{ ce s ium of CONG RESS

Two Com es Received

OCT 19 “
30?

Copyrig ht
( 1 67

CLASS A
/7 0 0 33
GO PY

CO PY RI GH T, 1 9 0 7

D . V AN N O ST RAND CO MPA NY

R O BE R T D R U MMO N D C O MPAN Y , P RINT E RS , N E W Y O RK

 T O TH E MAN Y F RI E N D S IN T H E

ST A T E S A N D CA N AD A WH O H AV E

MA D E MY V I SI T A PLEASU RE A N D

PLE A SA NT ME MO RY .
 P RE FACE

AT th is date n o a po logy is needed for a small b oo k on the

s ub j ect of superheat and s u perheaters because there should
,

never be required an apology fo r writing a book upon any

process i n the arts and man ufactures which will enable a con -r

s u mer of fuel to consu me less f u el without incurri n g great

expense fuel being the life of most of o ur modern i n du stries
, ,

and moreover being a natu ral product the further man u

, ,

facture of which in N at u re s labora tory is n ot proceeding

’

at least in those areas from which it is at present bei n g ex

tracted w ith gre at rapid ity S i n c e the use of superheated
'

.
,
'
steam is essential to the b e st economy of fuel it i s necessary
that the process of s u perheating Should be one that comme nds
itself to steam u sers to the men on whom we are calling to
-
,

practise economies It is therefore essential that superheating

.

Should be an operation that can be carried o n with a minimum

o f anxiety and risk ,that it Sho u ld be at least as regular as

the other stages of steam produ ction All processes that
.

have passed thro u gh a period of experimentation are very apt

to acquire the character of uncertainty and non reliableness
-
.

S uperheating is no exception to t his fo r it has su ffered not

,

only becau se of it s own early troubles but it has su ffered from

,

cau ses entirely e xternal to itself which have long ceased to be

operati ve and never had any real connection w ith the process
V i PRE FA CE
of superheatin g These e xternal causes comb ined perhap s with
.
,

other Side issues were powerful in delayi ng all real progress in

,

the art for forty years .

D urin g those forty years while steam en gineer in g has ,

-

made progres s it has found its field of usef ulness gradually

,

invaded from various points The gas engine has made large .
-

inroads Mu ch yet remains to be done towards perfecting the

.

gas engine until its competition shall become still more keen
—
.

The D iesel and other liqu id f u el en gines have come into con sid-

c rable use The emp loyment of electrical transmission of power

.

has enabled falls of water to be u tilized that have hitherto

been impracticable The thermal efficiency of the gas produce r
.
-

and gas engine is s uperior to that of the steam boiler and

- —
.

steam engine b u t the steam engine is thus far g reatly superior

—
,
—
,

as a machine to the ga s or any other internal combustion engine

,
-
.

But economy of f u el is so important that every advance in the

i n ternal comb u stion engine will bring it in a winner in the
—

debatable borderland in which so me trivial circumstance will

fix the decision fo r o r agai n st an y particular type of prime
mover .

For these and other reasons then the s team engineer mu st , ,

-

pay intelligent and caref u l attention to the art and s cience of

superheating .

In this book the reader will n o t s eek for illu strat ion s of
the many superheaters on the mark et Fo r the s e he is referred .

to makers The cuts in this b ook are intended only to Show

.

examples of type s and are few i n number The author prefers .

to indicate principles rather than to write a book of the catalog

compilation type While his personal prejudices are in favor
.

o f th e f u lly water controlled type he also recognizes that thi s

“
-
,

type mu st necessarily be more costly Su perheatin g i s a .

modern recrudescence Its apparatu s may vary and w ould b e .

,
—

users sh ould first understand the possibilities and principle s

 P RE FA CE vii

ofsuperheat and may then exa mine how far mak ers can o ffer
apparatus that will fill thei r requ irements l h e a u thor of
.
r ‘

necessity cannot advocate any special apparatus and to meet ,

the i n evitable critic wo u ld sa y at once that the examples em

ployed for illustration are simply such as he fo u nd mo s t avail
able .

To his publisher s the au thor w ould record his gratefu l

acknowledgments .

W ILL IAM H . BO O T H .

2 Q U EEN A NN E S G A TE W ES TMINS T E R
’
, ,

AN D
22 0 , W ES T 57TH S T R EE T N E W Y O RK
, .
 CONTE NTS

CHA PT ER I

T HE PA S T H IST O RY O F S U PE R HEA T
T h e C o n i h E n gi n e e
r M od
s rs . e rn Th e ory of th e St e am - en gi n e .

C HA PTER II
S PE C IFI C H EA T F M E RIA S O AT L
‘

S t m E x p i o Cur
ea an s n ves . Ac ti o n of S te m in Cyl in d er a a .

The E l e m e n ta ry En gin e . W a t t Te chin g Ra n k in e Cu v e

’
s a .
’
s r

I n di c e s .

CHA PT ER III
A CT I O N OF S TE AM (Con tinued )
f c
E fe t Of Cyl i d n er M e ta l . L e aka g e Th ory
e . Re -
eva po ra t ion
J a ck e t s .

CHA PT ER I V
ST E AM : G ENE RA TI O N AN D PH SI CA P R O PE R TIES
IT S Y L

S tur t d S t m T m p tu p u T bl
a a e ea . e e ra re - re s s re a e .

CHA PT ER V
S U PE RHE A TE S T AMD E : IT S PR O PE R I S T E

G r l Ré um é
ene a s o f Sup h ti ger ea n . Sp e c ifi c -
v olum e T b l a e .

CHA PT ER VI
S AM PIP S AN D A ES
TE - E -
V LV

St E p io
re s s e s . x an s n . Flow Of St e am . Pip D im
e e ns i on s .

ix
X C O NT E NT S

CHA P T ER VII
S U PE R H A T AN D S E AM UR INES
E T -
T B

Sy t m O f R gul ti o d E ff c t
s e e a n an e on N df ee or Su p he er at .

CH APT ER VI II
B HA I O R F E NGINES W I H S U P R HE A
E V O S E AM T E TE D T .

Vl L im i ting T m p tu
a ves . Ac ti o O f P t e e ra re s . n ar s . D op r -
l
v a v es

d H i gh T m p
an tu Co t oll d Sup h t e e ra re s . n r e er ea .

CHA PT ER I X
CO NT R S U PE R HEA TE RS
O LL A B L E
M t hod of Co t ol H t i rti E ff c t M co t ol W t
e s n r . ea -
ne a e s . a ss - n r . a er

co t ol Po i ti o
n r f S up h t
. A ir d ch i g C t iro
s n o er e a e rs .
-
re n n . as -
n

Co M P h il Sy t m C u Sy t m Fo t
re s . c G ill
a
’
S s e . r se s e . s er s
’
s .

CHA P T ER X
S U P R HE A ING
E T AS AN E M N T S E AM G N RA T I O N O N
LE E IN T E E TH E S A GE
T

P RIN C IP LE

CH A PT ER X I

Sm ll T ub
a es . Loc t i o a n . Flood i g M n . a te r a s i l . C a st I on r .

CHA PT ER X II
FEE D -W AT E R H E AT ING
E co n om y A Sta ge in S te a m G e n e a ti o n E co n om y d ue to
. r .

F ull y H e a te d F e e d H o w W a te r con t ol Fi ts in wi th H e a tin g

.
-
r

F e e d T h e N o m a n d E ff e c t Th e Fo u E l e m e n ts O f S te a m
. r . r

G e n e a ti o n A Pl e a for S c i e n ti fi c S t e m ra i sin g
r . a -
.

CHA PT ER X III

E XAM P ES L S U PE R HE ATE R S
OF .

Th Fo t e It P ort b l Fo m C u
s er : Accum ul tor Typ
s a e r . r se s
’
a e .

I t l Co
n e rn a Th W t co t oll d Typ D i th m cy f
re s . e a e r- n r e e . a er an O

D y St m
r Ac ti o f S tu t d S t m i W t i pi tor
ea . n o a ra e ea n a e r- n s ra .

Fo m O f Sup h t Pi p W t r Co
r s d C t iro Cor
er e a er es, a e re s , a n as -
n es .

Th F gu o Sup rh t r
e er It D r i
s g Sy t m It Loc tio
n e ea e . s a na e s e . s a n .
 C O NT E NT S

CH AP T ER X I V
I N D EPEN D EN TLY FI R E D S U PE RHE A E S T R

A i E x ce
r ss . Th e N d f C ful Fur c D i g
ee or a re na e es n .

CH A P T ER XV

T H E PRA CT I CA L E C O N O MY O F S U PE R HE A T .

D t from a T e x til e F a c to y
a a r . Th e N d
ee fo r S ou d F u
n rn a ce
Pr c ti ce
a .

CHA PT ER XV I
S U PE RHEA T IN L O C O M O TI ES V

Th eD iffi cul ti Of es th e L ocom o ti ve Bo il r H ow O e rcome

e : v .

H ughto Sup rh
a n s
’
e e a te r . C di an a an E xp i e n c
er es .

CHAPT ER X VII
H IGH S U PE R HEAT
V loci ty of S t m th ough Sup he t
e ea r er a er . S chm i d t Sy t m ’
s s e .

Th o t tli g i Sm ll Tub
r n T im El n a es . e an em en t i Sup rh ti g
n e ea n .

G m E xp ri c
er an e en e .

CHAPT ER X VIII
G ENE R AL R V I E E W

CHA P TER X I X
U SE FU H IN S
L T AN D D E FINI T I O NS TAB LES , ,
E TC
 I J ST OF I LLU STRAE TONS

FIG U R E

l e m e n ta ry Cyli nd r a n d Pi to n
H E e
‘

N D lopm e n t f E n gin
eve O e

w D oubl e c ti n g E n gi n -
a e

e Th e I n d i c t o d i a g m a r- ra

w T e m p ra tur n d P e u e O f S tu t d S t a m
e e a r ss r a ra e e

m V ri ti o n O f T m p era tu e w i t h V loci ty
a a e r e

w
s Va ri a ti o n in H t T a n f e wit h V loc i ty ea r s r e

S te m pi p Ar pe 1 000 Poun d p H ou
a -
e ea r ,
s er r

L o of T e m p e a tu e wi t h Pi p e Si e a n d Ve loci ty C h n ge
ss r r z s a s
t

— Di g a m of M n T e m p e tur o f Sup rh a t
a r ea ra e e e

—
l

E ffe c t f M a a n d W t e r co n t ol
‘

lH o ss a -
r

" Cru e Ac cum ul a to S upe he t e

’
HO s s r r a r .

13 . 32 pipe Wa t co n t oll e d Sup e h te

-
e r- r r ea r

14 .
I n d p e n d n t l y F i r d S up e h e t e
e e e r a r

15 . 3 2 p i p e S up e h a t e fo L n c a h i e Bo i l e r a n d Re tu n tub e
- r e r r a s r r -

Bo il r e

16 H d r f
. ea W a te r con troll e d Sup h a t
e or -
er e er

17 b c Fo t
a, , . G ill e d pi p Pro te c ti o n a n d C on t ol
s er s
’
- e r

S up rhe te in E d ge m o e Boi l e e a r r r

S lf con ta in e d Supe he te e -
r a r .

S up rh e a te Tub e wi t hout In tern al W t e con trol Pi p e

e r a r-

W i th
i t l l ( C

T yp e of Iron a n d W t Co f C o n t oll d Sup h ea te

s a er re s or r e er rs

F ergu o n Sup erh a te s

’
s e r

D e ta il O f F e gu on Sup he te
s r s
’
s er a r

I n d e p e n d e n tl y Fi e d W a te co n t oll e d Adm i a l ty S tra ight tub e

r r- r r -

S up e he a te r r

H augh to n s Shield e d L ocom o ti Tub e fo H e a t Con er ti on

’
ve r s va

Lo com o tive Sup e h e a ter r

x iii
 TA BLE S

TA B LE

Sp cifi c H
e eat o f V riou Sub
a s s ta n ce s

II . G es ( f
as

III T e m p era ture an d Pre sur o f Sa tura te d S te am

. s e

I V S chm i d t s V al ue f Sp ci fi c V olum e o f Supe he a te d S te am b

.
’
s or e r a se d
n Hi n E x p e rim e n ts
’
o r s

Lo of T em pe tu e pe 100 Fe e t o f Pi pe
ss ra r r

V I E tim te f S te am Con sum e d pe H P H ou b y E n gin e s u

. s a O r . . r s in g
Sup e he a te d Ste amr O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O

V II P op e rti e of S tura t e d S te am
. r s a

VIII Pe ce n t g O f Sa in g D u to F e e d he a tin g
. r a e v e -

I X F c to f E po a ti o n
. a rs o va r

P e s u e a nd T em p e a tu e of Low pr u e Ste am
r s r r r -
e ss r

X I Som Con e ion F a cto

. e v rs rs

X II S te a m carry in g C apa c i ty o f E x t a h e a vy S te am p i p s
.
- r - -
e

xv
2 SUPE RHEAT A N D SUPE RHEATE RS
w a s foun d to be n e c e ssa ry in order to supply the cylinde r w ith
s team so that the falling pump rods mi ght lift the piston -

against the pre ssure of the atmosphere Thi s i t could only .

d o of course w hen there wa s steam below the pi s ton a t atmos

p h e ric pres s ure T.h e fir s t s team admitted to th e c o l d chilled
cylinder w as destroyed in overcoming the chi ll Of the last
douch e Of cold condensing water Then when the cylinder .

w as reheate d to 2 12 F any further steam could live as s team

°
. .

In order to get over this ve ry serious di ffi culty _Watt provided ,

a s eparate condenser into which he inj ected cold w ater to

conden se the steam exhausted from the w orking cylinder .

C old water did n o t n ow touch the interior walls of the cylinder

and the condensation of steam s ubsequently e ntering the
cylinder w a s very much reduced Thi s of co u rse though not
.
,

commonly reco gn i zed as such wa s the first step in the com

,

po u nd work ing of steam which has since grown to such extensive

proportion s in the triple and quadruple expansion engine -
.

The C ornish engineers ab ly led by C aptain Richard Trevi

,

thick and others devised a s ystem Of steam w orkin g w hich

,
-

was another ve ry considerable advance in the right direction .

P rior to this the steam from the boiler w as drawn into the low er
,

end of the cylinder of a beam e ngine by the risin g pi ston This .

w as drawn up b y the w eight of the descending spear rod s Of the -

great pump s The s e rods did the w ork of pump ing water as
.

they de s cended They were lifted by the pressure of the

.

atmosphere above the piston at the t ime when there was a

vacuum b e low th e pi ston cau se d by condensation of the steam .

N ow the n e xt i mprove ment to follow the s eparate condenser

w a s to clos e the top of the cylinder which had hitherto been ,

O pen to the atmosphere The piston ro d w as made to pass

.
-

thro u gh an air tight stuffin g b ox or gland Th e d es cending

- -
.

pisto n w as now forced down not by direct air but b y steam

, , ,

at o r ab ove atmospheric pre s sure which entered the top of the

,
 T H E PA ST HI ST O RY O F SUP E RHE ATI NG 3

c ylinder from the boiler S team pipe s had begun to be employed

.
-

w here hithe rto there had been little more than a Short neck
connection from the boiler .

W hen the downward stroke of the piston was complete and

the ti me had arrived for it to be drawn up again by the spear
rods the bottom of the cylinder was closed Off from the con
,

denser and a co mmunication wa s Opened between the top

and bottom ends Of the cylinder The steam which filled the .

cylinder above the piston was now transferred below the piston
by the upward movement Of this as the spear rods descended
’

-
.

There was equ ality of pressu re on the two faces Of the pi s ton
the piston havin g arrived at the top of the cylinder the trans ,

fer passage was clo s ed the bottom of the cylinder w a s Opened

-
,
.

to the condenser and the top of the cylinder was opened to

,

the boiler ; the piston descended as b efore into the vacuum

'

formed below it But little tho u ght is re q uire d to show that the
.

working end of the cylinder was never exposed to steam at a

temperature very mu ch below 2 12 F Tru e some pressure °
.
,

w as lost during transfer ro und the piston because the low er ,

end of the Cylinder had been in communication with the con

denser and was cold But the system Of working te nded to
.

k eep water out of the cylinder bottom Any mass of water .

lodged probably in the lower port and was at once discharged

unevaporated to the condenser and the top of the cylinder
,

was a stage removed from the cold condenser Thi s was a .

mo s t important i mprovement and we cannot doubt that the

,

C orn i sh eng ineers who s o deliberately worked out this sys tem
mu s t have b ee n k eenly alive to the benefit to use W att s words ,
’
,

“
of keeping the cylinder as ho t a s the s team that entered it
”
.

And so we fin d fire flues carried round the cy l inder to k eep it

-

w arm and even a fire built under the cyl inde r This mus t
,
.

h ave been the cylinde r o f a Bull engine that typ e of pumping ,

en gine dev i sed by C aptain Bull i n which as w ould natu rally ,

4 SUPERH E AT A ND SUPER H E ATERS
hap pen after the introducti on Of the box an d clo s ed
st uffi n g-

c yli nder the piston ro d came out below the cylinder o r per
,
-
,

haps the pump rods were carried by a great cross head from the
- —

piston rod and above the cylin der so that ste am was admitted
-
,

b elow .

But the point need n o t be labored W e can ga ther from .

e a rly records sufficient to show that the presence of water in

the working cylinder had been recogn ized and its removal and
prevention attempted It is however n o t so clear that the
.
, ,

produ ction Of water in the cylinder was s o clearly understood

in after years when men had forgotten the early days o f directly
-

water cooled cylinders ; fo r w e seem to arrive at a period of

-

less strivi n g as thou gh w ith the use of higher pressu re steam

, ,
-

of 1 5 and 2 0 po u nds gage pressure the Old in fluences did not

-

Operate o r were tho u ght not to do .

Attracted by the results Of his investigations i n to the

beh avior of locomotives D K Clark p u t forward afresh and
,
. .

originally th e modern theory of cylinder condens a ti on H e .

pointed out tha t the mere fact Of the ran ge Of pressure in a

‘

working cylinder bein g from that Of the boiler down to that

of the atmosphere implied ,
a correspondi n g range of tempera
tu re of the steam with which the cylin der was in contact an d ,

he seems to have been the first Of the modern steam engi n eers -

to re alize how very serious was the effect of this range of tem
p e ra ture in the worki n g cylinder H im the famo
. u s A lsatian ,

e ngineer thoro u
,
gh ly investigated th e subj ect by tests Of actual
e ngines and may be s aid to hav e established the theory
of the action o f the cylinder walls a s n o w
-
understood by al l
intelli gent s team engineers It is tru e that great e fforts have
-
.

b een made of late years to establish a new theory We may

“ ”
term this new s chool the L eakage S chool becau se they have ,

e ndeavored to s how that mo s t o f the effects hitherto attrib u ted

to condensation are due to le a k a g e past the piston and valve s .

 TH E PA S T H I STO RY O F SUPERHE ATI NG 5

Unfortu n a tely their theory the figu res they advance to

fo r ,

prove their case c an be f u lly as easily reasoned out to su pport

the e stablished theory It is also easy when endeavori ng to
.
,

fo und a n ew theory to arrange the facts SO that what is so u ght

,

shall be fo und an d it can n ot be s a id th a t the n ew school have

,

been so discrimi n ati n g in their choice o f engi n es o n which to

experiment a s to carry conviction to the unbiassed min d If .

leak a ge is to be proved it can be best proved by experimen ting

,

o n some sm a ll u nsatisf a ctory eng ine th a t is most likely to

leak The present is n o t however the opportu nity fo r a fu ll

.
, ,

disc u ssion of the rival theories It is the occasion fo r dis .

c u ssing me a ns fo r di minishi n g the bad effects which res u lt

from cylinder con densation and without f u rther animadversion
,

on the errors of the n e w theory it will be at once a ss u med as , ,

the basis of this book an d the arguments it cont a i n s that the

.

Old established theory is the more correct an assu mption

— —

that is borne out by the fact that the remedy proposed meets
the evils which it is i n tended shall be met .

This granted th e s ubject Of s u perheat and su perheating

,

will now be discussed on the basis o f the need for s u perheat ,

the cau ses which in the practical worki n g of the steam en gine
,
-
,

render su perheat necessary and the m ea n s an d apparatu s to

,

be adopted to Obtai n superhe at Before disc u ssing su perhe a ted

.

steam and its properties it will be assu med provisio n ally

,

that su perhe a ted steam is a ve hicle to co n vey he a t to some

pl a ce where it is requ ired fo r special u se or an y other p u rpose .

With this underst anding the reasons fo r the n eed Of this heat
w ill be first disc u ssed N atu rally these will divide themse lves
.

i n to two main divisio n s : first the u se of the substa nce steam

,

in the ste a m en gi n e ; and secondly its u se in other ways in

—
,

the arts and man u factu res It will be necessary to go some

.

what o u tside the narrow treatmen t o f the s ubject at le a st ,

as regards the ste a m en gi n e —

.
6 SUP E R H EAT AN D SUP E RH EATE R S
The avo i dable losse i n
s s team engin e have b ee n at
th e -

te mpte d to be cured by mean s other than sup e rhe at the

'
—

j a c ket variously arranged fo r e xample w ith s te am liquid

, , ,

or g aseous fillin g ; and it wil l be necessary to re f e r to thes e

i n order to help to defin e the behavior of sup e rhe at and to

render th e s ubj ect more clear b y takin g a w ho le V iew of the
various phenomena attached thereto and the line s on w hich
,

men have w orke d in ende avorin g to arrive at a s o lut ion

p robl e m
.
 CHAP TE R II

PE C I FI C HE AT
S OF MATE RI ALS

ALL s ubs tances when in contact with on e anothe r at d iffe rent

te mperatures tend towards the same temperatu re and ulti
mately acquire it Where two substances are in contact one
.
,

of them will lose heat the other will acqu i re heat

, If the two
.

substance s have the s ame m ass or weight it might at first be

,

s urmised that the final te m pe ra ture wo uld b e just half way

"
-

b etween the two e xtreme temperature s This however is.

, ,

n ot foun d to be the case b e cause when on e s u bstanc e change s

,

i ts te mp e rature by ten degre es it may lose on ly a s much heat

as wo u ld be lost by the sa me weight of the other s ubstance

c han gin g thr o u gh on e degree of temp erature only The heat .

lost or gained by un i t w eight Of an y substance whe n its tempera

ture changes one degree is known a s the Specific heat of that
s ub stance and the valu es of the coe fficients of specific heat are
,

ve ry di ffe rent Chemically conside red substances have very

.
,

Si mila r specific he ats pe r atom or molecule D ulong and

.

Petit who determined the Specific heat o f many substances

, ,

o b se rved that the specific heat decreases as the ato mic weight

increase s and that the product Of the atomic w eight W into

,

the specific heat H was a nearly constant quantity The atom .

is the un it of thermal changes All atoms a re e q uithe rm al and

.

the product o f W and H is the almost constant quantity 6 .

