graviter (adv.) seriously citus, -a, -um swift, quick
cōpiōsē (adv.) fully, in detail vēlum, -ī n. sail
 Chapter Twenty-Nine 269

perficiō, -ere to accomplish ratis, -is f. boat, ship; raft

prōficiō, -ere to be successful rēmus, -ī m. oar
lībenter (adv.) freely, with pleasure currus, -ūs m. chariot
studiōsē (adv.) eagerly, ēvīto, -āre to avoid
enthusiastically alō, -ere to nourish
tantī esse to be important anquīrō, -ere to investigate,
cūnctor, -ārī to delay   inquire into
restituō, -ere, to restore dēlectātiō, pleasure, delight
-stituī -iōnis f.
rūmor, -ōris m. reputation, popular
opinion

Chapter 29 Vocabulary

Nouns
occāsiō, occāsiōnis f. occasion, opportunity
studium, studiī n. eagerness, zeal; study
voluptās, voluptātis f. pleasure, delight
Verbs
committō, committere, commīsī, to join, unite, engage in
commissus
conveniō, convenīre, convēnī to assemble, gather; meet; agree
conventūrus
probō, probāre, probāvī, probātus to approve (of ); prove, show
Adjectives
cīvīlis, cīvīle civil, public, political
perītus, perīta, perītum experienced, skilful
ūtilis, ūtile useful, profitable
vērus, vēra, vērum true
vērum, vērī n. truth, what is true
Adverbs
male badly
tamquam as, just as, just like
(12)
Derivatives: For each English word below, give the Latin word from the Chapter 29
Vocabulary to which it is related and the English word’s meaning.
1. civilization 5. utility
2. veritable 6. malefactor
3. probation 7. convention
4. voluptuous 8. occasional
 CHAPTER 30
More on Relative Pronouns
Connecting Relative
Clauses of Characteristic
Clauses of Purpose
Review of Cases
Nominative
Vocative
Accusative
Dictionary Practice / Form Identification

This is the first of three chapters that will introduce constructions you are likely to
meet as you move to the next level of Latin, and that will provide a general review of
the case uses you have learned so far. This chapter expands on the uses of the relative
pronoun you have seen and introduces two additional dependent clauses whose verb
is in the subjunctive.
130. More on Relative Pronouns
So far you have learned that relative pronouns are used to introduce dependent clauses
with an indicative verb (§64, 88). These pronouns have additional uses, among which
the most common are the following:
1) Connecting Relative – a relative pronoun can function as a coordinating
conjunction. At the beginning of a sentence (or after a colon or semi-colon) a
relative pronoun is often used to connect that sentence with the preceding one.
In this use, the relative pronoun refers either to the whole preceding sentence
or to one item in that sentence. A connecting relative can be translated as a
demonstrative or personal pronoun, often preceded by “and”:
Quī = et is / hic “(And) he”
Quae = et ea /haec “(And) she”
Quod = et id / hoc “(And) this”
Caesar exercitum suum in urbem dūxit. Quod cum vīdissent hostēs,
fūgērunt.
Caesar led his army into the city. And when the enemy saw/had seen
this, they fled.

271
272 Introduction to Latin

Eōrum fīnēs Nerviī attingēbant. Quōrum dē nātūrā mōribusque Caesar,

cum quaereret, sīc reperiēbat.
The Nervii bordered on their territory. And when Caesar asked about
their nature and customs, he found the following.
Exercise 219. Translate each of the following, using the vocabulary help given.
1. Videāmus nunc id quod caput est. id vērō, iūdicēs, etiam dubitandum
et diūtius cōgitandum est? rēs loquitur ipsa, iūdicēs. quae semper valet
plūrimum. (Cicero; arguing in court that the facts of his case are obvious)
2. Tertiae cohortis centuriōnēs ex eō, quō stābant, locō recessērunt suōsque
omnēs remōvērunt, et vōcibus hostēs vocāre coepērunt; quōrum prōgredī
ausus est nēmō. (Caesar)
3. Caesar statuit exspectandam [esse] classem. quae ubi convēnit ac prīmum
ab hostibus vīsa est, circiter CCXX nāvēs eōrum profectae ex portū nostrīs
adversae constitērunt. (Caesar)
Vocabulary:
caput “the main point” statuō, -ere to decide
diūtius comparative of diū portus, -ūs m. harbor
cohors, -tis f. cohort, division adversus, -a, -um opposite, facing
centuriō, -iōnis, m. centurion, captain (+ dat.)
rēcēdō, -ere, -cessī to withdraw constō, -āre, -stitī to take up a position
removeō, -ēre, -mōvī to move back
prōgredior, -ī to come forward
2) Clauses of Characteristic – a relative clause with a subjunctive verb often
describes a characteristic quality or behavior of an antecedent that is not
otherwise defined. While a relative clause + indicative specifies “a specific
person who does/is something”, a clause of characteristic + subjunctive
indicates “a person/thing of the sort that does/is something”.
Sunt quī dīcant .... There are those who say ....
Is quī multa sciat. He is the sort of man who knows many
 things.
Multa sunt quae mentem There are many things which influence
moveant.   the mind.
Exercise 220. Translate each of the following.
1. Is erat vir quī Graeciam rēxit. 5. That was the man everyone praised.
2. Is erat vir quī Graeciam regeret. 6. He was the sort of man whom
3. Nihil videō quod timeam.   everyone praised.
4. Aliquid vīdī quod timuī. 7. They are the men who did this.
8. They are the men to do this.
 Chapter Thirty 273

3) Clauses of Purpose – a relative pronoun often replaces ut to introduce a

purpose clause.
Mīlitēs mīsit quī urbem He sent soldiers to capture the city.
caperent.
Scrībēbat ōrātiōnēs quās aliī He used to write speeches for others
dīcerent.   to deliver.
Exercise 221. Translate each of the following.
1. Hostēs lēgātum lēgērunt quī pācem peteret.
2. Servōs mittit quī equum domum ducant.
3. Fēminae veniunt quae coniugēs Rōmānōrum sint.
4. Ille dux quī novam gentem conderet ad Ītaliam missus est.
131. Review of Cases
This book has presented the basic uses of each case to help you learn to read and
understand Latin texts. As you begin to read more unadapted texts, you will find that
there are more uses for each case than would be appropriate to include in a beginning
textbook. Reference grammar books are available which give many details about uses
of each case, for those who are interested. This section, and the similar sections in the
next two chapters, will summarize what you should know so far about the general
meaning, form, and specific uses of individual cases.
1) Nominative – is the “naming” case (from nōmen)
Form: for neuters, the nominative and accusative endings are always the
same; neuter plurals end in -a in all declensions
Use:
• subject of a finite verb (§8b)
• subject complement = predicate nominative (§33)
2) Vocative – is the case of direct address (from vocō)
Form: the vocative endings are the same as the nominative, except for 2nd
declension words whose nominative singular ends -us; these have -e
in the vocative singular Proper names and a few nouns in -ius use -ī.
Use:
• identifies the person (thing) being spoken to (§17)
274 Introduction to Latin

3) Accusative – is the case of the direction or goal

Form: the accusative ending for all masculine and feminine words is -m;
the plural is -s. For neuters, the accusative and nominative endings
are always the same; neuter plurals end in -a in all declensions
Use:
• direct object (§8b)
• second accusative
object complement with factitive verbs (§47)
with verbs of teaching (doceō) & asking (ōrō) (§47)
• subject of an infinitive
indirect statement (§92)
objective infinitive clause (§96)
• adverbial modifer
place to which (§24, §83)
length of time (§59)
extent of space (§61)
degree (§61)
object of a preposition (with a variety of meanings)

Dictionary Practice/Form Identification

Identify the words below based on the dictionary entries given. Be sure to indicate the
entry from which each is taken and the part of speech, and to give all possibilities for
ambiguous forms.
For nouns and adjectives: give case, number, and gender
For verbs: give person, number, tense, voice and mood
if infinitive, give tense and voice
if participle, give case, number, gender, tense and voice
A. volātus, volātūs, m: flight
B. volō, volāre, volāvī: to fly
C. volō, velle, voluī: to wish
D. volo, volōnis, m.: volunteer
 Chapter Thirty 275

Entry Part of Speech Form ID

1. volantī
2. voluerās
3. volātis
4. volātibus
5. volēns
6. velītis
7. volat
8. volārent
9. volātūs
10. volēbam
11. volōnēs
12. volem
13. volāverant
14. volōnum
15. voluisse

Reading 42
Cicero here talks about the nature of the soul (animus), which the Stoics believed
was made of fire (sometimes a kind of fiery breath), and about why it rises quickly
into the heavens above the denser and more compact air near the earth.
Accēdit ut facilius animus ēvādat ex hōc āere ... eumque
perrumpat, quod nihil est animō vēlōcius, nūlla est celeritās
quae possit cum animī celeritāte contendere. quī sī permanet
incorruptus suīque similis, necesse est ita ferātur, ut penetret
et dīvidat omne caelum hoc, in quō nūbēs imbrēs ventīque
cōguntur, quod et ūmidum et cālīginōsum est propter
exhālātionēs terrae.
Vocabulary:
accēdit ut “it is also true that” penetrō, -āre to penetrate, pierce
ēvādō, -ere to escape dīvidō, -ere to break open,
āēr, āeris m. air   divide
perrumpō, -ere to break through imber, -bris m. rain
vēlōx, vēlōcis swift ūmidus, -a, -um moist, damp
celeritās, -tātis f. speed cālīginōsus, misty, foggy
contendō, -ere to compare   -a, -um
permaneō, -ēre to last, remain exhālātiō, -iōnis f. evaporation
incorruptus, -a, uncorrupted,
-um  genuine
276 Introduction to Latin

Reading 43
Ovid tells the story of Daedalus and Icarus (cf. Ch. 17, Practice Sentence 5).
Daedalus, a famous inventor, is imprisoned on the island of Crete by King Minos.
He finally figures out a way to escape, and invents wings, constructed with wax
and feathers, so that he and his young son, Icarus, can escape the island of Crete by
flying away. Despite his father’s warnings, Icarus flies too close to the sun, whose
heat has a predictable effect on the wax holding the wings together....
“terrās licet” inquit “et undās 1
obstruat: at caelum certē patet; ībimus illāc:
omnia possideat, nōn possidet āera Mīnōs.”
dīxit et ignōtās animum dīmittit in artēs
nātūramque novat. nam pōnit in ōrdine pennās 5
ut vērās imitētur avēs. puer Īcarus ūnā
stābat .… [Daedalus]
instruit et nātum, “mediō”que “ut līmite currās,
Īcare,” ait “moneō, nē, sī dēmissior ībis, 10
unda gravet pennās, sī celsior, ignis adūrat:
inter utrumque volā. …
mē duce carpe viam!” pariter praecepta volāndī
trādit et ignōtās umerīs accommodat ālās. …
et patriae tremuēre manūs; dedit oscula nātō 15
nōn iterum repetenda suō, …
hortāturque sequī damnōsāsque ērudit artēs
et movet ipse suās et nātī rēspicit ālās. …
cum puer audācī coepit gaudēre volātū
dēseruitque ducem caelīque cupīdine tractus 20
altius ēgit iter. …
tābuerant cērae: nūdōs quatit ille lacertōs,
rēmigiōque carēns nōn ūllās percipit aurās,
ōraque caeruleā patrium clāmantia nōmen
excipiuntur aquā, quae nōmen trāxit ab illō. 25
at pater īnfēlīx, nec iam pater, “Īcare,” dīxit,
“Īcare,” dīxit,“ubi es? quā tē regiōne requīram?”
“Īcare,” dīcēbat: pennās aspēxit in undīs
dēvōvitque suās artēs corpusque sepulcrō
condidit, et tellūs ā nōmine dicta sepultī. 30
 Chapter Thirty 277

Vocabulary:
(note the Latin uses plural for singular – and vice versa – in several places here)
licet “although” āla, -ae, f. wing
obstruō, -ere to barricade patrius, -a, -um of a father, father’s
illāc (adv.) that way, there osculum, -ī, n. kiss
possideō, -ēre to possess, be repetō, -ere to repeat
master of damnōsus, -a, -um destructive
āera (acc.) air ērudiō, -īre to instruct, teach
Mīnōs (nom.) Minos, king of rēspiciō, -ere to look back, look at
Crete volātus, -ūs m. flight, flying
ignōtus, -a, -um unknown, strange, dēserō, -ere, -uī to desert, leave
unfamiliar tābēscō, -ere, -uī to melt
novō, -āre to change, make cēra, -ae f. wax
anew nūdus, -a, -um bare
ōrdō, -inis, m. order, row(s) quatiō, -ere to shake; “flap”
penna, -ae f. feather   (as with wings)
imitor, -ārī to imitate, act like lacertus, -ī m. arm
avis, -is f. bird rēmigium, -ī n. “wings”
ūnā (adv.) in the same place; percipiō, -ere, -cēpī to get hold of
together with him caeruleus, -a, -um dark blue
instruō, -ere to instruct, teach excipiō, -ere, -cēpī to catch, receive
līmes, -itis m. way, path regiō, -iōnis f. direction, region
dēmissus, -a, -um low requīrō, -ere to look for,
gravō, -āre to weigh down   search for
adūrō, -ere to set fire to, aspiciō, -ere, -pēxī to catch sight of
scorch dēvoveō, -ēre, -vōvī to curse
volō, -āre to fly sepulcrum, -ī n. grave, tomb
pāriter (adv.) equally, as well condō, -ere, -didī to bury
praeceptum, -ī, n. rule, precept dicta (est) third sg. perfect pass.
umerus, - ī, m. shoulder sepeliō, -īre, -iī, to bury
accommodō, -āre to fit, put on -ultus
278 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
Translate and identify the use of each subjunctive verb.
1. Haec habuī, dē senectūte quae dīcerem. (Cicero; Cato, at 84 years, sums
up his discourse on old age at the
end of Cicero’s Dē Senectūte)
2. Quis homō est quī dīcat mē dīxisse illud? (Plautus – slightly edited;
denying an accusation)
3. “Neque is sum,” inquit, “quī gravissimē ex (Caesar; Sabinus, a Roman
vōbīs mortis perīculō terrear.” general, boasts to his men of his
courage, which ensuing events
prove an idle boast)
4. Sed est mōs hominum ut nōlint eundem (Cicero)
plūribus rēbus excellere.
5. Dēnique nūllum est iam dictum quod nōn (Terence – slightly edited)
dictum sit prius.
6. Urbem Rōmam … condidēre atque habuēre (Sallust; on the founding of
initiō Trōiānī, quī Aenēā duce profugī … Rome)
vagābantur.
7. Virtūs facit ut eōs dīligāmus in quibus ipsa (Cicero)
inesse videātur.
8. Quis tālia fandō (Vergil; Aeneas agrees to describe
Myrmidonum Dolopumve aut dūrī mīles Ulixī the fall of Troy, but warns the
temperet ā lacrimīs? story is painful)

Vocabulary:
senectūs, -tūtis f. old age Myrmidonēs, Myrmidons
excellō, -ere to excel -um m. (pl.) (Greeks from
for, fārī to speak, tell Thessaly)
initium, -iī n. beginning Dolopēs, -um Dolopes (more
profugus, -a, -um exiled, fugitive m. (pl.) Greeks from
vagor, -ārī to wander, roam Thessaly)
dīligō, -ere to value, love Ulixēs, -is m. Ulysses
insum, -esse to be in, belong to (= Odysseus)
 Chapter Thirty 279

Chapter 30 Vocabulary

Nouns
Aenēās, Aenēae m. Aeneas, leader of the Trojans
Aenēan (acc.)
aura, aurae f. breeze; air
Verbs
coepī, coepisse, coeptus began (a “defective” verb with no present
 system)
nāscor, nāscī, nātus sum to be born
nātus, -ī m. son
Adjectives
celsus, celsa, celsum high
Trōiānus, Trōiāna, Trōiānum Trojan
Adverbs
circiter about, near
deinde then, next
iterum again, a second time
prīmum first, in the first place, for the first time
prius before, sooner
Coordinating Conjunction
-ve or
(12)
 CHAPTER 31
Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Speech
Impersonal Constructions
More on the Dative
Dative with Compound Verbs
Dative of Purpose
Review of Cases
Genitive
Dative
Dictionary Practice/Form Identification

This chapter introduces one more use of the subjunctive in a dependent clause, a very
common verbal construction, and two new uses of the dative case.
132. Subordinate Clauses in Indirect Speech
Dependent clauses that occur within an indirect statement, indirect command, or
indirect question have their verb in the subjunctive:
Putāmus virōs quī pugnent fortēs We think the men who are fighting
esse.   are brave.
Rogāvit sī lēgēs scrīptās essent quod He asked if laws had been written
multa crīmina essent.   because there were many crimes.
Imperat mīlitibus ut urbem quam hostēs He orders the soldiers to leave the city
incendant relinquant. which the enemy is burning.

281
 282 Introduction to Latin

This is the twelfth use of the subjunctive in a dependent clause that you have learned:
Name of Clause Introduced by Type of Clause
1. Circumstantial §122 cum Adverbial
2. Causal §122 cum Adverbial
3. Concessive §122 cum Adverbial
4. Expectation §122 dum, antequam Adverbial
5. Conditions §124 sī, nisi Adverbial
6. Purpose §116 ut, nē, quī, quae, quod Adverbial
7. Result §116 ut, ut … nōn Adverbial
§126 Noun
8. Indirect Question §126 quis, quid, ubi, cūr, Noun
other question words
9. Indirect Command §126 ut, nē Noun
10. Fearing §126 nē, ut Noun
11. Characteristic §130 quī, quae, quod Adv., Adj., Noun
12. Subordinate Clauses §132 any Adverbial, Noun
in Indirect Speech

133. Impersonal Constructions

There are many impersonal expressions in Latin, some of which can seem very awkward
to English speakers. It is common to translate these expressions with “it” as a “dummy
subject” in English.
• 3rd singular verbs such as the following should lead you to expect an
infinitive subject (§39):
decet it is fitting oportet it is right, necessary
iuvat it is pleasing vidētur it seems good (Ch. 14)
licet it is permitted
• Some phrases are also regularly used in this way (or with a noun result
clause – §126):
fās est it is right mōs est it is the custom (Ch. 28)
nefās est it is wrong necesse est it is necessary
• You have already seen several verbs which lead you to expect a noun result
clause as subject (§126)
accidit it happens
efficitur it is brought about
fit it comes about
• In addition, a few intransitive verbs can also be used impersonally, in what
looks like a 3rd singular passive form and is, therefore, often called an
“impersonal passive.” A literal English equivalent for these does not exist,
so it is usually best either to translate the verb as active, with “one” as the
 Chapter Thirty-One 283

subject, or to use “there” with a gerund. In a passage, the full context will
make other translations possible too:
bibitur one drinks pugnātur there (is) fighting
itur one enters venītur one comes
The following are typical examples of impersonal constructions:
Licet mihi īre. It is permitted for me to go.
 (or I am allowed to go.)
Oportet mē īre. It is right for me to go. (or I should go.)
Multās diēs pugnātum est. They fought (there was fighting) for many days.
Ventum est. They came.
Illud videndum est. We (one) must see that.
Exercise 222. Bracket and identify the type of each dependent clause, then translate
using the vocabulary help given.
Context: In 58 B.C. when the Helvetians (inhabitants of ancient Switzerland)
decide to migrate from their own lands to an area near southwest Gaul (France),
their route leads through a province under Roman control (near Geneva). Caesar
learns of this and hurries to stop them. The Helvetians, in turn, try to reassure him
of their peaceful intentions.
Ubi dē eius adventū Helvētiī certiōrēs factī sunt, lēgātōs ad eum
mittunt nōbilissimōs cīvitātis, … quī dīcerent sibi esse in animō
sine ūllō maleficiō iter per prōvinciam facere, quod aliud iter
habērent nūllum: rogāre ut eius voluntāte id sibi facere liceat.
Vocabulary:
Helvētiī, -ōrum m. Helvetians maleficium, -iī n. offence, harm,
nōbilis, -e renowned, well-known   wrong
voluntās, -tātis f. will, consent
134. More on the Dative
The following two uses of the dative should be added to those you have already had.
The first is an extension of the indirect object, and the second often pairs with a dative
of reference or the like.
1) Dative with Compound Verbs
Many compound verbs with the prefixes ad-, ante-, circum-, cum- (con-),
in-, inter-, ob-, post-, prae-, sub- and super- take a dative indirect object
(with or without a direct object). This is also true of compounds of sum,
except absum which takes an ablative.
Caesar Galliae cunctae bellum intulit Caesar imposed war on all Gaul
eī pater subrīdet Her father smiles at her
amīcīs adsum I am with (near) friends
illīs mīlitibus ducem praefēcit He put the leader in charge of
  those soldiers
284 Introduction to Latin

2) Dative of Purpose
The dative can be used to indicate the purpose or end of an action and, in this
use, often occurs with a second dative of the person (or thing) affected, which
is sometimes characterized as a Dative of Reference. When these two appear
together, the construction is frequently called a “double dative.” The dative of
purpose appears in two different contexts.
• as the complement in a linking sentence
ille dux Rōmānīs auxiliō erat that leader was (of) help to the Romans
hic mihi cūrae est this is a care to/for me
fīlius patrī impedimentō fuit the son was a hindrance to his father
• as an adverbial modifier
optāvit locum rēgnō he chose a place for a kingdom
eum ducem bellō crēant they make him leader for the war
exercitus urbī auxiliō vēnit the army came as an aid to the city
Exercise 223. Translate each of the following, using the vocabulary help given.
1. impōnit fīnem sapiēns et rēbus honestīs. (Juvenal)
2. sed tacitī respectābant somnōque sepultī, (Lucretius; on the “savage” period
dum roseā face sōl īnferret lūmina caelō.  mankind)
3. … [gentem] enim Trōiānō ā sanguine dūcī (Vergil; Juno hates the Trojans partly
audīverat Tyriās ōlim quae verteret arcēs; because she knows they will destroy
hinc populum lātē rēgem bellōque superbum   her favorite city, Carthage)
ventūrum [esse] excidiō Libyae:
4. ego vōs hortārī tantum possum ut (Cicero)
amīcitiam omnibus rēbus hūmānīs
antepōnātis; nihil est enim tam nātūrae
aptum.
5. locum insidiīs circumspectāre Poenus coepit. (Livy; Hannibal plans his military
  strategy)
6. pontō nox incubat ātra (Vergil; describing a storm)
Vocabulary:
impōnō, -ere to put on, lātē (adv.) widely
impose superbus, -a, -um proud, arrogant
tacitus, -a, -um silent excidium, -iī n. destruction
respectō, -āre to wait Libya, -ae f. Libya
somnus, -ī m. sleep antepōnō, -ere to put before, prefer
sepultus, -a, -um buried circumspectō, -āre to look around
roseus, -a, -um rose-colored Poenus, -a, -um the Phoenician
fax, facis f. torch, fire = Hannibal
sanguis, -inis m. blood; race āter, -tra, -trum black, dark
Tyrius, -a, -um Tyrian, of incubō, -āre to lie on, sit upon
 Carthage
 Chapter Thirty-One 285

135. Review of Cases

1) Genitive – expresses the relation of one noun to another and identifies the
attributes of a noun
Form: the genitive singular is given as the 2nd form in dictionary listings
for all nouns and for one-ending adjectives; all genitive plurals end -um
Use:
• With Nouns – adjectival modifier
possession (§18)
of the whole / partitive (§18)
explanatory (§30)
objective (§30)
subjective (§30)
with causā & grātiā to show cause/purpose (§53)
• With Adjectives – limits the meaning of the adjective
with adjectives such as plēnus (Ch. 8), perītus (Ch. 29), cupidus
(eager for), ignārus (unaware of), memor (mindful of) and the like
2) Dative – usually identifies the person (sometimes the thing) involved as
recipient, beneficiary, interested party, etc., but it can also express a purpose,
limit or direction
Form: the dative and ablative plural endings are always the same
Use:
• Adverbial modifier
indirect object (§19)
reference (§19)
possession (§40)
with adjectives meaning friendly, unfriendly, similar, dissimilar,
faithful, suitable, fit, equal, near, etc. (§62)
agent (§129)
(indirect) object of compound verbs (§134)
purpose (§134)
• Part of Sentence Core
dative object of special intransitive verbs (§44)
purpose (§134)
286 Introduction to Latin