For purpo se s of this book the va lues of the specific heat of b ut

8 SUPERHE AT A ND SUPERHE AT ERS
few substances w ill be required For cast iron the value is .

usually taken s u fficie ntly correctly as 0 1 1 1 o r 5 th at Of water 1

1
,

which has the datum valu e of 1 0 00 The British The rma l .

Unit is th e amount Of he at that is necessary to raise the tempe ra

ture Of on e poun d Of water from 39 to 40 F Practically ° °
.

i t i s the amount necess a ry to chan ge the temperature 1 F at °

an y initial temperat u re but as a close Scientific fact the specific

,

heat varies slightly with variation Of temperature Water ha s .

the greatest specific heat of an y known s ubstance e xceptin g

the gas hy drogen .

In T able I will be found the s pecific h eat coeffic i ents of a

few of the materials of en gine ering and in T able II those Of a ,

few of the ga ses most met with in steam en gi n eerin g The se -

.

val u es are neces sary in man y calc u lations .

TA B L E I
HEAT O F VA R I O US SU BSTA NCES
0 2 14 3 I ce 0 504 0
L d ea 0 0 3 14
M cu y
er r

0 2 4 12 M ild t l s ee 0 1 1 58
0 0 9 65 W at e r 1 0 000
0 2000 Wrought i on r
'
O 1 14 6

TA B L E II
SPECI FI C HEAT O F GA SES
s
C o n t ant Pr e ssu r e .

0 2375
C b o d i o id
ar n x e 0 2 1 60
C b o i c o x id
ar n e

H yd og r en 3 4 10 0
O x yg n e 0 2 17 0
N it oge n
r 0 2 4 40
St e am

St e a m at 2 000
°

l l l 0
4 0 00
10 SUPE R H E AT AN D SUPE R HEATE RS
on the p in a cran k the sing l acting engin e of F ig 2 wi ll
of , e- .

have been e volved In the double acting en gi ne F ig 3 the

.
-
, .
,

cylinder i s really made up of two such variable volume vessels -

placed back to back and the s ame movable boundary or piston

,

serve s for both ends One end of the double vessel increases in
.

volume w hile th e other en d diminishes A straight moving

, .
-

ro d is attached t o the pi s ton and se rves to carry the hinged

FIG . 1 FIG . 2

e nd of th e conne cting ro d entirely outside the cylinder Thu s

-
.

the ordi nary double actin g engin e is e volve d and as in the

-
,

s in gle actin g e n gin e of F i g 2 the vari ati on of volume of the

-
.
,

cylinde r enab les the steam to do work on th e p i ston an d thi s ,

w ork is made to pu sh the c ran k pin o r otherw i se do w ork against

-

"
s ome re si stanc e T hu s deve loped the common s team engine
.
-

in it s c rude fo rm W i th all th i s how eve r re ade rs are familiar

.
, , .

FIG 3 .

Wh en steam i s adm i tted i nto the c ylinder i t e nte rs b etwe e n

the end of th e cyl inder and the face of the pi ston and it pushes ,

upo n the p i ston and this move s and doe s w ork Unle s s steam
,
.

can increase i ts vo lume it cannot do work So long as the .

communicat i on is op en b etween the c ylinder and the bo ile r

the pressure in the two ve ss els wil l remain the same C on .

s equently the s team i n the cylinder doe s no w ork for i t do e s ,

 SPECI FI C HEAT O F MAT ER I ALS 11

not c hange its vo lume The work of pu shing the resisting piston
.

mu st come direct from the furnace for we may a ssume for the ,

purpo se of the present argu ment that steam i s produ ced in

the boiler at the same average rate that the engine is con sum
ing it The steam i s not changing its volume b u t the water
.
,

ne xt the furnace plate is changing into steam and this pushe s

-

in front of it the previously formed steam in the steam s pace -

,

the pipes and cylinder and so move s the piston This method
, .

of usi n g steam is very wasteful however S te am enters the , .

cylinder thro u ghout the full length O f the stroke o r trave l of

the piston and having pushed the piston to the end Of the
,

cylinder an exhaust valve i s opened and the ste am escapes

,
-

to the condenser o r to the atmosphe re at fu ll bo iler pressure -

,

no work hav in g be en got out of i t Since it changed on the

furnace plate from the li qu i d conditi on and pu shed o lder
-

steam before i t .

Watt realized the wa ste fuln e s s Of this method Of w orki ng

an d so changed the movement o f the valve of admission that

no s te am was admitte d to the c y linder d u ring the later portions

of the piston movement One volume O f steam w as admitted

.

and the admission closed w hile the capacity of the cylinder

cont inued to grow as the piston move d until i t s volume was
, ,

two three o r more time s w hat it was w hen the admiss i on w a s

, ,

clo sed .

I n Fig 4 wh i ch i s the we ll known steam ind i cator d i agram

.
,
- -
,

the rectangle AC repre s ents the work done b y the furnace

upon the p is ton during the period of admission of s team to the
cylinder Wh en the admiss ion valve is closed the pi ston con
.
-
, ,

tin nin g to move e nlarges the capacity of the cylinder and the
,

i mpris one d s team falls in pressure almost inverse ly as it increase s

its vo lume E ach add i tion Of the in itial volume represented
. ,

by the re c tan gle AC which a lso represents an amount of work

’
,

AC w i ll now represent so much additional work

,
In travelling .
12 SUPERHE AT AND SUPERH E ATERS
from X to C w ork = AB OX
was done on the piston by the direct
f u rn ace heat The n when the steam expanded behin d the
-
.

movi n g piston it did work by virtue of its own expa n sion to

the do uble volume XD to the e xtent of the area Of the irregular
,

fig ure BD A f u rther amount Of wo rk = E F w a s done when

.

the third volume D F was generated and so on vo lume by

, , ,

volume Of increased Space occupied enabled the 1m pr1son e d

steam to do more work u ntil in expandin g to eight times the
,

initial vol u me the expansion generates the w ork OP and the

FIG . 4

in itial volu me X0 becomes the volume X R The increased .

work done by the expandi n g steam is represe n ted by the area

GE NF and this area will be found to be fully double the area
‘

ABOX showing that the steam has do n e over three times as

,

much work in al l as it w ould do if n o t expan ded C alli n g the .

in itial a re a 1 that Of the expansion area if carefu lly m easured

, , ,

will prove to be 2 0 79 4 SO that the total area is 3 0 79 4

,
.

The diagram has been drawn accordin g to Charles law Of ’

gase s which states that at the s ame temperature the pre s sure
, , ,

of a ga s is inversely as the volume occupied Thu s at any .

point alon g the c u rve BN the produ ct o f th e ho rizontal distan ce

to AX and of the vertical distance to XP will be a constant
 SPEC I FI C HE AT O F M AT ER IAL S 13

fi gure E x pre s sed mathematically this gives = c n t

.
p v o s o r .
,

pressu re x v o lume = c onsta n t N ow this is the equation to the

.

hyperbola and the c u rve BN is a rectangu lar hyperbola and

, ,

the rectangu lar hyperbola is the c u rve of isothermal expansion

o f a perfect gas o r Of a perfect ga s s u ch as air expanding at
, , ,

o ne constant temperature which is only possible where heat

,

is added du ring expansion ; for when a gas expands agai n st

a resistance it does work a n d is cooled thereby .

S team however is not a perfect ga s AS it expands in

, , .

the cyl inder Of an engine it does work and cools and the c u rve ,

o f expansio n o f saturated steam is n o t the hyperbola but is ,

a curve which falls more and more below the hyperbola as

exp ansion proceeds The mean forward pressure of a gas
.

expanding isothermally may be represented by the fo llowing

formula

where p the mean = press u re _ ,

P th e i n iti a l pressu re o r AX Of Fig 4 and

= .
,

hyp log r th e hyperbolic logarithm Of the num ber Of e x

.
== .

XP
pansions or the ratio
XC
,

Th ISa very usefu l formula in practice because i t happens

1s ,

to coincide fairly with the results Of practice so far as the

actu al indicator diagram Shows to be the case While the
-
.

expansion c u rve Of satu rated steam falls somewhat below the

-

hyperbola the curve of the actual i n dicator diagram in a good

,
-

tight engine always rises above the hyperbola near the toe of
.

the diagram but falls below it over the length BE in the early
,

s tages of expansion and the effect is to cau se the mean pressu re

,

as shown by the indicator diagram to differ very little from

-

that shown b y the true hyperbola This is however a mere .

, ,
14 SUP E RH E AT A ND SUPERH EAT ERS
coinc i dence for saturated steam is n ot a perfect gas it doe s
, ,

not expand isothermally and it does no t trace even an adiabatic

,

c u rve of expansion or the c u rve of expansion follow ed b y a

gas when exper i encin g neither gain nor l oss of heat .

A ccording to Rankine the curve of adiab atic expansion

l o
'
o f sat u rated steam is given by the formula P V constant
’

i
,

which Show s that the pressu re falls more qu ickly than the
volu me increases For saturated steam maintained dry he
.

i i
gives the formu la P V = constant T hese formulas require .

a table of logarithms to work them out .

'
F o r s u perheate d steam R ankine gives the formula PV 1 3
'
constant while fo r air the equation becomes P V 8
,
4 0 1

con stant In practical steam engineeri n g these cu rves do

.
-

n o t ente r much into our work b u t it is desirable to kn ow of

,

them and to recogn ize that the index to the curve of super
heated steam to wit the figure 1 3 tells us that the expansion
, , ,

c u rve mu st fall very rapidly and that the area below such a
curve is therefore much less than the hyperbolic area If this .

detail be worked out it will probably suffice to te ach the

,
.

stu dent that there is nothing in the argument that s u perheated

steam makes any gain by virtue of its greater vo lu me as com
pared with saturated steam It is esse n tial to i n sist on thi s
.

point because otherwise we Should be allowing an argu ment

,

contrary to fact that a heat engine works n o t by virtue O f

,
-

heat but by v i rtue of the vehicle of the heat .

S o man y factors go to the product i on of the actual ind i

cator diagram that it is n ot po ssible to give an y mathematical
-

expression that will set forth the properties of the actual curve
Of expansion . The curve Of the indicator diagram is in fact -

primarily a c u rve of expansion but modified by condensation

,

a n d by evaporation The cylinder is at once both a condenser

.

and a boiler at one and the Same time over di fferent portion s
Of its i nternal area That is to s ay steam i s conden sing upon
.
,
 SPE CI FI C HEAT O F MAT ERIA LS 15

freshly exposed cold surfaces as the piston moves and water ,

is re evaporating upon s u rfaces already made hot and w ater

-
,

re evaporates also because it has been prod u ced from initial

-

s team and is n ow that the pressure has fallen hotter than

, ,

the steam at this press u re S ome of this hot water w ill re .

evaporate and help to fill up the lower end of the expan sion »

curve .

The specific heat O f superheated steam i s ab out 0 4 8 at

constant pressu re when heated away from water with the
boiler pressu re behind it and with freedom to expand
-
.

At constant vol u me bottled u p in a closed vessel the

, ,

Specific heat is 0 34 6 but here the pressu re wo u ld rise and

,

these figures are generally accepted as correct and mu ch em

ployed as the basis of calc u lation s b u t they are after all only
approximate since the specific heat Of supe rhe ate d steam rise s
,
‘

as the temperatu re rises and the condition of a pe rfect gas

is attain ed In modern practice and pressure s the s pecific
.

he at may be taken at 0 60 .

TO return to the s u perheater in open c o nnn un ic ation w ith

the steam space thro u gh a p i pe ; it is known that to generate
-

d iy saturated ste am at 100 pounds pressure absol ute de mands

B T U from water at 32 F the temperature o f the
°
.
. . .
,

s team being 32 7 7 F and its volume 4 34 cub i c feet per pound

° °
.
°

TO s u pe rh eat this steam by 200 F to 52 8 F and t o a

° °
. .

volu me of 54 3 cubic feet per poun d requires B T U per . . .

po und (if not more ) o r B T U additional heat

,
. . . .

Thus being an increase of

per cen t only in the total heat and this represents the n omin al
, , ,

increas e Of e fficiency and power in the steam due to super

heatin g as calculated on the B T U at the outle t Of the super . . .

heater But the actu al increas e of e ffect is mu ch more than

.

these figures would imply .

 CHAPTE R III

T H E A C TI O N O F STEA M I N A CY L I N D ER . TH E E FFECT O F
C Y L I ND ER ME TA L

TH E actual behavior Of steam in the c ylinder of an engi ne

may now be traced out .

L et a beginning be made from an engine at rest and cold L et ~

.

it be s u pplied with s team at 361 F temperatu re o r 1 55 pounds °

.

absolu te press u re It is usual to w arm up the cylinder before

.
“

st a rting the engine to run This warming up neve r goes beyond.

2 12 F for it is always carried o ut with the cyli n der drain

°
.
,

cocks Open and therefore at atmospheric pressure The Cylinder .

when cold will have a temperature of a bo u t 62 F so that to

,
°
.
,

heat it up to 2 12 will requ ire an additional 1 50 Of temperatu re

° °
.

S ince the Specific heat Of iron is 0 1 1 the total heat unit s ,

-

absorbed per po und Of the cylinder metal will be or ,

say 1 7 B T U In on e po u nd Of steam there are approximately

,
. . .

9 66 B T U Of heat above 2 1 2 F a n d there are 1 1 1 6 B T U

°
. .
. . .
, . .

above the i n itial temperatu re of 62 F at which warming up °

.
,

is commen ced The mean of these two qu antities is 104 1

.

so that on e pound of ste a m will serve to heat up 61

pounds Of cylinder metal to 2 12 F The cylinder has yet t o °
.

acqu ire the temperatu re of the boiler o r so that a further ,

temperatu re rise of 36 = 1 4 9 must be ga i n ed from the

°
1 2 1 2 —

ste am which will lose about 1000 B T U per po und and each
,
. . .
,

po u nd w ill therefore heat up about 60 po unds Of cylinder

16
18 SUPE RH E AT A ND SUPER HEATER S
the c ylinder b ecomes a s ho t as the steam I t can not be ao .

cura t e ly told to what depth the inn e r w all O f the c y l i nder is

penetrated b y heat n or how deeply the fluctuation e xtends

,

into the metal D o ubtless some little way below the su rface
.

the c ylinder metal will be at a steady average temperature ,

the fluctuations o f the inner skin dying down to nothing AS .

a matter of interest and to s erve the purpose of an illustration ,

it is customary to assume that the inner Skin Of the c ylinder

to the depth of one one hundredth of an inch follow s
- —

the flu ctuation of the steam te mperatur e Knowing the Si ze .

of the c ylinder its inner are a at the time of cut O ff may be

,
-

easily calculated A ssume a cylinder 20 inche s di ameter

.
,

w ith the c ylinder body uncovered by the piston fo r a len gth of

-

6 inch e s at the c u t o ff point The piston rod i s 3 inche s

-
.
-

diameter H ow much inner surface is exposed to steam ?

.

The su rfac e s meas u re up as follows

C ylinder he ad — 2
20 X 7 8 54
“
3 14 square inche s
Piston face 2
20 X 7854 3 14
°
-
.

C ylinder bo dy 20 X 3 14 1 6 >< 6 = 3 77
°
-

Piston rod 3 X 3 14 1 6 >< 6 56

°
-

Ports etc sa y , .
,
100

T otal area

This represents cu bic inches of metal if the surface o r

1 16
skin be supposed affected to a mean d epth Of L et it
be called 3 pounds by weight S ince the specific heat Of the .

metal is h ow mu ch heat will i t absorb in risi n g from

10 1 F to 361 F o r 2 60 E ? It will absorb
° ° °
. .

8 6 B T U ne arly
. . The weight Of steam that will supply thi s
. .

heat w ill b e Of a po und fo r the l atent heat of steam of ,

361 F temperature is 8 59 7 and this divided into 86

°
.

give s as the w eight of steam conden s ed .

 TH E A CT I O N O F S T EA M I N A CY LI ND ER 19

The volume of steam present at the point of cut Off w ill be -

appro x imately c ubic inches weighing ,

0 4 4 3 po und . On the above assumption therefore the steam

, ,

0 44 3
present in the cyli n der is on ly or 81 per cent , of the weight
0 5 43
which entered it The remainder is present a s w ater and
.

amounts to 1 9 per cen t of the total steam which entered the

cylinder This percentage varies in practice from 20 to 50
.

per cent of the initial steam enteri n g up to the point of cut O ff -

.

The figure 7 in the last equation is use d in place Of 6 the —

length of cylinder e xposed at c u t off in order to allow fo r the

- —

volume Of ports etc It is mere ly an assumption appro x i

, .

mately correct The figure . a s found above

for the w eight condensed .

'
We have now arrived at the po in t whe re the piston is at
the point Of c u t Off The cylin d er and piston su rfaces have
-
.

acqu ired the temperatu re of the boile r steam E xpansion is -

.

ready to commence a n d there is present in the cylinder

pound O f water als o at 361 F of te mperatu re and wanting
,
°
.

only the addition Of latent heat to reconvert it into steam .

As the piston moves fart her along the cylin der it uncovers
more cold su rface and this freshly exposed s u rface will condense
,

more steam At the same time howeve r the steam is fallin g

. , ,

i n pressure and the water which is at 361 F finds itself hotter

°
.

than the tempe rature proper to the pressure and some Of the
water flashes into steam The cyli n der and piston are now
.

hotter than the partly expan ded steam and begin to part with
heat to the dew or moistu re which has collecte d upon their
su rfaces There are thu s two conflicting in flu en ces at wo rk
.
.

There is the cooling i n flu en ce of freshly un covered cylinder

su rface causing con densation an d the re is the evaporation Of
,

ho t water .
A t first the co n densation prevails and the e x pa n

si on cu rve falls below an y proper curve of expansion Then as

- .
20 SUPER H EAT AND SUPERH EAT ERS

pre ssure drop s re evaporation becomes greate r ; the cylinder

-

w all t e mperature is n o longe r able to condense the n o w colder

e xpanded s team N othing now proceed s but e vaporation ;
.

the curve of the indicator d l a gram becomes parallel with and

-

finally flatter than an y true curve Of e xpansion The evapora .

tion becomes more and more active and man y indicator

diagrams may be found especially from Slowly runnin g engine s
, ,

in which the cu rve actu ally begi n s to Slope upwards near the '

toe of the diagram C alc u lating the cylinder volume at any

.

given point before the exhau st valve opens it will be found -

,

that the pressu re of steam n ow present in the cylinder i s s u ch

that the weight Of steam mu st now be very much greater than
could be measu red at the poi n t o f c u t Off This i n creased -
.

weight of steam now measu rable was present a s water at the

poin t Of c u t off
-
.

It might here n o t be out of place to refer aga in to the

new theory that these changes in vo lume are du e to l eakage ,

past the valve of fre sh stea m That this is n ot SO may be

, .

taken as fairly we ll proved by the fact that immediately and

.
,

fo r some time after pass in g the point Of c u t off the expansion -

,

c u rve rapidly falls at a rate far be yond an y expansion sl ope .

Then fin ally it is fo u nd to be falling at a rate very much less

than the expansion rate A re we to take it that at the time
.

of c u t O ff the s team 1s slipping away past the leaking piston ;

-

that the piston then becomes steam tight and that fresh s te am -
,

now begins to leak into the c ylinder ?

If actu al indicator diagrams b e attempted to be con s idered

—

by the l ight of leakage it will be found requ isite to demand

,

alternate leak age and non leakage past pistons and valve s
—

Of quite a complicated order if the leakage idea is to be main

,

ta in e d
. The author has no t found that the s teep c u rve Of the
i n dicator diagram which follows the point Of c u t O ff has been
- —

attempted to be explained b y the s chool of leakage theorists ,

 THE A CTI O N O F ST E AM I N A CY L I ND ER 21

an d un les s they can explain the diagram thorou ghly wi thout

irrational ass u mption s their theory will s carcely hold good
, ,

The ass u mption that the thickness or depth of film of the

inner wall of the cylinder which varies the f u ll ra nge of the
steam pressu re is 0 0 1 i s purely gratuito u s The depth to which
-
”
.

the cylinder varies its temperature is not a fixed quantity It .

varies with the period duri n g which the cylinder surf a ce is ex

posed to the stea m and it is qu ite obvio u s that it will be less
,

with increase of rotative speed becau se this govern s the ex

,

p o su re time per stroke It m u s

. t also vary with th e ratio of
c u t off to stroke especially Si n ce less exposu re to boiler steam
-
,
-

necessarily mean s a gre a ter exposu re to the e xpandin g steam

and a relativ ely gre a ter exposu re to th e e x haust There are so .

man y variables that on ly a pproximations can be made in any

empirical formu la designed to meet th efCa se The fact remains .

th a t in a ll engin es the inner skin of the c ylinder absorbs heat

from the incoming steam and c au ses a serio u s fraction Of this
to condense .

It is Simply a qu estion of time as to how nearly the cylinder

attains to the boiler temperatu re Possibly the end of the .

cylinder and the face of the piston approach somewhat nearly

to the boiler temperatu re But as soon as the steam admission
.

Ceases the confin ed Space still increasing as the piston m oves

‘

, , ,

enables the steam to expand In expandi n g it falls to a lower

.

temperatu re an d is now in presen ce of water hotter than itse lf ,

as well as with the metal Of the cyli n der a lso hotter than the
,

ste am But this is not necessarily the case during the first
.

few inches o f expansion travel of the piston for there is abun ,

dant eviden ce to be ga thered from i n dicator di a gram s that -

condensation may proceed after expan sion has begun sin ce ,

there are cold cvlin der walls still bei n g uncovered by the piston
-
.

The time comes h owever when the cylinder ceases to condense

, ,

an y further steam The reason is tw ofold In the first place

. .
,
22 UPE RHE AT A ND SUPERHEAT ERS
S

all the i nternal su rface the cy linder up to cut off has en

of -

d e av ore d to attain boiler pressure and is therefore compara

-

tiv e ly h o t S econdly the partially expanded steam is cool

.
, .

The re is a ls o ho t w ater in the c ylin der formed du ring admis

sion and th is is n ow rapidly dryi n g up Re evaporation
, .
-

gets more active as the pi ston approaches the limit Of

its travel and if the amount of steam present in the cylin
,

der as s team b e now me asured from the indicator diagram -

,

it will be found considerably in exces s o f that measured

at cut O ff The di fferen ce is the ne t re evaporation W hen
-
.
-
.

the exhau st valve opens to let o ut s team to the conden s er

-
,

much Of th e remaining water if any and the en gm e 1s suitably , ,

desig ned will be Shot out to the conden ser “ but the water
,

which is pre sent as dew on the c y linder walls w ill all be evap -

orated and the coolin g effect Of this evaporation is ver y great

,
.

M eantime the c y linder is alway s losing heat outwardly to the

atmosphere and all this heat must be s u pplied fro m within
,
x
.

It is ch e ck e d b y clothi n g the cylinde r in hair felt o r other non

conducting m aterial but he at must always be lost outwardly
,

unless a j acket be present Thus there is an ever rec u rring

.
-

c y cle in which the c ylinder i s alternately hotter and colder

than the ste am within it That this alternate cooling and
.

heating must repres ent loss is Obvio u s when it is conside r e d

that most Of the steam conden sed is taken from us eful work
e arly in the worki n g stroke and when it again b ecomes s team
,

it is when it has little time left in which to w ork o r when it

a ctu ally retards the engine by raising the back press u re -
.

The action of the c ylinder is to take o u t Of the steam or ,

o ut of a part o f it its power of doing work and to ret u rn this

,

power to it when it can be Of n o use b u t is rather a positive

agent to check the en gine In order to cure this loss Watt .

perceived that i t was necessary to maintain the cylinder as

hot as the steam that entered it T o e ffect this end he en cased .
 TH E E FFECT O F CY L I ND ER ME TA L 23

it In a j acket Now the jacket is a narrow space filled w ith

.

steam at o r near o r above the boiler pressure and its primary -

,

e ffect is Of course to s u pply all the losses from the c ylinder

which get away by external radiation to the atmosphere The .

j acket sends heat out on both its boundaries outside to the ,

external atmosphere and inwards across the wall of the cylinder

i n to the cylinder Instead of heat flowi n g o ut from the interior
.

Of the cylinder it now commences to flow inwards It eh

, .

de av ors to suppl y to the cylinder the heat that has been taken
fro m it d u ring expansion and exhaust L et the co u rse Of event s
.

be assu med to aid us in realizing what the j acket may do

‘

S tarting at the initial admission the s team finds that the ,

cylinder is now hotter than it was less steam is condensed an d

, ,

w hen the exhau st is Opened there is less water to re evaporate -

and the cylinder loses less heat fro m that cause and is still
hotter than it was during the first stroke after applying the
j acke t steam Thus even less steam is condensed and the
.

counter effect Of re evaporation is again reduced The effect of

’

- -
.

the j a cket is th u s se en to be cumulative But generally speak

“

ing the steam j acket has been a disappointment It has been

,
-
.

badly desig ned and badly worked It has become filled with .

'

air and very poor atte ntion h a s been given it It has been .

badly drained has been choked with air and has even been
, ,

fed with exhaust steam Then the most important parts the
—
.
,

cylinder cover and the pist on have been left unj acketed
-
, .

Properly t o work a j acket there Should be a special j acketing

boiler at a pressu re somewhat higher than the main boilers ,

and the whole of the steam made by this boiler Sho u ld be

allowed to pass thro u gh the jackets and escape to the main
boilers thro u gh a redu ci n g valve u p to 5 or 10 po unds pressure
-

difference The jacket thu s Swept by the whole of the steam

.

from one boiler wi ll always be kept cle a r Of air and wate r

and the maximu m e fficiency will be secured .
 2 4: S UPE R HEA T AND SUPE RHEATERS
S ince this j ac ke t i s losi n g
all the time water i s b e i n g b ea t ,

formed within it but this water is under constant press u re

,

and does n o t re evaporate It passes away to the drains and

-
.

cannot affect the temperatu re of the cylinder It is true that .

the j acket may warm the exhaust stea m to some e xtent but
“
—
,

the point to be noted is that there is less water in the cylinder

t o be re evaporated that the cylinder is thereby less cooled
-
,

b y the ev apora tion effects and that less steam must be initially ,

condensed H ere the effect of preven ti n g some water Is to

.

stop the produ ction of other water a n d if there is no water to ,

’

be re evaporated there c an be no cylinder co o lir g Tru e the

-
. .
,

exhaust st ea m may abstract heat from the cylinder b u t it is

-
,

very fa r inferio r to hot water as a coolin g a gent for as it dries it ,

b ecomes an exceedi n gly poor picker up of heat from the walls -

which en close it The water formed in the j acket may go bac k

.

t o the boiler direct .

Watt f u lly re a lized the action Of steam jackets for he Simply -

,

made them a tho roughfa re whereby steam travelled on its way

‘

t o the cylinde r This device is rega rded b y some with much

.

d isfavor on the gro u nd that the steam passi n g thro ugh the
,

j acke t is rendered wet and they argu e that it is u n fit to b e u sed

, .

This view is however Superficial The anteroom j acket can be

, ,
.

made to serve as an excellent separator and can be drained ,

a n d it is a good design What re a lly happens is that the steam

.

is partially c ondensed in the j acket and not in the cylinder .

C ondensation is transferred from the cylinder to the j acket ,

and the condensed water is maintained at boiler pressure -

.

It does no t re evaporate and therefore does n ot exercise an y

-

cooli n g effect on the metal abo u t it s u ch as the fl u ctuation Of ,

pressu re within a cylinder enables it to do when it enters the

cylinder N eedless to say the j acket must be drained o r water
.
,

will get forward to the c ylinder there to act to the detrime nt ,

of economy The b enefits of j ac kets have been greatly que s

.
26 SUPER HEAT AND SUPE RH E ATE RS
be made to apply he at to the places where it is actuall y ne ede d
.

Before further discus s ing the question of the action Of heat

in the cylinder i t may n ot be ami ss to di s cu s s some of the
phys i cal propert ies of steam
.
 CHAPTE R IV

S T E AM . ITS G E NE R ATI O N A ND PH Y S I CA L PR O P E R TIE S

ST E A M i s the vapor that is produced from w ater whe nthis

liquid is heated to s u ch a point that the molecu les Of the w ater
become endowed with an au tomobility su fficient to enable
them to leave the water and enter the Space above it At all .

temperatu res there would appear to be some vapor of water

in the Space above it but the general popular idea Of steam is
,

o f that vapor which rises in bubbles through the w ater when-

heat is freely applied when the water boils in fact ; a phenom

—

enon easier to realize th an to explain in words S team formed .

in the presence Of water is said to be saturated By satu rated .

many understan d sat u rated with water But heat s aturated .

is rather to be understood S aturated steam has a pressu re

.

o r vapor tension that is pec u liar to a certain temperature .

On e cannot vary witho u t the other If water is in a closed

.

vessel and heat b e applied the water will b e gin to boil at a

,
-

temperatu re Of 2 12 F becau se the vessel was closed up at

°
.
,

atmospheric pressu re If a n escape be Opened so that the

.

enclosed air may be driven o ff an d the steam may escape as

qu ickly as it is formed the temperatu re will rema in at 2 12 F
,
°
.

(at sea level ) and the press u re at 1 atmosphe re absol u te or

-
, ,

gage pressu re 0 po und ; absol u te pressu re 14 7 pounds

-

1 atmosphere If the o u tlet be now closed the w ater will

.
,

cease to boil at 2 12 F for the acc u mu lation Of steam above

°
.
,

the water will cause the press u re to increase and this will
27
28 SUPE R H EAT AN D SUPERHEATE RS
allow the w ate r to b e come hotter and for every pound Cf added ,

pressure there will be so much increase in the temperature ,

the rate of increase of the temperatu re no t being the same as

the rate of incre ase of pressure AS the te mperature rises the .

increase of pressure becomes more rapid The steam remains .

s aturated with heat ; that is to sa y it contain s practically

—
,

the maximum amount of heat per cubic foot that it' is

possible to put into it Su ch steam is n o t qu ite dry o r
.

perfect S ome few of its molec u les are probably impe rfect
.
,

and steam is perhaps not perf e ctly formed until it attains

a tem perat u re Of 220 F no water being present or other
°
.
,

imperfect molecules wo u ld then rise into the dry steam Any .

f u rther heating beyond 220 F or at an y other press u re an y °

.
, ,

addition beyond a few degrees above the tempe ratu re of forma

tion will destroy the right to the n ame of saturat e d S u ch .

f u rther temp e rature can only be acquired away from water ,

and steam so heated above the temperatur e of the w ater from

w hich it is produced is termed superhea ted S atu rated steam .

contains he at in two forms thermometric and latent The

x
,
0
.

thermometric heat Of steam is the he at represented b y the

temperature of the water from which the steam is produ ced .

At atmospheric press ure the thermome tric heat i n B T U . . .

measu red from 0 F is 2 12 >< F where F is the coefficient of

°
.
,

specific heat which is 0 30 5 fo r saturated steam

,
.

It is usual however to measu re the total heat from the

, ,

te mperature Of melti n g ice o r 32 F Then the formula for ,

°
.

the total heat of evaporation of w ater i s w hen measured from ,

32
°
F
.
,

where H = British the rmal units t = tempe ra ture of steam , .

F or low ran ges the formula is when measured from 0 F ,

°
.
,

H
 S TE AM IT S G E NER ATI ON A ND PH Y SI CAL PR O PERT IE S
. 29

The British thermal unit is the amount of heat n e ce ssa rv '

to raise the temperatu re Of 1 pound of water from 39 to 40 F ° °

.
,

at which point w ater is at its maximum den s ity The di ffer .

ence is not great if measured at 62 F as i s s ometimes but °

.
, ,

e rroneousl y done , .

The amount of heat in the water itself is

Q (t 32 ) 0 000 0 1 1 (t 0 0000000 93 0

or appro ximately

q 1 80 9 + 1 0 2 0

where q = th e B T U in the liquid and t is the temperature

. . . .

This formula holds good from 10 to 10 5 po unds absolute pressu re

o r from 1 9 3 to 3 3 1 F Obvio u sly the la t en t heat Of the steam
° °
.

must be the difference between its tot al heat and the heat in
the water whence it was produ ced .

L atent heat is that he a t which when put into w ater at

any t em pe rature x produ ces steam also at the temperatu re
=

S ince the heat is not apparent to the senses and does not affect
the thermometer it is said to be laten t o r hidden In the
,
.

ki n etic theory Of ga ses l a tent heat is that which when added ’

to a whirling molec u le of water gives to that molec u le the

power of au tomobility o r the power to move from p lace to
,

place The latent heat O f steam is given by the formula

.

R 0 7 1 5 (t
°
—

where R = British thermal un its .

This formula also is good b etween 10 and 105 pounds

absolu te .

The relation b etween the pressure and vo lume of dry

s a tu rated steam is expressed in the equation PS 1 0 65
constant ;
’

that is to say at all pressures the pressu re multiplied by the

,
30 SUPE RH EAT A N D SUPE R H EAT ERS
volume rai s ed to the pow er 10 65 will be a con stant quantity
fo r the same u nit mass o f s team .

It is O bvious from what has been said O f the critical re la

tions between the temperature and pressure Of saturated steam
that if any thing be taken from the one the other mu s t al s o ,

diminish and vice versa If saturated ste am expands and

,
.

does w ork s ome of i ts heat is conve rted into work and some
,

Of the latent heat of the steam disappears and the steam is ,

so far partially condensed .

If a vessel containing steam and water be co m pre ssed into

s maller volume some of th e steam w ill be squeezed back into
,

the water becau se the pressu re will be raised by the re duction

,

Of volume of the steam Space and steam cannot exi s t at any

-
,

pressure higher than that proper and critical to the w ater

from which it i s formed .

The forci n g back of the steam will raise the temperature of

the w ater somewhat because the latent hea t of the n ow con
“

d en se d steam becomes apparent heat S imi larly if the Capacity

.

of the vessel had been enlarged further steam w ould have ,

risen from the water an d would have Obtained its latent heat
at the expense of the thermometric h eat o f the water and the ,

pressure an d temperature would fall N othing can be chan ged .

w itho u t other changes also occ u r .

With so critical a flu id as saturated steam it i s therefore

easy to understand what has been said with reference to the
action Of steam in the cylinder of an engine the inte rchange ,

Of heat between it and the c ylinder metal and the alternate ,

and Simultaneo u s prod u ction in the one cylinder of both steam

and water and their similar simultaneous destru ction at other
z one s in the same cylinder .

We have seen therefore that the te mpe rature density

, , , ,

and pressure of saturated steam stand in a fixed re lationship

to e ach other No o ne of them can vary without both the others
.
 S TEA M IT S G ENER ATI O N A ND PH YS I CA L PR O PERTI ES
. 31

varyin g als o Change of temperature changes the amount of

.

wa ter in the vessel the w ater increa sing as the temperatu re

,

falls and V i ce versa .

In the s team pipe heat i s lo st but there is no pre s sure

,
-
,

variat i on becau se the boiler keep s up a su ppl y o f s team at

full pressure and temperatu re and the heat lost is only the
,

latent heat : water is formed in the pipe and at boiler tempe ra

ture s and the s team is permeated with water
,
.

All tables o f the properties o f saturated s team refer to the

dry article f u lly ev a porated and carrying n o suspended water .

Best practice te a ches that all steam boilers worki n g u n der -

ordinary conditio n s de liver wet steamcarrying more o r less

,

un evaporated water either in fine cloud o r actually in a m a ss ,

as when a boiler primes as it will do when fed with certa in

,

imp u re waters o r is too heavily forced

Pr i ming may be d u e to Six cau ses m ordinar y u sage
“
1 To excessive evaporation or
. forcing .

2 To res tricted water area a n d too small a steam space

.
-

for the amount Of flow o f steam .

3 T o defective Circ u lat ion

. .

4 T o s u dden o r abnormal drafts Of s team bei n g taken

.

from the boiler .

5 To dirty feed water

.
-
.

6 To un heated feed water

.
-
.

M an y Of the great evapora tive re cords so w i de ly published

are du e to the reckoning Of pri mi n g as tru e evaporation It .

sho u ld be clearly u nderstood that while the calori m eter in

stru ment fo r testing steam dryness may give accu rate measu re
-

ments Of the sample of steam s u pplied to it no man has yet ,

been able to take a s a mple o f ste a m from a pipe which can

be kn own to be truly o r approximately representative of the
qu ality of steam which is flowi n g in that pipe Absolute ly no .

boiler te st fi gures are worth the paper they are written upon
-
 SUPE RHEAT AND SUPE RHE A T ERS
,

32

unle s s the steam has been supplied to Show b y superheat a

temperature at least Slightly above t h a t O f the b oiler Then .
‘

only can it be known that the steam is n o t we t

"
.

The steam from the L ancashire boiler with its l arge water
area is perh a ps as dry as an y steam O rdinarily produced but ,

still it is n o t dry
S team parts with heat more readily when w et than when
dry and the redu ction to w ater is very great in long pipe
,

ranges Where live steam is u s e d direct in vats and boiling

.

pans the presence Of s o mu ch moistu re in the steam is very

,

ann oying fo r it adds very little heat to the boiling liqu or in

,

the vat and it dilutes s u ch liqu or and may dama ge the dyes .

Thu s to take an example to compare dry with wet steam let

, ,

o n e pound of dry sat u rated Steam be assumed a t 10 0 pound s

pressure absolu te generated from water at 32 F Then

,
°
.

The total he a t in this 1 pound of steam is

The total heat in 1 po u nd of wet steam and water con
t a ining 30 per cent Of w a ter by weight and redu ced
20 in temperature a n d 2 5 po u nds in pressure is as
°

follows
(a ) 1 lb s team at 75 lb absol u te
3
3 . .

(b) 1 1; lb w ate r at
3
. 30 7 4 3
°
F from
. 39
°
F

9 0 6 30
°

D ifference 2 75 60
°

or per cent of the heat contained in the dry steam

76 7 .

Then the pound Of w et steam wo u ld only possess about

three fo u rths the heating effect Of dry steam only 69 per cent ,

Of the e ffect i n prod u cing power for the water then does n o t,
34 SUPERHEAT AN D SUPERH EAT ERS
For t on the Fahrenhe it scale the equ ation become s
S =t (t

The latent heat i s found appro x imately as follows

L = 1 1 15 —
0 7t
‘

on the Fahrenheit scale or ,

L= 60 7 -
0 7t
‘

centigrade scale .

'
The total heat of evaporation is H 10 82 0 30 5t (Fahr ) and .

H 60 6 5 0 305 i (cent )
’

Temperature is that property of heat b y which it affects

b odies s o that they can communicate heat to bodies at less
temperature .

A degre e of temperature F 1 1 80 of the di fference between .

the temperature Of meltin g ice and water boiling at the sea

level at 30 inches of mercury pressu re or 1 normal atmosphere .

A centigrade degree is of the same range H ence .

1
°
C . 18
0
F .

The d
e v a p ra tio nwater i s used as a me asure Of heat
of .

For purpose s O f comparison evaporation of water from o n e tem

,

e ra ture to s team a t another temperat u re is alway s reduced

p
to equivalent evaporation from and a t 2 12 F °
.

The equ ivalent evaporation from and at 2 12 ° H (F

9 66
w here H= total heat as per steam table and -
F = temperatur e of
feed .

Thus to tak e an example a boile r e vaporates 7 i pounds

, ,

of water from feed water s u pplied at 60 F to steam at an

“
-
°
.

absolute pressure of 10 0 pounds Then the equivalent evapora .

tion from and at 2 12 F w ill be as follow s :

°
.

75
0 (60 —
32 )
—
8 96
O

pounds
9 66
 ST EAM IT S G ENERATI O N A ND PHY SI CA L PR O PERTI ES
. 35

H ad the steam been su perhea ted 200 °

F .
,
the equ ivalent evapora
tion wo u ld then have been
1 18 1 ? (60 —
32 )
po u n ds
96 9 .

9 66

When we speak o f absolu te pressu re we mean the tota l

press u re above zero Thus on e atmosphere of press u re is 14 7
.

po unds at the s ea level an d stea m produ ced in an open vessel

-
,

has to overcome the atmosphere It is s a id to have a press u re

.

Of 1 4 7 pounds (or app roximately 1 5 po unds ) absolute C r 1

atmosphere and its ga ge press u re is 0 po un d Gage or boiler
,
-
.

press u re is the press u re Of steam above 1 atmosphere There .

fore gage press u re pl u s 14 7 = absolu te pressu re A perfect

-
°

vac uum has 0 press u re absolu te and a m1nus pressure by gage -

Of 14 7 o r it is written
,

Fig 5 is a diagram Showi n g the relation between pressure

.

and temperature of s a tu ra ted ste a m and T a ble III gives the

,

relat i on b etw een the temperature and pressure i n figures .

36 SUPERHE AT A ND SUPER HE ATE RS

D IAG RAM
S h e wing re l a t io n s h ip b e t we e n P re s s ure a nd Te m pe ra t ure

i n S a t ura t e d S t e a m .

Te mpe ra t ure i n d e g re e s Fa h re nh e it .

FIG 5 .
 S TEAM IT S G E NER ATI O N A ND PH YS I CA L PR O PERT I ES
. 37

III TA B L E
SAT URAT E D ST EAM
T EM PE RA TUR E PR E SS UR E TA B L E
-

A bs lute
o Abs lu t o e
Te m p Pre ssu r e Te mp P r ssu re e
lb
. .

in in .

per sq . 1n .
per sq . in

Prof or P ull
e ss en , Ta b l e s and D a ta , S ci en t i fi c Pub l i h i n g
s Co , Man
h tr
.

C es e .
38 SUPERHEAT A ND SUPER HE ATE RS
TA B L E III (Con tin ued)
—

S AT URAT E D S T EA M
T EM PE RA TUR E P R E SS URE TA B L E
-
 CHAP TE R V

SUPE RHE AT E D S T EA M ITS PRO PERTI ES G E NE RA L RESUME

: .

O F T H E SU B J EC T O F SUPERHE ATI N G

IT has already been stated that superheated steam cannot .

coexi st with wate r On e o r other must disappear an d thi s

.
,

wi ll take place the more quickly as the two flu ids are agitated
together It is said that wate r may be drained from out Of
.

pipes in which superheated steam is present If so it is because

.
,

there is probably a di vi ding stratu m of satura ted steam and

little V i olent agitat i on to produ ce mixt ure With agitation.

and mixture it is n ot pro b able that w ate r and superheated

s te am will coexist.

'
L et u s state briefly what superheated steam is .

SU P ERH E AT E D ST E AM

W hen that critically de licate fluid saturated steam i s

removed from the pre sence of w ater and heat is applied to it ,

it loses its characteristi c s I t w ill part with some of that h eat

.

and yet w ill remain a perfect ga s S uperheated ste am is thus

.

a perf e ct gas s o lon g a s i ts te mperatu re is higher than tha t

of s atura te d s te am of the s ame pressure The add it i on of
.

heat in the absence of water causes an increase of temperature

and of pres sure.
40 SUPE RHEAT A ND SUPERHE AT ERS
The relation between the pressu re and volu me of super
heated s team or s team gas is given by the equ ation
-

= 0 64 9 6T — 22 58 t/ p
°

po ,

w here T = absolute
temperature .

The adiabatic curve of expansion for saturated s team as given

by Zeuner is
p v constant n
,

where the va lue of the e xponent w here x

fraction of a pound turned to steam .

For s uperheated steam the c urve of adiabat ic expansion i s

.

1 3 33
constant Showing that the curve drop s quickly
3 111
-

, .

S ince superheated steam is a gas its volume will expan d as

,

heat is added to it and Shrink as heat is abstracted ; but so

long as the temperatu re is greater than that of satu rated steam
at equal pressure there will be no condensation but the steam
will retain its gaseous state .

The vol u m e Of steam is increased b y su perheatin g at a

s teady press u re and the weight per cubic foot becomes less
,

per poim d . Therefore su perheated steam contains more

heat than saturated steam b u t it contains less heat per cubic
,

foot becau se the coe fficient of expansion is greater than the

heat capacity coe fficient It is argued by some th a t Su per
-
.

heated steam ga in s some advan tage from the i n crease in volu me

and the red u ced heat per c ubic foot but there a ppears no ,

s ound reason to think this is the case since steam is only the ,

vehicle of heat and is not itself the worki n g agent H eat .

endows the molec u les with greater activity and they move more
freely b u t they exist in fewer numbers and carry less heat in
,

a given vol u me .

Knowi n g that superheated s team contains m ore heat than

i s necessary to mainta in it in the state of steam it is easy to ,
42 SUPERHEAT AND SUPER HEATE RS
entirely th e rmodynamically and he found that the e conomy
,

due to s u perhe at was theoretically j u st abo u t what w as Obtained

in practice Ranki n e paid little o r n o attention to the question
.

of cylinder condensation H e treated the steam engine j ust

.
-

as tho u gh the cylinder were i nert and did not abstract heat from
o r r et u rn it to the working fl u id This regrettable oversight
.

destroys much of the valu e of his investigation of the steam

en gi n e for the economy he found as the theoretical resu lt of
,

superheating j u st happened to coincide closely with the actual

economy fou nd in practice which was the result of a quite
,

fo rt u ito u s combination or compromise of press u re c ylin der ,

lO SS etc
,
. The coincidence was purely fortuitous and may have
deceived the discrimination of even so great a man and engineer
as Rankine L et it be here directly stated that the thermo
.

dyn amic equation ih no way is concerned w ith the practical

use of superheat The results obtained are p u rely practical and
.

to be explained by practical reasoning alone as will shortly ,

be seen .