Dictionary Practice/Form Identification

Identify the words below based on the dictionary entries given. Be sure to indicate the
entry from which each is taken and the part of speech, and to give all possibilities for
ambiguous forms.
For nouns and adjectives: give case, number, and gender
For verbs: give person, number, tense, voice and mood
if infinitive, give tense and voice
if participle, give case, number, gender, tense and voice
A. dicāx, dicācis: witty, sarcastic
B. diciō, diciōnis f.: power
C. dicō, dicāre, dicāvī, dicātus: to dedicate, devote
D. dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus: to say, speak
Entry Part of Speech Form ID
1. dicārentur
2. diciōnum
3. dicācēs
4. dicta sint
5. dicāvissem
6. dicācissimae
7. diciōnī
8. dīxērunt
9. dicāta eram
10. dicantis
11. dīcerēs
12. dicācius
13. dīcī
14. dicās
15. dīcās

Reading 44
Cicero explains why self-control is so important.
temperantia est enim, quae in rēbus aut expetendīs aut fugiendīs
ut ratiōnem sequāmur monet. nec enim satis est iūdicāre quid
faciendum nōn faciendumve sit, sed stāre etiam oportet in eō,
quod sit iūdicātum.
Vocabulary:
temperantia, -ae f. restraint, self-control, expetō, -ere to desire, ask for
  moderation satis (adv.) enough
 Chapter Thirty-One 287

Reading 45
Cicero has been discussing dreams and has gotten off the subject. He returns to
the subject here to tell how Hannibal avoided the anger of Juno by heeding the
warning she gave him in a dream.
Redeāmus ad somnia. Hannibalem Coelius1 scrībit,* cum
columnam auream, quae esset in fānō Iunōnis Lacīniae,
auferre vellet dubitāretque utrum ea solida esset an extrīnsecus
inaurata, perterebrāvisse, cumque solidam invēnisset, statuisse
tollere; eī secundum quiētem vīsam esse Iunōnem praedīcere
nē id faceret, minārīque, sī fēcisset, sē cūrātūram [esse], ut eum
quoque oculum2, quō bene vidēret, āmitteret, idque ab homine
acūtō nōn esse neglēctum; itaque ex eō aurō, quod exterebrātum
esset, būculam cūrāsse faciendam et eam in summā columnā
conlocāvisse.
Notes:
* Notice that scrībit in the first line introduces an indirect statement
  that lasts for the rest of the passage.
¹ Coelius wrote a history of Rome, c. 120 B.C.
² Hannibal had previously lost the sight in one eye to disease.
Vocabulary:
somnium, -ī n. dream statuō, -ere, -uī to decide
Hannibal, -is m. Hannibal secundum quiētem “after sleep (came)”
columna, -ae f. column praedīcō, -ere to warn
fānum, -ī n. = templum   (+ dat.)
Lacīnius, -a, -um Lacinian, of minor, -ārī to threaten
  Lacinium acūtus, -a, -um intelligent, sharp
utrum (adv.) whether exterebrō, -āre, -āvī to bore out
solidus, -a, -um solid   -ātus
extrīnsecus (adv.) on the outside būcula, -ae f. heifer
inaurō, -āre, -āvī, to gild cūrāsse = cūrāvisse
-ātus conlocō, -āre, -āvī to place
perterebrō, -āre to bore through
288 Introduction to Latin

Practice Sentences
1. Itur in antīquam silvam. (Vergil; Aeneas and a comrade
gather wood for a funeral pyre)
2. Gallīs magnō ad pugnam erat (Caesar; describing the effect of
impedīmentō. a Roman javelin pinning several
Gallic shields together)
3. Nihil enim sine ratiōne faciendum est; nōn (Seneca)
est autem beneficium, nisi quod ratiōne
datur, quoniam ratiō omnis honestī comes
est.
4. Pugnātum est ab utrīsque ācriter. (Caesar, slightly edited;
explaining a battle technique)
5. Dē gustibus nōn disputandum est. (traditional)
6. Nōn ignāra malī, miserīs succurrere discō. (Vergil; Dido reassures Aeneas
that she will help him)
7. Nunc est bibendum, nunc pede līberō (Horace; the beginning of a
pulsanda tellūs. famous drinking song, perhaps
in celebration of the defeat of
Cleopatra)
8. Rē nūntiātā, Caesar omnem ex castrīs (Caesar)
equitātum suīs auxiliō mīsit.

Vocabulary:
antīquus, -a, -um ancient gustus, -ūs m. taste
Gallī, -ōrum, m. the Gauls disputō, -āre to argue
pugna, -ae, f. fight succurrō, -ere to help
beneficium, -iī n. kindness, favor pulsō, -āre to strike, tap
comes, -itis m. companion equitātus, -ūs cavalry
ācriter (adv.) fiercely m.
 Chapter Thirty-One 289

Chapter 31 Vocabulary

Nouns
fās n. (indeclinable) right; divine law
fās est it is right
nefās est it is wrong
impedimentum, impedimentī n. hindrance, obstacle
īnsidiae, īnsidiārum f. (pl.) ambush, plot; treachery
lūmen, lūminis n. light, lamp, torch; eye
tellūs, tellūris f. the earth; land, ground
Verbs
licet, licēre, licuit (impersonal + dat.) it is allowed, it is lawful
oportet, oportēre, oportuit it is right, one should; it is necessary
(impersonal + acc.)
Adjectives
dūrus, dūra, dūrum hard, harsh, rough
honestus, honesta, honestum honest, worthy, honorable
ignārus, ignāra, ignārum ignorant (of ), unaware (of )
Adverbs
hīc here
hinc from this place; hence
(12)
Forum with Mt. Vesuvius in the distance. Pompeii, 1st c. A.D.
 CHAPTER 32
The Supine
Ut + Indicative
More on the Ablative
Description (Quality)
Degree of Difference
Review of Cases
Ablative
Locative
Dictionary Practice/Form Identification

This chapter introduces a new verbal noun and expands on the use of ut and on the
ablative case.

136. The Supine

The supine is a verbal noun which adds endings of the fourth declension to the
participial stem (§84) and is found only in the accusative and the ablative singular.
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
Accusative amātum doctum rēctum captum audītum
Ablative amātū doctū rēctū captū audītū

The accusative is used after verbs of motion to indicate purpose, and may take its own
object:
vēnit iuvātum he came to help
lēgātōs mīsit rogātum pācem he sent envoys to ask for peace
The ablative is used as an ablative of specification (§79) after adjectives and a few
nouns (fās, nefās, opus), and never has an object. There are only a handful of common
supines in -ū:
nefās audītū a crime to hear
difficile cognītū hard to understand
mīrābile dictū strange to say
optimum factū best to do
minimus nātū youngest by birth
facile vīsū easy to see

291
 292 Introduction to Latin

Exercise 224. Translate each of the following.

1. Illud facile factū est. 4. Carmina illīus poētae dulcia
2. Urbem captum gladiīs ībant.   audītū sunt.
3. Hoc fās est vīsū. 5. Nihil dignum dictū actum erat.
6. Dictum ad senātum vēnit.
Exercise 225. Translate each of the following, using the vocabulary help given.
1. Vēnātum Aenēās ūnāque miserrima Dīdō (Vergil)
in nemus īre parant.
2. Tītan quī maior nātū erat postulat ut ipse regnāret. (Ennius)
3. In ea castra lēgātī ab Rōmā vēnērunt questum (Livy; an Italian tribe
  iniūriās et ex eō foedere rēs repetītum.  violates their treaty
  with Rome and pays)
Vocabulary:
vēnor, -ārī to hunt Tītan, -ānis m. Titan, brother of Saturn
ūnā (adv.) together queror, -ī, questus to complain, protest at
Dīdō, -ōnis f. Dido, queen foedus, -eris n. treaty, agreement
of Carthage repetō, -ere, -īvī to demand, claim (what
nemus, -oris n. forest, wood -ītus is due)
137. Ut + the Indicative
In Chapter 25 (§116) you learned that ut could be used to introduce dependent
clauses with a subjunctive verb. Ut has a number of other uses (and meanings), among
the most common of which is to introduce dependent clauses with an indicative verb.
The following can be added to the clause-markers you learned in Chapter 12 (§60):
Adverbial Clause
English Meaning Category
Marker
ut when time
ut as comparison

Exercise 226. Translate each of the following and identify the type of ut clause (with
subjunctive or indicative verb).
1. Ut summō cōnspexit ab monte terrās īnfēlix, timōre tremuit.
2. Ille tantum pecūniae habuerat, ut beātus semper vidērētur.
3. Puellae tacent nec, ut ante solēbant, clāmantēs ambulant.
4. Haec omnia fēcērunt ut pācem celeriter habērent.
5. Ut Rōma ardēbat imperātor cecinisse dīcitur.
6. Oportet hominēs ut vīvant pugnāre.
7. Ut diū pugnātum est, fortiōrēs vīcērunt.
8. Ut cōnsul in senātū loquēbātur, alter clāmābat.
 Chapter Thirty-Two 293

138. More on the Ablative

Two additional uses of the ablative are not as common as others you have learned, but
are useful to know for specific contexts.
1) Description (Quality)
A noun in the ablative, always accompanied by an adjectival modifier, is
used to describe physical characteristics and other qualities of another noun.
Because this ablative describes qualities, it is sometimes called the Ablative of
Quality.
vir parvīs pedibus a man with small feet
vir magnā virtūte a man of great courage
coma colōre aurī hair the color of gold
2) Degree of Difference
The ablative is used with comparatives, and words which indicate a comparison
(especially ante and post) to specify the degree of difference. You saw this
construction (with multō) in Practice Sentence 27.5 (first example below):
multō pulcherrimam much more beautiful (more beautiful by much)
arbor altior duōbus pedibus a tree two feet higher (higher by two feet)
paucīs diēbus ante a few days before (before by a few days)
Exercise 227. Translate each of the following, using the vocabulary help given.
1. Patria mihi vītā meā multō est cārior. (Cicero)
2. Catilīna, nōbilī genere nātus, fuit magnā vī et animī (Sallust)
  et corporis sed ingeniō malō.
3. Bonus dēfensor nēmō nisi quī ēloquentissimus fuit; (Quintilian; talking
  tantō est accūsāre quam dēfendere facilius.   about law courts)
4. Neque hominēs inimīcō animō temperātūrōs [esse] (Caesar; not trusting the
  ab iniūriā et malefīciō exīstimābat.  Helvetians)
5. At paulō post audita vōx est monentis, ut prōvidērent, (Cicero; talking about
  nē ā Gallīs Rōma caperētur.  oracles)
Vocabulary:
Catilīna, -ae m. Catiline temperō, -āre to refrain (from)
nōbilis, -e noble malefīcium, -iī n. crime, misdeed
dēfensor, -ōris m. defender exīstimō, -āre to think
ēloquēns, -entis eloquent, articulate prōvideō, -ēre to be cautious,
accūsō, -āre to prosecute, accuse   make preparations
dēfendō, -ere to defend Gallī, -ōrum, m. the Gauls
 294 Introduction to Latin

139. Review of Cases

1) Ablative – originally indicated separation / source (ab-latus, from abferō)
but, over time, absorbed the functions of two other cases, the instrumental
and the locative. Thus the uses of the ablative can, for the most part, be derived
from these three categories, although there is some overlap and scholars disagree
on the derivation of some uses. The ablative can be the object of a few verbs,
but otherwise it functions as an adverbial modifier.
Form: the ablative singular ends in a long vowel, except in the 3rd declension
consonant stem, where it ends in -e; the ablative and dative plural
endings are always the same.
Use:
• separation / source
place from which (§24)
[separation] (§44) *object of careō
cause (§53) without prep.
agent (§72)
comparison (§102) without prep.
• instrumental
means (instrument) (§23) without prep.
manner (§34)
accompaniment (§34)
specification (respect) (§79) without prep.
ablative absolute (§87)
object of ūtor etc. (§105) *part of sentence core
degree of difference (§138)
description (quality) (§138)
• locative
place where (§24)
time when (§59) without prep.
time within which (§59) without prep.
2) Locative – was originally a separate case in Proto-Indo-European indicating
place where (in, at) as an adverbial modifier. Over time it was largely absorbed
into the ablative case in Latin, but it survives in the names of towns, small
islands and a few other words.
Form: the locative singular ending was –i which, in the first and second
declensions, came to look like the genitive singular ending (Romai
> Romae, belli). The other endings have merged with those of the
ablative.
Use:
• place where (§82)
 Chapter Thirty-Two 295

Dictionary Practice/Form Identification

Identify the words below based on the dictionary entries given. Be sure to indicate the
entry from which each is taken and the part of speech, and to give all possibilities for
ambiguous forms.
For nouns and adjectives: give case, number, and gender
For verbs: give person, number, tense, voice and mood
if infinitive, give tense and voice
if participle, give case, number, gender, tense and voice
A. rēgius, rēgia, rēgium: royal
B. regnō, regnāre, regnāvī, regnātus: to be a king; reign
C. rēgnum, rēgnī n.: kingdom
D. regō, regere, rēxī, rēctus: to rule; guide
E. rēx, rēgis, m.: king
Entry Part of Speech Form ID
1. rēgna
2. regnā
3. rēxisse
4. rēgiō
5. regēmur
6. rēgum
7. regar
8. regnātū
9. rēgnō
10. regnātūrōs
11. rēgēs
12. regerēs
13. regnandae
14. rēgiā
15. rēxerint
296 Introduction to Latin

Reading 46
Cicero, in his treatise on Old Age, relates a story credited to Lysander, a Spartan
general who defeated the Athenians. Lysander spoke about a time when the
Spartans showed proper respect for an elderly Athenian man, when the Athenians
themselves did not.
Lysander Lacedaemonius dīcere solitus est Lacedaemonem esse
honestissimum domicilium senectūtis: nusquam enim tantum
tribuitur aetātī, nusquam est senectūs honōrātior. equidem
trāditum est, cum Athēnīs lūdīs quīdam in theātrum grandis
nātū vēnisset, magnō consessū locum nusquam eī datum [esse]
ā suīs cīvibus. cum autem ad Lacedaemoniōs accessisset, quī,
lēgātī cum essent, certō in locō consēderant, consurrexisse
omnēs illī dīcuntur et senem sessum recēpisse. quibus cum ā
cunctō consessū plausus multus datus esset, ex eīs quīdam dīxit
Atheniensēs scīre, quae rēcta essent, sed facere nōlle.
Vocabulary:
Lysander, -drī, m. Lysander grandis, -e old
Lacedaemonius, -a, -um Spartan consessus, -ūs, m. crowd
Lacedaemōn, -onis f. Sparta magnō consessū “although the
domicilium, -iī, n. home, dwelling place   (abl. absolute)   crowd was big”
senectūs, -tūtis, f. old age accēdō, -ere, -essi to approach,
nusquam (adv.) nowhere   come near
tribuō, -ere to give, show consīdō, -ere, -sēdī to be seated, settle
honōrātus, -a, -um honored, respected consurgō, -ere, to stand up together,
Athēnae, -ārum, f. Athens   -surrexī   rise (up) together
lūdus, -ī, m. game (Panathenaic sessum supine from sedeō
  festival in honor plausus, -ūs, m. applause, clapping
of Athena) Athēnienses, -ium, m. the Athenians
theātrum, -ī, n. theater
 Chapter Thirty-Two 297

Reading 47
Sallust describes how and why Rome began to decline.
Ubi labōre atque iūstitiā rēs pūblica crēvit, rēgēs magnī bellō
domitī [sunt], natiōnēs ferae et populī ingentēs vī subāctī [sunt],
..., cuncta maria terraeque patēbant, saevīre fortūna ac miscēre
omnia coepit. Quī labōrēs, perīcula, dubiās atque asperās rēs
facile tolerāverant, eīs ōtium dīvitiaeque, [ea] optanda aliās,
onerī miseriaeque fuēre. Igitur prīmō pecūniae, deinde imperī
cupīdō crēvit: eae causae omnium malōrum fuēre. Namque
avāritia fidem probitātem cēterāsque artēs bonās vertit; prō
hīs, superbiam, crūdēlitātem, deōs neglegere, ēdocuit.
Vocabulary:
iūstitia, -ae f. justice dīvitiae, -ārum f. riches, wealth
crēscō, -ere, crēvī to grow aliās (adv.) in other circumstances
domō, -āre, to tame, conquer onus, -eris n. burden
-uī, -itus miseria, -ae f. misery
natiō, -iōnis f. nation avāritia, -ae f. greed
subigō, -ere, -ēgī, to subdue probitās, -tātis f. honesty
-āctus superbia, -ae f. insolence
saeviō, -īre to be cruel; rage crūdēlitās, -tātis f. cruelty, inhumanity
dubius, -a, -um uncertain, dangerous ēdoceō, -ēre, -uī to teach
tolerō, -āre, -āvī to tolerate
ōtium, -iī n. leisure
298 Introduction to Latin

Reading 48
Vergil incorporates Roman legend and history in a speech by Jupiter in the first
book of the Aeneid. Here Jupiter promises Venus that her son, Aeneas, will reach
Italy and that the race he founds will go on to great success.
[Aenēās] bellum ingēns geret Ītaliā populōsque ferōcīs 1
contundet mōrēsque virīs et moenia pōnet, 2
…
Rōmulus excipiet gentem et Māvortia condet 3
moenia Rōmānōsque suō dē nōmine dīcet. 4
Hīs ego nec mētās rērum nec tempora pōnō: 5
imperium sine fīne dedī. Quīn aspera Iūnō, 6
quae mare nunc terrāsque metū caelumque fatīgat, 7
cōnsilia in melius referet, mēcumque fovēbit 8
Rōmānōs, rērum dominōs gentemque togātam. 9
Sīc placitum. . . . 10
Nāscētur pulchrā Troiānus orīgine Caesar, 11
imperium Ōceanō, fāmam quī terminet astrīs. 12
Vocabulary
contundō, -ere to crush in melius “for the better”
excipiō, -ere to inherit, take up foveō, -ēre to cherish
Māvortius, -a, -um
of Mars (patron god togātus, -a, -um toga-clad
of Rome) orīgō, -inis f. origin, source
dīcet = vocābit (factitive pattern) Ōceanus, -ī m. Oceanus, the ocean
[gentem]  was thought of as a
mēta, -ae f. limit, boundary   great river which
quīn but indeed   encircled the earth
Iūnō, -ōnis f. Juno, queen of the gods terminō, -āre to limit
fatīgō, -āre to tire (out), harass astrum, -i n. star
 Chapter Thirty-Two 299

Practice Sentences
1. Horrendum et dictū videō mīrābile mōnstrum. (Vergil; Aeneas tells of his
travels)
2. Bellō Helvetiōrum cōnfectō ... Galliae lēgātī ad (Caesar)
Caesarem grātulātum convēnērunt.
3. Id dictū quam rē, ut plēraque, facilius erat. (Livy; commenting on
those who second-guessed a
military strategy)
4. Cētera, quamquam ferenda nōn sunt, ferāmus. (Cicero; in a letter to his
wife from exile)
5. Pompēius ut equitātum suum pulsum vīdit, (Caesar; Caesar defeats
aciē excessit. Pompey in 48 B.C.)
6. Haec rēs magnō ūsuī nostrīs fuit. (Caesar – slightly edited;
Caesar repositions war ships
to startle the enemy fighting
at the edge of the water)
7. Forsitan hoc quod dictūrus sum mīrābile (Cicero; addressing the
audītū esse videātur, sed certē id dīcam quod senate after his return from
sentiō. exile)
8. Quod erat dēmōnstrandum. (Euclid; this is the meaning
of the standard abbreviation,
Q.E.D., at the end of a
proof)

Vocabulary:
horrendus, -a, -um horrible, terrible equitātus, -ūs cavalry
monstrum, -ī n. portent, omen m. (pl.)
Helvetiī, -ōrum m. the Helvetians pellō, -ere, pepulī, to beat
grātulō, -āre, -āvī, to congratulate pulsus
-ātus excēdō, -ere, -cessī to leave, withdraw
plēraque (adv.) “in most cases” ūsus, -ūs m. use, value
Pompēius, -ī m. Pompey dēmōnstrō, -āre to explain; prove
300 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 32 Vocabulary

Verb
recipiō, recipere, recēpī to receive, accept; take back
receptus regain
Adjectives
asper, aspera, asperum rough, harsh; cruel
ferōx, ferōcis fierce, bold; wild, savage
ferus, fera, ferum wild, fierce; cruel; uncivilized
mīrābilis, mīrābile wonderful, extraordinary
paulus, paula, paulum little, small
Adverb
prīmō at first
Coordinating Conjunction
ut as, when
(8)
 List of Latin Sources
Readings
Reading # Author Source Chapter #
1 Ennius Varia 107-108 4
2 Ennius Varia 9-10 5
3 Florus Epitome 1.1 5
4 Florus Epitome 1.1 6
5 Ovid Metamorphoses 1.366ff. 7
6 Ennius Varia 113-115 7
7 Pliny Epistulae 9.32 8
8 Ovid Metamorphoses 1.1-7 8
9 Pliny Epistulae 1.11 9
10 Plautus Pseudolus 2.2 9
11 Tacitus Germania 7 10
12 Cicero Pro Cluentio 146.5ff. 10
13 Cicero De Natura Deorum 1.34 11
14 Cicero Epistulae ad Familiares 14.5 11
15 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.16 12
16 Varro Res Rustica 3.1.4-5 12
17 Eutropius Breviarum Historiae Romanae 1.8-9 13
18 Pliny Epistulae 6.20.3-10 14
19 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.1 15
20 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.23 16
21 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.24-25 16
22 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.25ff. 17
23 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 4.28-29 18
24 Ovid Amores 1.14 18
25 Cornelius Nepos Themistocles 9 19
26 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 26.46-47 19
27 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 5.45-46 20
28 Terence Heauton Timoroumenos, Prologus 10-21 20
29 Cicero Epistulae ad Familiares 14.3 21
30 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.53 22
31 Tacitus Annales 13.15-16 23
32 Ovid Fasti 4.426-450 23
33 Cicero Pro Sestio 142-143 24
34 Florus Epitome 1.2.8.1 25
35 Martial Epigrammata 5.73; 7.3; 12.40 25
36 Hyginus Fabulae 5.30, 32 26
37 Cicero Cato Maiore De Senectute 21-22 26
38 Cicero In Catilinam 1.17 27
39 Ovid Metamorphoses 1.361-366 27
40 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.2 28
41 Cicero De Finibus 1.42.11-43.9 29
42 Cicero Tusculanae Disputationes 1.43 30
43 Ovid Metamorphoses 8.185-235 30
301
302 Introduction to Latin

44 Cicero De Finibus 1.14.47 31

45 Cicero De Divinatione 1.48.2-11 31
46 Cicero Cato Maiore De Senectute 63-64 32
47 Sallust Bellum Catilinae 10 32
48 Vergil Aeneid 1.263-287 32

Narrative Readings
Reading Chapter # Author Source
2 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.1
3 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.21.5-6
4 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.27-28

Practice Sentences
Ch. Sentence # Author Source
3.1 Vergil Aeneid 1.8
3.2 Ovid Metamorphoses 7.456
3.3 Sallust Bellum Catilinae 12.3
4.1 Pliny Naturalis Historia 11.145.7
4.2 Ennius Varia 60
4.3 Vergil Aeneid 7.23
5.1 Publilius Syrus Sententiae N 51
5.2 Publilius Syrus Sententiae M 30
5.3 Publilius Syrus Sententiae N 36
5.4 Cicero Laelius de Amicitia 54.6
5.5 Plautus Mostellaria 702
5.6 Ovid Metamorphoses 3.163
6.1 St. Jerome Epistulae 57.12.3
6.2 Vergil Aeneid 1.378-79
6.3 Seneca Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium 115, 16.1
6.4 Vergil Aeneid 1.11
6.5 Sallust Bellum Catilinae 49.3
6.6 Cicero De Finibus 5.84
7.1 Traditional Hymn
7.2 Publilius Syrus Sententiae B 28
7.3 Vergil Aeneid 1.507
7.4 Cicero Epistulae ad Atticum 6.4
7.5 Vulgate John 8.12
7.6 Vulgate Romans 8.8
7.7 Cicero De Re Publica 6.26
7.8 Vergil Aeneid 1.364
8.1 Cicero De Natura Deorum 2.167.7
8.2 Cicero Tusculanae Disputationes 5.25.9
8.3 Publilius Syrus Sententiae V 14
8.4 Publilius Syrus Sententiae L 13
8.5 Cicero Epistulae ad Atticum 2.1
8.6 Cicero Pro Caecina 35.8
8.7 Cicero Pro Rege Deiotaro 26.13
8.8 Cicero De Finibus 3.4.12
9.1 Ovid Metamorphoses 11.297-298
9.2 Cicero Pro Milone 4.11
9.3 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 7.32.12
9.4 Ovid Metamorphoses 10.147-149
9.5 Vergil Aeneid 1.203
 List of Latin Sources 303