The remainder of this chapter is largely a résumé of the

s ubj ect of su perheati n g which at the risk of repetition Of what
,

has gone before is O ffered as a brief exposé of the subj ect

,
.

Steam produced in the presence water is said to b e

of

saturated It contains the maximum possible w eight of

.

evaporated water per cubic foot an d the maxi mum amount

Of heat at the pre s s u re of the temperature O f the water from

w hich it is produ ced S aturated steam i s dry it contains

.
,

no unevaporated water and is invisible If steam i s visible

,
.

“ ”
or con tains watery particles it is wet ,
.

The pressure and density of satu rated steam in the boiler

have a fixed standard of relation to the temperature only one ,

pressu re be in g possib l e for an y given temperature On e .

cannot change without the corres ponding change in the other .

 SUPERH E AT E D S TEAM 43

If the temperature falls there will be conden s ati on part of , of

the steam the remainder expandi n g to a less density and

,

p ressu re Increase Of temperatu re on the contrary means

.
, ,

that more water is evaporated which leaving the water for ,

the steam space already fu ll mu st find room with the con se

-
,

q ue n ce that compression of the mass takes place and t h is is ,

called rise of pressure The density of the s team is now .

greater thu s :
,

1 lb of w a ter at
.

‘
F . c ubic feet .

1 steam 10 0 abs .

1 1 4 7 abs
°

.
.

Stea m pipe -
When passed along pipes heat i s
A ction —

lost through the pipe body and thence by radiation to the ,

atmosphere conden s ation ensues the fi rst heat to be given ,

“
u p by the steam being the laten t heat The mass of .

ste a m and water Shows n o marked loss of temperature until ,

in process Of tim e the fr iction of the wet s team f u rther con

o
,

d en se d prod u ces loss Of press u re density a n d temperature

, _ , , .

The relations of press u re density and temperature were , ,

experimentally found by R egnault whose figure s are still ,

accepted as s ubstantially accurate .

Tables o f the properties of steam Show that the higher the

temperat u re of satu rated steam rises the more rapid i s the ,

rate of increase of press u re per degree Fahrenheit .

Thus steam at 20 po unds absolute F .

At 30 pounds the temperatu re is F a difference .

,

F o r a n average of 2 2 3 F per pound i n crease of

°
of .
,
.

pressu re At 200 lb abs the temp e rat u re is

.
F and a
. . .
,

ri se of tempe ratu re of 22 33 F Show s a pressu re increase of ° °

.

59 or 0 38 F average rise per pound of pressure increase

,
°
.
.

S pecific heat i e the coefficient of thermal capacity o f

,
. .
,

s aturated steam is 0 30 5 British thermal unit per pound i e

,
°

,
. .
,
44 SUPERH E AT A ND SUPERHEAT ERS
to raise th e temperature 1 F the thermal capacity of eac h °
.

pound of steam is increased b y 0 305 British the rmal uni t .

S team tables Show that as the sen sible heat of the wate r
-

increases the latent he at of the steam diminishes

,
.

Thu s a reference to the steam tables shows the following -

figures :
Abs . P r e ssu r e . Te m p . Se n s ib l e H e at . L at e nt H e at . T o t a l H e at .

30lb . 2 50 2 9
‘ °
F . 2 19 26 939 0 2 1 1 58 2 8
‘

BTU
. . .

2 00 l b . 38 1 6 4 °
F .
353 7 7 8 44 57 1 1 9 8 34 BTU
. . .

F . BTU
. . .

Then British thermal unit per degree .

Superhea ted Stea m cannot live lon g in presence O f water n o r

“

can water exist where s u perhe ated steam is : they a re so inte nsely
s ympathetic that in contact they un ite un til on e o r the other
is absolutely killed throu gh absorption by its more powerful
affinity Su perheated steam is therefore p rodu ced b y heating
.
, ,

satu rated steam away from water in separate vessels It is .

raised to a h igher temperature and to a larger volu me than

s atu rated steam and cont ai n s more heat per pound but less
,

per c ubic foo t The superhe ati n g ve sse ls b e ing in commun ica
.

tion with the boiler by a s u ffi cient passa ge there IS no In crease ,

o f press u re by s u perheating ; even when the flow o f steam is

arre ste d ; that portion o f the steam which may expand back
w ards into the boiler will pr omptly retu rn to saturation con
dition s The added temperatu re above that Of sat u ration
.

i s expressed in degrees of s u perhe a t an d these degrees multi ,

plied b y the spe cific he a t of s u perheated steam equ a l the measure

of the superheat in British thermal units necessary to e ffect

the rise in temperatu re

S team behaves as a perfect gas when superheated It .

must increase either in volu me or in pressure and if super ,

heated in a closed vessel the rise of pressu re wo u ld be very

rapid This of course does n o t occur under the condition s
.
, ,
 SUPERHE AT E D STEAM 45

of practice fo r in all cases the su perheater is Simply an exten

,

sion of the boiler steam space formed by loops o r a series

—
,

of loops ,
Of pipes pl a ced in a comb u stion chamber or in the -

fi nes of a boiler so as to absorb heat from the f u rnace gases -

.

Th a t su perheated steam c a nn ot o rdi n arily exist in presence

of wa t er at on ce i n cide n tal ly points the impossibility Of attempt
ing t o s u perheat steam b y passing hot gases through pipe s ex
tended in the boiler steam space Th e den sity Of s uper
-
.

heated steam o r weight per foot is less than saturated steam ,

o r the vol u me in c ubic feet per po un d is greater The den sity .

diminishes as the tempera ture rises b u t at a diminishi n g ,

rate of growth the exa ct ratio of vol u me increase to temperature

,

not havi n g yet be en acc u rately determi ned The Specific heat .

Of s u perhe a ted steam is usu ally given as 0 480 5 or ,

British thermal un it added to on e po un d of s u perheated steam

will r a ise its tempera tu re b y 1 F T his is now gen era llv °
.

recognized to be correct for on e press u re only and much below ,

th e tr u e val u e which varies with th e pressure and temperatu re

,

o f th e steam .

R eferri n g aga in to the tables Of satu rated steam At .

100 po unds abs the temperat u re is

. F and the total .
,

he a t is 1 1 8 1 8 7 un its made u p of sensible heat British ,

thermal units occ u pied in raisi n g the water from 32 to 32 7 7

°

and of latent heat units requ ired to evaporate water

,

from an d at To rais e th is po und of saturated steam

from to 528 at the same press u re re qu ires the addition
°

Of = 9 6 1 British thermal un its calc u lating on u sual ,

valu es The volu me of satu rated steam at 100 pounds i s

.

c ubic feet .

Ra ised to 52 8 F the volu me will be 5 50 c u bic feet o r

°
.
,
, ,

s ay 2 5 per cent above satu ration volu m e

,
.

Boilers with ample steam space at rest and under pressure

-
, ,

conta i n practically dry steam i n the steam s pace W hen -

.
46 SUPER H EA T A ND SUPERHEATE RS
deliveri g steam and receiving furnace heat the water sur
n -
,

face is agitated and throws O ff much water into the steam

space and some of this gets away w i th the steam N o boiler
, .

delivers dry steam and all claims to this effect are bas ed o n
,

fallacy Of some sort W h en much w ater is carried ove r the

.
,

boiler is said to prime .

Primi n g is caused by (1 ) exces si ve evaporation o r forcing ,

the boile r being to o small ; (2 ) insufficient w ater are a SO that ,

t oo mu ch steam rises per un it of area ; (3 ) re stri cted steam area ,

the steam havin g too sweepi n g an effect ; (4 ) defective circula

tion (5) rapid changes in the draft of steam or sudden demands
fo r large vol u mes Of steam ; (6) dirty water w hich causes ,

foamin g It is n o t possible so to collect samples o f steam as

.

to Show acc u rate calorimetric res u lts Of a boiler performan ce .

The abnormally high ev aporation recorded b y s ome te sts may

be set down to priming .

Wet steam is most wasteful L ancashire b o i lers wh i ch

.
,

usually giv e the driest steam down probably to 3 per cent

, , ,

of moisture ma y occasionally giVe s team a s much as 20 per

,

cent wet A ccordi n g to Tyndall a gas containi n g moisture

.
,

will absorb and rej ect heat more readily than if dry This .

fact partially acco un ts fo r the economy of superheat .

With all steam he at begins to radiate at Once on leaving

,

the boiler S at u rated s te am in bare iron pipes has been

.

calculated to lose British thermal units per hour per Sq u are

f oot per de gree of temperature head This rate will increase .

by wetne ss E ven with cove red pipes the heat lo ss i s serious

.
,

and in practice saturated steam arrives very w et at its w orking

point with a fall also Of pressure and of tempe rature This
,
.

is particularly noticed in the bleachi ng d ryin g and printing , ,

trades i n s oap and su gar factories and Similar industries

, , .

Irregular and sudden deman ds call up much pri ming water ,

and the pipes are o f great length with many branches In .

 SUPERHEAT E D ST E A M 47

this way steam dilu tes the liqu ors into which it enters out of
all ratio to the heat it p u ts into them The water adds very .

little heat and yet it represents so mu ch coal and is therefore

, , , ,

a dead loss Su ch wetness may average 30 per cent

. .

But the evil does n o t stop at this primary usele ss c on

su mption of excess f u el as will be seen later L et an example
, .

be taken of steam at 100 poun d s abs 30 per cent w et an d .

,

redu ced 20 per cent .

1lb of dry steam shou ld con tain

.

Then T2 lb steam at 75 lb abs pressu re con tai n s

, . . . . .

An d 3 3 lb water (at
3 . F ) con ta ins .

Tota l 906 3

or a loss of 2 75 6 British thermal un its a total heat only 76 7 ,

p e r cent of that of the original steam for p u rposes of boiling ,

an d only 69 per cent for en gine p u rposes The evil is the cause .

of all manne r of devices such as steam traps and water separa

,
- —

tors b u t they can neverg ive u s steam wholly p u rged of wetness

,
.

The Specific heat of superheated steam is usu ally accepted

as 0 4 80 5 at constant pressu re and 0 346 at constant volu me ,

an d the calculations are all based u pon these val ue s Fo r .

temperatu res of s u perheat between 1 50 and 300 and at about ° °

1 85 pounds abs pressure M r C ru se considers that supe rheated

.
,
.

steam has probably a specific heat of 0 650 at constant pressu re ’

and 0 4 80 at constant volume and that the Spe cific heat rises ,

w ith the press u re and temperatu re i n co nf ormity with other

gase s whose specific heat at high temperature i s several times
the normal .

Re tu rning to our pound of s te am at 100 po und s ab s and .

327 70 F with a volume o f cubic feet : to superheat this

° °
.

weight through 20 0 F to 528 and to a volume Of 5 5 requires

°
.
°

96 1 British thermal units The total heat is now

.
48 SUPER H EAT A ND SUPERH EA T ERS
= 12 7 8 British thermal units or an ad dition of, pe r cent .

Now this is not an addition to the work e n ergy per unit volume .

If instead of adding this heat as su perheat we had added it

, ,

to the boiler we Should have found that steam with 12 78

,

British thermal units per pound would have e x e rte d a pressure

Of abo ut 2 00 0 pounds at a temperature of 642 7 F and at ° °
.
,

a volume per po und Of only cubic feet S uperheated .

ste a m has therefore less he a t per cubic foot than saturated

, ,

steam and its economy is p u rely connected with the qu estion

,

Of dryn e ss .

The work done b y the su perheater consists Of two portions

()1 t h e evaporation of the wetness of the steam s u pplied to it ;
() the superheati g of the dried steam Thus it requires
‘

2 n .

British thermal units to dry 1 po un d Of steam 6 pe r cent

wet .

S uperheated steam will carry through pipe s with less loss

than saturate d steam In carrying it thro u gh pipes it do e s
.

lose heat b u t it does n ot and cannot con dense until it has lost
,

s o mu ch heat as to convert it to the normal saturated condition .

S atu rated st eam cannot lose any heat W itho u t the formation
o f some wet n ess S uperheated steam avoids the ev ils Of water
.

hammer and le a king j oi n ts in steam pipes b u t it re n de rs -

,

useless such j oint rings a s LR o r other vegetable or animal

-
.

s ubstan ces and demands copper or asbesto s alone or combined

,
.

The ma i n Obj ect Of su perheat to those who understand it , ,

i s to avoid the loss of latent hea t energy and expansive power

su ffered by satu rated steam by condensation in the pipes and
i n the en gi n e cylinder The degre e Of superheat is deter
.

mi n ed b y the class Of engine and by the conditions Of work ;

and no absolu te rule is possible nor can rule of thumb tables ,
- —

be relied on which give so much econ omy for so man y degrees

of superheat S u ffice to say that absolute dryness is often
.

the biggest gain and the first 100 of superheat i s much more
,
°
50 SUPER HE AT AN D SUPER H E ATERS
more work It therefore adds to the work e ffi ciency of the
.

s team per po und sup plied to the cylinder .

S ome engineers hav e claimed that the large i ncrease of

volu me due to superheat is a factor which makes for higher
e fficiency and e conom y but thi s is a claim that cannot be
,

supported Thus t o revert to o ur standard e xample of 1

.
,

pound steam at 10 0 pounds abs and with a total heat .

o f 11 8 1 3 units and a volume Of feet an addition Of 9 6 1 ,

heat units will cause a superheat Of

—
An addition of
per cent Of heat has added 2 5 per cent to the volume
,
.

A cubic foo t of satu rated steam represe nts 2 72 35 British

thermal un its ; a c ubic foot Of superheated steam contains only
2 35 55 British thermal units o r 1 3 5 per cent less heat per ,
—

c ubic foot But to develop power from heat it is desirable

.

to use a flu id of maximum heat capacity per cubic foot H ence .

th e economy of high pressure an d the multiple expansion

i t re nders possible .

With sat urate d steam the press u re and density increase

with the temperature This is reversed b y s u perheat for
.
,

the higher th e s u perheat the greater the volume a n d the les s

w ill be the density This Shows less heat per unit volume
.

and less expan sive power AS already shown the rate of .

,

volu me increase decre a ses as pressu re rises and the rate Of ,

i ncrease falls with rise Of temperatu re .

Th erefore at pre sent day practical temperatures less

, ,

energy is carri d into the cylinde r by a cubic foot o f Super

e

heated steam than b y a cubic foot of dry satu rated steam .

If therefore steam did remain superhe a ted u p to c u t Off it

, ,
-
,

wo u ld be necessary fo r a given power to c u t O ff steam admis

, ,

sion at a later point or to u se larger cylinders Bu t the inter .

action Oi the work in g fluid and the cylinde r metal already

“

referred to steps in here S uperheated steam to begin with.

, ,

enters the cylinder more e as ily than saturated steam and , ,

 S UPERHEAT E D STEAM 51

where the superh eater i s properl y constructed nearer to the ,

boiler pressure As the piston moves fo rward the metal of the

-
.

cylinder takes up the surplu s heat and when the cut O ff point ,
-

is reached the temperature i s usually at abo u t satu ration point -

and the cylinder is dry There i s therefore the f u llest po ssible

.
, ,

weight of s team present in the cylinder at c u t O ff and con -

,

tai n ing the maximum he at en e rgy Of satu rated steam U p -

.

to this point the area Of the indicator diagram is a little larger -

than if no s u perheat had bee n used b e cau se the steam is more ,

lively AS the su perheat is lost in the cylinder metal its

.
,

p lace has b een fil led by further steam from the boiler and the ,

expansion c u rve which follows should n o t v ary far from the

-

hyperbola With satu rate d steam and considerable initial

.

water and condensation in the cylinde r it is tru e that the c u rve ,

does rise above the hyperbola but this occ u rs chiefly at the ,

toe of the diagram and represents re evaporation of the water

,
-

by the cylinder walls a most wasteful cycle Of Operations carried

- —

on also du ri n g the exhaust stroke at the expense of the initial

-

steam Al l these losses are minimized by means Of superh eat

. .

The increased area of the toe of the diagram is more than

balanced by the reduction of in itial area and by exhaust back
pressu re .

Important therefore as is the mi le played b y superheat

, , ,

let u s n o t misinterpret its action Thermodynamical ques .

tions do not enter into the argument S tated briefly we .

,

su perheat stea m as a part Of the process of supplying to an

engin e steam that is just above saturation te mp e rature at
cut o ff
-
Au toma tic en gine s will govern the admission to fit
.

the power developed The cut Off will vary but little e ither
.
-

way b u t the weight Of steam and water present at cut O ff

,
-

wi ll always be less NO advantage accru es from increas ed

.

volu me and such increa s e i s removed during admiss ion h y the

,
‘

abs orptive pow er of the cyli nde r metal and Of the mo isture
52 S UP E R HEA T AN D SUPERH EAT ERS
wh i ch all care cannot wholly remove from the exhau st
our

end of the cyl inder D ependent of course on the allowable

.
, ,

maximum temperat u re it might possibly be an advantage to

,

carry so much s uperheat as to carry steam s u perheated along

the expansion curve : although M r C ru se says this is not
-
.

possible in act u al work A' temperature Of 550 is abo u t

.
°

the maximum permissible in a working cylinder or p erhaps , , ,

only If ste am at a higher temperatu re were proc u rable ,

it might be admitted by way of the encircli n g j acket with a dv an

tage and possibly in this way dry steam might even reach the
,

low pressure cylinder of a compound engine

-
Watt always .

s aid that a cylinder should be as h o t as the steam which enters

it and he was no t far wrong H ighly superheated steam in
,
.

the j acket is not like the same steam in the cyli n der The .

Obvious limitations of su perheat are first the s u perheater , ,

itself and next the cylinder piston rods packings and

, , , , , .

valves and lubrication all Of which se t an earlier limit on

,

superheat than sho uld be set by the turbine engine with its
freedom from rubbing parts .

From what has b een said above it is clear that superheat

c annot be s u bstit u ted for high press u re Press u re is the factor .

in the cylinder and s u perheat great as are its ben efits is the
, , ,

preserver of press u re and latent heat If we co u ld preven t .

“
loss of heat in steam pipes and find the ideal adiabatic
-
”

cylinder we sho u ld more Usefully employ the heat of super

,

heat in produ ci n g satu rated steam at higher pressure With .

a full appreciation Of the advantage of high su perheat we

must no t run outside the border of common sense C ast iron .
—

c ylinders will not work red hot n o r will any advantage accrue
—
,

from degrees of s u perheat even far below a red heat Any .

advantage from expansion of steam is increased by superheat .

H igh press u re steam demands superheat as urgently as doe s

-

low pressure steam

-
It is much denser and carries wetnes s
.
 SUPER H EAT E D STEAM 53

probably more easily when at 300 po u n ds than when at 100

pounds pressure While high steam pressu res spell economy let
.
-
,

us no t forget that they also spell wear tear maintenance co st , , ,

and other disco un ti n g circumstances combi n ed with heavy ,

bo ile rs and generally heavy first cost It therefore behooves .

engineers to avoid extremes and to try wheth er moderately

,

high pressu res an d moderately high s u perheating cannot be

combined to give the best comm ercial economies .

There are two main types Of su perheate r : flu e and separately

fired The former are placed in the fl ues of the boiler and the
.

h o t gases pass thro u gh them They are most readily placed

.

in the d own take s of L ancashire and similar boilers which have ,

large water and ste a m capacity c onvenient combustion ,

chambers and e xt ernal flu es The temperatu re Of the gases

, .

at the back of such boilers is about ri ght for the s u perheater .

The average water tube boiler is less easily fitted with a

-

satisfactory superheater If the boiler is worked at an eco

.

n o m ical rate the s u perheat will be insignificant

,
If the boiler .

is fir ed su fficiently to get s u perheat the boiler efficiency will

.

be wastefully low M arine type bo ilers are also unsu itable for
.
-

superheaters At the back of these Short boilers the gases are

.

to o h o t
. Af ter the gases have passed the smoke tubes they -

are to o cold For all s u ch boilers the su perheaters mu st be

.

separately fired and where properly constru cted they will add
, ,

to the steam and wate r capacity of the boiler plant which is ,

usually far too restric ted in case of water tube boilers The
‘

-
.

locomotive is also a problem by itself as shown in the chapter ,

on the locomotive .

In respect of the speci fic heat Of superheate d steam there

is as yet n othing definite kn own Many are experimenting .

on the subj ect and Professor C arpenter among others has

,

done much work E xperi m ents are also being made at the
.

Physical L aboratory at Bu shey Park L ondon , .

 SUPERHE AT A N D SUPERHE AT ERS
Professor C arpenter fo und at atmospheric pressure that th e
Specific heat was where a is a constant and
p is the absolute pressure The res u lts
. indicated an inc rease

o f specific heat with increase of pressure but did not for s mall ,

ran ges of su perheat appear to Show mu ch increase for increased

temperatures at con stan t pressure Berthelot s e xperiments .
’

on ga ses pointed to considerably increased superheat at high

temperatures but he did no t de al with any temperatures so
,

low as practically workable steam Professor J ones In 1 9 00.

foun d M r Berry found C = 0 4 8 +

.
p
°

0 00 563) and indicate d an increase with pressure b ut a decrease

with increase of su perheat temperature Professor Thomas .
,

following the sam e m e tho ds found

‘

fo r 5
°
of superheat
°
10 0
°
1 80

again show in g increase with pressure but a dm in ished rate of

i n crease with riSe of temperature H ere we may leave the q ues
.

tion fo r it were u seless to discuss it further since SO little

, ,

th at is definite is yet known For ordinary practice the author

.

has tho u ght well to Calculate on a basis Of a Specific heat Of

to
Table I V S pecific Volume of S uperheated S team is com
, ,

p u te d from S chmidt s formula based

’
o n H irn s exper i ment s a s
’
,

follows :

where =
St s pe cvolume in c ubic feet per pound ;
ifi c

T = temperature of saturated ste a m + supe rhe a t ;

P ab so lute pressure in pounds per Square inch
= .
 SUPERHE ATE D ST E AM 55

IV TA B L E
SPECI FI C V O LUME F O R D E G R EE S O F SUPE RHE AT
Te m p e rat u r e F a h r e n h e it .

80 °
1 00 °
1 20 °
1 40 ° 6
1 0 °
1 80 °
20 0 °

— _ n o — l — c — _
n fi _ — f h

A ccord in g to Griesm an the specific h eat of superhe ated

steam is
=
0 1, 0 00 222 t8
°

Wher e 158 is th e s um O f the s aturated and s uperheat te mperature .