9.6 Cicero Philippicae 14.32.1-2

9.7 Terence Andria 4.1.51
9.8 Cicero In Verrem 2.3.102
10.1 Ennius Varia 51
10.2 Vergil Aeneid 4.314
10.3 Seneca De Ira 1.9
10.4 Cicero De Re Publica 2.67.13
10.5 Modern MGM motto
10.6 Anonymous
10.7 Pliny Epistulae 9.24
10.8 Pliny Epistulae 8.10.2
11.1 Ovid Metamorphoses 7.452
11.2 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.31.8
11.3 Vergil Aeneid 1.133-134
11.4 Vergil Aeneid 5.790-791
11.5 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 7.77.14.4
11.6 Cicero Ad Familiares 16.14
11.7 Vergil Aeneid 1.251
11.8 Cicero Ad Atticum 6.3.9
12.1 Cicero Pro Rabirio Perduellionis 11
12.2 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 3.69.2
12.3 Terence Heauton Timorumenos 272
12.4 Cicero Pro Caelio 6
12.5 Seneca Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium 66.12.4
12.6 Seneca De Beneficiis 7.7.3.4
12.7 Vergil Aeneid 1.47-48
12.8 Cicero Philippicae 11.13.34
13.1 Varro Res Rusticae 2.1.3.3-4
13.2 Seneca Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium 1.7.8
13.3 Cicero Cato Maiore De Senectute 14.47
13.4 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 2.12.8
13.5 Plautus Stichus 243
13.6 Cicero De Re Publica 2.4
13.7 Publilius Syrus Sententiae B 21
13.8 Ovid Metamorphoses 1.515-518
14.1 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 3.23.3
14.2 Vergil Eclogues 4.35-36
14.3 Horace Sermones 1.2.11
14.4 Cicero Cato Maiore De Senectute 22.8
14.5 Vergil Aeneid 1.437
14.6 Cicero De Finibus 2.86.9
14.7 Martial Epigrammata 5.81
14.8 Vergil Aeneid 1.100-101
15.1 Seneca Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium 66.26.7
15.2 Eutropius Breviarium Ab Urbe Condita 1.2
15.3 Cicero Philippicae 9.5.10
15.4 Catullus Carmina 51.1
15.5 Ovid Metamorphoses 5.343, 345
15.6 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 2.15.2
15.7 Cicero Pro Murena 23.5
15.8 Ennius Annales 7.233
16.1 Ovid Amores 1.12.1
16.2 Vergil Aeneid 1.86
16.3 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.4
16.4 Vergil Aeneid 12.831
304 Introduction to Latin

16.5 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 7.39.12

16.6 Martial Epigrammata 4.80.6
16.7 Vergil Aeneid 1.276-279
16.8 Caesar Bellum Civile 3.19.5.1
17.1 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 5.46
17.2 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.6.4
17.3 Vergil Aeneid 2.265-267
17.4 Vergil Aeneid 1.31-32
17.5 Ovid Metamorphoses 8.208
17.6 Vergil Aeneid 4.54-55
17.7 Cicero Philippicae 5.9.24
17.8 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 4.15
18.1 Cicero In Verrem 2.1.9.8
18.2 Propertius Elegiae 3.13.60
18.3 Plautus Mercator 808
18.4 Cicero Pro Roscio Amerino 30.4
18.5 Publilius Syrus Sententiae S 7
18.6 Seneca Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium 57.8.1
18.7 Ovid Metamorphoses 1.5-8
18.8 Martial Liber de Spectaculis 29.4-5
19.1 Cicero In Verrem 2.2.21.11
19.2 Seneca Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium 59.12.7
19.3 Vergil Aeneid 2.41-44
19.4 Ennius Annales 6.167
19.5 Martial Epigrammata 1.32
19.6 Vergil Aeneid 4.12
19.7 Caesar Bellum Civile 3.51
19.8 Plautus Stichus 539-541
20.1 Sallust Bellum Catilinae 54.6.3
20.2 Cicero In Q. Caecilium 39.2
20.3 Petronius Satiricon 16.4.3
20.4 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 3.18.7
20.5 Theodosian Law Code C.Th. 2.8.18
20.6 Plautus Trinummus 361
20.7 Ovid Metamorphoses 14.729
20.8 Cicero De Inventione 2.14.7-8
21.1 Cicero In Catilinam 1.27; Epistulae ad Fam. 2.15; Epistulae ad Att. 3.26
21.2 Seneca Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium 79.11.2
21.3 Seneca Controversiae 6.7.1.16
21.4 Caesar Epistulae ad Atticum 7.15.2
21.5 Cicero Pro Milone 5
21.6 Vergil Aeneid 1.544-545
21.7 Ovid Metamorphoses 11.421-22
21.8 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 2.31.3
22.1 Vergil Aeneid 1.405-406
22.2 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 5.9.6
22.3 Ovid Amores 1.11.15
22.4 Horace Epodi 2.2.58
22.5 Seneca De Ira 2.29
22.6 Ovid Metamorphoses 7.155-56
22.7 Cicero Pro Roscio Comodeo 17.10
22.8 Cornelius Nepos Liber De Excellentibus Ducibus (Hannibal) 23.5
23.1 Terence Phormio 137-138
23.2 Horace Carmina 1.14.1-2
23.3 Vergil Aeneid 2.49
 List of Latin Sources 305

23.4 Ennius Annales 1.54

23.5 Cicero In Verrem 2.4.112
23.6 Martial Epigrammata 10.104.19
23.7 Cicero De Legibus 1.13.9
23.8 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 6.26.5
24.1 Catullus Carmina 5.1-3
24.2 Plautus Curculio 589
24.3 Cicero Pro Milone 93
24.4 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 7.4.4
24.5 Vergil Aeneid 1.565
24.6 Seneca De Beneficiis 2.11.2
24.7 Vergil Aeneid 4.102-103
24.8 Vulgate Genesis 1.9-10
25.1 Cicero In Verrem 2.4.118
25.2 Cicero Pro Roscio Comodeo 12
25.3 Suetonius De Vitis Caesarum (Caligula) 30.1.4
25.4 Vergil Aeneid 2.6, 8
25.5 Cicero In Verrem 2.2.47
25.6 Suetonius Life of Caligula 30.2.7
25.7 Cicero Tusculanae Disputationes 3.71
25.8 Cicero Pro Cluentio 147
26.1 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 7.12
26.2 Martial Epigrammata 9.70.1
26.3 Vergil Aeneid 1.5-6
26.4 Cicero De Finibus 1.66
26.5 Quintilian Institutio Oratoria 9.3.85
26.6 Martial Epigrammata 3.27.1
26.7 Augustus Res Gestae 1
26.8 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.25
27.1 Cicero Pro Roscio Comodeo 42
27.2 Cicero Laelius de Amicitia 10-12
27.3 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.7
27.4 Cicero Cato Maiore De Senectute 11
27.5 Sallust Bellum Catilinae 52.19
27.6 Boethius (attributed) perhaps inspired by Consolatio Philosophiae 2.P7
27.7 Traditional epitaph
28.1 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 4.29
28.2 Plautus Truculentus 774
28.3 Cicero Pro Roscio Amerino 5.11
28.4 Cicero Ad Familiares 13.73
28.5 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 1.25.9
28.6 Vergil Aeneid 2.506
28.7 Plautus Miles Gloriosus 1348
28.8 Cicero (attributed) De Petitione Consulatus
29.1 Cicero In Q. Caecilium 39.2-7
29.2 Seneca Quaestiones Naturales 6.3.4
29.3 Ennius Annales 12.363-365
29.4 Pliny Epistulae 2.3
29.5 Cato De Agri Cultura fr. 7.2
29.6 Cicero Tusculanae Disputationes 1.19
29.7 Cicero De Oratore 2.357
29.8 Ovid Ars Amatoria 1.1-4
29.9 Publilius Syrus Sententiae S 24
29.10 Cicero De Officiis 1.105
30.1 Cicero Cato Maiore De Senectute 85
306 Introduction to Latin

30.2 Plautus Bacchides 4.7

30.3 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 5.30.2
30.4 Cicero Brutus 84
30.5 Terence Eunuchus, Prologus 40-41
30.6 Sallust Bellum Catilinae 6.1
30.7 Cicero De Officiis 1.17.56
31.1 Vergil Aeneid 6.179
31.2 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.25.3
31.3 Seneca De Beneficiis 4.10.2
31.4 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 4.26.1
31.5 Traditional proverb
31.6 Vergil Aeneid 1.630
31.7 Horace Carmina 1.37.1-2
31.8 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 4.37.2
32.1 Vergil Aeneid 3.26
32.2 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.30
32.3 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 31.38.4
32.4 Cicero Epistulae ad Familiares 14.4
32.5 Caesar Bellum Civile 3.94
32.6 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 4.25.1
32.7 Cicero In Pisonem 32.10
32.8 Euclid Medieval translation from the original Greek

Exercises
219.1 Cicero Pro Milone 53
219.2 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 5.43
219.3 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 3.14
222 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.7
223.1 Juvenal Saturae 6.444
223.2 Lucretius De Rerum Natura 5.609-610
223.3 Vergil Aeneid 1.19-22
223.4 Cicero Laelius de Amicitia 17
223.5 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 21.53
223.6 Vergil Aeneid 1.89
225.1 Vergil Aeneid 4.117-119
225.2 Ennius Euhemerus, fr. 3.64
225.3 Livy Ab Urbe Condita 3.25
227.1 Cicero In Catilinam 1.11
227.2 Sallust Bellum Catilinae 5.1
227.3 Quintilian Institutio Oratoria 5.13.3
227.4 Caesar Bellum Gallicum 1.7
227.5 Cicero De Divinatione 2.69.4
 Morphology Reference Section
Nouns Verbs
first declension indicative active
second declension present, imperfect, future
third declension perfect, pluperfect, future perfect
fourth declension subjunctive active
fifth declension imperative active
vīs (irregular) infinitive active
participle active
Adjectives indicative passive
first & second declension present, imperfect, future
third declension perfect, pluperfect, future perfect
three endings subjunctive passive
two endings imperative passive
one ending infinitive passive
comparative participle passive
plūs deponent verbs
irregular comparison imperative
infinitive
Adverbs participle
irregular verbs
Numerals
Pronouns sum
personal possum
demonstrative volō, nōlō, mālō
reflexive eō
intensive ferō
relative fīō
interrogative

Nouns
First Declension Second Declension
Singular Feminine Masculine Masculine Neuter
Nominative fēmina animus puer rēgnum
Genitive fēminae animī puerī rēgnī
Dative fēminae animō puerō rēgnō
Accusative fēminam animum puerum rēgnum
Ablative fēminā animō puerō rēgnō
Vocative fēmina anime puer rēgnum
Plural
Nominative fēminae animī puerī rēgna
Genitive fēminārum animōrum puerōrum rēgnōrum
Dative fēminīs animīs puerīs rēgnīs
Accusative fēminās animōs puerōs rēgna
Ablative fēminīs animīs puerīs rēgnīs
Vocative fēminae animī puerī rēgna
307
308 Introduction to Latin

Third Declension: Masculine and Feminine

Singular [—-] [-s] [i-stem]
Nominative cōnsul rēx ars
Genitive cōnsulis rēgis artis
Dative cōnsulī rēgī artī
Accusative cōnsulem rēgem artem
Ablative cōnsule rēge arte
Vocative cōnsul rēx ars
Plural
Nominative cōnsulēs rēgēs artēs
Genitive cōnsulum rēgum artium
Dative cōnsulibus rēgibus artibus
Accusative cōnsulēs rēgēs artēs
Ablative cōnsulibus rēgibus artibus
Vocative cōnsulēs rēgēs artēs
Third Declension: Neuter
Singular [Consonant stem] [i-stem]
Nominative caput mare
Genitive capitis maris
Dative capitī marī
Accusative caput mare
Ablative capite marī
Vocative caput mare
Plural [Consonant stem] [i-stem]
Nominative capita maria
Genitive capitum marium
Dative capitibus maribus
Accusative capita maria
Ablative capitibus maribus
Vocative capita maria
Fourth Declension
Singular M (& F) Neuter
Nominative vultus genū
Genitive vultūs genūs
Dative vultuī genū
Accusative vultum genū
Ablative vultū genū
Vocative vultus genū
Plural
Nominative vultūs genua
Genitive vultuum genuum
Dative vultibus genibus
Accusative vultūs genua
Ablative vultibus genibus
Vocative vultūs genua
Fifth Declension
Singular Masculine Feminine
Nominative diēs rēs
Genitive diēī reī
Dative diēī reī
Accusative diem rem
Ablative diē rē
Vocative diēs rēs
 Morphology Reference Section 309

Plural
Nominative diēs rēs
Genitive diērum rērum
Dative diēbus rēbus
Accusative diēs rēs
Ablative diēbus rēbus
Vocative diēs rēs
vīs, vīs, f.
Singular Plural
Nominative vīs vīrēs
Genitive [vīs – rarely seen] vīrium
Dative [vī – rarely seen] vīribus
Accusative vim vīrēs
Ablative vī vīribus
Adjectives
First and Second Declension
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative bonus bona bonum
Genitive bonī bonae bonī
Dative bonō bonae bonō
Accusative bonum bonam bonum
Ablative bonō bonā bonō
Plural
Nominative bonī bonae bona
Genitive bonōrum bonārum bonōrum
Dative bonīs bonīs bonīs
Accusative bonōs bonās bona
Ablative bonīs bonīs bonīs
Third Declension
Three-Ending Adjectives
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ācer ācris ācre
Genitive ācris ācris ācris
Dative ācrī ācrī ācrī
Accusative ācrem ācrem ācre
Ablative ācrī ācrī ācrī
Plural
Nominative ācrēs ācrēs ācria
Genitive ācrium ācrium ācrium
Dative ācribus ācribus ācribus
Accusative ācrēs ācrēs ācria
Ablative ācribus ācribus ācribus
Two-Ending Adjectives
Singular M&F Neuter
Nominative omnis omne
Genitive omnis omnis
Dative omnī omnī
Accusative omnem omne
Ablative omnī omnī
Plural
Nominative omnēs omnia
Genitive omnium omnium
Dative omnibus omnibus
Accusative omnēs omnia
Ablative omnibus omnibus
310 Introduction to Latin

One-Ending Adjectives
Singular M&F Neuter
Nominative ingēns ingēns
Genitive ingentis ingentis
Dative ingentī ingentī
Accusative ingentem ingēns
Ablative ingentī ingentī
Plural
Nominative ingentēs ingentia
Genitive ingentium ingentium
Dative ingentibus ingentibus
Accusative ingentēs ingentia
Ablative ingentibus ingentibus
Comparative Adjectives
Singular M&F Neuter
Nominative longior longius
Genitive longiōris longiōris
Dative longiōrī longiōrī
Accusative longiōrem longius
Ablative longiōre longiōre
Plural
Nominative longiōrēs longiōra
Genitive longiōrum longiōrum
Dative longiōribus longiōribus
Accusative longiōrēs longiōra
Ablative longiōribus longiōribus
plūs, plūris
Singular M&F Neuter
Nominative plūs
Genitive plūris
Dative
Accusative plūs
Ablative plūre
Plural
Nominative plūrēs plūra
Genitive plūrium plūrium
Dative plūribus plūribus
Accusative plūrēs plūra
Ablative plūribus plūribus

Irregular Comparison
Positive Comparative Superlative
bonus, -a, -um melior, melius optimus, -a, -um
(good)  (better)  (best)
magnus, -a, -um maior, maius maximus, -a, -um
(big)  (bigger)  (biggest)
malus, -a, -um pēior, pēius pessimus, -a, -um
(bad)  (worse)  (worst)
multus, -a, -um plūs, plūris plūrimus, -a, -um
(much; many)  (more)  (most)
parvus, -a, -um minor, minus minimus, -a, -um
(small)  (smaller, less)  (smallest, least)
superus, -a, -um superior, superius summus, -a, -um
(upper)   (higher)   (highest, furthest; top of )
suprēmus, -a, -um
  (highest, last)
 Morphology Reference Section 311

Adverbs
Positive Comparative Superlative
celeriter celerius celerrimē
(quickly)  (more quickly)  (most quickly)
fortiter fortius fortissimē
(bravely)  (more bravely)  (most bravely)
longē longius longissimē
(far)  (farther)  (farthest)
bene melius optimē
(well)  (better)  (best)
male pēius pessimē
(badly)  (worse)  (worst)
multum plūs plūrimum
(much)  (more – quantity)   (most, very much)
magnopere magis maximē
(greatly)  (more – quality)   (most, especially)
parum minus minimē
(little)  (less)  (least)

Numerals
Cardinal Ordinal
1 ūnus, -a, -um I prīmus, -a, -um first
2 duo, duae, duo II secundus, -a, -um second
3 trēs, tria III tertius, -a, -um third
4 quattuor IV quārtus, -a, -um fourth
5 quīnque V quīntus, -a, -um fifth
6 sex VI sextus, -a, -um sixth
7 septem VII septimus, -a, -um seventh
8 octō VIII octāvus, -a, -um eighth
9 novem IX nōnus, -a, -um ninth
10 decem X decimus, -a, -um tenth
11 ūndecim XI ūndecimus, -a, -um eleventh
12 duodecim XII duodecimus, -a, -um twelfth
20 vīgintī XX
30 trīgintā XXX
40 quādrāgintā XL
50 quīnquāgintā L
60 sexāgintā LX
70 septuāgintā LXX
80 octōgintā LXXX
90 nōnāgintā XC
100 centum C
500 quīngentī, -ae,-a D
1,000 mīlle M
2,000 duo mīlia MM
ūnus, -a, -um
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ūnus ūna ūnum
Genitive ūnīus ūnīus ūnīus
Dative ūnī ūnī ūnī
Accusative ūnum ūnam ūnum
Ablative ūnō ūnā ūnō
312 Introduction to Latin

duo, duae, duo trēs, tria

Plural Masculine Feminine Neuter M&F Neuter
Nominative duo duae duo trēs tria
Genitive duōrum duārum duōrum trium trium
Dative duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus
Accusative duōs duās duo trēs tria
Ablative duōbus duābus duōbus tribus tribus
Pronouns
Personal Pronouns
ego, tū I, you
Singular 1st Person 2nd Person
Nominative ego tū
Genitive meī tuī
Dative mihi tibi
Accusative mē tē
Ablative mē tē
Plural
Nominative nōs vōs
Genitive nostrum, nostrī vestrum, vestrī
Dative nōbīs vōbīs
Accusative nōs vōs
Ablative nōbīs vōbīs

Third Person Pronoun uses the Demonstrative is, ea, id (see below)
Demonstrative Pronouns
is, ea, id he, she, it; this; that
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative is ea id
Genitive eius eius eius
Dative eī eī eī
Accusative eum eam id
Ablative eō eā eō
Plural
Nominative eī eae ea
Genitive eōrum eārum eōrum
Dative eīs eīs eīs
Accusative eōs eās ea
Ablative eīs eīs eīs
hic, haec, hoc this, these; the latter
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative hic haec hoc
Genitive huius huius huius
Dative huic huic huic
Accusative hunc hanc hoc
Ablative hōc hāc hōc
Plural
Nominative hī hae haec
Genitive hōrum hārum hōrum
Dative hīs hīs hīs
Accusative hōs hās haec
Ablative hīs hīs hīs
 Morphology Reference Section 313

ille, illa, illud that, those; the famous; the former

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ille illa illud
Genitive illīus illīus illīus
Dative illī illī illī
Accusative illum illam illud
Ablative illō illā illō
Plural
Nominative illī illae illa
Genitive illōrum illārum illōrum
Dative illīs illīs illīs
Accusative illōs illās illa
Ablative illīs illīs illīs

Reflexive Pronouns myself, yourself, him/herself

Singular 1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Genitive meī tuī suī
Dative mihi tibi sibi
Accusative mē tē sē, sēsē
Ablative mē tē sē, sēsē
Plural
Genitive nostrum, vestrum, suī
 nostrī  vestrī
Dative nōbīs vōbīs sibi
Accusative nōs vōs sē, sēsē
Ablative nōbīs vōbīs sē, sēsē

Intensive Pronouns
ipse, ipsa, ipsum self, himself, herself, itself, themselves
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative ipse ipsa ipsum
Genitive ipsīus ipsīus ipsīus
Dative ipsī ipsī ipsī
Accusative ipsum ipsam ipsum
Ablative ipsō ipsā ipsō
Plural
Nominative ipsī ipsae ipsa
Genitive ipsōrum ipsārum ipsōrum
Dative ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs
Accusative ipsōs ipsās ipsa
Ablative ipsīs ipsīs ipsīs

īdem, eadem, idem the same

Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative īdem eadem idem
Genitive eiusdem eiusdem eiusdem
Dative eīdem eīdem eīdem
Accusative eundem eandem idem
Ablative eōdem eādem eōdem
Plural
Nominative eīdem eaedem eadem
Genitive eōrundem eārundem eōrundem
Dative eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem
Accusative eōsdem eāsdem eadem
Ablative eīsdem eīsdem eīsdem
314 Introduction to Latin

Relative Pronoun
quī, quae, quod who, which, that
Singular Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative quī quae quod
Genitive cuius cuius cuius
Dative cui cui cui
Accusative quem quam quod
Ablative quō quā quō
Plural
Nominative quī quae quae
Genitive quōrum quārum quōrum
Dative quibus quibus quibus
Accusative quōs quās quae
Ablative quibus quibus quibus

Interrogative Pronoun*
quis, quid who?, what?
Singular Masculine & Feminine Neuter
Nominative quis quid
Genitive cuius cuius
Dative cui cui
Accusative quem quid
Ablative quō quō
*plural forms look like the Relative Pronoun above

Verbs
Indicative Active
Present
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amō moneō regō capiō audiō
2nd sg. amās monēs regis capis audīs
3rd sg. amat monet regit capit audit
1st pl. amāmus monēmus regimus capimus audīmus
2nd pl. amātis monētis regitis capitis audītis
3rd pl. amant monent regunt capiunt audiunt
Imperfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amābam monēbam regēbam capiēbam audiēbam
2nd sg. amābās monēbās regēbās capiēbās audiēbās
3rd sg. amābat monēbat regēbat capiēbat audiēbat
1st pl. amābāmus monēbāmus regēbāmus capiēbāmus audiēbāmus
2nd pl. amābātis monēbātis regēbātis capiēbātis audiēbātis
3rd pl. amābant monēbant regēbant capiēbant audiēbant
Future
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amābō monēbō regam capiam audiam
2nd sg. amābis monēbis regēs capiēs audiēs
3rd sg. amabit monēbit reget capiet audiet
1st pl. amābimus monēbimus regēmus capiēmus audiēmus
2nd pl. amābitis monēbitis regētis capiētis audiētis
3rd pl. amābunt monēbunt regent capient audient
 Morphology Reference Section 315

Perfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amāvī monuī rēxī audīvī
2nd sg. amāvistī monuistī rēxistī audīvistī
3rd sg. amāvit monuit rēxit audīvit
1st pl. amāvimus monuimus rēximus audīvimus
2nd pl. amāvistis monuistis rēxistis audīvistis
3rd pl. amāvērunt/ monuērunt/ rēxērunt/ audīvērunt/
 amāvēre  monuēre  rēxēre  audīvēre
Pluperfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amāveram monueram rēxeram audīveram
2nd sg. amāverās monuerās rēxerās audīverās
3rd sg. amāverat monuerat rēxerat audīverat
1st pl. amāverāmus monuerāmus rēxerāmus audīverāmus
2nd pl. amāverātis monuerātis rēxerātis audīverātis
3rd pl. amāverant monuerant rēxerant audīverant
Future Perfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amāverō monuerō rēxerō audīverō
2nd sg. amāveris monueris rēxeris audīveris
3rd sg. amāverit monuerit rēxerit audīverit
1st pl. amāverimus monuerimus rēxerimus audīverimus
2nd pl. amāveritis monueritis rēxeritis audīveritis
3rd pl. amāverint monuerint rēxerint audīverint

Subjunctive Active
Present
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amem moneam regam capiam audiam
2nd sg. amēs moneās regās capiās audiās
3rd sg. amet moneat regat capiat audiat
1st pl. amēmus moneāmus regāmus capiāmus audiāmus
2nd pl. amētis moneātis regātis capiātis audiātis
3rd pl. ament moneant regant capiant audiant
Imperfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amārem monērem regerem caperem audīrem
2nd sg. amārēs monērēs regerēs caperēs audīrēs
3rd sg. amāret monēret regeret caperet audīret
1st pl. amārēmus monērēmus regerēmus caperēmus audīrēmus
2nd pl. amārētis monērētis regerētis caperētis audīrētis
3rd pl. amārent monērent regerent caperent audīrent
Perfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amāverim monuerim rēxerim audīverim
2nd sg. amāverīs monuerīs rēxerīs audīverīs
3rd sg. amāverit monuerit rēxerit audīverit
1st pl. amāverīmus monuerīmus rēxerīmus audīverīmus
2nd pl. amāverītis monuerītis rēxerītis audīverītis
3rd pl. amāverint monuerint rēxerint audīverint
316 Introduction to Latin

Pluperfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amāvissem monuissem rēxissem audīvissem
2nd sg. amāvissēs monuissēs rēxissēs audīvissēs
3rd sg. amāvisset monuisset rēxisset audīvisset
1st pl. amāvissēmus monuissēmus rēxissēmus audīvissēmus
2nd pl. amāvissētis monuissētis rēxissētis audīvissētis
3rd pl. amāvissent monuissent rēxissent audīvissent

Imperative Active
Present
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
2nd sg. amā monē rege cape audī
2nd pl. amāte monēte regite capite audīte
Infinitive Active
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
Present amāre monēre regere audīre
Perfect amāvisse monuisse rēxisse audīvisse
Future amātūrus, monitūrus, rēctūrus, audītūrus,
  -a, -um esse   -a, -um esse   -a, -um esse   -a, -um esse
Participle Active
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
Present amāns, -ntis monēns, -ntis regēns, -ntis audiēns, -ntis
Future amātūrus, monitūrus, rēctūrus, audītūrus,
  -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um
Indicative Passive
Present
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amor moneor regor capior audīor
2nd sg.* amāris monēris regeris caperis audīris
3rd sg. amātur monētur regitur capitur audītur
1st pl. amāmur monēmur regimur capimur audīmur
2nd pl. amāminī monēminī regiminī capiminī audīminī
3rd pl. amantur monentur reguntur capiuntur audiuntur
Imperfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amābar monēbar regēbar capiēbar audiēbar
2nd sg.* amābāris monēbāris regēbāris capiēbāris audiēbāris
3rd sg. amābātur monēbātur regēbātur capiēbātur audiēbātur
1st pl. amābāmur monēbāmur regēbāmur capiēbāmur audiēbāmur
2nd pl. amābāminī monēbāminī regēbāminī capiēbāminī audiēbāminī
3rd pl. amābantur monēbantur regēbantur capiēbantur audiēbantur
Future
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amābor monēbor regar capiar audīar
2nd sg.* amāberis monēberis regēris capiēris audiēris
3rd sg. amābitur monēbitur regētur capiētur audiētur
1st pl. amābimur monēbimur regēmur capiēmur audiēmur
2nd pl. amābiminī monēbiminī regēminī capiēminī audiēminī
3rd pl. amābuntur monēbuntur regentur capientur audientur
*2nd sg. alternate ending for -ris is -re (mostly in poetry)
 Morphology Reference Section 317

Perfect**
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amātus sum monitus sum rēctus sum audītus sum
2nd sg. amātus es monitus es rēctus es audītus es
3rd sg. amātus est monitus est rēctus est audītus est
1st pl. amātī sumus monitī sumus rēctī sumus audītī sumus
2nd pl. amātī estis monitī estis rēctī estis audītī estis
3rd pl. amātī sunt monitī sunt rēctī sunt audītī sunt
**Note: Only the masculine form is listed here for the perfect system. See §73.
Pluperfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amātus eram monitus eram rēctus eram audītus eram
2nd sg. amātus erās monitus erās rēctus erās audītus erās
3rd sg. amātus erat monitus erat rēctus erat audītus erat
1st pl. amātī erāmus monitī erāmus rēctī erāmus audītī erāmus
2nd pl. amātī erātis monitī erātis rēctī erātis audītī erātis
3rd pl. amātī erant monitī erant rēctī erant audītī erant
Future Perfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amātus erō monitus erō rēctus erō audītus erō
2nd sg. amātus eris monitus eris rēctus eris audītus eris
3rd sg. amātus erit monitus erit rēctus erit audītus erit
1st pl. amātī erimus monitī erimus rēctī erimus audītī erimus
2nd pl. amātī eritis monitī eritis rēctī eritis audītī eritis
3rd pl. amātī erunt monitī erunt rēctī erunt audītī erunt

Subjunctive Passive
Present
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amer monear regar capiar audiar
2nd sg.* amēris moneāris regāris capiāris audiāris
3rd sg. amētur moneātur regātur capiātur audiātur
1st pl. amēmur moneāmur regāmur capiāmur audiāmur
2nd pl. amēminī moneāminī regāminī capiāminī audiāminī
3rd pl. amentur moneantur regantur capiāntur audiantur
Imperfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 3rd Conj. -iō 4th Conj.
1st sg. amārer monērer regerer caperer audīrer
2nd sg.* amārēris monērēris regerēris caperēris audīrēris
3rd sg. amārētur monērētur regerētur caperētur audīrētur
1st pl. amārēmur monērēmur regerēmur caperēmur audīrēmur
2nd pl. amārēminī monērēminī regerēminī caperēminī audīrēminī
3rd pl. amārentur monērentur regerentur caperentur audīrentur
*2nd sg. alternate ending for -ris is -re (mostly in poetry)
Perfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amātus sim monitus sim rēctus sim audītus sim
2nd sg. amātus sīs monitus sīs rēctus sīs audītus sīs
3rd sg. amātus sit monitus sit rēctus sit audītus sit
1st pl. amātī sīmus monitī sīmus rēctī sīmus audītī sīmus
2nd pl. amātī sītis monitī sītis rēctī sītis audītī sītis
3rd pl. amātī sint monitī sint rēctī sint audītī sint
318 Introduction to Latin

Pluperfect
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
1st sg. amātus essem monitus essem rēctus essem audītus essem
2nd sg. amātus essēs monitus essēs rēctus essēs audītus essēs
3rd sg. amātus esset monitus esset rēctus esset audītus esset
1st pl. amātī essēmus monitī essēmus rēctī essēmus audītī essēmus
2nd pl. amātī essētis monitī essētis rēctī essētis audītī essētis
3rd pl. amātī essent monitī essent rēctī essent audītī essent
Imperative Passive
Present
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
2nd sg. amāre monēre regere audīre
2nd pl. amāminī monēminī regiminī audīminī
Infinitive Passive
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
Present amārī monērī regī audīrī
Perfect amātus esse monitus esse rēctus esse audītus esse
Future amātum īrī monitum īrī rēctum īrī audītum īrī
Participle Passive
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
Perfect amātus, -a, -um doctus, -a, -um rēctus, -a, -um audītus, -a, -um
Future / amandus, docendus, regendus, audīendus,
Gerundive   -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um

Deponent Verbs
Indicative – see Passive forms of regular verbs above
Subjunctive – see Passive forms of regular verbs above
Imperative (Present)
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
2nd sg. morāre verēre loquere potīre
2nd pl. morāminī verēminī loquiminī potīminī
Infinitive
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
Present morārī verērī loquī potīrī
Perfect morātus esse veritus esse locūtus esse potītus esse
Future morātūrus esse veritūrus esse locūtūrus esse potītūrus esse
Participles
1st Conj. 2nd Conj. 3rd Conj. 4th Conj.
Present morāns verēns loquēns potīēns
Future morātūrus veritūrus locūtūrus potītūrus
  -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um
Perfect morātus veritus locūtus potītus
  -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um
Gerundive morandus verendus loquendus potīendus
  -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um   -a, -um
Irregular Verbs
sum, esse, fuī to be
possum, posse, potuī to be able
volō, velle, voluī to want
nōlō, nōlle, nōluī not to want
mālō, mālle, māluī to prefer
 Morphology Reference Section 319

Indicative
Present
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. sum possum volō nōlō mālō
2nd sg. es potes vīs nōn vīs māvīs
3rd sg. est potest vult nōn vult māvult
1st pl. sumus possumus volumus nōlumus mālumus
2nd pl. estis potestis vultis nōn vultis māvultis
3rd pl. sunt possunt volunt nōlunt mālunt
Imperfect [only sum and possum have irregular forms here]
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. eram poteram volēbam nōlēbam mālēbam
2nd sg. erās poterās volēbās nōlēbās mālēbās
3rd sg. erat poterat volēbat nōlēbat mālēbat
1st pl. erāmus poterāmus volēbāmus nōlēbāmus mālēbāmus
2nd pl. erātis poterātis volēbātis nōlēbātis mālēbātis
3rd pl. erant poterant volēbant nōlēbant mālēbant
Future [only sum and possum have irregular forms here]
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. erō poterō volam nōlam mālam
2nd sg. eris poteris volēs nōlēs mālēs
3rd sg. erit poterit volet nōlet mālet
1st pl. erimus poterimus volēmus nōlēmus mālēmus
2nd pl. eritis poteritis volētis nōlētis mālētis
3rd pl. erunt poterunt volent nōlent mālent
Perfect [these are all regular forms]
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. fuī potuī voluī nōluī māluī
2nd sg. fuistī potuistī voluistī nōluistī māluistī
3rd sg. fuit potuit voluit nōluit māluit
1st pl. fuimus potuimus voluimus nōluimus māluimus
2nd pl. fuistis potuistis voluistis nōluistis māluistis
3rd pl. fuērunt potuērunt voluērunt nōluērunt māluērunt
Pluperfect [these are all regular forms]
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. fueram potueram volueram nōlueram mālueram
2nd sg. fuerās potuerās voluerās nōluerās māluerās
3rd sg. fuerat potuerat voluerat nōluerat māluerat
1st pl. fuerāmus potuerāmus voluerāmus nōluerāmus māluerāmus
2nd pl. fuerātis potuerātis voluerātis nōluerātis māluerātis
3rd pl. fuerant potuerant voluerant nōluerant māluerant
Future Perfect [these are all regular forms]
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. fuerō potuerō voluerō nōluerō māluerō
2nd sg. fueris potueris volueris nōlueris mālueris
3rd sg. fuerit potuerit voluerit nōluerit māluerit
1st pl. fuerimus potuerimus voluerimus nōluerimus māluerimus
2nd pl. fueritis potueritis volueritis nōlueritis mālueritis
3rd pl. fuerint potuerint voluerint nōluerint māluerint
320 Introduction to Latin

Subjunctive
Present
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. sim possim velim nōlim mālim
2nd sg. sīs possīs velīs nōlīs mālīs
3rd sg. sit possit velit nōlit mālit
1st pl. sīmus possīmus velīmus nōlīmus mālīmus
2nd pl. sītis possītis velītis nōlītis mālītis
3rd pl. sint possint velint nōlint mālint
Imperfect [these are all regular forms]
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. essem possem vellem nōllem māllem
2nd sg. essēs possēs vellēs nōllēs māllēs
3rd sg. esset posset vellet nōllet māllet
1st pl. essēmus possēmus vellēmus nōllēmus māllēmus
2nd pl. essētis possētis vellētis nōllētis māllētis
3rd pl. essent possent vellent nōllent māllent
Perfect [these are all regular forms]
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. fuerim potuerim voluerim nōluerim māluerim
2nd sg. fuerīs potuerīs voluerīs nōluerīs māluerīs
3rd sg. fuerit potuerit voluerit nōluerit māluerit
1st pl. fuerīmus potuerīmus voluerīmus nōluerīmus māluerīmus
2nd pl. fuerītis potuerītis voluerītis nōluerītis māluerītis
3rd pl. fuerint potuerint voluerint nōluerint māluerint
Pluperfect [these are all regular forms]
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
1st sg. fuissem potuissem voluissem nōluissem māluissem
2nd sg. fuissēs potuissēs voluissēs nōluissēs māluissēs
3rd sg. fuisset potuisset voluisset nōluisset māluisset
1st pl. fuissēmus potuissēmus voluissēmus nōluissēmus māluissēmus
2nd pl. fuissētis potuissētis voluissētis nōluissētis māluissētis
3rd pl. fuissent potuissent voluissent nōluissent māluissent
Imperative
Present
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
2nd sg. es ------- ------- nōlī -------
2nd pl. este ------- ------- nōlīte -------
Infinitive
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
Present esse posse velle nōlle mālle
Perfect fuisse potuisse voluisse nōluisse māluisse
Future futūrus esse ------- ------- ------- -------
 or fore
Participle
to be to be able to want not to want to prefer
Present ------- potēns, -ntis volēns, -ntis nōlēns, -ntis -------
Perfect ------- ------- ------- ------- -------
Future futūrus, ------- ------- ------- -------
  -a, -um
 Morphology Reference Section 321

eō, īre, iī (īvī), itūrus   to go

Indicative
Present Imperfect Future Perfect Pluperfect Future
Perfect
1st sg. eō ībam ībō iī, (īvī) ieram ierō
2nd sg. īs ībās ībis iistī > īstī ierās ieris
3rd sg. it ībat ībit iit ierat ierit
1st pl. īmus ībāmus ībimus iimus ierāmus ierimus
2nd pl. ītis ībātis ībitis iistis > īstis ierātis ieritis
3rd pl. eunt ībant ībunt iērunt ierant ierint
Subjunctive
Present Imperfect Perfect Pluperfect
1st sg. eam īrem ierim īssem
2nd sg. eās īrēs ierīs īssēs
3rd sg. eat īret ierit īsset
1st pl. eāmus īrēmus ierīmus īssēmus
2nd pl. eātis īrētis ierītis īssētis
3rd pl. eant īrent ierint īssent
Infinitive Imperative
Present īre 2nd sg. ī
Perfect īsse 2nd pl. īte
Future itūrus esse
Participle
Present iēns, euntis
Future itūrus, -a, -um
Gerundive eundum
ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus   to bear
Indicative
Active Passive
Present Imperfect Future Present Imperfect Future
1st sg. ferō ferēbam feram feror ferēbar ferar
2nd sg. fers ferēbās ferēs ferris ferēbāris ferēris
3rd sg. fert ferēbat feret fertur ferēbātur ferētur
1st pl. ferimus ferēbāmus ferēmus ferimur ferēbāmur ferēmur
2nd pl. fertis ferēbātis ferētis feriminī ferēbāminī ferēminī
3rd pl. ferunt ferēbant ferent feruntur ferēbantur ferentur
Active Passive
Perfect Perfect
1st sg. tulī lātus sum
2nd sg. tulistī lātus es
3rd sg. tulit lātus est
1st pl. tulimus lātī sumus
2nd pl. tulistis lātī estis
3rd pl. tulērunt lātī sunt
*the pluperfect and future perfect active and passive forms are all regular
322 Introduction to Latin

Subjunctive
Active Passive
Present Imperfect Present Imperfect
1st sg. feram ferrem ferar ferrer
2nd sg. ferās ferrēs ferāris ferrēris
3rd sg. ferat ferret ferātur ferretur
1st pl. ferāmus ferrēmus ferāmur ferrēmur
2nd pl. ferātis ferrētis ferāminī ferrēminī
3rd pl. ferant ferrent ferantur ferrentur
Perfect Pluperfect
1st sg. tulerim tulissem lātus sim lātus essem
2nd sg. tulerīs tulissēs lātus sīs lātus essēs
3rd sg. tulerit tulisset lātus sit lātus esset
1st pl. tulerīmus tulissēmus lātī sīmus lātī essēmus
2nd pl. tulerītis tulissētis lātī sītis lātī essētis
3rd pl. tulerint tulissent lātī sint lātī essent
Imperative
2nd sg. fer
2nd pl. ferte
Infinitive
Present ferre ferrī
Perfect tulīsse lātus esse
Future lātūrus esse -------
Participle
Present ferēns, ferentis -------
Perfect ------- lātus, -a, -um
Future lātūrus, -a, -um ferendus, -a, -um
fiō, fierī, factus sum
Indicative Subjunctive
Present Imperfect Future Present Imperfect
1st sg. fīō fīēbam fīam fīam fierem
2nd sg. fīs fīēbās fīēs fīās fierēs
3rd sg. fit fīēbat fīet fīat fieret
1st pl. fīmus fīēbāmus fīēmus fīāmus fierēmus
2nd pl. fītis fīēbātis fīētis fīātis fierētis
3rd pl. fīunt fīēbant fīent fīant fierent
 Vocabulary by Chapter
Chapter 1
Nouns
agricola, agricolae m. farmer
aqua, aquae f. water
fēmina, fēminae f. woman
fortūna, fortūnae f. chance, luck, fortune
nauta, nautae m. sailor
pecūnia, pecūniae f. money, property
rosa, rosae f. rose
Verbs
amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus to love
dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus “ought to, should”; to owe; to be
  obligated to
habeō, habēre, habuī, habitus to have, consider
iaceō, iacēre, iacuī, iacitūrus to lie (e.g. on the ground), lie dead
iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtus to help; please
labōrō, labōrāre, labōrāvī, labōrātus to work, strive
laudō, laudāre, laudāvī, laudātus to praise
moneō, monēre, monuī, monitus to advise, warn, remind
optō, optāre, optāvī, optātus to choose, desire, wish for
superō, superāre, superāvī, superātus to overcome, conquer, surpass
taceō, tacēre, tacuī, tacitūrus to be silent (“I am silent”)
terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus to terrify, scare
timeō, timēre, timuī to fear, be afraid (of )
videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus to see
vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus to call, summon
Other
-ne (attached to the end of the first signals a yes-no question
word in the sentence, usually the   (no English translation)
most important word in the question)
Chapter 2
Nouns
ager, agrī m. (cultivated) field; countryside
amīcus, amīcī m. friend
animus, animī m. mind, spirit, courage; soul
bellum, bellī n. war
casa, casae f. house, hut
cōnsilium, cōnsiliī n. plan, advice
dominus, dominī m. master, lord
dōnum, dōnī n. gift, present
locus, locī m. place, position
(in pl. sometimes also neuter)
lūna, lūnae f. moon
nātūra, nātūrae f. nature
puer, puerī m. boy
puella, puellae f. girl
323
324 Introduction to Latin

rēgnum, rēgnī n. kingdom, royal power

vir, virī m. man; occasionally “husband”
Verbs
audeō, audēre, ausus sum to dare
clāmō, clāmāre, clāmāvī, clāmātus to shout
dubitō, dubitāre, dubitāvī, dubitātus to hesitate, doubt
rīdeō, rīdēre, rīsī, rīsus to laugh, laugh at
soleō, solēre, solitus sum to be accustomed
Coordinating Conjunctions
et and
et ... et both ... and
-que and
sed but
Chapter 3
Nouns
arma, armōrum n. (pl.) arms, weapons
caelum, caelī n. sky, heavens
cēna, cēnae f. dinner
dea, deae f. goddess
dat. pl. and abl. pl. = deābus
deus, deī m. god
nom. pl. = dī; dat. pl. and abl. pl. = dīs
fābula, fābulae f. story
fīlius, fīliī m. (voc. sg. = fīlī) son
imperium, imperiī n. command, (military) power
liber, librī m. book
nēmō m.; acc. sg. = nēminem no one
pontus, pontī m. sea, ocean
Rōmulus, Rōmulī m. Romulus (legendary founder of Rome)
silva, silvae f. forest, wood
templum, templī n. temple, shrine
turba, turbae f. crowd
ventus, ventī m. wind, breeze
Verbs
aedificō, aedificāre, aedificāvī, aedificātus to build
dō, dare, dedī, datus to give
impleō, implēre, implēvī, implētus to fill up; complete
mōnstrō, mōnstrāre, mōnstrāvī, mōnstrātus to show, demonstrate
nārrō, nārrāre, nārrāvī, nārrātus to tell (a story)
parō, parāre, parāvī, parātus to prepare
portō, portāre, portāvī, portātus to carry, bring
pugnō, pugnāre, pugnāvī, pugnātus to fight
Chapter 4
Nouns
factum, factī n. deed, act, exploit, achievement
oculus, oculī m. eye
saxum, saxī n. rock, stone; cliff
verbum, verbī n. word
via, viae f. road; way
Verbs
ambulō, ambulāre, ambulāvī, to walk
ambulātūrus
errō, errāre, errāvī, errātus to wander; err
festīnō, festīnāre, festīnāvī, festīnātus to hurry, hasten
 Vocabulary by Chapter 325

nāvigō, nāvigāre, nāvigāvī, nāvigātus to sail, sail over (across), navigate

sedeō, sedēre, sēdī, sessūrus to sit
Adverbs
facile easily
nōn not
saepe often
semper always
tandem finally
tum then, at that time; next
Prepositions
ā, ab (+ abl.) away from
ad (+ acc.) to, toward
ē, ex (+ abl.) out of, from
in (+ abl.) in, on
in (+ acc.) into, onto, against
post (+ acc.) after, behind
prō (+ abl.) in front of; on behalf of; instead of
trāns (+ acc.) across, beyond
Chapter 5
Nouns
cūra, cūrae f. care, anxiety
exemplum, exemplī n. example, model
sapientia, sapientiae f. wisdom
terra, terrae f. land, earth, soil; country
Verbs
iactō, iactāre, iactāvī, iactātus to throw
sum, esse, fuī, futūrus to be, exist
Adjectives
aeger, aegra, aegrum sick, weak
altus, alta, altum high, deep
bonus, bona, bonum good
dīvīnus, dīvīna, dīvīnum divine, of the gods; prophetic
līber, lībera, līberum free
longus, longa, longum long
magnus, magna, magnum large, great; important
malus, mala, malum bad
meus, mea, meum my, mine
multus, multa, multum much; many (pl.)
noster, nostra, nostrum our, ours
parvus, parva, parvum small
prīmus, prīma, prīmum first
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum beautiful, handsome; fine
tuus, tua, tuum your, yours, your own (sg.)
vester, vestra, vestrum your, yours (pl.)
Prepositions
cum (+ abl.) with
sub (+ abl.) under, beneath
sub (+ acc.) to the foot/base of, along under
  (implying motion)
Chapter 6
Nouns
fāma, fāmae f. fame, report, reputation; rumor
fīlia, fīliae f. daughter
dat. pl. and abl. pl. = fīliābus
326 Introduction to Latin

īra, īrae f. anger

Ītalia, Ītaliae f. Italy
populus, populī m. the people, a people, nation
rēgīna, rēgīnae f. queen
vīta, vītae f. life
Verbs
doleō, dolēre, doluī, dolitūrus to grieve, mourn, suffer pain
maneō, manēre, mānsī, mansūrus to remain, stay
moveō, movēre, mōvī, mōtus to move; excite; affect
nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus to announce, report
ōrō, ōrāre, ōrāvī, ōrātus to pray, beg, beg for (often with 2
  accusatives, one of the person, the
  other of the thing)
teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentus to hold, possess, keep; restrain
Adjectives
laetus, laeta, laetum happy; fertile
miser, misera, miserum miserable, unhappy
novus, nova, novum new; strange
Rōmānus, Rōmāna, Rōmānum; Roman
Rōmānī, Rōmānōrum m. (pl.) (as a noun) the Romans
Adverbs
diū for a long time
nunc now, at present
tunc then
Prepositions
dē (+ abl.) down from; about, concerning
propter (+ acc.) because of, on account of
sine (+ abl.) without
Coordinating Conjunction
enim (never appears as the first word for; in fact; yes, truly
in a sentence - “postpositive”)
Chapter 7
Nouns
caput, capitis n. head; summit
cīvitās, cīvitātis f. state; citizenship
cōnsul, cōnsulis m. consul (one of two supreme magistrates
  elected annually in the Roman
 Republic)
corpus, corporis n. body, corpse
dux, ducis m. (military) leader, commander
frāter, frātris m. brother
homō, hominis m. human being, man
iūs, iūris n. right, law; justice
lex, lēgis f. law
lībertās, lībertātis f. freedom, liberty
lūx, lūcis f. light
māter, mātris f. mother
nōmen, nōminis n. name
pater, patris m. father; senator
pāx, pācis f. peace
rēx, rēgis m. king
virtūs, virtūtis f. courage, excellence, virtue
Pronouns
ego, nōs I, we
tū, vōs you, you (pl.)
 Vocabulary by Chapter 327

Verbs
careō, carēre, caruī, caritūrus (+ abl.) to be without, free from; need, miss
 (the ablative case originally indicated
 separation)
noceō, nocēre, nocuī, nocitūrus (+ dat.) to harm, be harmful to
pāreō, pārēre, pāruī, paritūrus (+ dat.) to obey, be obedient to
placeō, placēre, placuī, placitūrus (+ dat.) to please, be pleasing to
possum, posse, potuī to be able, “I can”
Chapter 8
Nouns
moenia, moenium n. (pl.) walls; fortifications
littera, litterae f. letter (of the alphabet); (pl.) letter,
 literature
nihil n. (indeclinable) nothing
nīl (contracted form)
vēritās, vēritātis f. truth
Verbs
agō, agere, ēgī, actus to do, perform; drive
quid agis?   how are you (doing)?
audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus to hear, listen (to)
capiō, capere, cēpī, captus to take, seize, capture
creō, creāre, creāvī, creātus to create; elect, choose
dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus to say, speak, tell
doceō, docēre, docuī, doctus to teach (often with 2 accusatives,
  one of the person, the other of the
  thing taught)
dormiō, dormīre, dormīvī, dormitūrus to sleep
dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductus to lead
faciō, facere, fēcī, factus to do; make
iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvī, iūdicātus to judge; to decide
legō, legere, lēgī, lēctus to read; choose, select
mittō, mittere, mīsī, missus to send
regō, regere, rēxī, rēctus to rule
scrībō, scrībere, scrīpsī, scrīptus to write
sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsus to feel, perceive
valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus to be well, healthy; to be strong
valē, valēte (imperative)   goodbye, farewell
veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventūrus to come
Adjectives
īrātus, īrāta, īrātum angry
plēnus, plēna, plēnum (+ gen. or abl.) full (of ), filled (with)
Pronoun
is, ea, id he, she, it, they; this, that
Chapter 9
Nouns
carmen, carminis n. song, poem
coniūnx, coniugis m. or f. wife; husband; spouse
lacrima, lacrimae f. tear
mīles, mīlitis m. soldier
patria, patriae f. country, fatherland
poēta, poētae m. poet
timor, timōris m. fear, terror
328 Introduction to Latin