 CH AP TE R VI

STE A M P I PES A ND VA LVES

- -

SU P ER H EAT E D s team b ei n g hotter than saturated steam

causes ve ry much greater expansions and inmaking out steam
,

p ipe design s th is incr e ased expansion m u st be provided for .

P ipes shou l d n ot b e t oo long b e tween expansion bends b ranche s -

,

from b oi l er s to mains Should be sufficiently lon g to provide

for lateral movement s Of the connection to the main and ,

an chorages should be very carefully selected .

It would often be correct practice to tie the e nds of an y

straight mairi against a pier or other ab utment sufficient to
"

carry the stresse s N e xt it would seem proper to stretch all

.

the U bends b y me ans of screws s o as to put them under an

,

initial pull when cold e qual to that of the expan s ion W hen at .

w ork the e xpan s ion w ould lengthen the pipe and remov e the
in itial stres s of the tension ties but these would remain as a
-
,

safeguard again st possible rupture The place Of the e n d

.

abutment s may b e taken by longitudinal tens i on rods w ith -

s ome Slight Spring effect under their end nuts S uch fixe d ends .

to a pipe range compel the expansion bends to act U sually -

.

the expan si on bends are left to take care of themselves Is i t

-
.

advisable to let them do this especially w ith the increased

,

movements due to superheated steam ? With en d abutments o r

t ie rod s the expan si on O f a pipe due to pressure may be in i
-

56
58 SUPE R HEAT AN D SUPE RHE AT ERS
admitted that Since supe rheated steam effects an economy of from
1 5 to 25 pe r cent the s team pipe need not be made any larger on
,
-

account Of the increas ed volume of the superheated steam An .

ordinary mode rn tempe rature for satu rated steam will be 820 ab s °
.

At and 300 Of superheat o r °

,

and 1 120 ab s the relative vo lume of a given

°
.
,

weight of steam 1 vol at 820 abs will become

= .
°
.

the volu me increasing much at the same rate

as the economy thou gh thi s has no direct connection with
,

volumetric increase Then Since the natural molecular velocity

.
,

Of hotter s team must be greater than that of colder steam ,

the pipes may be smaller on this acc ount probably in the ,

inverse ratio of the square root of the respective absolute

temperatures Further the velocity of wet steam is slower
.
,

because it has to carry a burden of inert w ate r and this again ,

make s a smaller pipe sufficient for superheated steam for an y

given power .

The d ensities of s team gas at 820 to 1 120 abs are a s -

° °
.

follows : 100 9 1 85 8 1 77 74 approxi mately and probably

, , , , , , ,

it will not be far wrong to take these figures to represent the

relative are as Of pipe for a given power taking into account the ,

economy the incre ase of volume the increase of molecula r

, ,

velocity and the increased drynes s Whence the rule would

,
.

evolve that the diameters of pipes should vary as the squ are
root of the den s ity W ork ed out for the foregoing six tem pera
.

tures a 10 inch pipe for saturated s team at 0

-
3 6 F = 8 20 abs
°
.
°
.

"
,

w o u ld become 9 a o r commercially
.

and 8 5 -

As regards th e area through the supe rheate r tubes i t i s quite -

usual to allow less than that through the main steam pipe s ince it -
,

i s fo und that with small tube superheaters the ste am is required

-

to have a frictional br u shing effect and high velocity in order

to take up heat from the pipes and this res u lts in a s erious ,
 STE AM PI PES AND VALVES
- - 59

reduction of the pressure as mu ch as 1 5 o r 20 pounds of pres

,

sure being lost by the throttling effect Of some s uperheaters .

In the C ru se controllable s u perhea ter the net area through

the pipes is from 25 to 50 per cent in excess of the area of
the main steam s u pply pipe ; and this appears good practice
—
,

for by means of the larger area the friction is SO much reduced

that the apparatu s is practically free from throttli n g effects .

Mr Foster considers that the flow Of supe rh ea te d s te am is

.

under diffe ren t laws from those which govern saturated steam ,

and concludes generally that the rate of heat transfer per degree
Of temperatu re differenc e per unit of area increases with the
velocity of flow and more rapidly in small than in large pipes ,

b u t that the percentage of loss decreases with velocity Since , ,

thou gh more heat is transferred there i s an even greater propor

,
u

tion of steam passing H e advises 6000 t0 8000 feet per minute

.

for straight runs of pipe fo r superheat of 100 to 200 F H e ° °

.

quotes a German figure for the loss in temperature per 100 feet
of p i pe for M r O B e rner gives the loss at an average o f 1 76 5
,
. .

pounds pre ssure and 482 F or 10 5 of superheat a s follow s

°
.
°

TA B L E V
LO SS OF T EMPERAT URE PE R 10 0 FE E T OF PI P E

V l c ity
e o in Fe e t p er Mi n u t e
D ia m e t e r
.

Of
p
P i e , In ch s e .

He gives the diagra m Of Fig 6 to illu strate the temperatu re.

drop in su perheated steam lin es with velocity and Fig 7 to

-
, .
60 SUP E RH EAT AND SUPER H EAT ERS
Show t he var i ation i n heat tran sfe r With vel oc i ty Fi g 8 is . .

to Show the cro ss s e ctiona l area required for a ssi ng

p
-

0 5 0 00
VE LO CITY IN FT P E R . MIN .

FIG . 6

10 00 pounds of steam per hour for d ifferent pressures and

temperatures the curves A B C D E F s tanding for
, , , , , ,

sat urated ste am and for s u perheats of

400 0
V E LO C I T Y w FT P E R. M IN .

FIG . 7

a nd 500 respect ively Fig 9 is constructed from fi gures given

°
. .

by Berner for temperature lo ss w ith varying diamete rs and

velocities .
 S T E A M P I P E S A N D V A LV E S
- -
61

N one of thes e diagrams i s to b e taken as more than an

appro xi mati on to facts for there i s as yet littl e defin ite known
, .

A B BA IN SQU A R E me a ns .

FIG . 8

As regards the expansion to be provided again st i t appears ,

pract i ca ll y necessary to ass u me pipe expansions dou b l e that

4 0 330 0 0
S TE AM V E LOCITY IN FT P E R M IN . .

FIG . 9

found with s aturated steam N eedles s to say als o wi th

.
, ,

su perheat there mu st be no organic j ointin g material employed .

 CH AP TE R V I I

SUPERHE AT A ND S T E AM T URBI NE S
-

IT h a s b een claimed for the steam turbine that owin g to

-
,

the continuous flow thro u gh it eve ry part i s always at the

,

s ame te mperatu re a s the steam fl owmg b y i t This is tru e .

only in a li mited se nse The parts of the turbine are heat

.

conductors and heat i s constan tly flowing from the small o r

high pressu re or entrance extremity towards the larger cooler
-
, ,

low pre s sure extremity

-
The initial steam is deprived Of heat
.

which i s s ent fo rward to supply the heat lost by succeeding

portion s J ust what the net effect may be cannot be known
. .

On the one hand the fall Of temperature of the steam b e come s

les s steep and on the other hand the mass of metal be comes
,

greater towards the e x haust e n d It may s afely be said that

.

heat i s lost and that some of the heat lo st has descended the
heat dec liv ity and has fin ally been transferred to the exhaus t
steam and lost in the conden ser SO far there is mere loss
.

of heat which may be classed practically a s a radiation loss

,
.

But the re is no variation of temperature at any point in the

turbine The internal surfaces of the turbi n e are enormously
.

i ncreased beyond those Of the reciprocatin g engine and the ,

usual e ffects of te mperature range i n promoting cylinder

condensat i on would be very great if the temperatu res in a
turbine did change so widely at each locus .
 SUPERHEAT AND S TE AM T UR B INES
-
63

But there i s a system of regu lati on of steam turbin e s which

-

does introdu ce the very evil of temperature variation from w hich

the turbine has often been claimed to be free Thi s is the .

s ystem of regulation by gu sts the s team being admitted by

,

a valve w hich is conti n uo u sly opening and closing the ratio ,

o f open and close time bei n g varied . The pressure with in the
tu rbine is always' oscillating and the low pressure Of the con
,

denser endeavors constantly to run u p towards the high pres -

s u re end with each swi n g of the regu lation valve Thus -

.
,

from end to end the metal of the tu rbine c a sing rotor and
, , ,

blades is exposed to a rapid series of temperature change s

which within their severity mu st exercise a bad effect upon
the passing ste am by way of condensation and re evaporation -

with the resu lt that more or less water is bein g Swept through
the blades to act as a brake on the rotation A certain degree
.

o f s u perheat is therefore essential for the best working of all

turbines and particularly of those which rely on gust regu lation

i n stead of upon a steady throttli n g movement w h i ch appears
perhaps more rational .

Trials mad e Of a W illan s engine at Rugby w ith the same

load and vac uum Of 2 8 and a su perhe a t of
”

and 260 show ed a steam consumption of

°
1 2 5 10 9 , ,

and 10 0 pounds per the steam pressure at the throttle

—

being 1 85 pounds and the load full Thus the economy per
.

1 00 Of s uperheat appears to be 1 4 4 per cent fo r the first

°

1 2 7 per cent for the second and a t the rate Of 12 1 pe r cent

,

for the third .

Su perheat is thu s a necessity fo r the steam turbine and -

,

particularly fo r those which combine a large su perficial area

of b lades and a variation of temperature introduced as an
incident of gust regulation .

Th ere seems to be n o littl e trep i dati on o n the part of s ome

steam tu rbi n e b u ilders as to superheat C ertain di fficulties
-
.
,
64 SUPE R H E AT A ND SUPE RHE AT E RS
such as b l ade stripping have been attributed to superheat or,

to sudden o r excessive variations of temperatu re due t o un con

trolled apparatus But the turbine requires superheat to
.

enable it to reach its best e conomy It wo u ld appear however .

, ,

that a s u perheat of 1 40 F is practically s u fficient It must °

. .

be clearly recognized that a turbine witho u t superheat is merely

a form of Fro nde s w ater brake for every ounce of water
’
-
,

passi n g thro u gh no matter how finely divided is qu ite inert

, ,

material and serv es merely to check the runni n g of the machine .

H ence tho u gh the interchan ge of heat between the steam

,

and the cylinder metal may n o t be so great as in a reciprocating

engin e tho u gh this is probably untru e with severe gust
—

regu lation there is always to be reckoned the mechanical

,
—
.

e ffect of wate r the Fro u de effect to coin a term from the

—

inve ntor Of the water brake —

.

S peaking generally a steam turbin e w ill n ot benefit b y

,
-

superheat as a ru le more than on e half so mu ch as the ordinary

reciprocati n g engin e but on light loads with a large range Of
,

i nternal press u re and gust regu lation a turbi n e Should it may

\
,

be supposed derive more benefit than it w ill when f ull y loaded

,

and steadily ho t thro u ghout .

There are two main sources of troub l e w ith superheat in

the tu rbine These are th e destruction of the blades and
.

the unequal expansion from sudde n chan ge Of temperature .

Blades Of un suitable brass alloy wi ll not stand the high

temperature of the steam and only special alloys or steel can ,

be employed C opper alloys even if they stand the tempera

.
,

ture will usually have an expan sion greater than steel an d the
, ,

lon ger blades may very well acqu ire temperature so qu ickly
when the steam flows hotter that they expand more quickly
than the mas sive casing of less expansive steel an d there m ay ,

be contact rubbi n g and even wholesale strippin g of blades

, , .

The shrouding of blade ends i n a s mooth channel i s a safegu ard

 CHAP TE R V III

TH E BEHAV I O R O F E NGI NES W IT H SUPERHE AT E D S TEAM

T H ERE i s a common b e lie f that when an en gi ne i s w orked

w ith s uperheated steam i t must necessarily be much hotter
than w hen saturate d steam is e mployed but this is probably
,

quite erron e ous W e have seen when dealing w ith the general
.
,

interactions of the steam and the cylinder metal that all the ,

supe rheat has usua lly gon e out of the steam before the point
Of cut O ff has been reached by the piston L et the co u rse of
-
.

the steam be traced thro u gh the en gine and its effect Observed
fo r each part with which it comes in contact First of course
.

comes the valve This is without dou bt exposed to the full

.

temperat u re of the superheated steam and it must become

,

considerably hotte r than when exposed to satu rated steam .

Its worki n g faces will probably be dry a n d their lubrication of

very little acco unt fo r no O il can possess very much viscosity
,

at even ordinary temperatu res Of s u perheat .

Practice Shows that the C orliss valve can not safely be tru sted
to work with steam superheated to 500 F and especially for
°
.
,

the higher degrees of superh eat some other form o f valve is

,

requ isite as to which more will be said later After passing

, .

the valve the steam enters the cylinder a n d encounters the

piston and piston rod The rod is then movi n g out of the
-
.

st uffi n g box and i nto the ste a m space o f th e cyli n der

- -
This .

point i s important to note H a d the opposite been the cas e

.

66
 B EH AV I O R O F E NG IN ES W I T H SUPE RHEAT ED S TEA M 67

the highly heated surface of the rod would have entered the
packing from the steam space occupied by superheated s team
-
, ,

and trouble might have ensued with the dry packi n g But .

i t is by n o means certain even then that the rod would become

s o ve ry hot fo r superheat rapidly disappears H ow eve r it
,
.
,

will be observed that between the time whe n the rod begins
to be expose d to the superheated steam and the time w hen it
again enters the packing it is exposed to the expandi n g steam
an d to the e xhausting steam and that part of the rod w hich
,

may be supposed more like ly to be the hottest viz the part , .

,

near the piston is exposed for the lon gest period Of time to the
,

colder steam There seems b u t little chance of the rod bein g

.

he ated U p much beyond the temperature of the saturate d steam

pre sent at the time the rod is entering the packi n g .

S imilarly it i s to be Observed that the piston when exposed

to superheated steam is always m ov m g away from those part s
Of the cylinder which have been o r are exposed to the super
heated steam and is movi n g towards and upon a part Of the
cylinder from which steam and wate r have just departed on
their way to the conden ser SO far then as concern s the two
.
, ,

pa rts the piston and its re d very little difference would appear
, ,

t o be made as between the conditions o f working whether the

, ,

steam be satu rated or s u perheated .

AS regards the valves however there is undoubtedl y a

, ,

di fference and the best modern en gines for superheat employ

,

valves which have no ru bbing s u rf a ces but are merely modi

fication s Of the Old C o rnish o r stamper valve which Open s and ,

closes on a seat like an ordinary m ushroom stop valve For -

.

eas e in movement su ch valves are made do u ble with the tw o

areas very little different so that there is a slight t endency
,

to remain closed In the Van der K erch ov e valve w e hav e

.

a retu rn to the piston valve used a few years ago very much in
-
,

L anc a shire These valves simply w orked to and fro in a cylin

.
68 SUPERHE AT A ND SUPER H E ATERS
d ric a l shell For s u perheated steam they work to and fro
.

thro u gh the breadth O f the steam port plu s a s u fficient steam -

cover and like the stamper valve the y drop quickly to cut
, , ,

O ff steam but they do not drop upon a seat : they merely drop
,

past the port opening in their shell H ere it might be tho u ght
-
.

that there was a rubbi n g cont a ct with s u perheated steam but ,

if the circ u mstances be i n vestigated it will be found that su ch

is not the case .

S team is surro u nding the valve shell and pressing thro u gh -

the ports upon the valve body The valve sudden ly lifts and —
.

Open s the ring of ports and is held up above them a n d the ,

flow of steam is below the valve an d towards the cylinder The .

valve Shell o r casing is heated by the passi n g steam b u t the

-
,

valve is out of the way and b e coming cold relatively The , .

point Of c u t Off arrives a n d the cold valve is su dden ly dropped

-

across the port and steam sh u t o ff The steam shu t back by .

the valve is deprived Of its su perheat by the cold valve and the ,

un der face 0 1 interior of the valve is now exposed to th e falling

‘ ‘

temperature of the expanding and exhau sting steam in the

cylinder and is qu ite free to be lifted again to admit the next
charge .

Su perheated steam is of so small a proportion of the weight

o f the parts of the cylinder that the little that is trapped

behind the steam inlet valve soon drops in temperatu re and

-

probably the valve is maintained little or not at all above

satu ration temperatu re for it is s n atched away from a qu iescent
,

s u rro unding of probably satu rated ste a m kept o u t of the flow ,

Of su perheated steam until necessary to drop it qu ickly across

the flowing stream and the flowi n g stream cools a s soon as it
,

is bro u ght to rest Su ch approxima tely are the working

.
, ,

conditions and in any valve design s u ch mu st be the points

'
, ,

attended to in order that s u rfaces may not rub together when

in contact with superheated steam N eedless to say the .
,
 B EHAV I O R O F E NGI NES W IT H SUPE RHE ATE D STEA M 69

piston valve has no load on it and is no t to be compared w ith

-

the Slide valve or the C orliss valve both of which have rubbing
-
,

surfaces exposed to ste a m loading .

While the Corliss val v e will work with superheat of abo u t

500 F the slide valve will fail at temperatu re s very mu ch
° -
.
,

less dependi n g on the conditions but the drop valve will it

, ,
-
,

is cl a imed work at 600 or even at 650 F temperatu res at

,
° °
.
,

which it is claimed some C ontinen tal engines work satisfactorily

and economic a lly In Great Britain the tendency is to u se
.

lower temperature s Where high temperatu re superheat has

.
-

been tried in in div idual c ase s it has not been admitted to the
‘

high pressu re cylinder b u t h a s been passed thro u gh the inter

-
,

mediate re heater thu s losing the up per on e or two hun d red

-
,

degrees of heat and transferring them to the expanded and

f
now wet steam exhau sted from th e high pre ss u re cylinder -

In theory of course the fu ll temperature employe d in the first

cylinder sho u ld give the b e st economy but practic a l considera ,

tions always carry the greatest weight as theoretical consideration s

begin to approach their limits S ome en gineers will dec li n e
.

under any circ u mst a nce s to consider superheat beyond 100 F °

.
,

and no do ubt this degree of su perhea ti n g does give a large

economy while f u rther additions give economies less a n d less
,

greater than their cost in f u el and money and worry Very .

high superheat is no do ubt theoretically of val ue It m ay be .

worked with c a re Bu t it is somewhat academic and its virtu es

.

are ext olled u su ally by men whose experience does not extend
far into the practical It is better and sounder policy to be
.

content W ith moderate temperatu res increasi n g if the experience ,

acqu ired warrants s u ch an increase E specially with un c on .

trolled su perheate rs is it important to maintain moderate

avera ge temperatu res Since a t any time an unusual maximu m
,

may occu r .

S in ce there is always a maximu m te m peratu re that mu st

70 S UPERHEAT AND SUP E RH EAT ERS
not be exceeded th e controlled su perhe ater will always supply
,

steam of higher ave rage temperatu re than will the uncontrolled

superhe ater for the aver a ge will always be nearer to the maxi
,

mum Thus in Fig 10 if AB is the maximum allowable tem

. .

pe ra ture and CD is the ordinary minimum temperatu re of

an uncontrolled superheater the mean temperatu re w ill be
,

FI G . 10

E F for the uncontrolle d apparatus The minimum ordinary

.

t emperature of controlle d su perheat w ill be MN and there

fore the average will be OP An uncontrolled apparatu s is
.

in fact at a great di s advantage in regard to mean tempe ratu re ,

for its ma xi mum cannot be allow ed higher than the maximu m

o f the controlled superheater and th is n e c ess aril y reduce s the
,

average tempe rature attain ed .

 CH AP TE R IX

C O NT R O LLAB LE SUPERHE ATE RS

OW IN G to the variable states of a furnace and the w i de range

of temperatu re of the fl ue gases and the small Specific heat
-

of steam an d of the steel from which pipes are made an ordinary ,

Small tube s u perh eater cannot be fully controlled a s regard s

-

the t emperatu re of its outp u t The possible control has b e en

.
,

referred to under the heading of S mall tube Apparatu s -

.

But in high class working the superheater should it p ossible

-

be economically controllable .

C ontro l may be attempted in variou s w ays e spec i ally in,

r egard to the maximu m range s of temperature :

1 The steam when becoming to o h o t may hav e s ome auto

.

matic i n j ection of a fine stream of w ater into the superheater

pipes the evaporation of which w ater w i ll b rin g down the
,

te mperature of the su perheated steam .

2 When the temperatu re i s b e coming exces si ve the hot

.

gases may b e automatically sent away b y a by pass flue and —

damper .

3 A common and w astefu l device is to open a damper

.

which drenches the fin es with cold air This me t hod is w astefu l

.

of heat but is mu ch employed where the sm a ll tub e supe rheater

,
-

is of a type to burn o ut readily .

4 A s u perheater has n aturally s ome h eat i nert i a effect

.
-

71
72 SUPE R HEAT AND SUP ERHEATER S
d ue to its own mass which is equivalent in heat capac ity effect to
,
-

about one ninth of an e qual weight of water This natu rally .

suggests heavy pipes and headers and this effect is enhanced ,

in on e su perheater by the insertion into the su perheater tubes

o f cores of cast iron the additional m ass of w hich adds to the
,

heat in e rtia eff ects of the apparatus

—
.

5 The temperatu re of superheat ha s been k ept low and

.

s afe b y passin g the superheat ed steam through copper pipes

in the boiler water space Su ch a system practically takes away
-
.

all supe rheat and merely leaves the steam With a renm ant of
s u perheat sufficient to claim as evidence that the ste am is dry .

6 Fi n ally a gen u ine temperature contro l may be se cured

.
,

b y pas sing h o t water in a constant stre am thro u gh pipes thre a ded

inside the superheater pipes The fl ow of w ater is urged by
.

an inspirator worked by the superheated steam itself so that ,

a s the temperature rise s the energy of the steam is increased

and the flow of hot water is ren dered more rapid and more
heat i s taken from the steam which i s thu s tempered to any
,

degree desired .

E ach o f the foregoing methods of contro l may n ow be con

Side re d in more detail and seriatim but firs t the g eneral loca ,

tion o f a superhe ater may be stu died .

Superheaters are still and generally in the past have b een

placed in some part of the fl ues of a boiler past w hich fl ow hot
gases that have already passed by or over a considerable area
o f the boiler heating s u rface The ga ses have thus become
-
.

considerably chilled a n d in all superheate rs where there is no

,

c ontrol of any s ort the location Sh o u ld be at s ome point w her e

'
the gases are no t more than 1000 F in temperature Iron °
. .

heated to 1000 F 1s alrea dy red ho t s o that a superheater

°
.
-
,

mu st no t stand idle very much at such a temperature for ,

i ron when red hot deco m poses water and i s oxidized by the
-

oxygen produced H ence the provision Of means of flooding

.
74 SUPERHE AT AN D SUPER HE AT ERS
of superheate rs each of w hich gi v es a Correct mean temperatu re
the mixture of the steam from the whole battery will not di ffer
all the time from the steady me an temperatu re desired albeit ,

in turn every superheater may be de structively overheate d .

Thus in large installation s th e ge n e ral e ffe ct in the engine room -

may be good b ut there will be apt to be fre quent destruction

,

of s u perheaters .

It b e comes a comm erc i al que stion a s to the desirable n ess

of obtaining a su fficient s uperheat b y allowi n g all the s u per

heaters In turn to b e come overheate d This is what is s aid to

.

happen in Germany where they fin d the economy to be greater

,

than the los s in burned pipes .

We thered the American e n gin e er already referred to

, ,

e ndeavored to reg u late superheat by mixing with the highl y

he ated steam passing thro u gh the superheater ordinary satu ,

rated steam direct from the boiler .

The regu lation system No 1 i s s omewhat on these lines

. .

W ater and s uperhe ated s te am cannot coexist in i n timate con

tact E ither the steam w ill b e come saturated o r the water will
.

be absorbed . In any case the tempe rature of the s u perheated

s team will be promptly reduced by the ren deri n g latent o f so
much of its heat in e vaporatin g the w ater Wh erefore b y .
,

mean s of a thermo stat placed in the path of the steam as this

l eaves the superheater a fine j et of w ater may be caused to be
,

Sprayed into the superheater about midway of its length o r at

some o the r point such j et of hot w ater be ing admitted through

,

a controlled need l e valve .

By method No 2 the tempe rature of the supe rhe ated steam

.

Should be made automatically to by pa s s s ome o f the h o t ga s e s

-

SO as to r e duce the amo u n t Of heat pas s ing by the s uperheater .

Ordinarily s uch by pass dampers are merely w orked b y hand

—

when the temperature of the steam is seen to be ranging towards

the allowable l imits b ut this i s crude and unsatisfactory and
, ,
 CO NT R O LLAB LE SUPE RHEAT ERS 75

an au tomatic control is desirable fo r even at its bes t the contro l

,

through by pas s dampers is no t a t all perfect

-
.

S ystem N o 3 i s named only to condemn It is beyond

. .

good practice to admit cold air to mix with the hot gases in
order to reduce the superheat It mean s that the superheater
.

i s mad e to give an excessive action and that thi s is m oderated

by heati n g up so much cold air to be thrown away to the
ch inme y with all the heat it has taken up N othing could be
.

wor se o r less scientific in practice than this air drenchi n g method

-

of regulatin g superheat temperatures Yet engineers can

.

b e found who defen d it who even argue that it cannot possibly

,

b e wa steful E vidently they overlook the fact that all ga ses

.

go to w aste at a temperature considerably above the i n itia l

tempe rature of the a tmso ph ere ; that heat ab s orbing s u rfaces
-

cannot act effi ciently on large volumes of moderately he ated

s
' a s they can upon s maller volum es containi n g the s a me
g a

total heat Yet air drenchin g Simply dilutes the furnace ga ses
.
- —

from two to four times and turn s to w as te s o man y times m ore

h eat which cannot be taken up by th e sub s e qu ent su rface of
feed heaters fo r there i s n ow too li ttle he ad of temperature to
-
,

promote an efficient flow of he at to the feed water A ir -

.

drenchin g should therefore not be e mploye d but it m ay be ,

found in certain types of apparatus which mu st be protected

from destruction by the ov era ctiv itv of the furnace in the
cas e of in dependently fired apparatu s and it w ou ld appear to
,

be merely a concomitant e vil of general poverty of design .

The air is admitted thr ou gh op en in gs of large Si z e more o r less

c oncealed .

In method NO 4 w e have a de velopment of the mass or

.

inertia effect which is a property of all su perheate rs A thick .

ness of metal lies between the h ot gases and the s te am and ,

this metal has a Specific heat about on e fifth of steam and a

ma s man y times greater than the steam fl ow pe r second past i t
s -
.
76 UP E RHEAT AN D SUPE R HEA TE RS
S

Obviou sly such metal must go quite a conside rab le w ay in

modulating the sudden changes of te mperatu re that the hot
gases wo u ld give to the steam In Fig 1 1 if the peaked line
. .
,

is a c u rve of w aste gas temperatures the mass effect of the

-

tube metal may cau se the range of temperature of the steam

to vary only along the full c u rve These curves are illustrative
.

and diagrammatic o n ly and in no sense observationally o r

e xpe rimentally e xact . The maximu m range of steam tempera
ture w ill at least be le s s than that of the gases and this produc t ,

FIG . 11

of mas s in e rtia w ill be the greater according as the mass of

the superheater is greate r .

To secure a considerable mass effe ct C ruse w hen he does , ,

n ot employ full water control plac e s cast iron cores of cru ci

-
,
-

form o r combin e d cru ciform and circular section within the

superheater t ubes an d these cores ab s orb heat from the passing
,

steam during periods of rising temperatu re and discharge it

back to the steam when the gases are fl owing colder The .

controllin g e ffect is thu s very materially i ncreased and the

superheater pipes which first enco unter the ho t gases are kept
cooler These control o r heat in e rtia core s are seen in Fig 12
.
-
. .

In some cases the cast iron core s are arranged to a c t afte r

—

the man ner of the Field tube of a boiler the steam passing ,

down the core tube and returni n g between the two tubes but
-
,
 C O NTRO LLABLE SUPERHEATERS 77

in other cases the steam is passed o nly in o n e direct i on the ,

inner pipes of cast iron being merely so much mas s fo r accu

mula ting o r giving forth heat In really hi gh clas s control .
-

OO P SIZE

14 LOO P S IZE

FIG r H t ccum ul tor Sup rh t

. 12 .
—
Tub ul a ea -
a a e e a e rs

the mass action however is not sufficient to give steady tem

, ,

pe ra ture .

S ome years ago Mc Ph a il endeavored to sec u re a control

on e

by means of water First he s u perhe a ted th e ste am and then

.
'
,

passed it thro u gh a series of copper pipes laid j u st below the

water level in the boiler H e then passed the steam thro u gh a
-
.

second series of superheating pipes and again thro u gh copper ,

tubes in the boiler The net resu lt was that he obtained only
.
78 SUPERHE AT A ND SUPERHEATE RS
about 9 of superheat and this would usually all disappear
°
,

b efore the steam reached the engine H e did however effect

.
, ,

two things . First he effe ctively dried the steam and de livered
it cooled from a high temperature down to 9 of s uperheat and °
,

he probably obtained a really be tter and drie r steam than if

he had s imply heate d up wet s te am to 9 of supe rheat It °
.

F
IG . 13 .
—
W a ter con troll e d
—
32 -
p ip e Supe he a ter
r

may only b e opinionative but there are those who con sider
,

th a t the re is more heat in steam a t a given temperature if it ,

h a s previo u sly bee n hotter tha n the given temperature than ,

if it had been colder The idea is that the molec u lar structure
.

of the steam gas is more perfect S econdly he appeare d to

—
.
,

add greatly to the capacity of the boiler to make steam and ,

it was even claimed that water tube boi lers ordinarily givi n g
-
,
 C O NT R O LLAB LE SUPERHEATERS 79

one un it of wet s team n ow gave tw o and even three Im its of

,

thermometrically dry steam .

In brief the control aimed at appeared rather to be a mean s

13
’

a
' I

o -w ~ — 4 -
4 -
9 k
t ‘

FIG . 14 .
—
I n d e pe n d e n tly F ire d Wa te r con troll e d Superhe a ter
-

of promoti n g ev a poration than of sec u ring su perheat for the ,

system employed controlled it altogether out of existence —

nearly.

The method Of control b y w ater was however not y et , ,

80 SUPER H EAT A ND SUPERHE AT ERS
82 SUPE RH EA T A ND SUPERHEAT ERS
on ly protect the tube but give an inertia controllin g effect for -
,

they require time to become hotter when exposed to a fl ow

of hotter ga ses and they are slow to cool when the gases begin
,

to fl ow colder They temper the hea t fluctuations as Shown

.
,

already in Fig 1 1 and the ir protective effect on the pipe IS

.
,

g ood (Figs l 7a b c) .
, , .

R e r uns. H e nn a

FIG 17a —
Portio of Fo t Sup h
n s er howin g E n d s f E l e m e n ts Co n
er e a te r , s o

b y R turn H d dr wn
. .

n e c te d e Th
ea e e e l e m e n t s co n s i t of
r . e am l e s s ss a
st e l tub in g p o t e c t e d b y c a s t i o n i n g Shrun k o n
e r -
r I nn e r tub e s e
r s . ar
clo e d t s t e am wh i ch is t hus fo c e d t h ough thin annul a r sp a ce s a nd
s o r r

ra p i dl y sup e h e a t e d
r .

The salient point of the Cruse system is of course the pec uliar
method o f water control which n ot only regu lates the tempera
,

ture wi thin narrow limits but preserves the superheater tube s ,

from i n j u ry by excessive gas t emperature or at times when the ,

volume of steam pa ssmg thro u gh is greatly redu ced or when ,

steam i s being rai s ed after lighting up The controlling element .

 C ONTR O LL AB LE SUPERHE A TERS 83

consists of a stream o f water circulati n g from o n e end to the

other of the su pe rheater through steel o r copper pipes inside the
steel s u perhe a ter tubes A s may be seen from the illustrations
.
,

the weldless stee l su perheat er tubes are of large bore 6 i n ches ,

in diameter assembled to form s emi i n dependent elements

,
—
,

FIG . 17 b —
. Nw
e er Ty p e of Fo s te r Sup rh e e a te r

each element cont a ini n g from six to sixteen pipes and ,

number of elements varyi n g accordin g to the importance o f

the apparatus The elements are built to form spirals and this
.
,

gives to the ste a m a fair length of travel in the superheater .

The inte rnal water o r controlling pipes are of solid drawn copper
o r steel and follow the form and co u rse of the steam s u perheating

system In the flu e fire d s u perheater a s constructed to

.
-
,

ope rate w ith the L ancashire boiler the steam enters the s u per
,
84 SUPERHEA T AND SUPER H E ATERS
heater at the bac k and travels igzag in counter current to z ,
-

the heati ng gases to the front The controlling w ate r trave ls

-
,
.

conc u rre ntly with the steam from back to fr ont and is taken , ,

rs t from the boiler water space ; second ly from the economizers

fi ,
—
; ,

thirdly from the hot well or co l d ma in ; a n d afte r traversin g

,
-

the vario u s elements of the apparatu s is collected into one ,

stre a m a n d enters or re en ters the water Space of the boiler

, ,
-
,
-

a lway below lo w w a ter level The f actors determini ng the

—
.

use and proport ion of any on e or of a ll these di fferent water s

are the heaviness of the firi n g the weight of steam to be passed , ,

FIG . l 7o .
—
Fo s te r S up rh
e e a te r .

and especially the ma ximum te mperature of s u perheat requ ired

to be added to the ste a m Where high temperatures are wanted
.

the circ u lati n g water taken from and ret urned to the w a ter
sp a ce of the boiler is used alone and the flow is regu lated o r ,

governed by a steam j et conn ected to the superheated steam

- —

collector The steam j et is initially set a s may be requ ired to

.
—

give s u ch flow of wate r as will allow of a given ave rage tempera

tu re of superheat afte r which t h e go verning effect becomes
,

automatic balan cing the water fl ow by mean s of the greater

,
-

o r less val u e o f heat o r k i n etic e n ergy liberated from the s u per

he a ted steam by contact with the water In the independently .

fired apparatus the superheate r proper is bu ilt on lines similar

to the fl ue fire d type with this es sential di fference that the
-
, ,

pipes are placed horizontally a n d the steam and w ater trave l ,

 C H AP TE R X

SUPE RHEATI NG AS AN ELEME NT I N S T EAM GE NERAT I O N ON

TH E S TAG E PR I NC I PL E

J U ST a s the use of steam has come to b e by s teps or s tages

b y means of the vario us types of compoun d engines so also ,

is it gradually bei n g realized that the man u factu re of steam

mu st fo r economical reasons be carried o u t in stages The .

first stage is th at of heating the feed water by heat that would

-

o therwise be w asted . The second stage if required by the

,

ins u ffi ciency of th e first consists in adding heat to the feed

x
,

water u ntil it becomes as ho t as the boiler The third s tage is

.

the addition of the latent h eat of evaporation to the now fully

heated feed water whereby it is converted into steam ; while
-

the fo u rth and last stage is that of superheating the pressu re

,

o f the steam re m aini n g constant while a further supply o f heat

i s p u t into it raising its temperature above the point O f s atura

,

tion and enlarging its volu me produci n g in fact a true steam

,

gas which does n o t liquefy if cooled so lon g as the cooling does

not extend beyond the point of saturation temperature or to ,

the ab straction of latent heat whereupon condensation would

,

ensu e.

In every day practice in ord er to economize heat to the

-
,

fullest possible extent the feed water is taken first from the
-

condenser at or about 100 F If after it leave s the conden s er

°
.

86
 SUPERH E ATI NG O N TH E S TAG E PR I NCI PLE 87

i t i s nece s sary to purify the f c cd water of oil whereby it becomes

-
,

cold there is no reason why it Should not be re heated in tu bes

,
-

forming an advanced portion of the surface condenser and

then taking heat afresh from the exhau st The feed water .
-
,

now as hot as it can be made by exhaust steam then passes —

, "

to the economizer where i n it is heated by the waste gas e s from

,

th e b oilers The e xtent to which feed may thus be raised in

.

temperatu re m u st be a matter of the area of the heati n g surfaces —

o f th e boiler and o f the eco n omizer re lative to the f u el b u rne d .

A s a ru le the feed leaves the economizer at a temperature

less than that of the boiler It is therefore now to be subj ected
.

to a further heating E ither it must pass throu gh a live steam

.
—

heater in which it is directly expos ed to live steam from the

,

boiler o r it may be heated to f u ll boiler te mperature in the

,

w ater control pipes of controllable s u p erheaters where these are

-

employed (as to which see C hap IX) Su ffice that once it has . .

attai n ed boiler temperatu re it may be tu rn ed into the boiler ,

there to receive the latent heat su pply necessary to convert it

-

into steam The heat of the furnace is directly converted into

.

laten t heat Of steam ; there is to be no heati n g of water inside

the water space of the boiler The boiler will perform its du ty
-
.

more efficiently when this d u ty consists in one stage only of

‘

the process of steam production name ly the evaporative duty , , .

The newly formed steam is wet It is to be taken by w ay of .

an anti priming pipe to the su perhe ater and there the finishi n g
-
,

tou ches of drying and superheat are carried out Were it not .

that o u r m aterials of construction will n o t bear exposu re to the

furn ace temperatu re and that ste am above 500 to 700 can
,
° °

not b e dealt in by the steam en gine the supe rheater Should

-
,

theoretically be placed in the hottest part of the furnace A s .

it is a compromise has to be made and the addition of the

, ,

su mmit of temperatu re to the steam has to be effected by

aid of gases already deprived of s ome heat by the bo i ler .
88 SUP ER HEA T AND SUPER HE ATERS
This Is not as things should be but it is the best that material s
,

allow us to carry o u t .

Sup erheating is th u s on e in the series of stages into which

the bes t modern practice divides the process of steam production .

The atte mp t to carry out in the boiler the du al functions of

feed water heating and steam ge n e ra tIOn 1s and always has been
-

a failure W e do n o t here Speak of the heating of feed water in

.
-

the stea m space of a boiler Thi s is correct eno u gh if carried

-
.

o ut t h oro ughly so that the water act u ally drops at f u ll boiler

,

te mperature into the water space There mu st be no chilling

-
.

of the water in a boile r A boiler can only produce steam

.

somewhat i n complete Such steam is very readily condensed

.

and superheating is necessary to render the steam perfect .

Fres hly made or saturated steam n o do ubt contains man y im

perfectly formed molecules and it is necessary that these Should
,

be rendered perf e ct e ven if n ot further en e rgi z ed b y liberal

s uperheatin g .
90 SUPE RHE AT AND SUPE R HE AT E RS
superh eater of small tub e variety W ith water tub e b oiler s
the -
.
-

there is apt to be greater difficulty for the location cannot be

,

b efore the first bank of tubes and these u su ally do so large a

,

share of the total work of a boiler that the gases which have
p a ssed this first bank of tubes are us u ally too cold to give effe c
ti v e s u perheat If fired sufficiently to give satisf a ctory s u per
.

he a t the boiler efficienc y will be low and if worked at an

, ,

economically efficient rate the degree of superheat will be in suf

,

fi c ien t .

M arine boilers are not very suitable for flue superheater -

fi re d
location for they are too sh ort su fficiently to redu ce the gas
,

te mperatu re to a safe point and after the gases have made the
, .

p a ss of the tubes they will be too cold For all s uch bo ilers .
,

therefore it is more desirable to employ s u perheaters of the

,

separately fired order which if properly constru cted will add to

,

the steam and water capacity of the boiler plant u su ally some ,

w hat small where water tube boilers are employed

-
.

Almost all s uperheaters are made up a series of coils of

o r hoops o r banks of pipes through which steam is passed and ,

they are i mmerse d l n the stream of hot gas in the boiler Hu es -

.

T a king the small tube type first these are built up of loops
,

o f small tubes through which it is too often the c u stom to hurry

the steam which at a high velocity more readily brushes

,
“

the heat off the pipes They are apt to become c h oked with
.

s cale carried over in the w a ter of priming H ence the method .

of attachm e nt o f the tubes in the example illustrated the ,

superheatin g tubes rising from the u pper side of the header

box so as not to carry o ff any water from the en trance header -

which might find its way there as primi n g It is always d iffi .

c ult to control the s u perheat given by small tube s u perheaters -

.

S ometime s w ith good fire s the temperature becomes danger

‘

o usly high At other times it falls very low

. .
 SUPE RH E ATE RS 91

W here there are several boilers each with its superheater

,

delivering steam to one main steam pipe the average tempera

-
,

tu re of steam at the engi n e stop valves will not perhaps vary

-

m u ch for the extreme conditions of te m perature do not occ u r

,

simu ltaneously in all boilers The several streams u n ite to

.

give a stream of average temperature and the en gine is thus

more or less safegu arded aga i n st overhot steam In s ome .

small tube s u perheaters the d e lib era te in tention is to have a

-
‘

small total area of passage thro ugh the tubes so as to raise ,

the velocity of the passing steam tho u gh at the cost of press u re

, ,

b u t this method has the disa dvan tage of throttli n g down the
-

steam pressure in order to assist the frictional heat absorbing

- -

e ffect upon the t ubes for as above stated rapidity of flow

, , ,

induces a picki n g up o f heat by the steam from the tube interior

surfaces .C ases are known where as ; mu ch as 1 5 po unds
pressure per squ are inch has th u s be en throttled o ut of the
steam .

We thered tried s u p erheating a portion on ly of the steam ,

which he mixed overheat ed w ith the remainder of saturated

steam This was called combined steam but it was really
.
,

only the mixtu re which is e very day got from any bank of
superheaters the ave rage o u tp u t temperatu re of which is the
combined temp e rature of th e who le of the superheaters in th e
ban k But the chief trouble with small tu be apparatus has
.
-

been to protect them from b u rning when the flow of steam

through them is for any reason stopped In some cases the .

superheater is dire ctly placed in free communication with the

boiler water space by means of val v es which are o r sho u ld be
-

su itably interlocked The supe rheater is made a part of the

.

heating s u rf ace of the boiler b u t when it is again wanted to

,

act as a superheater all its water contents mu st be blown

out hot and more or less heat is th u s wasted U sed as an .

e vaporator al s o there is a ten dency to fur up the interior of

,
92 SUPE RH EAT A ND SUP E RH E ATE R S
the superheater tu bes In other cases the superheater has b e en
.

placed in a chamb e r when room has been available which may

be c u t o ff from the path of the hot gases by a short circuitin g -

damper When not passing steam the damper is opened to

.

by pass the gases directly instead of by way of the superheater

-
.

Placed as they are directly in the path of hot gas s u per

, ,

heaters are exposed to severe condition s for long periods to the ,

influence of a hot fire then to much milder temperature while

, ,

the rapid changes of temperatu re cau se expansion and con

traction of the tubes an d de terioration of their s ubstance A .

boiler f u rnace crown is only some 50 5 to 1 50 hotter than

-
> °

t h e water in contact with it accordi n g to the cle anli n ess of

,

the plate s u rface and the conditions of velocity of the gas and
of the water on its O pposite faces .

Now the mean temperat u re of a plate is fo u nd by Bryant to

b e half the s u m of the te mperatu res of the steam and the
“

'
gas on its o ppo site side s This when the steam moves fast
. .

When the flow is slow the tube may become hot ter Obviously .
,

then a superheater pipe may become very highly he ated S uper

,
.

heaters therefore sho u ld not be regarded as ch eap accessories

, ,

to a steam boiler to be co nstructed as mere ephemeral appara

-

tus .

C orre ctly to approach the question of superheat e fficiency ,

should c om e first and is to be sec u red w ith stren gth s afety , ,

and d u rability The best and most trustworthy mate ria ls

.

must alone be employe d and put together with the same skil l
“

and care as the bes t class of boiler maki n g Thus no cheap -

.

apparatus can be satisfactory fo r the gases mu st be at le ast

,

10 00 F fo r efficiency or even
°
. or, say 500 to 600 , ,
° °

above the steam temperatu re The small tube uncontrolled .

-

s u perheaters cost considerably less than the controlled s u per

he aters and are of cou rse far less du rable In every instance .

the e ngi neer responsible mu st take up this qu estion of re lative

94 SUP E RH E AT AND SUPE RH E ATE RS
s team travels through the tubes it should be m i xed up in the
heade r before e ntering the n e xt tub e .

S ince s team expands when s upe rhe ate d thi s must be allow ed
,

fo r in the area of the tu bes unless wiredrawing i s to occur and ,

this area through the superheater tube s should n o t usually

be less than l i times that of the main boiler steam pipe for -

pressure s above 1 30 pounds and a maximum of 250 o f added °

su perheat For low pressures the su perheate r m ay have a

.

passageway to times that of the steam pipe -

.

N eedless to say since the duty of a s uperhe ater is to add

temperature to the steam it o u ght not to be called on to act
,

as an evaporator It o u ght to have a dry steam supply tho u gh

.
-
,

many s u perheaters are p u rposely fed from boilers made to prime

in order to preserv e the tu bes .

Abo u t 700 F sho u ld be a maxim um tempe rature for super

°
.

heated steam havi n g due regard to the strength of mild steel

,

at s uch temperatures But n o lubrication o il can exist at 650

.
-
°

o r ret a in a ny viscosity nor can any engine take ste a

,
m safely
at 700 F
°

C ast iron i s qu ite un fitte d as a material for s u pe rheaters ,

thou gh it may be still employed fo r some of the chea per s orts

o f apparatu s which are little e lse b u t steam driers It is als o
-
.

legitimately to be employed for the internal cores of the acc u

m ula t o r o r heat inertia type o f s u perheater or for the gill s
-
,

shrunk upon the t u bes of the Foster superheater .