Verbs
crēdō, crēdere, crēdidī, crēditus to believe, trust (+ dat. of person believed;
  + acc. of thing believed)
fīniō, fīnīre, fīnīvī, fīnītus to end, finish; limit; die
fugiō, fugere, fūgī, fugitūrus to flee (from), escape, avoid
incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus to begin
petō, petere, petīvī or petiī, petītus to seek, go after; ask; attack
praebeō, praebēre, praebuī, praebitus to show; offer, provide
relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus to leave, abandon
serviō, servīre, servīvī or serviī, to serve
servītūrus (+ dat.)
Adjectives
clārus, clāra, clārum clear, bright; famous; loud
dexter, dextra, dextrum right (side); right hand; pledge (of
 friendship)
Pronouns
hic, haec, hoc this
ille, illa, illud that
Adverbs
ōlim once (upon a time), one day (in the future)
tamen however, nevertheless, yet
et even; also
Prepositions
ante (+ acc.) before, in front of
inter (+ acc.) between, among
Coordinating Conjunction
aut or
aut ... aut   either ... or
Chapter 10
Nouns
*ars, artis f. skill, art
causa, causae f. cause, reason
causā (+ gen.)   for the sake of, because of
grātia, grātiae f. grace; favor, kindness; gratitude
grātiā (+ gen.) for the sake of, because of
grātiās agere (+ dat.)   to thank
*ignis, ignis m. fire
*mare, maris n. sea
abl. sg. = mare and marī
*mēns, mentis f. mind, judgment, reason
*mors, mortis f. death
*pars, partis f. part, share, direction
*urbs, urbis f. city
Adjectives
ācer, ācris, ācre sharp, fierce; eager
brevis, breve brief, short
celer, celeris, celere swift, quick, rapid
difficilis, difficile difficult
dulcis, dulce sweet; pleasant
facilis, facile easy
fēlīx, fēlīcis fortunate, lucky
fortis, forte brave; strong
ingēns, ingentis huge; mighty
omnis, omne all, every
potēns, potentis powerful; able
 Vocabulary by Chapter 329

Prepositions
ob (+ acc.) because of
per (+ acc.) through, along; because of; by (in
  oaths and prayers)
Coordinating Conjunctions
atque, ac and
nec or neque and not, and … not
nec ... nec; neque ... neque   neither ... nor
Chapter 11
Nouns
aetās, aetātis f. age, life
annus, annī m. year
hōra, hōrae f. hour, season
*nox, noctis f. night
nūmen, nūminis n. divine will, divine power
ratiō, ratiōnis f. reason, judgment; method
tempus, temporis n. time, period of time (e.g. a season);
 opportunity
Verbs
discēdō, discēdere, discessī, discessūrus to depart, go away; separate
misceō, miscēre, miscuī, mixtus to mix, mingle; stir up, disturb
Adjectives
alius, alia, aliud other, another
(alterīus is commonly used for gen. sg.)
aliud ... aliud   one thing ... another (thing)
aliī ... aliī   some ... others
alter, altera, alterum the one, the other (of two); next, second
neuter, neutra, neutrum neither (of two)
nūllus, nūlla, nūllum not any, no
secundus, secunda, secundum second; favorable
sōlus, sōla, sōlum alone, only
nōn sōlum ... sed etiam   not only ... but also
tōtus, tōta, tōtum whole, entire
ūllus, ūlla, ūllum any
ūnus, ūna, ūnum one
uter, utra, utrum which? (of two)
numerals in §58 as assigned by your instructor
Adverbs
etiam also; even
iam now; already
sīc thus, so
subitō suddenly
Chapter 12
Nouns
arbor, arboris f. tree
flūmen, flūminis n. river
*gēns, gentis f. clan, tribe, family; nation; people
iter, itineris n. journey, path, route; a day’s march
pēs, pedis m. foot
Verbs
absum, abesse, āfuī, āfutūrus to be absent, away, distant
gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus to bear, carry on; wear
bellum gerō   to wage war
330 Introduction to Latin

Adjectives
amīcus, amīca, amīcum friendly (to)
aptus, apta, aptum fit, suitable (for)
cārus, cāra, cārum dear (to)
fidēlis, fidēle faithful, loyal (to)
inimīcus, inimīca, inimīcum unfriendly, hostile (to)
pār, paris equal (to)
similis, simile similar (to), like
Adverb
forte by chance
Coordinating Conjunction
itaque and so, therefore
Subordinating Conjunctions
antequam before
cum when
dum while, as long as
postquam after; when
quia because
quod because; since
sī if
ubi when; where
Chapter 13
Nouns
epistula, epistulae f. letter
*fīnis, fīnis m. end; border; (pl.) boundary, territory
*mōns, montis m. mountain
*nāvis, nāvis f. ship
Rōma, Rōmae f. Rome
uxor, uxōris f. wife
Verbs
accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus to receive
currō, currere, cucurrī, cursūrus to run
concurrō, concurrere, concucurrī,   to charge, rush together, clash
concursūrus
discō, discere, didicī to learn
incolō, incolere, incoluī to inhabit, to live in
inveniō, invenīre, invēnī, inventus to find; discover, invent
pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus to put, place
spectō, spectāre, spectāvī, spectātus to watch, look at
vertō, vertere, vertī, versus to turn, turn around; destroy; change
vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus to conquer; win
Adjectives
fessus, fessa, fessum tired
medius, media, medium middle; middle of (medium mare =
  “the middle of the sea”)
paucī, paucae, pauca (pl.) few
reliquus, reliqua, reliquum remaining, rest (of )
Adverbs
hodiē today
ita thus, so, in this way
Pronouns
quī, quae, quod who, which, that *also a subordinating
 conjunction
suī, sibi, sē himself, herself, itself, themselves
 Vocabulary by Chapter 331

Coordinating Conjunction
nam (sometimes used as a particle) for (= because); indeed, truly
Chapter 14
Nouns
genus, generis n. birth, origin; kind; race
honor, honōris m. honor, respect; public office
*hostis, hostis m. (usually in pl.) enemy
 n.b. hostis is an enemy of the state;
  inimīcus (Ch. 12) is a personal enemy
iūdicium, iūdiciī n. court; trial; judgment
lēgātus, lēgātī m. delegate, envoy, ambassador;
  legion commander
lītus, lītoris n. shore, beach, coast
nūbēs, nūbis f. cloud
ops, opis f. power, help; (pl.) wealth, resources
Trōia, Trōiae, f. Troy
unda, undae f. wave, waters; sea
Verbs
āmittō, āmittere, āmīsī, āmissus to lose
cōnstituō, cōnstituere, cōnstituī, to decide, appoint, establish
cōnstitūtus
rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptus to seize, snatch, carry off
stō, stāre, stetī, statūrus to stand
surgō, surgere, surrēxī, surrēctus to get up, (a)rise
trahō, trahere, trāxī, tractus to drag, pull; derive
videor, vidērī, vīsus sum to seem (see Ch. 15); be seen
(often with dative of the person) “it seems best to ”?
vīvō, vīvere, vīxī to live, be alive
volvō, volvere, volvī, volūtus to roll, turn/twist around
Adjectives
tantus, tanta, tantum so much, so great
tantum  only
uterque, utraque, utrumque both, each (of two)
Adverb
vērō (postpositive) in fact, truly, indeed
Prepositions
ā, ab (+ animate noun, in a passive by
sentence)
contrā (+ acc.) opposite; against
contrā (adv.)   in reply; face to face
Chapter 15
Nouns
*cīvis, cīvis m. or f. citizen
dolor, dolōris m. pain, sorrow
equus, equī m. horse
humus, humī f. ground, earth
Gallia, Galliae f. Gaul
labor, labōris m. work, labor, effort; hardship
laus, laudis f. praise
pectus, pectoris n. breast, chest; heart
perīculum, perīculī n. danger
proelium, proeliī n. battle
prōvincia, prōvinciae f. province
rūs, rūris n. the country(side)
332 Introduction to Latin

Verbs
condō, condere, condidī, conditus to found, build, establish
frangō, frangere, frēgī, frāctus break, shatter, wreck
incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus to set fire to, burn; inflame
prohibeō, prohibēre, prohibuī, to prohibit, keep from; to keep
prohibitus   someone (acc.) from something (abl.
 – separation)
vītō, vītāre, vītāvī, vītātus to avoid
Adjectives
aequus, aequa, aequum even, calm, equal
cēterī, cēterae, cētera the rest, the others
dignus, digna, dignum worthy; worth, fitting
indignus, indigna, indignum unworthy; undeserved; shameful
suus, sua, suum his, her, its, their own
Prepositions
circum / circā (+ acc.) around
super (+ acc.) over, above, on (top of )
Chapter 16
Nouns
aciēs, aciēī f. battle line
cāsus, cāsūs m. fall; misfortune, destruction; chance,
 accident
cornū, cornūs n. horn; wing (of an army)
diēs, diēī m. or f. day; fem. used when it is an appointed or
  set day
domus, domūs f. house(hold), home
exercitus, exercitūs m. army
faciēs, faciēī f. face; appearance
fidēs, fideī f. faith, trust; loyalty, trustworthiness
flūctus, flūctūs m. wave; commotion
genū, genūs n. knee
impetus, impetūs m. attack; charge; impulse
manus, manūs f. hand; band (of men)
metus, metūs m. fear, dread; anxiety
passus, passūs m. pace, footstep
mille passūs; mīlia passuum (pl.) mile (lit. “1000 paces”); miles
rēs, reī f. thing, matter, business; court case
rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae f.   state, republic
senātus, senātūs m. senate
spēs, speī f. hope
vultus, vultūs m. expression; face
Verbs
ardeō, ardēre, arsī, arsūrus to burn, be on fire, glow
cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus to fall
Adverbs
igitur (postpositive) therefore
inde from there; then, from that time forth
tam so, to such a degree
Chapter 17
Nouns
amor, amōris m. love
Caesar, Caesaris m. Julius Caesar (a Roman general)
castra, castrōrum n. (pl.) camp
castra ponere   to pitch camp
 Vocabulary by Chapter 333

clāmor, clāmōris m. shout; cheer

crīmen, crīminis n. crime; accusation, charge
fātum, fātī n. fate, destiny
ferrum, ferrī n. iron; sword
gaudium, gaudiī n. joy, delight
nūntius, nūntiī m. messenger; message
prīnceps, prīncipis m. leader, chief; first citizen, emperor
servus, servī m. slave, servant
signum, signī n. sign, token, signal; (military) standard
vīnum, vīnī n. wine
vulnus, vulneris n. wound
Verbs
interficiō, interficere, interfēcī, to kill, destroy
interfectus
canō, canere, cecinī, cantus to sing
pateō, patēre, patuī to be open, stand open
persuādeō, persuādēre, persuāsī, to persuade
persuāsus (+ dat.)
vulnerō, vulnerāre, vulnerāvī, vulnerātus to wound
temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus to try, attempt; test, prove
Subordinating Conjunction
quamquam although
Chapter 18
Nouns
adventus, adventūs m. arrival
aestus, aestūs m. heat; tide
*arx, arcis f. citadel, summit
aurum, aurī n. gold
auxilium, auxiliī n. aid, help; in pl. often auxiliary troops
mōs, mōris m. custom, tradition
*orbis, orbis m. circle; universe
orbis terrārum the world
scelus, sceleris n. crime, wicked deed, wickedness
senex, senis m. old man
vōx, vōcis f. voice
Verbs
cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī to learn, recognize, understand
cognitus
efficiō, efficere, effēcī, effectus to bring about, produce
Adjectives
aureus, aurea, aureum golden, of gold
Graecus, Graeca, Graecum Greek
levis, leve light, easy; swift
quī, quae, quod which ?, what ?
tot so many, as many
Pronouns
īdem, eadem, idem the same
ipse, ipsa, ipsum self; himself, herself, itself,
  themselves; very
quis, quid who?, what?
Chapter 19
Nouns
*caedēs, caedis f. slaughter, murder
cōpia, cōpiae f. abundance, plenty, resources, wealth; (pl.) troops
334 Introduction to Latin

dolus, dolī m. trick, deceit

līberī, līberōrum m. (pl.) children
Verbs
ait, aiunt; āiō he says, they say; I say
caedō, caedere, cecīdī, caesus to kill, cut; sacrifice (of animals)
cernō, cernere, crēvī, crētus to see, discern, perceive, decide
cōgitō, cōgitāre, cōgitāvī, cōgitātus to think, consider
gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum to rejoice, be glad; delight in (+ abl.)
inquit he said (introduces a direct quotation)
negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus to deny, say that ... not
nesciō, nescīre, nescīvī, nescītus not to know
ostendō, ostendere, ostendī, to show, reveal
ostentus/ostēnsus
putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus to think, consider; suppose
respondeō, respondēre, respondī, to answer, reply; correspond to
respōnsus
sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus to know; know how to (+ inf.)
spērō, spērāre, spērāvī, spērātus to hope, hope for (+ acc. and future inf.)
trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus to hand over, surrender; hand down,
 report
Adverbs
ante before (of space or time), in front;
 previously
bene well
ibi there
Chapter 20
Nouns
multitūdō, multitūdinis f. multitude, great number, crowd
Graecia, Graeciae f. Greece
Verbs
cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus to force, compel; collect
cupiō, cupere, cupīvī or cupiī, cupītus to want, desire
iubeō, iubēre, iūssī, iūssus to order, command
mālō, mālle, māluī to prefer, want (something) more
necesse est it is necessary
nōlō, nōlle, nōluī to be unwilling, not want
postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus to demand, claim; prosecute
sinō, sinere, sīvī, sītus to allow, permit
vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus to forbid; order ... not
volō, velle, voluī to wish, want, be willing
Adjectives
mortālis, mortāle mortal, transient; human
sacer, sacra, sacrum sacred
sapiēns, sapientis wise, sensible
superus, supera, superum upper, higher, above
superī, superōrum m. (pl.) gods
tālis, tāle such, of such a kind
tristis, triste sad; gloomy
Adverbs
celeriter quickly
fortiter bravely, forcefully
numquam never
 Vocabulary by Chapter 335

Chapter 21
Noun
plūs, plūris n. (often + gen.) more
Verbs
adveniō, advenīre, advēnī, adventūrus to arrive, come to; happen
cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectus to finish, accomplish; weaken, kill
cūrō, cūrāre, cūrāvī, cūrātus to care for/about, pay attention to; cure
dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētus to destroy; blot out
intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctus to understand
quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī(-iī), quaesītus to look for, seek; ask
resistō, resistere, restitī (often + dat.) to resist, oppose, make a stand
Adjectives
commūnis, commūne shared, common; public
gravis, grave heavy; serious, important; difficult
iūstus, iūsta, iūstum just, fair
quīdam, quaedam, quoddam a certain , a sort of
turpis, turpe shameful, base; ugly, foul
** irregular comparatives and superlatives in §99
Pronoun
quīdam, quaedam, quoddam a certain , a sort of
*can also be used as an adjectival modifier
Coordinating Conjunction
quam (rather) than, as (in comparison)
Subordinating Conjunction
quoniam since, seeing that
Chapter 22
Nouns
cibus, cibī m. food
culpa, culpae f. fault, blame
mora, morae f. delay
pōtus, pōtūs m. drink
Verbs
arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum to think, judge
cōnor, cōnārī, conātus sum to try
fīdō, fīdere, fīsus sum (+ dat.) to trust, confide in
fruor, fruī, frūctus sum (+ abl.) to enjoy
fungor, fungī, fūnctus sum (+ abl.) to perform, do
ingredior, ingredī, ingressus sum to enter; march, walk
loquor, loquī, locūtus sum to speak, talk, say
mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum to wonder (at), be surprised at; admire
moror, morārī, morātus sum to delay
patior, patī, passus sum to suffer, allow
potior, potīrī, potītus sum (+ abl.) to get hold of, acquire
proficīscor, proficīscī, profectus sum to set out, depart
sequor, sequī, secūtus sum to follow, accompany; pursue
ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum (+ abl.) to use
vescor, vescī (+ abl.) to eat, feed on
Adjective
propinquus, propinqua, propinquum near (to), neighboring; near, not far off (of time)
propinquus, propinquī m.   relative, kinsman
Adverb
quam how, how much;
  as ______ as possible (with superlatives)
336 Introduction to Latin

Chapter 23
Noun
vīs, vīs f. power, force, violence;
vīrēs, vīrium (pl.)   strength
Verbs
eō, īre, iī or -īvī, itūrus to go
abeō, abīre, abiī or -īvī, abitūrus to go away, depart
adeō, adīre, adiī or -īvī, aditūrus to go towards, approach
exeō, exīre, exiī or -īvī, exitūrus to go out, exit
ineō, inīre, iniī or -īvī, initūrus to enter; begin
pereō, perīre, periī or -īvī, peritūrus to perish, die
redeō, redīre, rediī or -īvī, reditūrus to go back, return
subeō, subīre, subiī or -īvī, subitūrus to go up; to undergo; to approach
trānseō, trānsīre, trānsiī or -īvī, trānsitūrus to go across, cross
ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus to carry, bear, endure; report, say
adferō, adferre, attulī, adlātus to bring to; cause
auferō, auferre, abstulī, ablātus to carry away, take away
cōnferō, cōnferre, contulī, collātus to bring together, collect; compare; contribute
   sē cōnferre   to proceed, go
īnferō, īnferre, intulī, illātus to bring in, introduce; inflict
offerō, offerre, obtulī, oblātus to offer, bring forward
referō, referre, rettulī, relātus to carry back, bring back, report
tollō, tollere, sustulī, sublātus to lift up, raise; remove, carry off, steal
Adjectives
īnfēlix, īnfēlīcis unhappy, unlucky
cunctus, cuncta, cunctum the whole, all (collectively)
Chapter 24
Nouns
frūctus, frūctūs m. fruit, enjoyment; profit
glōria, glōriae f. glory, fame; ambition, boasting
memoria, memoriae f. memory, recollection; history
mōtus, mōtūs m. emotion, impulse; movement
Verbs
accidō, accidere, accidī to fall at or near; happen
adsum, adesse, adfuī, adfutūrus to be present, be near
appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, to name, call upon, address
appellātus
bibō, bibere, bibī, bibitūrus to drink
dēspērō, dēspērāre, dēspērāvī, dēspērātus to despair
dīmittō, dīmittere, dīmīsī, dīmissus to send away, send forth; dismiss;
 abandon
flōreō, flōrēre, flōruī to bloom; prosper, flourish
hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum to urge, encourage
neglegō, neglegere, neglēxī, neglēctus to ignore, neglect
Adjectives
beātus, beāta, beātum happy, blessed; prosperous
rēctus, rēcta, rēctum straight, upright; right; virtuous, honest
Adverbs
dēnique finally, at last; in short; in fact
equidem truly, indeed
forsitan perhaps
utinam signals a wish; if only, would that
Coordinating Conjunction
an or
 Vocabulary by Chapter 337

Chapter 25
Nouns
cupiditās, cupiditātis f. desire, wish, longing, eagerness
cupīdō, cupidinis f. desire, wish, longing, eagerness
ingenium, ingeniī, n. talent, (innate) nature, character
iniūria, iniūriae f. injury, harm; insult; wrong
opus, operis n. work, labor, task
opus est (+ dat.) there is a need / use (for)
mūrus, mūrī m. wall; fortification wall for a city
*pons, pontis m. bridge
Verbs
iungō, iungere, iūnxī, iūnctus to join, unite, connect; yoke
mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum to lie, speak or say falsely
morior, morī, mortuus sum to die
Adjectives
certus, certa, certum fixed, established, certain; specified; reliable, sure
certē (adv.) certainly, surely, of course; at least
quantus, quanta, quantum how much
Adverbs
autem (postpositive) however; on the contrary
cūr why?
nē not (used with imperative & perfect subjunctive)
quidem (postpositive) indeed, certainly, in fact
nē ... quidem not ... even
totiēns so often
Coordinating Conjunction
at but; at least; then
Subordinating Conjunctions
nē in order that … not (used with subjunctive)
ut in order that; so that
Chapter 26
Nouns
nefās n. (indeclinable) sin, crime (against divine law), wrong
poena, poenae f. penalty
poenam dare to pay the penalty
sōl, sōlis m. sun
Verbs
appropinquō, appropinquāre, to approach, draw near
appropinquāvī, appropinquātūrus
exspectō, exspectāre, exspectāvī, to wait for, expect; hope for
exspectātus
tremō, tremere, tremuī to tremble, shake
Adjectives
dīrus, dīra, dīrum awful, horrible
lātus, lāta, lātum wide, broad
maestus, maesta, maestum sad, mournful
Adverbs
posteā afterwards
quoque also
unde from where, whence
Pronouns
aliquis, aliquid someone, something, anyone, anything
quisquis, quicquid (quidquid) whoever, whatever; everyone who
338 Introduction to Latin

Subordinating Conjunctions
cum when; because, since; although
dum until (with the subjunctive)
Chapter 27
Nouns
amīcitia, amīcitiae f. friendship
imperātor, imperātōris m. general; emperor
iūdex, iūdicis m. judge
odium, odiī n. hatred, unpopularity
philosophia, philosophiae f. philosophy
sēnsus, sēnsūs m. sense, perception; emotion; idea
socius, sociī m. companion, comrade, ally
victōria, victōriae f. victory
Verbs
concēdō, concēdere, concessī, to go away, withdraw; yield to, submit;
concessūrus  allow; forgive
cōnservō, cōnservāre, cōnservāvī, to save, preserve, keep
cōnservātus
cōnspiciō, cōnspicere, cōnspexī, to observe, catch sight of, look at
cōnspectus
metuō, metuere, metuī, metūtus to fear, dread
ōdī, ōdisse to hate; dislike
vereor, verērī, veritus sum to fear, be afraid; respect
Adverb
num signals a question which expects the
  answer “no”; whether (in indirect
 question §126)
Subordinating Conjunctions
nisi = nī unless, if … not
sīn but if, if however
Chapter 28
Nouns
canis, canis m. or f. dog
gladius, gladiī m. sword
oppidum, oppidī n. town
tēlum, tēlī n. weapon; spear
tempestās, tempestātis f. storm; weather
Verbs
ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī, to snatch away; rescue, free
ēreptus
fīō, fierī, factus sum to happen, occur; be done, be made
imperō, imperāre, imperāvī, to command, order; rule (over)
imperātus (+ dat)
mōs est it is the custom, habit, way
requīrō, requīrere, requīsīvī or-iī, to search for; ask, inquire after; demand
requīsītus
rogō, rogāre, rogāvī, rogātus to ask, ask for
Adjective
quot (indeclinable) how many?
Adverbs
quōmodo how
quotiēns how often?
statim immediately, at once
undique on all sides
 Vocabulary by Chapter 339