It is fo r the holdi n g of high pressure steam that cast iron

-

i s n o t s u itable for use as s u perheater pipes thou gh it is still

,

employed to some extent on the continent o f E u rope but only , ,

the author believes for moderate degrees of superheat a nd

,

exposed to gases of moderately high temperature only .

 C H A PT E R XII

FE E D WAT E R H E ATI NG
-

E SP E CIA LL Y when feed water can be heated b y he a t that

-

w o u ld otherwise be wast ed great advantage can be obt a i n ed

by he a ting f ee d water
‘
-
.

To find the econ omy du e to feed he atin g by w a ste gases -

from a boiler a s by me ans of the e conomizer o r by exh au st

,

steam as in a coil the following for mula will give a ppro x i

, ,

mate ly correct resu lts

(T m p
e tur of co om i r ou tl t )
e ra e e (T m p of i l t t
n co om i )
ze e —
e . n e o e n z er
10 0 X
To t l h t f t m f om 0 F °

i t t h b o il r p u mi r
a ea o s ea r

a e e -
T mp fi l t t
re s s
co o
re
.

e . o n e o e n ze

— p e c e n t a ge
r of ga in .

In addition to th e mere gain of heat otherwise lost there

i s a gain in the efficiency o f a boile r fed with ho t feed especi a lly ,

if fed with w ater at the boiler temperature so th a t the sole ,

du ty of th e boiler is to evaporate water and no t to ra ise its

temperatu re Thu s the wate r fed to a steam boiler if not
.
-
,

already heated to the temperatu re of evaporation o u ght to be ,

submitted in a separate vessel to the action of the boiler steam —

in order that no water may enter the boiler at a temper a tu re

lower th an that of the boiler The exact reason for the better .

worki n g of a boiler thus fed is not known but undoubtedly ,

there 1s a bette r transfer of heat across the plate s to hot water

than to cold w ate r The reason s eems to be in some way
.

95
96 SUPE RH E AT A ND SUPE RH E A TE RS
connected w ith the direct vaporization of the wate r all added ,

he a t becomi n g latent and none of it bein g first expended on

heating the water .

In the C ru se controllable superheater the final raisi n g u p of

the feed water to boiler temperatu re is carried out by cau sing
—

the feed w ater to e nter the boiler by way of the controlling

-

inner tubes of the s u perheater which tubes are thu s compelled

,

to f u lfil the do uble d u ty of con trolling the temperat ure of

s u perheat to the desired poin t an d of adding the heat to the
feed water which it lacked from e v aporation temperatu re
-
.

Tho u gh s u perhe ati n g may in all its methods be combined

w ith some system of f u lly heated feed water the s u perheater
-
,

of C ru se is p u t forward as renderi n g such full heating an integrant

part o f the proce ss of steam raisi n g in conj un ction with su per

-

heating This view is of co u rse an ex pa rte statement of the

.

experts of the C ru se system but is nevertheless e ntitled to

,

consideration in V iew of the fact that the b est steam engineers -

recognize the so u ndness of the claims .

An expert on steam says :

Th e C ru se syste m o f s u perheating c laims to di ffer entirely
i
“

in prin ciple from any other a n d also in d esign and constru ction
, .

It embodies a co n trolli n g device which renders it as safe and

e fficient under proper a n d reasonable conditions of care and
attention as any water tube boiler
-
.

“
In giv ing his reason s for the creation of this novel type
o f s u perheater ,
the i n ven tor of the C ru se system points o u t
that in the small tube s u perheater the tubes are liab le to
-

become overhe a ted when the temperature of the gases i s high

a n d when the draft of steam flowi n g thro u gh the pipes becomes

restricted owing to the engine bei n g stopped for a short time ,

the normal flow of steam thu s being a rrested The tubes havi n g.
,

no heat conveyin g m edium to relieve them will become red

-
,

hot and will s oon show s ign s of decay W hen the engine i s.
98 SUP E RH E AT AND SUPE RH E ATE RS
flow s thro u gh the s u perhe ater in fo u r parallel streams which ,

again un ite beyond the s u perheate r mto a sin gle stream at the
main stea m pipe-
.

“
To some extent the heavy mass of the tubes serves as a
s tore of heat A s u dden acce ss i on of temperatu re in the gases
.

does n o t produ ce a rapid change of tempera tu re in the pipes ,

nor does a s u dden fall chill the pipes so rapidly as if they were
of the thin sma ll type B ut this form of control is merely
.

incidental The designed control is effected by water A

. .

water bran ch is taken from the boiler at low wate r level and -

water is drawn out at this branch and forced through 2 inch -

copper or steel pipes which traverse the su perheater pipes from

end to en d and retu rn to the boiler Thu s each end of this .

pipe is exposed to boiler pressu re and to force water throu gh

-
,

it only deman ds energy sufficient to overcome the friction ,

which is not great in a solid drawn smooth pipe To produce .

the flow the w a te r is passed throu gh an inspirator o r aspirator

fed with su perheated steam W hen s u perheated steamtouches
.

water it at on' ce becomes saturated and at usu al temperatu res , ,

'
o f supe rh ea t f it loses say 20 per cent of its volume This
, , .

re du ction of volume is like the conden sation in an ordinary

,

inj ector the source of energy and se rves to propel the water
, ,

through the inner tubes at a considerable velocity S hould .

the gases become hotter and the steam temperatu re rise the ,

steam volu me i n creases and the action of the aspirator i s

correspondingly intensified M ore water flows and picks up .

more heat from the surrounding steam In this way the con .

trol exercised by the water col u mn s is au tomatic the resu lt ,

bei n g that the temperature of su perheat varies between narrow

limits and the danger poi n t is never reached
-
.

“
In adding 200 F of temperatu re to steam and as s uming
°
.
,

the mean specific heat to be each pou nd of superhe ated

steam will absorb 1 10 B T U S atu ra ted steam produced from
. . .
 FB E D WATE R HE ATI N G
- 99

w ater at ordinary temperature requires about so

that the extra heat in s u perheated steam is j u s t ab out 10 per
cent
S ome ye ars ago M N ormand the French engineer fo un d
.
, ,

that the e conomy of a boiler and its e fficiency fo r heat u tili

,

z a t ion was improved abo u t 10 to 1 5 pe r cent by he a ting the

,

feed water up to f u ll boiler temperatu re by m eans of its own

-

steam W hile this d id b ut look like paying from on e pocket

.

to another experience has since shown that a boiler fed with

,

f u lly heated feed reallywill perform better and more econo m ically .

N o one has qu ite satisfactorily explained the matter but the ,

effect obta ined appears to be du e to the mu ch improved mobil -

ity of the water in the boiler a n d it is ackn ow le d ged that a

,

boiler is only properly u sed when its du ty is confi n ed to evapora

tion It sho u ld add the latent heat cf transformation from
.

water into steam Feed hea ti n g it may here be re m ark ed

.
-
, ,

sho u ld be strictly confined to separate vessels It is to the .

effect j u st described says a technical expert that must in his

, , ,

opinion be ascribed the apparent produ ction of su perheated

,

steam by th eC r use system at a cost little if an y greater than the

cost of the s a me steam satu rated Another advant a ge of .

f u lly he a ted feed water is that it enables a boiler to b e forced

-

heav ily witho u t priming .

“
M r C ru se modestly c laims 20 per cent of incre a sed c a pacity
.

on a basis o f from and at 2 12 F b u t some en gin e ers state

°
.
,

t h a t they are actu ally getti n g o u t of wa ter t u be boilers as mu ch -

as pounds of steam by feedi n g at f u ll boiler tem perature ,

where formerly they were getti n g on ly pounds from th e

same b oiler Witho u t pressing its c laims so far as th at it
.

may b e said that by con fini n g it to e vaporative duty on lv a ,

boiler will safely and without priming give a much greater

‘ ’

duty .
1 00 SUPE RH E AT A ND SUPE RHE ATE RS

I N D E P E N D E N T L Y F I R E D S U P E R H E AT E R S
Short back marine boilers are too hot at the b a ck end
d ry -

o f the furnace fl ue fo r saf e s u perheat and the gases a re too coo l

-

at the front uptake Water tube boi lers if worked at rates

.
-
,

e co n omical fo r the boiler are too cold after the first pass of
,

the ga ses to give satisfactory superheat H en ce have arisen .

the many separately fired su perheaters which when of the ,

small tube type l abor un der this di ffic u lty that they cann ot
-
, ,

Safe l y bear a temperat u re above F Now a f u rn a ce .

has a tempera tu re of to F and in th e se su per .

,

he aters to cool th e ga ses to a requisite degree an e xcessive

, ,

vol u me of cold air is admitted and the f u el efficiency for these

su perheaters is red u ced to between 32 an d 40 per cen t In th e .

C r use system o f separately fire dfsuperh e at e r the same principle‘ ‘

o f control already described fo r the flu e fi re d superheater is -

carried o u t On e su perheater ma y con sist of eight elements

.

o r spirals of 1 0 or 1 2 laps of pipe each E ven the C ru se su per .

heater with its i nn er protection of control pipes is not s u pposed

to be ar gases a bove F tho u gh probably it might be
exposed safely to F H en ce in order economic a lly to
.
,

redu ce the f u rnace gases from -

or F the whole .
,

o f the feed water for a b attery of boilers is p a ssed thro u gh

—

water he a t in g pipes p laced between f u rn ace an d su perheater

-
.

These water pipes t ake o u t the excess of temperatu re from

“
-

the ga ses They also s u pply water to pass thro u gh the control
.

s ys t e n and a superheater of a capacity of

,
pounds
of steam su perheated 200 o r 2 50 F per hour will heat° °
.

po unds of water from th e temperatu re of the economizer

d elivery to the temperature o f the boiler .

“
A ste a m gen erati n g pl ant is thus ma d e u p of fo u r elemen ts
-

first the econ o m izer which heats the feed from conden ser
,
“

temperature to 200 F or 250 F ; secon dly the foreheater of

0
.
0
.
,
10 2 SUPE RHE A T A ND SUPE RH EATE R S
The growth the steam turbine has of late cau s e d con
of - ~

sid e ra b le i n terest to be taken in s u perheating Superheat is .

recognized as necessary to the economy and safety of the tu r ‘

bine But variable te mperature introdu ces an ele ment of

.

dange r Very high temperatu res such as may occur occasion

.
,

ally are fatal To avoid these the s m all tube superheater

, .
-

must be so devised that '

its maxim u m shall be safe an d this ,

compels a very low me a n s u perheat To sec u re even this .

modic u m of safety necessitates a throttling or wiredrawi n g

superhe ater ; and even 2 5 pounds loss o f pressure is someti m es
—

inc u rred b u t generally the loss is nearer 1 5 pounds H ence the

, .

e mployment in the s u perheater described of larger t u bes with

, ,

a lo n g run for the steam .

“
The facts gained by experience have stimulated en gineers
t o dev i se independently fired apparatu s but the gas temp e ra ,

t u re has always had to be tempered by excess of air with the

r esu lt of low efficiency It is claimed that only by usin g the
.

s u rplu s temperature as in the C ru se system can a real an d full

, ,

economy be se cu red a n d by j u st so mu ch a s the s u perhe ater

,

grate s urf a ce serves to add heat to the feed water by so much

— -
,

it enable s the provision of boilers to be redu ced In addition .

to this there is also the N ormand effe ct which will be sec u red ,

wherever feed water is f u lly heated to the temperature of

-

evaporation The H alpin thermal storage system se c u res this

.

N ormand effect also and attention has been quite generally

,

turn e d to this poin t .

“
S team generation ha s always been far too haphazard a
-

process and n ow since su perheat ha s come along the ev il

,

e ffects o f this h aphazard system of worki n g have become more

apparent and there is perhaps to da y a growing desir e to place -

the art of steam generation on a more s cientific and sati sfactory

-

”
b asi s .
 CH APTE R XIII

E XAMPLE S O F SUPE RH EATE RS

TH E FO ST E R S U P E R H E AT E R
T H IS is a s mall tube superheater -
wh i ch the tub e s are on

prote cted from the direct action of the hot gas es by means of
gill rings of cast iron shrun k on as shown in Fig l 7a which
- .
,

gives a partially s ectional view of two tube e nds and a head er -

-

box and shows the internal studded tub e by the agency of which
-

the ste a m is made to travel in a ri g space and to present itself

n -

in a thin hollow colu mn again st the internal surface of the

superheater tube .

The tubes are straight and parallel to each other and ex

p a n d e d into the h eaders w h ich are fitted with
, bolted caps
as shown The headers are of hammered steel bored lon gi
.

tudin a lly for steam and crosswise for the t u be ends a n d hand -

holes .

This su perheater is placed in the back downtake of a L an

c a sh ire boiler in the space under the drum of a B abcock or
,

s imilar boiler Fig 1 8 high u p against the fron

,
.
, t tubes in the
S tirling boiler and it is placed vertically or horizontally a c
,

cording to the necessity of a given case being vertical for , ,

example in the u ptake of the return tube boiler

,
-
.

Fig 1 9 shows this superheater in a portable form arranged

.

as an independently fired apparatu s The gill s are not pro .

10 3
 AT AN D S U PE R H E ATE RS
SU PE R H E

collecto rs p e s entin g r
an

s e al s o a s h eat -

in rti
,

e t s on ly ; th e y e rv
iving the heat e a -

t e e r
ga s a s w ell a s g
d s u f ace to t h e se
earlier chapt r
e nl a g e r e
r
in an
.

eff ect d escri b ed effect i s C rus e s

’

o r cont rollin g cont olled b y mass

s uper h eate r s imila r l y
r
A 1 2
sup e rh eate r F i g
demand
.
.

f r a low
a ccu m ul a tor
devi s ed
,

to me e t a o

s u e rheate r w a s
d supe heat er
Thi s p no w w ate r controlle r
-
.

a ternativ e to th e w ell k n -

r i ce d l
p

Edg em
Bo i l
e reer

F o t e r S u p e r h e a t er in
b A p o r t io n
FIG . 1 8 .
— s
i pl c d j u s t a b o v e t h e
w
t u
h i
e
ch
s
i u p
.

o r t
o i l t h s u p r h a
e t e r es a
u
e
p r h a t e e r,
s s
co
p
c
In t h i h
e e
s b r
e
p a c t s n t e s
o
l n d a re n n e e

f t h h t
o
g a s e s in t h e fi r st a
h
s s
d s ar e of w r o u gh t st e e a
o id d fo r a c c e s
o e
o h ead b a m
e s T h
p
e a
o
e r

e ct d p
i
e
p e s D oo r s a re p r v e

from
.

v er
p c t e .

m e b y r
b o i l
t ot h e b o i l er s te a s—

d
a
e n d e n ly
t of t h e e r .

sup e rh e a t e r in e p
t o th e
tempe rature
control
the s am e nicet y of
posse ss feed h e a t in
doe t h
-

It s n o
increasi t e
the property of n g
l
nor doe s it possess f the boiler ; n ev e rth e e s

duty and effi ciency o

w ate
and ev aporative ha s no metal preservin g —

not ithstandin that it pipe 4 inch

and w g f the o u ter s (
of the hea v y m ass o
ca s t i
core b y reaso n
d of the internal r -

,
by 4 inch sh e ll ) a n
diameter
- ,
4
outside
1 06 SU PE RH E AT AND SUPE RH EATE RS
succ essi on of stee p peak s and sudden d eclines into an eas y
un dulation having a much higher mean temperatu re a s in
, ,

Fig 1 1. .

The external shells a n d tubes , being the pressu re b earin g -

portion s of the superheater are all of wrought steel of unusual ,

thickn e s s and strength The superheater tu be s are of mild

.

steel and seamle ss 4 inche s o u tside diamete r and inch thick

, ,

ness of shell bent to form loops E ach leg of e ach loop con
, .

tains a ve rtical gilled tub e which terminate s at the b e ginning

—

of the b e nd E ach internal tube has four vertical gills which

.
,

divide the area of the steel tub e into four outer and one central
cell fo r the pa ssag of the steam ; each outer cell present s three
effective heating surfaces again st which the flowing steam
-

brushes and licks up heat contained in the metals .

The s u perheate r tub e s are expanded into tube plates o f

rolled steel slabs 1 3; or 1 % inches thick with covers of m ild ste el
—

,
é

boiler plate 3 inch thick The end dishes are provided With
-
.

s team inlet and o u tle t blocks of mild steel and the central dish ,

w ith a safety valve and block -

.

"
The gille d heat acc u mulator tubes are of cast iron They
-
.

are not s u bj e cted to pressu re becau se bein g inside the stee l , ,

tube shells they are open to the general body of enclosed

-
,

steam and the press u re on all sides is equal They are h owe ver
,
.
, ,

made massive to acc u mu late heat and for this purpose cast ,

iron is convenient and economical .

S team from the boile r enters the first o r inlet box A Fig 1 2 ; , ,
.

here in it is d istribut ed amongst the tube ends opening into -

this compartment It passes down the five cells formed by

.
\

the gilled internal tub e in each leg of the loops covered b y

the dish ; at th e beginning of the bend where the accumulator ,

tube ceases the five s treams of each loop amalgamate and form
,

one stream w hich traverses the be nd until mee ting the accu
, ,

mula tor tube i n the s econd leg of the loop it is again broken ,
 E XAM PLE S O F SUP E RH E ATE RS 10 7

up into five s treams and thus travels into the centra l box B
, , .

The f ull flow of steam from the boiler now tra vels in o n e body
across this box to be again broken up i n to as many streams as
th ere are cells in the loops The steam in the second set of
.

loop s follows the co u rse already described and finally rea ssem ,

bli ng in the third box C it lea v es thi s superheated for the

, , , ,

steam ran ge
-
.

The mean temperature of the metals o f a superheater tube

(without the intern al core ) is generally computed as the mean
of the temperat u res of the heating gases and of the heated

steam H eat from the gases is communicated to the winged

.

accumu lator tubes inside the main tube by diffu sion from the
outer tubes and by radiation through the nearly diathermanous
steam passing thro ugh the chann e ls formed by the inner core
pipes Thus the core tubes en deavor to acquire the tempera
.
-

ture of the o u ter tubes and since cast iron has a specific he a t
.

of 0 1 30 B T U per degree per pound for low temperat u res a n d

. . .
,

this fig ure rises with th e temperatu re a tub e which may weigh
,

po unds in a large superheater if heated to 500 F above

,
°
.

the temperature of saturated steam will represent a heat ,

storage of o r eno ugh to a dd 100 F of s u per

°
.

heat to poun ds of steam Thus it is clear that in all s uper

.

heaters the effect of mass cannot be overlooked It mu st .

alw a ys b e of adv antage Su ch an acc u mul a tor s uperheater will

.

giv e a temper a tu re of 4 50 to 750 F to the steam which is

° °
.
,

well mixed in th e passage throu gh the tubes and the divisions

of the inn er co res .

Thi s s uperh eater has therefore points in common with that

of F oster ,
but differs in the position of the cast iron inertia -

metal .
 SUPE RHE AT AND SU PE R H EATERS

TH E WA T E R -
CO N T R O LL E D S U P E RH E AT E R
The author knows of but on e example Of t h i s ty pe viz , .
,

that of C ruse : Fig 1 3 show s the 32 pip e apparatus as supplied

.
-

to the L anca shire boiler in the b ac k downtake of which the ,

superheater is placed The inner tube through w hich wate r .

,

from the bo il er i s ci rculated more or le ss mixed with the whole

o r a part of th e fresh boiler feed w ater s erve s two purposes -
, ,

D IA GRAM SH O W IN G TH E RA D IAT IO N OF HEA T FRO M TH E H AE TIN G GASE S

at
. TUBE

GAS 5 8

l
U co trol l d Sup h t Tub
FIG 20. .
—
n n e er ea e r e

In t h i typ t h h t
s ey hoo t di m tri c lly through th
e ea -
ra s s a e a e tub e r from
a ea
S ide to s i d Tub m t l
e . o h t d d od d i i d
e e a s a re v er ea e , an er e ns e a n d o ut , w he n
s te a m i
s s a t g t c ircul ti g i r tri c t d olum
na n or a n n es e v e .

v iz the control of the temperature of superheat and the pro

.
,

te ct ion of the pipes of the s u perheater especially when steam ,

is not passing through them .

The preservati v e effect Of the inner water t ubes is due to -

the fact that since heat is radiated normally to the radiati n g

s urface all rays of heat from the outer tube inner s u rface mu st
,
-

pass thro u gh the tube centre and mu st therefore be intercepted

by th e water tube there present Figs 20 and 2 1 show a tube
—
. .

radiating heat w i th and without the inner water pip e -

1 10 SUPE RH E AT A ND SUPE RH EATE RS
supe rheater inspirator o r water propeller The only duty
an -
.

this has to per form is to keep the wate r in movement thro u gh

the pipes Of the control system The inspirator is worked by
.

steam taken from the discharge pipe Of the su perheater and

-

therefore su perhe a ted When th is steam enters the inspirator

.

a n d there mixes with the water it may not con d ense as do e s the

steam in an ordinary cold water fed i n j e ctor Bu t it will

- —
.

shrink in volu me for it will become satu rated steam and this
,

shrinkage represents work en ergy Su ffice to say that the pra c

.

tice of years shows that the water is p u t i n to rapid movemen t .

Now when the s u perhe at temperatu re rises the shrink a ge of ,

volu me beco me s grea ter a n d the propelli n g e ffect is intensified ,

and the contrary is the c a se when the s u perheat falls in tem
p e ra tu re Thus
. the flow o f water increases or diminishes as
required a n d threaten ed great variation s of temperatu re are
,

self moderated This is the system of au tomatic control

-
.

adopted in this su perheater and it is found to work so wel l

,
'
that the s uperheat temperature varies only within a small
ran ge and h aving been on ce set by regulating the ste a m s u pp ly
,
—

to the i n spirator the furthe r control is au toma tic

,
.

This su perheater is made thro u ghou t Of solid ro lied or

pres sed weldless steel Of high class The pipes are of large .

size and diameter the ends are staved for thre ading and screwed
,

into s olid steel headers with cover boxes of pressed steel plate
- -
.

While this system has j u stified itself by working several years

unburn ed it is n o t to m aterial alone that success has been d u e
,
.

It is the controlli n g system that gives the safety certai n ty an d , ,

d u rab ility of this a pparatu s Within the coils of steam pipe

.
-

are coils of 2 inch solid drawn copper pipe through which

-
,

circu lates water from the boiler which is re tu rned to the boiler
, ,

the propelli n g agent be in g su perhe a ted steam .