Preposition
apud (+ acc.) among, with, near, at (the house of )
Chapter 29
Nouns
occāsiō, occāsiōnis f. occasion, opportunity
studium, studiī n. eagerness, zeal; study
voluptās, voluptātis f. pleasure, delight
Verbs
committō, committere, commīsī, to join, unite, engage in
commissus
conveniō, convenīre, convēnī to assemble, gather; meet; agree
conventūrus
probō, probāre, probāvī, probātus to approve (of ); prove, show
Adjectives
cīvīlis, cīvīle civil, public, political
perītus, perīta, perītum experienced, skilful
ūtilis, ūtile useful, profitable
vērus, vēra, vērum true
vērum, vērī n. truth, what is true
Adverbs
male badly
tamquam as, just as, just like
Chapter 30
Nouns
Aenēās, Aenēae m. Aeneas, leader of the Trojans
Aenēan (acc.)
aura, aurae f. breeze; air
Verbs
coepī, coepisse, coeptus began (a “defective” verb with no present system)
nāscor, nāscī, natus sum to be born
nātus, nātī m. son
Adjectives
celsus, celsa, celsum high
Trōiānus, Trōiāna, Trōiānum Trojan
Adverbs
circiter about, near
deinde then, next
iterum again, a second time
prīmum first, in the first place, for the first time
prius before, sooner
Coordinating Conjunction
-ve or
Chapter 31
Nouns
fās n. (indeclinable) right; divine law
fās est it is right
nefās est it is wrong
impedimentum, impedimentī n. hindrance, obstacle
īnsidiae, īnsidiārum f. (pl.) ambush, plot; treachery
lūmen, lūminis n. light, lamp, torch; eye
tellūs, tellūris f. the earth; land, ground
Verbs
licet, licēre, licuit (impersonal + dat.) it is allowed, it is lawful
340 Introduction to Latin

oportet, oportēre, oportuit it is right, one should; it is necessary

(impersonal + acc.)
Adjectives
dūrus, dūra, dūrum hard, harsh, rough
honestus, honesta, honestum honest, worthy, honorable
ignārus, ignāra, ignārum ignorant (of ), unaware (of )
Adverbs
hīc here
hinc from this place; hence
Chapter 32
Verb
recipiō, recipere, recēpī to receive, accept; take back
receptus regain
Adjectives
asper, aspera, asperum rough, harsh; cruel
ferōx, ferōcis fierce, bold; wild, savage
ferus, fera, ferum wild, fierce; cruel; uncivilized
mīrābilis, mīrābile wonderful, extraordinary
paulus, paula, paulum little, small
Adverb
prīmō at first
Coordinating Conjunction
ut as, when
 English to Latin Vocabulary
abandon relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus
able, to be possum, posse, potuī
about dē (+ abl.)
accident cāsus, cāsūs m.
accomplish cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectus
accustomed soleō, solēre, solitus sum
achievement factum, factī n.
acquire potior, potīrī, potītus sum (+ abl.)
across trāns (+ acc.)
act agō, agere, ēgī, actus
admire mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum
afraid, be timeō, timēre, timuī; vereor, verērī, veritus sum
after post (+ acc.); postquam
against in (+ acc.)
aid auxilium, auxiliī n.
alive, be vīvō, vīvere, vīxī
all omnis, omne
allow sinō, sinere, sīvī, sītus
ally socius, sociī m.
alone sōlus, sōla, sōlum
although quamquam; cum (+ subjunctive)
always semper
among inter (+ acc.)
and et; -que
anger īra, īrae f.
angry īrātus, īrāta, īrātum
announce nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus
another alius, alia, aliud
answer respondeō, respondēre, respondī, respōnsus
any ūllus, ūlla, ūllum
appearance faciēs, faciēī f.
appoint cōnstituō, cōnstituere, cōnstituī, cōnstitūtus
approach adeō, adīre, adiī or -īvī, aditūrus
arms arma, armōrum n. (pl.)
army exercitus, exercitūs m.
around circum / circā (+ acc.)
arrival adventus, adventūs m.
arrive adveniō, advenīre, advēnī, adventūrus
as as possible quam (+ superlative)
ask rogō, rogāre, rogāvī, rogātus; quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī (-iī), quaesītus;
requīrō, requīrere, requīsīvī (-īī), requīsītus
at that time tum
attack impetus, impetūs m.
attack (v.) petō, petere, petīvī or petiī, petītus
341
342 Introduction to Latin

avoid fugiō, fugere, fūgī, fugitūrus; vītō, vītāre, vītāvī, vītātus;

away, be absum, abesse, āfuī, āfutūrus
away from ā, ab (+ abl.)
bad malus, mala, malum
band (of men) manus, manūs f.
battle proelium, proeliī n.
be sum, esse, fuī, futūrus
be pleasing to placeō, placēre, placuī, placitūrus (+ dat.)
bear ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus
beautiful pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum
because quia; quod; cum (+ subjunctive)
because of ob (+ acc.); propter (+ acc.); per (+ acc.); causā (+ gen.); grātiā (+ gen.)
before antequam
beg (for) ōrō, ōrāre, ōrāvī, ōrātus
begin incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus; ineō, inīre, iniī or -īvī, initūrus
believe crēdō, crēdere, crēdidī, crēditus (+ dat.)
between inter (+ acc.)
big magnus, magna, magnum
body corpus, corporis n.
book liber, librī m.
both uterque, utraque, utrumque
boy puer, puerī m.
brave fortis, forte
bravely fortiter
bridge *pons, pontis m.
bring portō, portāre, portāvī, portātus; ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus
bring about efficiō, efficere, effēcī, effectus
brother frāter, frātris m.
build aedificō, aedificāre, aedificāvī, aedificātus
burn ardeō, ardēre, arsī, arsūrus (intrans.); incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus (trans.)
but sed
by ā/ab (+ animate noun, in a passive sentence)
Caesar Caesar, Caesaris m.
call vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus
calm aequus, aequa, aequum
camp castra, castrōrum n. (pl.)
can possum, posse, potuī
capture capiō, capere, cēpī, captus
care cūra, cūrae f.
carry portō, portāre, portāvī, portātus; ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus
carry away auferō, auferre, abstulī, ablātus
carry off rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptus; tollō, tollere, sustulī, sublātus
cause faciō, facere, fēcī, factus; efficīo, efficere, effēcī, effectus
certain quīdam, quaedam, quoddam
children līberī, līberōrum m. (pl.)
choose creō, creāre, creāvī, creātus; legō, legere, lēgī, lēctus
citadel *arx, arcis f.
citizen *cīvis, cīvis m. or f.
city *urbs, urbis f.
collect cōnferō, cōnferre, contulī, collātus
come veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventūrus
 English to Latin Vocabulary 343

command iubeō, iubēre, iūssī, iūssus; imperō, imperāre, imperāvī, imperātus (+ dat)
companion socius, sociī m.
compare cōnferō, cōnferre, contulī, collātus
conquer superō, superāre, superāvī, superātus; vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus
consider habeō, habēre, habuī, habitus
consul cōnsul, cōnsulis m.
contribute cōnferō, cōnferre, contulī, collātus
country patria, patriae f.
country(side) rūs, rūris n.
courage animus, animī m.; virtūs, virtūtis f.
cross trānseō, trānsīre, trānsiī or -īvī, trānsitūrus
crowd turba, turbae f.; multitūdō, multitūdinis f.
custom mōs, mōris m.
danger perīculum, perīculī n.
dare audeō, audēre, ausus sum
daughter fīlia, fīliae f.
dawn prīma lūx
day diēs, diēī m. or f.
dear (to) cārus, cāra, cārum
death *mors, mortis f.
deceit dolus, dolī m.
deed factum, factī n.
deep altus, alta, altum
defeat vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus
delay mora, morae f.
delay (v.) moror, morārī, morātus sum
delegate lēgātus, lēgātī m.
deny negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus
depart abeō, abīre, abiī or -īvī, abitūrus; profīciscor, profīciscī, profectus sum;
discēdō, discēdere, discessī, discessūrus
desire optō, optāre, optāvī, optātus
despair dēspērō, dēspērāre, dēspērāvī, dēspērātus
destroy dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētus
destruction cāsus, cāsūs m.
difficult difficilis, difficile
dinner cēna, cēnae f.
discover inveniō, invenīre, invēnī, inventus
divine dīvīnus, dīvīna, dīvīnum
do agō, agere, ēgī, actus; faciō, facere, fēcī, factus
dog canis, canis m. or f.
doubt dubitō, dubitāre, dubitāvī, dubitātus
drink bibō, bibere, bibī, bibitūrus
eagerness cupiditās, cupiditātis f.; cupīdō, cupīdinis f.
easy facilis, facile
eat vescor, vescī (+ abl.)
eight octō
either ... or aut ... aut
elect creō, creāre, creāvī, creātus
emperor prīnceps, prīncipis m.
encourage hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum
enemy *hostis, hostis m. (usually in pl.)
344 Introduction to Latin

enjoy fruor, fruī, frūctus sum (+ abl.)

enter ingredior, ingredī, ingressus sum; ineō, inīre, iniī or -īvī, initūrus
envoy lēgātus, lēgātī m.
equal (to) pār, paris
escape fugiō, fugere, fūgī, fugitūrus
every omnis, omne
everyone omnes, omnium
example exemplum, exemplī n.
eye oculus, oculī m.;
face vultus, vultūs m.; faciēs, faciēī f.
fair iūstus, iūsta, iūstum
faithful fidēlis, fidēle
fall cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus
fame fāma, fāmae f.
family *gēns, gentis f.
famous clārus, clāra, clārum
farmer agricola, agricolae m.
father pater, patris m.
fatherland patria, patriae f.
fault culpa, culpae f.
fear timor, timōris m.; metus, metūs m.
fear (v.) timeō, timēre, timuī; vereor, verērī, veritus sum; metuō, metuere, metuī, metūtus
fertile laetus, laeta, laetum
few paucī, paucae, pauca (pl.)
field ager, agrī m.
fierce ācer, ācris, ācre
fight pugnō, pugnāre, pugnāvī, pugnātus
fill (up) impleō, implēre, implēvī, implētus
finally tandem; dēnique
find inveniō, invenīre, invēnī, inventus
finish fīniō, fīnīre, fīnīvī, fīnītus
fire *ignis, ignis m.
five quīnque
flee fugiō, fugere, fūgī, fugitūrus
follow sequor, sequī, secūtus sum
food cibus, cibī m.
foot pēs, pedis m.
for enim (never appears as the first word in a sentence - “postpositive”); nam
for a long time diū
for the sake of causā (+ gen.)
forbid vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus
force vīs, vīs f.
force (v.) cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus
forest silva, silvae f.
fortunate fēlīx, fēlīcis
fortune fortūna, fortūnae f.
found condō, condere, condidī, conditus
free līber, lībera, līberum
free (v.) ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī, ēreptus
free from (v.) careō, carēre, caruī, caritūrus (+ abl.)
freedom lībertās, lībertātis f.
 English to Latin Vocabulary 345

friend amīcus, amīcī m.

friendly (to) amīcus, amīca, amīcum
from ab (+ abl.); ex (+ abl.); dē (+ abl.)
full (of ) plēnus, plēna, plēnum (+ gen. or abl.)
Gaul Gallia, Galliae f.
general imperātor, imperātōris m.
gift dōnum, dōnī n.
girl puella, puellae f.
give dō, dare, dedī, datus
go eō, īre, iī or īvī, itūrus
go away abeō, abīre, abiī or -īvī, abitūrus
go out exeō, exīre, exiī or -īvī, exitūrus
god deus, deī m.
goddess dea, deae f.
gold aurum, aurī n.
good bonus, bona, bonum
great magnus, magna, magnum
Greek Graecus, Graeca, Graecum
grieve doleō, dolēre, doluī, dolitūrus
hand manus, manūs f.
happen accidō, accidere, accidī; fīō, fierī, factus sum
happy laetus, laeta, laetum
hardship labor, labōris m.
harm noceō, nocēre, nocuī, nocitūrus (+ dat.)
have habeō, habēre, habuī, habitus
head caput, capitis n.
hear audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus
heat aestus, aestūs m.
help auxilium, auxiliī n.; ops, opis f.
help (v.) iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtus
her is, ea, id
hesitate dubitō, dubitāre, dubitāvī, dubitātus
high altus, alta, altum
him is, ea, id
his is, ea, id (gen.); suus, sua, suum
hold teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentus
home domus, domūs f.
honor honor, honōris m.
hope spēs, speī f.
horse equus, equī m.
hostile inimīcus, inimīca, inimīcum
hour hōra, hōrae f.
house casa, casae f.; domus, domūs f.
how quōmodo
how many? quot (indeclinable)
how often? quotiēns
huge ingēns, ingentis
human being homō, hominis m.
hurry festīnō, festīnāre, festīnāvī, festīnātus
I ego
if sī
346 Introduction to Latin

immediately statim
in in (+ abl.)
in front of prō (+ abl.); ante (+ acc.)
in order (that) ut
in order (that) … not nē
into in (+ acc.)
introduce īnferō, īnferre, intulī, illātus
iron ferrum, ferrī n.
it is, ea, id
Italy Ītalia, Ītaliae f.
journey iter, itineris n.
joy gaudium, gaudiī n.
judge iūdex, iūdicis m.
judge (v.) iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvī, iūdicātus; arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum
justice iūs, iūris n.
keep teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentus
kill interficiō, interficere, interfēcī, interfectus; caedō, caedere, cecīdī, caesus
king rēx, rēgis m.
kingdom rēgnum, rēgnī n.
knee genū, genūs n.
know sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus
land terra, terrae f.
large magnus, magna, magnum
laugh (at) rīdeō, rīdēre, rīsī, rīsus
law lex, lēgis f.; iūs, iūris n.
lead dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductus
leader dux, ducis m.
learn discō, discere, didicī
leave relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus
letter epistula, epistulae f.
lie (e.g. on the ground) iaceō, iacēre, iacuī, iacitūrus
lie (say falsely) mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum
life vīta, vītae f.
light lūx, lūcis f.
listen (to) audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus
live vīvō, vīvere, vīxī
long longus, longa, longum
look for petō, petere, petīvī or petiī, petītus
lord dominus, dominī m.
lose āmittō, āmittere, āmīsī, āmissus
a lot of = much
loud clārus, clāra, clārum
love amor, amōris m.
love (v.) amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus
loyalty fidēs, fideī f.
lucky fēlīx, fēlīcis
make faciō, facere, fēcī, factus
man homō, hominis m.; vir, virī m.
many multus, multa, multum (pl.)
march ingredior, ingredī, ingressus sum
master dominus, dominī m.
 English to Latin Vocabulary 347

me mē
memory memoria, memoriae f.
message nūntius, nūntiī, m.
messenger nūntius, nūntiī, m.
middle (of ) medius, media, medium (medium mare = “the middle of the sea”)
mighty ingēns, ingentis
mile mille passūs
miles mīlia passuum (pl.)
mind *mēns, mentis f.; animus, animī m.
mine meus, mea, meum
miss careō, carēre, caruī, caritūrus (+ abl.)
money pecūnia, pecūniae f.
more plūs, plūris n. (often + gen.); magis (adv.)
mortal mortālis, mortāle
mother māter, mātris f.
mountain *mōns, montis m.
mourn doleō, dolēre, doluī, dolitūrus
much multus, multa, multum
multitude multitūdō, multitūdinis f.
must see §130
my meus, mea, meum
name nōmen, nōminis n.
nation *gēns, gentis f.
navigate nāvigō, nāvigāre, nāvigāvī, nāvigātus
near propinquus, propinqua, propinquum
necessary, it is necesse est
need careō, carēre, caruī, caritūrus (+ abl.)
nevertheless tamen
new novus, nova, novum
night *nox, noctis f.
nine novem
no nūllus, nūlla, nūllum
no one nēmō m., acc. sg. = nēminem
noon (= the sixth hour) sexta hōra
not nōn; nē
nothing nihil n.
now nunc;
obey pāreō, pārēre, pāruī, paritūrus (+ dat.)
ocean pontus, pontī m.
offer offerō, offerre, obtulī, oblātus
often saepe
old man senex, senis m.
on in (+ abl.)
on behalf of prō (+ abl.)
one ūnus, ūna, ūnum
one day ōlim
one hundred centum
opposite contrā (+ acc.)
other alius, alia, aliud
ought dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus; see §130
our noster, nostra, nostrum
348 Introduction to Latin

out of ē, ex (+ abl.)
overcome superō, superāre, superāvī, superātus
owe dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus
own (his, her, their) suus, sua, suum
part *pars, partis f.
peace pāx, pācis f.
people populus, populī m.
perception sēnsus, sēnsūs m.
perhaps forsitan
pitch camp castra ponere
place locus, locī m. (in pl. sometimes also neuter)
place (v.) pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus
plan cōnsilium, cōnsiliī n.
pleasant dulcis, dulce
please iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtus; placeō, placēre, placuī, placitūrus (+ dat.)
poet poēta, poētae m.
possess teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentus
power vīs, vīs f.
powerful potēns, potentis
praise laudō, laudāre, laudāvī, laudātus
prefer mālō, mālle, māluī
prepare parō, parāre, parāvī, parātus
profit frūctus, frūctūs m.
province prōvincia, prōvinciae f.
public commūnis, commūne; cīvīlis, cīvīle
pull trahō, trahere, trāxī, tractus
put pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus
queen rēgīna, rēgīnae f.
quick celer, celeris, celere
quickly celeriter
quiet, be taceō, tacēre, tacuī, tacitūrus
quite use comparative
race genus, generis n.
read legō, legere, lēgī, lēctus
receive accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus
rejoice gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum
remain maneō, manēre, mānsī, mansūrus
report nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus; trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus; ferō,
ferre, tulī, lātus; referō, referre, rettulī, relātus
reputation fāma, fāmae f.
rescue ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī, ēreptus
respect honor, honōris m.
restrain teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentus
return redeō, redīre, rediī or -īvī, reditūrus
reveal ostendō, ostendere, ostendī, ostentus/ostēnsus
right iūs, iūris n.
right (adj.) dexter, dextra, dextrum
river flūmen, flūminis n.
road via, viae f.
rock saxum, saxī n.
roll volvō, volvere, volvī, volūtus
 English to Latin Vocabulary 349

Roman Rōmānus, Rōmāna, Rōmānum;

Rome Rōma, Rōmae f.
Romulus Rōmulus, Rōmulī m.
rose rosa, rosae f.
rule regō, regere, rēxī, rēctus
run currō, currere, cucurrī
sacred sacer, sacra, sacrum
sad tristis, triste
sail nāvigō, nāvigāre, nāvigāvī, nāvigātus
sailor nauta, nautae m.
same īdem, eadem, idem
save cōnservō, cōnservāre, cōnservāvī, cōnservātus
say dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus
scare terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus
sea pontus, pontī m.; *mare, maris n.
second secundus, secunda, secundum
see videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus
seek petō, petere, petīvī or petiī, petītus; quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī (-iī), quaesītus;
seem videor, vidērī, vīsus sum
seize capiō, capere, cēpī, captus; rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptus
self ipse, ipsa, ipsum
senate senātus, senātūs m.
send mittō, mittere, mīsī, missus
send away dīmittō, dīmittere, dīmīsī, dīmissus
serious gravis, grave
servant servus, servī m.
set out profīciscor, profīciscī, profectus sum
seven septem
seventh septimus, septima, septimum
shameful turpis, turpe
ship *nāvis, nāvis f.
short brevis, breve
shout clāmor, clāmōris m.
shout (v.) clāmō, clāmāre, clāmāvī, clāmātus
show mōnstrō, mōnstrāre, mōnstrāvī, mōnstrātus; ostendō, ostendere, ostendī,
ostentus/ostēnsus
should dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus; or use subjunctive mood
sick aeger, aegra, aegrum
silent (“I am silent”) taceō, tacēre, tacuī, tacitūrus
since quod; quoniam; cum (+ subjunctive)
sing canō, canere, cecinī, cantus
sit sedeō, sedēre, sēdī, sessūrus
six sex
skill *ars, artis f.
sky caelum, caelī n.
slave servus, servī m.
sleep dormiō, dormīre, dormīvī, dormitūrus
small parvus, parva, parvum
so tam
so (such) great tantus, tanta, tantum
soldier milēs, mīlitis m.
350 Introduction to Latin

some alius, alia, aliud

someone aliquis, aliquid
son fīlius, fīliī m. (voc. sg. = fīlī)
song carmen, carminis n.
sorrow dolor, dolōris m.
speak dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus; loquor, loquī, locūtus sum
specified certus, certa, certum
stand stō, stāre, stetī, statūrus
state cīvitās, cīvitātis f.; rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae f.
stay maneō, manēre, mānsī, mansūrus
step passus, passūs m.
stone saxum, saxī n.
story fābula, fābulae f.
strange novus, nova, novum
strong fortis, forte
strong, be valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus
such tālis, tāle
suddenly subitō
summit caput, capitis n.
surprised, be mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum
surrender trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus
sweet dulcis, dulce
swift celer, celeris, celere; levis, leve
sword gladius, gladiī m.
take capiō, capere, cēpī, captus
talent ingenium, ingeniī, n.
tall altus, alta, altum
teach doceō, docēre, docuī, doctus
tear lacrima, lacrimae f.
tell nārrō, nārrāre, nārrāvī, nārrātus; dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus
temple templum, templī n.
ten decem
tenth decimus, decima, decimum
than (rather) quam
thank grātiās agere (+ dat.)
that ille, illa, illud
that (subord. conjunction) quī, quae, quod
their; their own is, ea, id (gen.); suus, sua, suum
there ibi
these hic, haec, hoc (pl.)
they is, ea, id (pl.)
think putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus; cōgitō, cōgitāre, cōgitāvī, cōgitātus; arbitror,
arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum
third tertius, tertia, tertium
this hic, haec, hoc
those ille, illa, illud (pl.)
three trēs, tria
through per (+ acc.)
throw iactō, iactāre, iactāvī, iactātus
time tempus, temporis n.
tired fessus, fessa, fessum
 English to Latin Vocabulary 351

today hodiē
toward ad (+ acc.)
town oppidum, oppidī n.
tradition mōs, mōris m.
tree arbor, arboris f.
trial iūdicium, iūdiciī n.
tribe *gēns, gentis f.
troops cōpia, cōpiae, f. (pl.)
Troy Trōia, Trōiae, f.
trust crēdō, crēdere, crēdidī, crēditus (+ dat.)
truth vēritās, vēritātis f.
try cōnor, cōnārī, conātus sum; temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus
two duo, duae, duo
ugly turpis, turpe
under sub (+ abl.)
undergo subeō, subīre, subiī or -īvī, subitūrus
understand cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvi, cognitus; intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī,
intellēctus
unfriendly inimīcus, inimīca, inimīcum
unhappy miser, misera, miserum; īnfēlix, īnfēlīcis
unlucky īnfēlix, īnfēlīcis
until dum (+ subjunctive)
unwilling, be nōlō, nōlle, nōluī
us nōs
use ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum (+ abl.)
useful ūtilis, ūtile
very ipse, ipsa, ipsum; use superlative
victory victōria, victōriae f.
virtue virtūs, virtūtis f.
voice vōx, vōcis f.
wage gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus
wait (for) exspectō, exspectāre, exspectāvī, exspectātus
walk ambulō, ambulāre, ambulāvī, ambulātūrus
wall mūrus, mūrī m.; moenia, moenium n. (pl.)
wander errō, errāre, errāvī, errātus
want cupiō, cupere, cupīvī or cupiī, cupītus; volō, velle, voluī
war bellum, bellī n.
warn moneō, monēre, monuī, monitus
watch spectō, spectāre, spectāvī, spectātus
water aqua, aquae f.
wealth ops, opis f.
weapon(s) arma, armōrum n. (pl.); tēlum, tēlī n.
well bene
when cum; ubi
where ubi
whether num
while dum
who, which / what quī, quae, quod; quis, quid?
whole tōtus, tōta, tōtum; cunctus, cuncta, cunctum
why? cūr
wife coniūnx, coniugis f.; uxor, uxōris f.
352 Introduction to Latin

willing, be volō, velle, voluī

wind ventus, ventī m.
wine vīnum, vīnī n.
wing (of an army) cornū, cornūs n.
wisdom sapientia, sapientiae f.
wise sapiēns, sapientis
wish optō, optāre, optāvī, optātus; volō, velle, voluī
with cum (+ abl.); *but sometimes ablative without a preposition
without sine (+ abl.)
woman fēmina, fēminae f.
word verbum, verbī n.
work labōrō, labōrāre, labōrāvī, labōrātus
world orbis terrārum
worthy dignus, digna, dignum
wound vulnerō, vulnerāre, vulnerāvī, vulnerātus
wreck frangō, frangere, frēgī, frāctus
write scrībō, scrībere, scrīpsī, scrīptus
year annus, annī m.
you, you (pl.) tū, vōs
your (sg.) tuus, tua, tuum
your (pl.) vester, vestra, vestrum
 Latin to English Vocabulary
Numbers refer to the chapter in which the word first appears in the chapter vocabulary.
ā, ab (+ abl.) away from 4
ā, ab (+ animate noun, in a passive sentence) by 14
abeō, abīre, abiī or -īvī, abitūrus to go away, depart 23
absum, abesse, āfuī, āfutūrus to be absent, away, distant 12
ac, atque and 10
accidō, accidere, accidī to fall at or near; happen 24
accipiō, accipere, accēpī, acceptus to receive 13
ācer, ācris, ācre sharp, fierce; eager 10
aciēs, aciēī f. battle line 16
ad (+ acc.) to, toward 4
adeō, adīre, adiī or -īvī, aditūrus to go towards, approach 23
adferō, adferre, attulī, adlātus to bring to; cause 23
adsum, adesse, adfuī, adfutūrus to be present, be near 24
adveniō, advenīre, advēnī, adventūrus to arrive, come to; happen 21
adventus, adventūs m. arrival 18
aedificō, aedificāre, aedificāvī, aedificātus to build 3
aeger, aegra, aegrum sick, weak 5
Aenēās, Aenēae m. Aeneas, leader of the Trojans 30
Aenēan (acc.)
aequus, aequa, aequum even, calm, equal 15
aestus, aestūs m. heat; tide 18
aetās, aetātis f. age, life 11
ager, agrī m. (cultivated) field; countryside 2
agō, agere, ēgī, actus to do, perform; drive 8
quid agis? how are you (doing)?
grātiās agere (+ dat.) to thank 10
agricola, agricolae m. farmer 1
ait, aiunt; āiō he says, they say; I say 19
aliquis, aliquid someone, something, anyone, anything 26
alius, alia, aliud other, another 11
(alterīus is commonly used for gen. sg.)
aliud ... aliud one thing ... another (thing)
aliī ... aliī some ... others
alter, altera, alterum the one, the other (of two); next, second 11
altus, alta, altum high, deep 5
ambulō, ambulāre, ambulāvī, ambulātūrus to walk 4
amīcitia, amīcitiae f. friendship 27
amīcus, amīca, amīcum friendly (to) 12
amīcus, amīcī m. friend 2
āmittō, āmittere, āmīsī, āmissus to lose 14
amō, amāre, amāvī, amātus to love 1
amor, amōris m. love 17
an or 24
animus, animī m. mind, spirit, courage; soul 2
annus, annī m. year 11
353
354 Introduction to Latin

ante (prep.) (+ acc.) before, in front of 9

ante (adv.) before (of space or time), in front; 19
previously
antequam before 12
appellō, appellāre, appellāvī, appellātus to name, call upon, address 24
appropinquō, appropinquāre, appropinquāvī, to approach, draw near 26
appropinquātūrus
aptus, apta, aptum fit, suitable (for) 12
apud (+ acc.) among, with, near, at (the house of ) 28
aqua, aquae f. water 1
arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum to think, judge 22
arbor, arboris f. tree 12
ardeō, ardēre, arsī, arsūrus to burn, be on fire, glow 16
arma, armōrum n. (pl.) arms, weapons 3
*ars, artis f. skill, art 10
*arx, arcis f. citadel, summit 18
asper, aspera, asperum rough, harsh; cruel 32
at but; at least; then 25
atque, ac and 10
audeō, audēre, ausus sum to dare 2
audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītus to hear, listen (to) 8
auferō, auferre, abstulī, ablātus to carry away, take away 23
aura, aurae f. breeze; air 30
aureus, aurea, aureum golden, of gold 18
aurum, aurī n. gold 18
aut or 9
aut ... aut either ... or
autem (postpositive) however; on the contrary 25
auxilium, auxiliī n. aid, help; in pl. often auxiliary troops 18
beātus, beāta, beātum happy, blessed; prosperous 24
bellum, bellī n. war 2
bene well 19
bibō, bibere, bibī, bibitūrus to drink 24
bonus, bona, bonum good 5
brevis, breve brief, short 10
cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus to fall 16
*caedēs, caedis f. slaughter, murder 19
caedō, caedere, cecīdī, caesus to kill, cut; sacrifice (of animals) 19
caelum, caelī n. sky, heavens 3
Caesar, Caesaris m. Julius Caesar (a Roman general) 17
canis, canis m. or f. dog 28
canō, canere, cecinī, cantus to sing 17
capiō, capere, cēpī, captus to take, seize, capture 8
caput, capitis n. head; summit 7
careō, carēre, caruī, caritūrus (+ abl.) to be without, free from; need, miss (the 7
ablative case originally indicated separation)
carmen, carminis n. song, poem 9
cārus, cāra, cārum dear (to) 12
casa, casae f. house, hut 2
castra, castrōrum n. (pl.) camp 17
castra ponere to pitch camp
cāsus, cāsūs m. fall; misfortune, destruction; chance, accident 16
causa, causae f. cause, reason 10
causā (+ gen.) for the sake of, because of
 Latin to English Vocabulary 355

celer, celeris, celere swift, quick, rapid 10

celeriter quickly 20
celsus, celsa, celsum high 30
cēna, cēnae f. dinner 3
cernō, cernere, crēvī, crētus to see, discern, perceive, decide 19
certus, certa, certum fixed, established, certain; specified; reliable, 25
sure
certē (adv.) certainly, surely, of course; at least
cēterī, cēterae, cētera the rest, the others 15
cibus, cibī m. food 22
circiter about, near 30
circum / circā (+ acc.) around 15
cīvīlis, cīvīle civil, public, political 29
*cīvis, cīvis m. or f. citizen 15
cīvitās, cīvitātis f. state ; citizenship 7
clāmō, clāmāre, clāmāvī, clāmātus to shout 2
clāmor, clāmōris m. shout; cheer 17
clārus, clāra, clārum clear, bright; famous; loud 9
coepī, coepisse, coeptus began – a “defective” verb with no present system 30
cōgitō, cōgitāre, cōgitāvī, cōgitātus to think, consider 19
cognōscō, cognōscere, cognōvī, cognitus to learn, recognize, understand 18
cōgō, cōgere, coēgī, coāctus to force, compel; collect 20
committō, committere, commīsī, commissus to join, unite, engage in 29
commūnis, commūne shared, common; public 21
concēdō, concēdere, concessī, concessūrus to go away, withdraw; yield to, submit; allow; 27
forgive
condō, condere, condidī, conditus to found, build, establish 15
cōnferō, cōnferre, contulī, collātus to bring together, collect; compare; contribute 23
sē cōnferre to proceed, go
cōnficiō, cōnficere, cōnfēcī, cōnfectus to finish, accomplish; weaken, kill 21
coniūnx, coniugis m. or f. wife; husband; spouse 9
cōnor, cōnārī, conātus sum to try 22
cōnservō, cōnservāre, cōnservāvī, cōnservātus to save, preserve, keep 27
cōnsilium, cōnsiliī n. plan, advice 2
cōnspiciō, cōnspicere, cōnspexī, cōnspectus to observe, catch sight of, look at 27
cōnstituō, cōnstituere, cōnstituī, cōnstitūtus to decide, appoint, establish 14
cōnsul, cōnsulis m. consul (one of two supreme magistrates 7
elected annually in the Roman Republic)
contrā (prep.) (+ acc.) opposite; against 14
contrā (adv.) in reply; face to face
conveniō, convenīre, convēnī, conventūrus to assemble, gather; meet; agree 29
cōpia, cōpiae f. abundance, plenty, resources, wealth; 19
(pl.) troops
cornū, cornūs n. horn; wing (of an army) 16
corpus, corporis n. body, corpse 7
crēdō, crēdere, crēdidī, crēditus to believe, trust (+ dat. of a person believed; + 9
acc. of a thing believed)
creō, creāre, creāvī, creātus to create; elect, choose 8
crīmen, crīminis n. crime; accusation, charge 17
culpa, culpae f. fault, blame 22
cum (prep.) (+ abl.) with 5
cum (+ indicative) when 12
(+ subjunctive) when; because, since; although 26
cunctus, cuncta, cunctum the whole, all (collectively) 23
cupiditās, cupiditātis f. desire, wish, longing, eagerness 25
356 Introduction to Latin

cupīdō, cupīdinis f. desire, wish, longing, eagerness 25

cupiō, cupere, cupīvī or cupiī, cupītus to want, desire 20
cūr why? 25
cūra, cūrae f. care, anxiety 5
cūrō, cūrāre, cūrāvī, cūrātus to care for/about, pay attention to; cure 21
currō, currere, cucurrī, cursūrus to run 13
concurrō, concurrere, concucurrī, to charge, rush together, clash 13
concursūrus
dē (+ abl.) down from; about, concerning 6
dea, deae f. goddess 3
dat. pl. and abl. pl. = deābus
dēbeō, dēbēre, dēbuī, dēbitus “ought to, should”; to owe; to be obligated to 1
deinde then, next 30
dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētus to destroy; blot out 21
dēnique finally, at last; in short; in fact 24
dēspērō, dēspērāre, dēspērāvī, dēspērātus to despair 24
deus, deī m. god 3
nom. pl. = dī; dat. pl. and abl. pl. = dīs
dexter, dextra, dextrum right (side); right hand; pledge (of friendship) 9
dīcō, dīcere, dīxī, dictus to say, speak, tell 8
diēs, diēī m. or f. day; fem. used when it is an appointed or set day 16
difficilis, difficile difficult 10
dignus, digna, dignum worthy; worth, fitting 15
dīmittō, dīmittere, dīmīsī, dīmissus to send away, send forth; dismiss; abandon 24
dīrus, dīra, dīrum awful, horrible 26
discēdō, discēdere, discessī, discessūrus to depart, go away; separate 11
discō, discere, didicī to learn 13
diū for a long time 6
dīvīnus, dīvīna, dīvīnum divine, of the gods; prophetic 5
dō, dare, dedī, datus to give 3
doceō, docēre, docuī, doctus to teach (often with 2 accusatives, one of the person, 8
the other of the thing taught)
doleō, dolēre, doluī, dolitūrus to grieve, mourn, suffer pain 6
dolor, dolōris m. pain, sorrow 15
dolus, dolī m. trick, deceit 19
dominus, dominī m. master, lord 2
domus, domūs f. house(hold), home 16
dōnum, dōnī n. gift, present 2
dormiō, dormīre, dormīvī, dormitūrus to sleep 8
dubitō, dubitāre, dubitāvī, dubitātus to hesitate, doubt 2
dūcō, dūcere, dūxī, ductus to lead 8
dulcis, dulce sweet; pleasant 10
dum (+ indicative) while, as long as 12
(+ subjunctive) until 26
dūrus, dūra, dūrum hard, harsh, rough 31
dux, ducis m. (military) leader, commander 7
ē, ex (+ abl.) out of, from 4
efficiō, efficere, effēcī, effectus to bring about, produce 18
ego, nōs I, we 7
enim (never appears as the first word in a sentence - for; in fact; yes, truly 6
“postpositive”)
eō, īre, iī or īvī, itūrus to go 23
epistula, epistulae f. letter 13
equidem truly, indeed 24
 Latin to English Vocabulary 357

equus, equī m. horse 15

ēripiō, ēripere, ēripuī, ēreptus to snatch away; rescue, free 28
errō, errāre, errāvī, errātus to wander; err 4
et (coord. conj.) and 2
et ... et both ... and
et (adv.) even; also 9
etiam also; even 11
exemplum, exemplī n. example, model 5
exeō, exīre, exiī or -īvī, exitūrus to go out, exit 23
exercitus, exercitūs m. army 16
exspectō, exspectāre, exspectāvī, exspectātus to wait for, expect; hope for 26
fābula, fābulae f. story 3
faciēs, faciēī f. face; appearance 16
facile easily 4
facilis, facile easy 10
faciō, facere, fēcī, factus to do; make 8
factum, factī n. deed, act, exploit, achievement 4
fāma, fāmae f. fame, report, reputation; rumor 6
fās n. (indeclinable) right; divine law 31
fās est it is right
nefās est it is wrong
fātum, fātī n. fate, destiny 17
fēlīx, fēlīcis fortunate, lucky 10
fēmina, fēminae f. woman 1
ferō, ferre, tulī, lātus to carry, bear, endure; report, say 23
ferōx, ferōcis fierce, bold; wild, savage 32
ferrum, ferrī n. iron; sword 17
ferus, fera, ferum wild, fierce; cruel; uncivilized 32
fessus, fessa, fessum tired 13
festīnō, festīnāre, festīnāvī, festīnātus to hurry, hasten 4
fidēlis, fidēle faithful, loyal (to) 12
fidēs, fideī f. faith, trust; loyalty, trustworthiness 16
fīdō, fīdere, fīsus sum (+ dat.) to trust, confide in 22
fīlia, fīliae f. daughter 6
dat. pl. and abl. pl. = fīliābus
fīlius, fīliī m. (voc. sg. = fīlī) son 3
fīniō, fīnīre, fīnīvī, fīnītus to end, finish; limit; die 9
*fīnis, fīnis m. end; border; (pl.) boundary, territory 13
fīō, fierī, factus sum to happen, occur; be done, be made 28
flōreō, flōrēre, flōruī to bloom; prosper, flourish 24
flūctus, flūctūs m. wave; commotion 16
flūmen, flūminis n. river 12
forsitan perhaps 24
forte by chance 12
fortis, forte brave; strong 10
fortiter bravely, forcefully 20
fortūna, fortūnae f. chance, luck, fortune 1
frangō, frangere, frēgī, frāctus break, shatter, wreck 15
frāter, frātris m. brother 7
frūctus, frūctūs m. fruit, enjoyment; profit 24
fruor, fruī, frūctus sum (+ abl.) to enjoy 22
fugiō, fugere, fūgī, fugitūrus to flee (from), escape, avoid 9
fungor, fungī, fūnctus sum (+ abl.) to perform, do 22
Gallia, Galliae f. Gaul 15
358 Introduction to Latin

gaudeō, gaudēre, gāvīsus sum to rejoice, be glad; delight in (+ abl.) 19

gaudium, gaudiī n. joy, delight 17
*gēns, gentis f. clan, tribe, family; nation; people 12
genū, genūs n. knee 16
genus, generis n. birth, origin; kind; race 14
gerō, gerere, gessī, gestus to bear, carry on; wear 12
bellum gerō to wage war
gladius, gladiī m. sword 28
glōria, glōriae f. glory, fame; ambition, boasting 24
Graecia, Graeciae f. Greece 20
Graecus, Graeca, Graecum Greek 18
grātia, grātiae f. grace; favor, kindness; gratitude 10
grātiā (+ gen.) for the sake of, because of
grātiās agere (+ dat.) to thank
gravis, grave heavy; serious, important; difficult 21
habeō, habēre, habuī, habitus to have, consider 1
hīc here 31
hic, haec, hoc this 9
hinc from this place; hence 31
hodiē today 13
homō, hominis m. human being, man 7
honestus, honesta, honestum honest, worthy, honorable 31
honor, honōris m. honor, respect; public office 14
hōra, hōrae f. hour, season 11
hortor, hortārī, hortātus sum to urge, encourage 24
*hostis, hostis m. (usually in pl.) enemy (n.b. hostis is an enemy of the state; inimīcus 14
(Ch. 12) is a personal enemy)
humus, humī f. ground, earth 15
iaceō, iacēre, iacuī, iacitūrus to lie (e.g. on the ground), lie dead 1
iactō, iactāre, iactāvī, iactātus to throw 5
iam now; already 11
ibi there 19
īdem, eadem, idem the same 18
igitur (postpositive) therefore 16
ignārus, ignāra, ignārum ignorant (of ), unaware (of ) 31
*ignis, ignis m. fire 10
ille, illa, illud that 9
impedimentum, impedimentī n. hindrance, obstacle 31
imperātor, imperātōris m. general; emperor 27
imperium, imperiī n. command, (military) power 3
imperō, imperāre, imperāvī, imperātus (+ dat) to command, order; rule (over) 28
impetus, impetūs m. attack; charge; impulse 16
impleō, implēre, implēvī, implētus to fill up; complete 3
in (+ abl.) in, on 4
in (+ acc.) into, onto, against 4
incendō, incendere, incendī, incēnsus to set fire to, burn; inflame 15
incipiō, incipere, incēpī, inceptus to begin 9
incolō, incolere, incoluī to inhabit, to live in 13
inde from there; then, from that time forth 16
indignus, indigna, indignum unworthy; undeserved; shameful 15
ineō, inīre, iniī or -īvī, initūrus to enter; begin 23
īnfēlix, īnfēlīcis unhappy, unlucky 23
īnferō, īnferre, intulī, illātus to bring in, introduce; inflict 23
ingenium, ingeniī, n. talent, (innate) nature, character 25
 Latin to English Vocabulary 359

ingēns, ingentis huge; mighty 10

ingredior, ingredī, ingressus sum to enter; march, walk 22
inimīcus, inimīca, inimīcum unfriendly, hostile (to) 12
iniūria, iniūriae f. injury, harm; insult; wrong 25
inquit he said (introduces a direct quotation) 19
īnsidiae, īnsidiārum f. (pl.) ambush, plot; treachery 31
intellegō, intellegere, intellēxī, intellēctus to understand 21
inter (+ acc.) between, among 9
interficiō, interficere, interfēcī, interfectus to kill, destroy 17
inveniō, invenīre, invēnī, inventus to find; discover, invent 13
ipse, ipsa, ipsum self; himself, herself, itself, themselves; very 18
īra, īrae f. anger 6
īrātus, īrāta, īrātum angry 8
is, ea, id he, she, it, they; this, that 8
ita thus, so, in this way 13
Ītalia, Ītaliae f. Italy 6
itaque and so, therefore 12
iter, itineris n. journey, path, route; a day’s march 12
iterum again, a second time 30
iubeō, iubēre, iūssī, iūssus to order, command 20
iūdex, iūdicis m. judge 27
iūdicium, iūdiciī n. court; trial; judgment 14
iūdicō, iūdicāre, iūdicāvī, iūdicātus to judge; to decide 8
iungō, iungere, iūnxī, iūnctus to join, unite, connect; yoke 25
iūs, iūris n. right, law; justice 7
iūstus, iūsta, iūstum just, fair 21
iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtus to help; please 1
labor, labōris m. work, labor, effort; hardship 15
labōrō, labōrāre, labōrāvī, labōrātus to work, strive 1
lacrima, lacrimae f. tear 9
laetus, laeta, laetum happy; fertile 6
lātus, lāta, lātum wide, broad 26
laudō, laudāre, laudāvī, laudātus to praise 1
laus, laudis f. praise 15
lēgātus, lēgātī m. delegate, envoy, ambassador; legion commander 14
legō, legere, lēgī, lēctus to read; choose, select 8
levis, leve light, easy; swift 18
lex, lēgis f. law 7
līber, lībera, līberum free 5
liber, librī m. book 3
līberī, līberōrum m. (pl.) children 19
lībertās, lībertātis f. freedom, liberty 7
licet, licēre, licuit (impersonal + dat.) it is allowed, it is lawful 31
littera, litterae f. letter (of the alphabet); (pl.) letter, literature 8
lītus, lītoris n. shore, beach, coast 14
locus, locī m. (in pl. sometimes also neuter) place, position 2
longus, longa, longum long 5
loquor, loquī, locūtus sum to speak, talk, say 22
lūmen, lūminis n. light, lamp, torch; eye 31
lūna, lūnae f. moon 2
lūx, lūcis f. light 7
maestus, maesta, maestum sad, mournful 26
magnus, magna, magnum large, great; important 5
male badly 29
360 Introduction to Latin

mālō, mālle, māluī to prefer, want (something) more 20

malus, mala, malum bad 5
maneō, manēre, mānsī, mansūrus to remain, stay 6
manus, manūs f. hand; band (of men) 16
*mare, maris n. sea 10
abl. sg. = mare and marī
māter, mātris f. mother 7
medius, media, medium middle; middle of (medium mare = “the 13
middle of the sea”)
memoria, memoriae f. memory, recollection; history 24
*mēns, mentis f. mind, judgment, reason 10
mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum to lie, speak or say falsely 25
metuō, metuere, metuī, metūtus to fear, dread 27
metus, metūs m. fear, dread; anxiety 16
meus, mea, meum my, mine 5
mīles, mīlitis m. soldier 9
mīrābilis, mīrābile wonderful, extraordinary 32
mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum to wonder (at), be surprised at; admire 22
misceō, miscēre, miscuī, mixtus to mix, mingle; stir up, disturb 11
miser, misera, miserum miserable, unhappy 6
mittō, mittere, mīsī, missus to send 8
moenia, moenium n. (pl.) walls; fortifications 8
moneō, monēre, monuī, monitus to advise, warn, remind 1
*mōns, montis m. mountain 13
mōnstrō, mōnstrāre, mōnstrāvī, mōnstrātus to show, demonstrate 3
mora, morae f. delay 22
morior, morī, mortuus sum to die 25
moror, morārī, morātus sum to delay 22
*mors, mortis f. death 10
mortālis, mortāle mortal, transient; human 20
mōs est it is the custom, habit, way 28
mōs, mōris m. custom, tradition 18
mōtus, mōtūs m. emotion, impulse; movement 24
moveō, movēre, mōvī, mōtus to move; excite; affect 6
multitūdō, multitūdinis f. multitude, great number, crowd 20
multus, multa, multum much; many (pl.) 5
mūrus, mūrī m. wall; fortification wall for a city 25
nam (sometimes used as a particle) for (= because); indeed, truly 13
nārrō, nārrāre, nārrāvī, nārrātus to tell (a story) 3
nāscor, nāscī, nātus sum to be born 30
nātūra, nātūrae f. nature 2
nātus, nātī m. son 30
nauta, nautae m. sailor 1
nāvigō, nāvigāre, nāvigāvī, nāvigātus to sail, sail over (across); navigate 4
*nāvis, nāvis f. ship 13
nē (adv.) not (used with imperative & perfect subjunctive) 25
nē in order that … not (used with subjunctive) 25
nec or neque and not, and … not 10
nec ... nec; neque ... neque neither ... nor
necesse est it is necessary 20
nefās n. (indeclinable) sin, crime (against divine law), wrong 26
neglegō, neglegere, neglēxī, neglēctus to ignore, neglect 24
negō, negāre, negāvī, negātus to deny, say that ... not 19
nēmō m.; acc. sg. = nēminem no one 3
 Latin to English Vocabulary 361

nesciō, nescīre, nescīvī, nescītus not to know 19

neuter, neutra, neutrum neither (of two) 11
nihil n. (indeclinable) nothing 8
nīl (contracted form)
nisi = nī unless, if … not 27
noceō, nocēre, nocuī, nocitūrus (+ dat.) to harm, be harmful to 7
nōlō, nōlle, nōluī to be unwilling, not want 20
nōmen, nōminis n. name 7
nōn not 4
nōs we 7
noster, nostra, nostrum our, ours 5
novus, nova, novum new; strange 6
*nox, noctis f. night 11
nūbēs, nūbis f. cloud 14
nūllus, nūlla, nūllum not any, no 11
num signals a question which expects the answer “no”; 27
whether (in indirect question §126)
nūmen, nūminis n. divine will, divine power 11
numquam never 20
nunc now, at present 6
nūntiō, nūntiāre, nūntiāvī, nūntiātus to announce, report 6
nūntius, nūntiī, m. messenger; message 17
ob (+ acc.) because of 10
occāsiō, occāsiōnis f. occasion, opportunity 29
oculus, oculī m. eye 4
ōdī, ōdisse to hate; dislike 27
odium, odiī n. hatred, unpopularity 27
offerō, offerre, obtulī, oblātus to offer, bring forward 23
ōlim once (upon a time), one day (in the future) 9
omnis, omne all, every 10
oportet, oportēre, oportuit (impersonal + acc.) it is right, one should; it is necessary 31
oppidum, oppidī n. town 28
ops, opis f. power, help; (pl.) wealth, resources 14
optō, optāre, optāvī, optātus to choose, desire, wish for 1
opus, operis n. work, labor, task 25
opus est (+ dat.) there is a need / use (for)
*orbis, orbis m. circle; universe 18
orbis terrārum the world
ōrō, ōrāre, ōrāvī, ōrātus to pray, beg, beg for (often with 2 accusatives, 6
one of the person, the other of the thing)
ostendō, ostendere, ostendī, ostentus/ostēnsus to show, reveal 19
pār, paris equal (to) 12
pāreō, pārēre, pāruī, paritūrus (+ dat.) to obey, be obedient to 7
parō, parāre, parāvī, parātus to prepare 3
*pars, partis f. part, share, direction 10
parvus, parva, parvum small 5
passus, passūs m. pace, footstep 16
mille passūs; mīlia passuum (pl.) mile (lit. “1000 paces”); miles
pateō, patēre, patuī to be open, stand open 17
pater, patris m. father; senator 7
patior, patī, passus sum to suffer, allow 22
patria, patriae f. country, fatherland 9
paucī, paucae, pauca (pl.) few 13
paulus, paula, paulum little, small 32
362 Introduction to Latin

pāx, pācis f. peace 7

pectus, pectoris n. breast, chest; heart 15
pecūnia, pecūniae f. money, property 1
per (+ acc.) through, along; because of; by (in oaths and 10
prayers)
pereō, perīre, periī or -īvī, peritūrus to perish, die 23
perīculum, perīculī n. danger 15
perītus, perīta, perītum experienced, skilful 29
persuādeō, persuādēre, persuāsī, to persuade 17
persuāsus (+ dat.)
pēs, pedis m. foot 12
petō, petere, petīvī or petiī, petītus to seek, go after; ask; attack 9
philosophia, philosophiae f. philosophy 27
placeō, placēre, placuī, placitūrus (+ dat.) to please, be pleasing to 7
plēnus, plēna, plēnum (+ gen. or abl.) full (of ), filled (with) 8
plūs, plūris n. (often + gen.) more 21
poena, poenae f. penalty 26
poenam dare to pay the penalty
poēta, poētae m. poet 9
pōnō, pōnere, posuī, positus to put, place 13
*pons, pontis m. bridge 25
pontus, pontī m. sea, ocean 3
populus, populī m. the people, a people, nation 6
portō, portāre, portāvī, portātus to carry, bring 3
possum, posse, potuī to be able, “I can” 7
post (+ acc.) after, behind 4
posteā afterwards 26
postquam after; when 12
postulō, postulāre, postulāvī, postulātus to demand, claim; prosecute 20
potēns, potentis powerful; able 10
potior, potīrī, potītus sum (+ abl.) to get hold of, acquire 22
pōtus, pōtūs m. drink 22
praebeō, praebēre, praebuī, praebitus to show; offer, provide 9
prīmō at first 32
prīmum first, in the first place, for the first time 30
prīmus, prīma, prīmum first 5
prīnceps, prīncipis m. leader, chief; first citizen, emperor 17
prius before, sooner 30
prō (+ abl.) in front of; on behalf of; instead of 4
probō, probāre, probāvī, probātus to approve (of ); prove, show 29
proelium, proeliī n. battle 15
profīciscor, profīciscī, profectus sum to set out, depart 22
prohibeō, prohibēre, prohibuī, prohibitus to prohibit, keep from – to keep someone 15
(acc.) from something (abl. – separation)
propinquus, propinqua, propinquum near (to), neighboring; near, not far off (of time) 22
propinquus, propinquī m. relative, kinsman
propter (+ acc.) because of, on account of 6
prōvincia, prōvinciae f. province 15
puella, puellae f. girl 2
puer, puerī m. boy 2
pugnō, pugnāre, pugnāvī, pugnātus to fight 3
pulcher, pulchra, pulchrum beautiful, handsome; fine 5
putō, putāre, putāvī, putātus to think, consider; suppose 19
quaerō, quaerere, quaesīvī (or -iī), quaesītus to look for, seek; ask 21
 Latin to English Vocabulary 363

quam (rather) than, as (in comparison) 21

quam (adv.) how, how much; as as possible (with 22
superlative)
quamquam although 17
quantus, quanta, quantum how much 25
-que and 2
quī, quae, quod (rel. pron.) who, which, that *also a subordinating 13
conjunction
quī, quae, quod (interrog. adj.) which ?, what ? 18
quia because 12
quīdam, quaedam, quoddam a certain , a sort of 21
quidem (postpositive) indeed, certainly, in fact 25
nē ... quidem not ... even
quis, quid who?, what? 18
quisquis, quicquid (quidquid) whoever, whatever; everyone who 26
quod because; since 12
quōmodo how 28
quoniam since, seeing that 21
quoque also 26
quot (indeclinable) how many? 28
quotiēns how often? 28
rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptus to seize, snatch, carry off 14
ratiō, ratiōnis f. reason, judgment; method 11
recipiō, recipere, recēpī, receptus to receive, accept; take back, regain 32
rēctus, rēcta, rēctum straight, upright; right; virtuous, honest 24
redeō, redīre, rediī or -īvī, reditūrus to go back, return 23
referō, referre, rettulī, relātus to carry back, bring back, report 23
rēgīna, rēgīnae f. queen 6
rēgnum, rēgnī n. kingdom, royal power 2
regō, regere, rēxī, rēctus to rule 8
relinquō, relinquere, relīquī, relictus to leave, abandon 9
reliquus, reliqua, reliquum remaining, rest (of ) 13
requīrō, requīrere, requīsīvī (or -iī), requīsītus to search for; ask, inquire after; demand 28
rēs, reī f. thing, matter, business; court case 16
rēs pūblica, reī pūblicae f. state, republic 16
resistō, resistere, restitī (often + dat.) to resist, oppose, make a stand 21
respondeō, respondēre, respondī, respōnsus to answer, reply; correspond to 19
rēx, rēgis m. king 7
rīdeō, rīdēre, rīsī, rīsus to laugh, laugh at 2
rogō, rogāre, rogāvī, rogātus to ask, ask for 28
Rōma, Rōmae f. Rome 13
Rōmānus, Rōmāna, Rōmānum; Roman 6
Rōmānī, Rōmānōrum m. (pl.) (as a noun) the Romans 6
Rōmulus, Rōmulī m. Romulus (legendary founder of Rome) 3
rosa, rosae f. rose 1
rūs, rūris n. the country(side) 15
sacer, sacra, sacrum sacred 20
saepe often 4
sapiēns, sapientis wise, sensible 20
sapientia, sapientiae f. wisdom 5
saxum, saxī n. rock; cliff 4
scelus, sceleris n. crime, wicked deed, wickedness 18
sciō, scīre, scīvī, scītus to know; know how to (+ inf.) 19
scrībō, scrībere, scrīpsī, scrīptus to write 8
364 Introduction to Latin

secundus, secunda, secundum second; favorable 11

sed but 2
sedeō, sedēre, sēdī, sessūrus to sit 4
semper always 4
senātus, senātūs m. senate 16
senex, senis m. old man 18
sēnsus, sēnsūs m. sense, perception; emotion; idea 27
sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsus to feel, perceive 8
sequor, sequī, secūtus sum to follow, accompany; pursue 22
serviō, servīre, servīvī or serviī, servītūrus (+ dat.) to serve 9
servus, servī m. slave, servant 17
sī if 12
sīc thus, so 11
signum, signī n. sign, token, signal; (military) standard 17
silva, silvae f. forest, wood 3
similis, simile similar (to), like 12
sīn but if, if however 27
sine (+ abl.) without 6
sinō, sinere, sīvī, sītus to allow, permit 20
socius, sociī m. companion, comrade, ally 27
sōl, sōlis m. sun 26
soleō, solēre, solitus sum to be accustomed 2
sōlus, sōla, sōlum alone, only 11
nōn sōlum ... sed etiam not only ... but also 11
spectō, spectāre, spectāvī, spectātus to watch, look at 13
spērō, spērāre, spērāvī, spērātus to hope, hope for (+ acc. and future inf.) 19
spēs, speī f. hope 16
statim immediately, at once 28
stō, stāre, stetī, statūrus to stand 14
studium, studiī n. eagerness, zeal; study 29
sub (+ abl.) under, beneath 5
sub (+ acc.) to the foot/base of, along under (implying motion) 5
subeō, subīre, subiī or -īvī, subitūrus to go up; to undergo; to approach 23
subitō suddenly 11
suī, sibi, sē himself, herself, itself, themselves 13
sum, esse, fuī, futūrus to be, exist 5
super (+ acc.) over, above, on (top of ) 15
superō, superāre, superāvī, superātus to overcome, conquer, surpass 1
superus, supera, superum upper, higher, above 20
superī, superōrum m. (pl.) gods 20
surgō, surgere, surrēxī, surrēctus to get up, (a)rise 14
suus, sua, suum his, her, its, their own 15
taceō, tacēre, tacuī, tacitūrus to be silent (“I am silent”) 1
tālis, tāle such, of such a kind 20
tam so, to such a degree 16
tamen however, nevertheless, yet 9
tamquam as, just as, just like 29
tandem finally 4
tantus, tanta, tantum so much, so great 14
tantum only 14
tellūs, tellūris f. the earth; land, ground 31
tēlum, tēlī n. weapon; spear, sword 28
tempestās, tempestātis f. storm; weather 28
templum, templī n. temple, shrine 3
 Latin to English Vocabulary 365

temptō, temptāre, temptāvī, temptātus to try, attempt; test, prove 17

tempus, temporis n. time, period of time (e.g. a season); opportunity 11
teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentus to hold, possess, keep; restrain 6
terra, terrae f. land, earth, soil; country 5
terreō, terrēre, terruī, territus to terrify, scare 1
timeō, timēre, timuī to fear, be afraid (of ) 1
timor, timōris m. fear, terror 9
tollō, tollere, sustulī, sublātus to lift up, raise; remove, carry off, steal 23
tot so many, as many 18
totiēns so often 25
tōtus, tōta, tōtum whole, entire 11
trādō, trādere, trādidī, trāditus to hand over, surrender; hand down, report 19
trahō, trahere, trāxī, tractus to drag, pull; derive 14
trāns (+ acc.) across, beyond 4
trānseō, trānsīre, trānsiī or -īvī, trānsitūrus to go across, cross 23
tremō, tremere, tremuī to tremble, shake 26
tristis, triste sad; gloomy 20
Trōia, Trōiae, f. Troy 14
Trōiānus, Trōiāna, Trōiānum Trojan 30
tū, vōs you, you (pl.) 7
tum then, at that time; next 4
tunc then 6
turba, turbae f. crowd 3
turpis, turpe shameful, base; ugly, foul 21
tuus, tua, tuum your, yours, your own (sg.) 5
ubi when; where 12
ūllus, ūlla, ūllum any 11
unda, undae f. wave, waters; sea 14
unde from where, whence 26
undique on all sides 28
ūnus, ūna, ūnum one 11
*urbs, urbis f. city 10
ut in order that; so that; 25
as 32
uter, utra, utrum which? (of two) 11
uterque, utraque, utrumque both, each (of two) 14
ūtilis, ūtile useful, profitable 29
utinam signals a wish; if only, would that 24
ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum (+ abl.) to use 22
uxor, uxōris f. wife 13
valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus to be well, healthy; to be strong 8
valē, valēte (imperative) goodbye, farewell 8
-ve or 30
veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventūrus to come 8
ventus, ventī m. wind, breeze 3
verbum, verbī n. word 4
vereor, verērī, veritus sum to fear, be afraid; respect 27
vēritās, vēritātis f. truth 8
vērō (postpositive) in fact, truly, indeed 14
vertō, vertere, vertī, versus to turn, turn around; destroy; change 13
vērus, vēra, vērum true 29
vērum, vērī n. truth, what is true 29
vescor, vescī (+ abl.) to eat, feed on 22
vester, vestra, vestrum your, yours (pl.) 5
366 Introduction to Latin

vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitus to forbid; order ... not 20

via, viae f. road; way 4
victōria, victōriae f. victory 27
videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsus to see 1
videor, vidērī, vīsus sum (often with dative of the to seem (see Ch. 15); be seen; “it seems best 14
person) to ”?
vincō, vincere, vīcī, victus to conquer; win 13
vīnum, vīnī n. wine 17
vir, virī m. man; occasionally “husband” 2
virtūs, virtūtis f. courage, excellence, virtue 7
vīs, vīs f. power, force, violence; 23
vīrēs, vīrium (pl.) strength 23
vīta, vītae f. life 6
vītō, vītāre, vītāvī, vītātus to avoid 15
vīvō, vīvere, vīxī to live, be alive 14
vocō, vocāre, vocāvī, vocātus to call, summon 1
volō, velle, voluī to wish, want, be willing 20
voluptās, voluptātis f. pleasure, delight 29
volvō, volvere, volvī, volūtus to roll, turn/twist around 14
vōs you (pl.) 7
vōx, vōcis f. voice 18
vulnerō, vulnerāre, vulnerāvī, vulnerātus to wound 17
vulnus, vulneris n. wound 17
vultus, vultūs m. expression; face 16
 Intransitive Verbs with the
Future Active Participle
in the fourth principal part slot
absum, abesse, āfuī, āfutūrus to be absent, away, distant 12
adsum, adesse, adfuī, adfutūrus to be present, be near 24
adveniō, advenīre, advēnī, adventūrus to arrive, come to; happen 21
ambulō, ambulāre, ambulāvī, ambulātūrus to walk 4
appropinquō, appropinquāre, to approach, draw near 26
appropinquāvī, appropinquātūrus
ardeō, ardēre, arsī, arsūrus to burn, be on fire, glow; be eager 16
bibō, bibere, bibī, bibitūrus to drink 24
cadō, cadere, cecidī, cāsūrus to fall 16
careō, carēre, caruī, caritūrus (+ abl.) to be without, free from; need, miss 7
concēdō, concēdere, concessī, concessūrus to go away, withdraw; yield to, 27
  submit; allow; forgive
concurrō, concurrere, concucurrī, concursūrus to charge, rush together 13
conveniō, convenīre, convēnī, conventūrus to assemble, gather; meet; agree 29
currō, currere, cucurrī, cursūrus to run 13
discēdō, discēdere, discessī, discessūrus to depart, go away; separate 11
doleō, dolēre, doluī, dolitūrus to grieve, mourn, suffer pain 6
dormiō, dormīre, dormīvī, dormitūrus to sleep 8
eō, īre, iī or ivī, itūrus to go 23
abeō, abīre, abiī, or -īvī, abitūrus   to go away, depart
adeō, adīre, adiī, or -īvī, aditūrus   to go towards, approach
exeō, exīre, exiī, or -īvī, exitūrus   to go out, exit
ineō, inīre, iniī, or -īvī, initūrus   to enter; begin
pereō, perīre, periī, or -īvī, peritūrus   to perish, die
redeō, redīre, rediī or -īvī, reditūrus   to go back, return
subeō, subīre, subiī or -īvī, subitūrus   to go up; to undergo; to approach
trānseō, trānsīre, trānsiī, or -īvī, trānsitūrus   to go across, cross
fugiō, fugere, fūgī, fugitūrus to flee (from), escape, avoid 9
iaceō, iacēre, iacuī, iacitūrus to lie (e.g. on the ground), lie dead 1
maneō, manēre, mānsī, mansūrus to remain, stay 6
noceō, nocēre, nocuī, nocitūrus (+ dat.) to harm, be harmful to 7
pāreō, pārēre, pāruī, paritūrus (+ dat.) to obey, be obedient to 7
placeō, placēre, placuī, placitūrus (+ dat.) to please, be pleasing to 7
sedeō, sedēre, sēdī, sessūrus to sit 4
serviō, servīre, sērvīvī or serviī, servītūrus (+ dat.) to serve 9
stō, stāre, stetī, statūrus to stand 14
sum, esse, fuī, futūrus to be, exist 5
taceō, tacēre, tacuī, tacitūrus to be silent (“I am silent”) 1
valeō, valēre, valuī, valitūrus to be well, healthy; to be strong 8
veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventūrus to come 8
Verbs which lack the participial stem
accidō, accidere, accidī to fall at or near; happen 24
367
368 Introduction to Latin

discō, discere, didicī to learn 13

flōreō, flōrēre, flōruī to bloom; prosper, flourish 24
incolō, incolere, incoluī to live (in), inhabit 13
pateō, patēre, patuī to be open, stand open 17
possum, posse, potuī to be able, “I can” 7
resistō, resistere, restitī (often + dat.) to resist, oppose, make a stand 21
timeō, timēre, timuī to fear, be afraid (of ) 1
tremō, tremere, tremuī to tremble 26
 Index
References are to page numbers.
Ablative case
forms of 15, 16, 17, 30, 59-60, 85, 143, 144
review of 294
uses of
absolute 159-160
accompaniment 42
agent 129-130
cause 89
comparison 192
degree of difference 293
description (quality) 293
manner 42-43
means (instrument) 30, 129, 263
object of verb 63-64, 206
place from which (motion away) 30
place where 30
separation / source 142, 294, 327
specification (respect) 139, 291
time when 103
time within which 104
Accent 3
Accusative case
forms of 15, 16, 17, 59-60, 85, 143, 144
review of 274
uses of
degree 111-112
direct object 13-14
extent (of space) 111-112
object complement 71-72
place to which (motion towards) 30
purpose (ad + gerund) 262
subject of infinitive 175, 184
time – length (duration) 92
two accusatives 57, 72, 75
Adjective
agreement of 39
comparison of 189-191
declension of
first and second 38
third 86-88
genitive in -ius 101
comparative 189-191
superlative 189-191
definition of 6, 29
interrogative 166
369
370 Introduction to Latin

possessive 138
relative clause, adjectival use 117-118, 272
substantive 40
verbal – see gerundive; participle
Adverb
comparative 203-204
definition of 6, 29
superlative 203-204
Agent
ablative 129-130
dative 265
subject 6, 125
Agreement
noun & adjective 39
subject & verb 17, 18
Alphabet 1
Antecedent 118, 165
Case
definition of 13
review & common uses 273-274, 285, 294
see specific uses under case names – ablative,
accusative, dative, genitive, locative,
nominative, vocative
Cause, expressions of 89
Chunk 32-33, 104
Clause marker (subordinating conjunction) 109-110, 117, 228-229, 239, 246-247, 255-256, 292
Clauses, dependent (subordinate)
adjectival 117-118, 132-133, 200, 272, 281-282
adverbial 109-110, 159-160, 200, 228-229, 239, 246-247, 273,
281-282, 292
causal 110, 159-160, 239
characteristic 272
circumstantial 159-160, 239
comparison 292
concessive 159-160, 239
conditions 110, 159-160, 246-247
definition of 109
fearing 256
indirect command 255
indirect question 254-255
indirect statement 175
noun 175, 184, 200, 253-256, 282
place 110
purpose (final) 228-229, 273
relative 117, 165, 272-273
result (consecutive) 229, 254
temporal 110, 159-160, 239
Commands
direct – with imperative 23
direct – with subjunctive 221
indirect 255
negative 183, 222, 237
prohibition 222, 237
Comparative
of adjectives 189-191
 Index 371

of adverbs 203-204
Comparison
ablative of 192
definition of 189
of adjectives 189-191
of adverbs 203-204
with quam 192
Conditions
with indicative 109-110, 246-247
with subjunctive 246-247
Conjugation
definition of 7
first 8
second 8
third and third -iō 69-70
fourth 69-70
Conjunctions
coordinating 18, 271-272
definition of 6, 18, 109
subordinating (clause marker) 109-110, 117, 228-229, 239, 246-247, 255-256, 292
Consonants 1-2, 154
Core items 6, 23, 32, 41, 48, 63, 95, 153
Dative case
forms of 15, 16, 17, 25, 59-60, 85, 143, 144
review of 285
uses of
agent 265
double 284
indirect object 25
(indirect) object of compound verbs 283
object of intransitive verb 63-64
possession 54
purpose 284
reference (interest) 25
with adjectives 112, 262
Declension
definition of 14
first 15
second 16-17
third (consonant stem) 59-61
third (i-stem) 85-86
fourth 143
fifth 144
Deponent & semi-deponent verbs 204-205
Dictionary entry 9, 15, 30, 37
Dictionary Practice / Form Identification 48, 94, 152, 200, 274, 286, 295
Diphthongs 1
Eius to show possession 138
English abbreviations & phrases 50, 96, 154, 202
Eō, īre and compounds 211-212
Expectations 6, 9, 10, 18-19, 25-26, 30-32, 63, 175, 192, 238, 247,
254, 255, 282
Factitive (sentence pattern) 71
Ferō, ferre and compounds 212-213
372 Introduction to Latin

Fīō, fierī 253

Gap 53-54
Gender 14-15, 61, 86
Genitive case
forms of 14, 15, 16-17, 24, 59-60, 85, 143, 144
review of 285
uses of
after causā & grātiā 89, 262
explanatory 40-41, 262
objective 40-41, 262
of the whole (partitive) 24
possession 24
purpose 262
subjective 40-41
Gerund 261-263
Gerundive 263-265
Hic, haec, hoc 78-79
Īdem, eadem, idem 168
Ille, illa, illud 78-79
Imperative
forms of
deponent verbs 205
first and second conjugation 23
third and fourth conjugation 70
irregular 70
use of 23
Impersonal constructions 254
Indicative
forms of
first and second conjugation 8, 51-52, 97-100, 126-127, 135-136
third and fourth conjugation 69, 97-100, 126-127, 135-136
uses of 9
Indirect command 255
Indirect question 254-255
Indirect statement 175-177
Infinitive
definition of 8
forms of
first and second conjugation 8, 128, 137, 173
third and fourth conjugation 70, 128, 137, 173
review of forms 174
uses of
complementary 9
indirect statement 175-177
noun, as a (subjective) 54
objective 184
Ipse, ipsa, ipsum 167
Is, ea, id 71, 79
Linking (sentence pattern) 41-42
Locative case 13, 145, 294
Mālō, mālle 183, 221, 228
Modification / Modifier
Adjectival 41, 48, 95, 153, 200
 Index 373

Adverbial 31-32 , 48, 95, 153, 200

Mood, definition of 7
see specific uses under mood names –
imperative, indicative, subjunctive
Nōlō, nōlle 183, 221, 228
Nominative case
forms of 15, 16-17, 59-60, 85, 143, 144
review of 273
uses of
subject 13
subject complement 42
(predicate nominative)
Noun
definition of 5, 14
declension of
first 15
second 16-17
third 59-61
fourth 143
fifth 144
infinitive as 54
Number, definition of 7, 14
Numerals 102-103
Object
ablative 63-64, 206
complement 71-72
dative 63-64
direct (accusative) 6, 13-14
indirect 25
Parts of speech, overview 5-6
Participles
definition of 155
forms of 156-157
uses of
adjectival 155, 158
ablative absolute 159-160
tenses of 157-158
Passive Periphrastic 265
Person, definition of 7
Place, expressions of 28, 30, 145
Possession
adjective, possessive 138
dative of 54
eius 138
genitive of 24
Possum, posse
indicative and infinitive 63, 174
subjunctive 221, 228, 236
Postpositive 57
Predicate nominative 42
Preposition, definition of 6, 29-30
Principal parts, definition of 9
Pronouns
definition of 6, 62
374 Introduction to Latin

demonstrative 78-80
indefinite 192
intensive 167-168
interrogative 166
personal 62, 71
reflexive 119-120
relative 117, 165, 271-273
Pronunciation 1-3
Purpose, expressions of
dative 284
gerund 262
gerundive 262
relative clauses 273
supine 291
ut clauses 228-229
Question words 48-49, 95, 153, 200-201
Questions
direct 9
indirect 254-255
Quīdam, quaedam, quodam 192
Reading skills 18-19, 25-26, 32-33
Roots 95
Sentence, definition of 5
Sentence patterns
definition of 6-7
factitive 71-72
intransitive 7
linking 41-42
passive 129
special intransitive 63-64, 206
transitive 7
Sentence, review & parts 5-7, 48, 95, 153
Sequence of Tenses 238
Statements 9
Syllables 2-3
Subject, definition of 6
Subject complement (predicate nominative) 42
Subjunctive
definition of 219
forms of
imperfect active, passive 227-228
present active, passive 219-220
perfect active, passive 235, 245
pluperfect active, passive 235, 245
uses of
characteristic 272
circumstance, cause, concession (cum 239
clauses)
conditions 246-247
deliberative 222, 237
doubt 222
fearing clauses 256
hortatory (exhortation) 221, 237
indirect command 255
 Index 375

indirect question 254-255

jussive (command) 221, 237
optative (wish) 222, 237
potential 222, 237
prohibitions (negative commands) 222, 237
purpose clauses 228-229, 273
result clauses
adverbial 229
noun 254
subordinate clauses in indirect speech 281
time, with anticipation 239
uses of tenses 237, 238
Substantive use of adjective 40
Sum
future and imperfect indicative 53-54
infinitives 41, 174
participle 156
present indicative 41
perfect indicative 98
pluperfect indicative 99
future perfect indicative 100
subjunctive 221, 228, 236
Superlative
of adjectives 189-191
of adverbs 203-204
Supine 291
Syllables 2-3
Tenses (indicative of regular conjugations)
definition of 7
future 52, 77-78, 127
future perfect 100, 137-138
imperfect 51-52, 77, 127
perfect 97-98, 135
pluperfect 99, 136
present 8, 69, 126
primary, secondary (definition of ) 238
Time, expressions of 103-104
Ut
with indicative 292
with subjunctive 228-229, 254, 255
Verbs
defective 9
definition of 5, 6, 7
deponent 205
finite 7
infinitive
definition of 8
see specific forms and uses under infinitive
intransitive 7
mood
definition of 7
see specific uses under mood names –
imperative, indicative, subjunctive
non-finite 8, 155
376 Introduction to Latin

participle
definition of 155
see specific forms and uses under
participles
principal parts 9
special intransitive 63-64, 206
stem 8
tense
definition of 7
primary 238
secondary 238
see specific tenses under tenses
transitive 7
voice, definition of 7, 125
Vīs, vīs, f. 213
Vocative case, direct address 13, 24, 59, 273
Voice
active 7
passive 125, 135
Volō, velle 183, 221, 228
Vowels 1, 96
Word building 95-96, 153-154, 201
Word derivations 49; chapter vocabulary 1-29
Word group (= chunk) 32-33, 104
Word order 5, 9, 13, 18-19, 25, 32, 109, 111
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