L et us trv to follow o ut the control action by ass u min g a

su dden accession Of fu rn ace heat The superheat temperatu re
-
.
 E XA MPLE S O F SU P E RH E ATE RS 1 11

begins to rise A s soon as this o ccu rs the impelling action o n

.

the con trol water sys tem is incre a sed a n d the flow Of water so
-
,

au gmented that the su perheat rises o n lv slowly The co n trary .

effect follows if the fu rn a ce becomes colder fo r less co n trol ,

w a ter then circ u la tes Fu rthe r control if requ ire d 1s g1v en

.
, , .

by passi ng a part of or all the feed water also throu gh the -

con trol pipe with th e water from the boiler U su a lly the boiler
-
.

water alo n e is su ffi cient a n d it re ente rs the boiler as water

,
-

and ste a m The controlling e ffect Of the inside water column

.

is displ a yed not only on the ste a m The insi d e pipe absorbs heat .

radiated throu gh the steam from the o u tside pipes Th u s each .

hea ted pipe is ra di a ti n g heat all the time u pon a comparatively

cold i nn er water pipe Of great absorptive capacity and the
-
,

o u ter pipes will bear immersion in gases so mu ch hotte r tha n can

mere s t eam filled pipes It appears simple and ye t given
-
.
, ,

properly calc u lated sizes and are a s th e controlli ng influ ence of ,

this inner colu mn Of water is s u re By its mean s the s u p e rheate r

.

m a y alw a ys be left in the hot g a ses ; the water circulation is

contin u o u s a nd the su perheater forms a part Of the b o iler
,

whether steam be passing through o r not Indeed it is clai m ed .

,

t o add frequ en t ly 10 to 1 5 per cent to boiler e fficiency As a .

fact Of co u rse some steam always circulates for the control

colu mn draws its pow
, , ,

er from the hot en d using s u perheated ,

steam The control system obviates all necessity for flooding

.

the su perhea ter an d thu s avoids two gre a t dan gers that O f
, ,

wrecki n g the en gi n e and of stran gling the su perheater tub es with

,

sc a le which mu st i n evitably fol low on floodi n g The regulation .

Of the control valve permits any mean deg ree of su perheat to

-

be maintained within a narrow range either at the h igh e st ,

safe m a ximu m o r down to little more than saturation tempera

ture The de sired point once fixed and the controller loc k ed the
.
, ,

remainder is as de cribed au tomatic

,
s
, .

The su perheater thu s effects th e p u rpose (1 ) O f a sup e r

1 12 SUPE RH EA T AND SUP ERH E ATE RS
h eated ste am gen erator ;a controller Of the superheat ;
—

()
3 a boiler water circulator
-
or re heater ; and in th e sepa -

ra te ly fir ed type a f e e d heater and re he a ter

, As already state d
— -
.
,

the superheate r mu st be separately fired if water tube o r other -

b oilers uns uitable for fl ue fire d su perheaters are employed —

.

S ince about to F is the maximu m tempe ratu re .

to which any superheater can be subj ected it is obvio u s on first ,

tho u ght that a furn ace fire d su perheater is o u t Of the qu estion

-

fo r the f u rnace temperatu re mu st be at least F S eparately .

fired superheaters however are made in which this furn a ce

, , ,

temperatu re is dilu ted down by large volu mes of cold air admitted
b etween the f u rnace and the he ater This is so essentially a
~
.

waste f u l process that it must destro y quite a large proportion

o f the savi n g otherwise sec u red by superheat In the control .

lable system a water tube a n d dru m o r an elephan t or French

-
,

boiler is b u ilt round the f u rnace These wate r drums which

,
.
-
,

may contain an hour s su pply Of water are calcu lated to absorb

’
,

o n e half o r thereabo u ts of the f u rnace heat leaving t h e gases —

,

cooled to the req u ired temperatur e to pass forward to the super

,

heater tubes O nly by su ch a method can a safe su perheat be

.

e conomically generated The w a ter dru ms simply form a part

.
-

O f the feed water system taki n g feed from the economize r

-
,

and delivering it to the f ee d ring or main at full boiler t empera -

,
-
,

ture o r even hotter

,
.

The s uperhea ter itself and its controlling parts are similar, ,

to the fl ue fired type but w hile the l atter is s u itable for a

-
, ,

su perheat temperatu re up to say 525 F the sep a rately , ,

°
.
,

fired superheater will give any superheat up to the sa fe ma xi

mum It is also applicable to old boilers which are to o cramped
.

in the fl ue space for othe r types In the case Of a new steam

-
.

gen eration plant we may say approximately that e v ery sixth

, , ,

boiler may be omitted and replaced by a separately fired s u per

he a ter which will do the water heati n g and steam raising work
,
- -
1 14 SUPE RH E AT A ND SUPE RH E ATE RS
D IA G RAM S H OWIN G C R O SS SE C IO NS O F V A RI O U S TY PE S AN D SIZ E S O FT U B ES
-
T

O F C O N R O LL A B L E AN D A CC U M U L A O R S U P E R H E A T E R S
T T

FIG 1 Loop tub e typ e W i thout

. .
— -
,

w a t con t ol b ut w i t h he a vy c a t i on
e r- r , s -
r

FIG 1 . .
g ll e d i n t e rn a l p i p s w h i ch a c t
l s he a t e , a
a ccum ul a t o a n d t m p e a tu e a e
rs e r r v ra
ge s r .

FIG 2 . . b yp w i hout F ie ld tu e t e, -
t
W a t e r co n trol-
i h h y c iron , b ut w t eav a st -

g ill e d in t e n a l c ir c l i gr b gi v e u at n t u e s , to
s a m e e ff e c t a s Fig in 1 . .

FIG 2
In F i gs 1 a n d 2 t h e o u t tub e s a re
. .

. er

we ldl e ss s te e l 4 in outs i de d iam e t e r x i in

, .
-
.

S h e ll .

FIG .Wa te r con trolle d Sup erh e a t

3 .
— -

e rs .Ste e l oute r ste am tub e s wi th in tern a l -

s ol i d dra wn copp e r wa te r t ub e s W h e r e in —
,

th e t e m p e ra ture O f sup e rh e a t is re gul a t e d

FIG 3
a n d co n t oll e d b y t h e a c t i o n o f b o i l e r
. .
r

and f e e d w a te r in co n s ta n t a n d ra p i d
-

circul a ti o n Th e se in te rn a l tub e s p e
.
r

s e v e t h e m e t a l s O f t h e s t e a m t ub e s a n d
r -

a ss i s t t h e b o i l e r in t h e ge n e a t i o n O f s t e am r .

In F i g 3 t h e o ute r st e e l tub e s a e
.
r

we ldl ess a n d 4 in outsi de d ia m t e r t h e e ,

in te na l copp e r w a ter tub e s b e in g 1 % in

.

r -
.

FIG 4 . .
outside d i a m e t er .

FIG 4 S im i l a r to F i g 3
. .
—
. .

In F i g 4 t h e ou te r s t e e l tub e s a re
.

we ldl e ss a n d 6 in o ut s i de d i a m e t e r t he .
,

in te n a l copp e r wa t e r tub e s b e in g 2 in
r
-
.

o ut s ide d i a m e te r .

FI G 5 —
S t l o ut r
b e s with
ee e s t e a m —t u

h e a v y i n te n a l c a s t i ro n gi ll e d wa t e r
. .

r -

FIG 5. °
tub e s w h i ch a c t a s h e a t a ccum ul a tors a n d
in c re a s e t h e in te rn a l f i c t i o n surf a c e
,

r .

In Fig
5 t h e u te r s t e e tub e s
. o l a re we ld
l e ss a n d 6 in ut s e am e t e
. o i d di r .

FIG 6 . .
—
S im il ar to Fig . 5 .

F i g 6 th e o ute r ste e l tub e s a re 9

In .
in .

FIG 6 . .
outside d ia m e t e r .
 EXAMPLE S O F SU PE RH EATE RS 1 15

F E RG U S O N S
’
SU I E RH E ATE R
’

Th is s uperheater which i s of E n glish ori gin and introduced

,

to America by the well known steam engineer M r A V enni ng

- -
. .
,

is shown in Fig 23 an d is thu s described in P ower (August 1 9 0 7 )

.
,

“ This type of apparatus is s u itable for givi n g high or low

degrees of su perheat and easily adapted to all classes Of boiler

, ,

especially those Of the shell or retu rn tubu lar pattern L ack-

.

of accessi b ility has been a very frequent faili n g in superheaters ,

and the Fergu son apparatus has been designed wi th the Obj ect
of improving u pon this too common fau lt b eing so constructed ,

'
that e v ery j oint can be examined with the boiler in service and ,

any part can b e rem ov e d fo r repair without distu rbance o r

disconnection Of the remainder of th é supe rh e ate r which can
’

re m ain at work witho ut th e missing portion This is effected .

by the adoption of in dependent sections a form of construction , ,

moreover which presents the f urther advantage th at the sec

,

tions may all be o f very m oderate weight and the overhead tackle
for use in removi n g parts may b e of a n equ ivalent lightness .

A ccording to the number of sections in stalled in any p a rticu lar

instance so will be the general degree of su perheat Obtained
, .

From the po sition of the headers it will be plai n that when .

re movi n g or addi n g sections or otherw ise de a li n g with them the ,

s team pipe co nn ections do n o t requ ire t o b e d istu rb e d

-
.

But a point on which the d esign ers perhaps lay more par
t icular stress is the manner in which the pipe s are taken from
the headers They all rise from the top of these thus obviati n g
.
,

the danger of getti n g water into the superh ea te r pipes and ’

affording the Opportun ity readily to drain it out from th e headers .

This fe a tu re is likely to b e a con siderable safeg uard a gai n st

primi n g tro u bles and the ch oki n g of the small tub es with scal e
matter carried forward w ith th e prIm In g This m ethod of
“

.
1 16 SU PE R H E AT AND SUPE R H E ATE RS
1 18 S UPE R HEAT AND SUPE RHE ATE RS
The app lication s uperheater to a return tub e boiler
o f the -

i s sho wn in Fig 2 3 . .

As s hown in the figure the he aders or manifolds a re placed

,

o n the top Of the back arch which i s co structed of specially

,

made fire brick s capable of withstanding high temperatures the

-
,

bloc ks b e in g design e d s o as to provide a s eries of narrow rect

an gular Openings thro u gh each of which a section of tub e s will
be su s pended the space being afterwards close d with asbesto s
,

s o as to e xclude air Su rrounding the headers there w ill be a

.

brick wall formi n g a chamb e r the tOp of which will b e closed

,

by a cast iron cover and frame This superheater is more par

-
.

ticula rly prov i ded for return tu b e boilers for w h i ch i ts form

-
,

”
r ender s it eas i ly applicab l e .
 C H A PT E R x rv

I ND E PE ND E NT L Y FI R E D SUPE RH E AT E RS

IT has alrea dy been stated that a su perheate r cannot safely

for long at a time receive upon its tubes gases Of ful l furnace
temperature H ence the usual fixing Of the superheater at
.

s ome place in the co u rse Of the b o ile r fl ues wh ere the gases hav e
q-

been re du ced to a safe temperature .

When the s u perheate r is fitted With i ts own furnace the

gases from the f u rnace are too ho t to turn upon the super
heater SO that it is qu ite a usual practice to admit a del u ge
,

o f atmospheric cold air between the f u rnac e and the s u per

heate r thus reducing the gases to a safe temperature N eed

, .

less to say if as may be the case the weight Of the gases is

, , ,

th u s trebled a n d since their fin al temperature mu st always

,

be conside rably above that of the s u perheated steam there ,

mu st be thrown to w a ste treble the amo un t of heat that w ould

be wasted if the f u rn ace gases were not thus cooled down
—
.

R e a lizing this diffic u lty C ru se applied a screen of water pipes

,
-

betwee n the s u perheater and the f u rnace thus practically

,

convertin g the s u perheater into a fl ue fire d apparatus which

-

is certainly all that ca n be done w ith satisfactorily economical

resu lts The preliminary w ate r screen o r foreheater i s a
.
-

reservoir or passageway for the boile r feed water and i s so -

proportioned as to abstract some of the heat from the gases

b efore they reach the superheater tubes The re i s no wasteful air
.

119
1 20 SUP E RH EAT A ND SUPE RH EATE RS
Q

d ilut i on ; the s uperheater still has its internal w ate r con trol -

pipes wh ich may and usually are conn e cted to th e for eh e ate r
,
.

In e ve ry w ay therefore th is sup e rhe ate r is a fl ue fire d appara

, ,
-

tus an d the f o rehe ater is a part of the gen e ral f ee d s ys te m of

,

FIG 25 — I n de p en d ent ly F ire d C om b in e d Con t oll a b l e Sup e he a te r a n d Fe e d

r r

w a t e r Re he a t e
. .

—
r

the plant to which the su p e rheater is applied S uch an .

apparatu s is shown in Fig 25 . .

In this d esign prepared to fil l Admiralty requirem ents the

,
,

s uperheater tubes D a re placed horizontally and the gases

from the furnace x are caused to pass through or between
a bundle of tub e s 0 formin g a feed heater S te am e nters by -
.

w ay o f the pipe 0 and th e d i str i’

butor C flow s up th rough th e ,
 CH APTE R XV

TH E P RAC TI CA L E C O N O M Y O F SUP E RH E AT

As egards th e economy to be derived from the use O f

r

s upe rheated steam it has alread y been said that Rankin e s ’

“
calculations in his book The S t eam engine did not di ffer -

much from actual resu lts though the co incidence was pure ly
,

fortuitous From 10 to 25 per cent may be given as the

.

ranges Of e conomy to be sec u red according to circumstances .

With indepen de ntly fired supe rheaters badly gove rned by

air dren ching as practised unf ortunately in some cases in Great
-
,

Britain the ste am economy will b e very much bette r than the
,

fuel economy This is evidence of bad f u el use The fuel

. .

economy sho uld closely parallel the economy Of steam S uper .

heati n g is often applied in conj unction with other changes s o ,

th at it is diffic u lt to apportion w hat is du e to the different causes .

So far as the au thor has been able t o get res u lts that can
be declared reliable he may presen t the followi n g figures of
two run s of nine months each of a Yorkshire woollen mill where -

a C ruse controllable su perheater was fitted to the boiler " In

,

this e xa mple the water is taken at the natural temperatu re and

heated up to 100 F by the exhaust ste a m of the engine It is
°
.
—
.

then at a suitable temperatu re to enter the economizer It .

enters the economizer at that temperatu re and leaves at 230 F °

.

I t then ente rs the control pipes of the s u perheater at 225 F

- °
.
,

having lost 5 F in passing from the economizer to the super

°
.

S P oc I t E E Lo do 190 6
ee r . ns . . .
,
n n, .
 TH E PRA CTI CA L E C O N O MY O F SUPE RH EAT 12 3

heater It leaves the s uperheater for the bo iler at 350 F ; that is

.
°
.

to say the boiler worki ng at about 120 pounds gage pressure

,
-

i s at the s a me temperatu re as the feed water which e nters it —

,

and the boiler is ma de strictly to act as an evaporator and n o t

as a feed he a ter in any sense The temperatu re of the steam
-
.

which enters the s u perheate r is also 350 F and the steam °

.
,

leaves the su perheater at 4 95 F It loses 30 F in passi n g °

.
°
.

to the high press ure cylinder Of the engine The engine is only
-
.

a very ordi n ary sort Of engine ; it is not a S ulzer en gine which ,

will stan d very high s u perheat ; it is only an ordinary factory

engine The steam leaves the high pressu re cylinder at 2 58 F
.
-
°
.

Between the high press u re cylinder 'an d the low pressure

— —

cyli n der there is a re heater which is f e d by means of superhe a ted

—
,

steam The su perheated steam passes thro u gh the re heater

.
-
,

s u perheats the exhaust steam to 2 75 F: an d the whole of the

-
°
,

steam that passes th rou gh that re heater goe s into the b oiler -

by way of the retu rn water control pipe of the superheater Thus

-
.

the on ly heat that the w ater loses apart from radiation loss , ,

is j u st the amount of heat it puts into the steam enterin g the

‘
‘

low pressure cyl inder As a result the

-
. which was
formerly 367 has been redu ced doing th e same duty and output
, , ,

to 348 (this is due to the decreased resistance within the

cyli n der of the engine ) and on the average Of the same nin e
,

months of work in 1 904 and 1 9 0 5 there is a redu ction in the

coal of 200 ton s on a total of 730 Origi n ally before the addi .
,

tion of the stage he a ting of the su perheater 1 8 2 poun ds of ,

coal per I H P ho u r were u sed ; after the addition

. . . pounds , .

If these fi gures are worked o ut it will be found that this system

o f ste a m r a ising tho u gh only connected with a very small
-

facto ry plant gives very mu ch better resu lts than are Obtained
,

by large plants with the ordinary system of steam raisi n g that -

,

is to say by j u mps instead Of a steady range of temperatures

, .

The following are the f ull particulars Of the steam plant at

124 S UPE RH EAT AN D SUPE RH EATE RS

Low Bri dge M ills K eighley w hich i s the on e refe rre d to above
, , .

They cove r the nine months February to O ctober inclusive Of , , ,

1 9 04 without s uperhea ter and the nin e months Fe b ruary to

, , ,

O c tober 1 9 0 5 with a Cruse con trolla ble superhea ter :

, ,

D eta ils o f P la n t .

1 L anca shire boiler , 28 ft b y . 8 ft b y . 1 50 po unds working

pressure .

1 C ruse contro llable superheater 1 6 pipes 200 sq ft s team , , . .

heating surface ; 80 sq ft w ater he ating s urface (copper . .

-

control piping ) .

(A dded in J anuary ,

1 Green s economizer 9 6 pipes

’
, .

1 inverted ver tical compound condensin g engin e ; C orlis s

gear to both cylinders ; H orsfall compound regu lator
governor ; H P cyli n der 1 3 in L P cylinde r 2 6 in
. .
, . . .
, .

stroke 3 ft ; rev o lut l on s 100

,
.
, .

Re heater ; b e tween H P an d L P heated with s u perheated

-
. . . .
,

steam taken by a branch from th e main pipe The steam is .

blown thro u gh and the exhaust is re tu rned through the return

,

water collector of the s u perheate r .

“ ”
D uring 1 9 0 4 wi th W e t steam it was necessary to maintain
, ,

the working pre ss u re at the boiler at 1 50 pounds D uring 1 9 0 5 .

,

with superheated steam the pressure was dropped to an average ,

Of 1 2 0 pounds D uring both years the coal u sed was Yorkshire

.

small slack identical in quality and origin the calorific value

, ,

being about B T U per pound weight N ame : Rothwell . . . .

H aigh S mudge—
Price : per t on at the pit and about
.
,

per ton de livered in boile r ho u se -

.

“
The proprietor reports : N o additional cost in oil having ,

used the same qu antity and quality du ring each of the tw o

”
periods .

N 0 co s t of repa i rs to superheater boiler o r en gin e , , .

12 6 SUPE RHE AT AND SUP E RHE ATERS
Ne t coal used for power
Pe r H our .

'
1904 (nin e months ) . 730 tons = 0 29 78 te n
190 5 532 t l 1 7 = 4 1 5t o 2 1 87
u
— -
—

S avi g per hou r

n = 0 0 79 1
°

ton per cent on power account .

C oal u sed per IH P

. . . ho u r ,
fo r power only
61 3 % tons = 1 374 2 40
, , lb . lb .

4 1 55 ~

(348 X 1 9 00 )
,

C oal co s t per I H P hour at $ 1 62 per ton delivered in

. . .

b o il er ho u se : 1 9 0 4 0 1 30 c per I H P hour ; 1 905 0 10 c per

-
,
. . . .
, .

IH P
. . hour . .

C oal cost per I H P ho u r (reckoned at pit mouth ) $ 1 12

. . .
,

per ton : 1 9 0 4 0 0 9 c ; 1 9 0 5 0 0 7 c
,
.
, .

All thro u gh the ni n e months Of 1 9 0 5 the boiler has been fed

from the engin e p u mp thro u gh the econ omizer and throu gh
-
, ,

the controller pipes of the su perheater into the boiler at the back .

In the collector of the controller system Of the s u perhea t er the

feed water from the economizer is amalgamated with circu latin g
-

water from the boi ler ; the mixt u re passes into the boiler at the
boiler temperatu re and partially already as steam .

D uri n g the year 1 9 0 5 it has been fo u nd advisable to red u c e

the len gth of furnace grate from 5 ft 6 in to 4 ft The boiler
-
. . .

is hand fire d —
.

The weights of coal given cover all the coal delivered to th e

mill du ring the periods mentioned and u sed for all p u rposes ,

fo r power for he a ti n g and steami n g the mill for banking u p at

, ,

nights an d week ends .

A ssu ming th a t the en gine was drivi n g an electric generator

w ith an over all efficiency as between I H P and switchboard of
-
. . .
 T H E PRA C TI C AL E CO N O MY O F SUPE RH EAT 12 7

87 per cent the coal con sumption per k w would be 2 1 5 7

, . .

pounds per hour Thi s figure O f course exclu des the mill
.

warming and banking Before alteration the figure would be

.

2 80 4 po unds .

If the fig ures be worked on the whole of the coal u sed they ,

b ecome :
Fo r 1 9 04 pounds per unit equivalent .

f ‘ 5 ‘

E conomy on total account 1 7 2 per ce nt due to the adopt i on ,

Of stage heating fu lly heated feed water and superheat

,
-
, .

In addition to the above economies there is the economy du e

to the redu ction of I H P per unit of factory o u tpu t N othing
. . . .

is incl u ded for this b u t it amo unts to a f u rther 6 per cen t on

,

power acco u n t .

These resu lts are somewhat remarkable and they are results ,

fo und by the mill own er over a period Of months when his out
-

put was greater and there was nothi n g altered except the steam
temperatu re and the feed method the s u perheater enabling the ,

feed to be f u lly heated before it enters the boiler the extra ,

hea t coming by way Of the water con trol pipes of the super -

heater as described in a previo u s chap ter

,

The power apparently cost 26 55 per cent less with than

witho u t the s u perheater on the basis of coal u sed no t including ,

that u sed for mill warming Where this is added the economy
.

is of co u rse red u ced proving that a very considerable part Of

,

the economy is du e to the superheat at the e n gine NO specula .

tion need be entered in to in respect of the redu ced horse power -

with s u perheat but it is n ot a matter of this on e experience

, .

It is tho u ght that en gine friction may be reduced by superheat

if not excessive .

It need hardly b e said that n eglect to emp loy correct devices ,

and e specially a wrong method of firing a superheater and

128 SUPE RHE AT AN D SU PE RHEATE RS
improper and w astefu l methods of control may cau se the fuel ,

economy secured by superhe ating to be a long way b e low the

econ omy shown by the steam en gin e This o u ght not to be —
.

the case An all round consistent economy should be secured

.
-
.

E u ropean engi n e builders who bu i ld engines w ith drop va lves

- -

will guarantee a steam consumption a s low as 9 pound s pe r horse

p ower hour .

But steam economy is often larg ely vitiated b y bad furnace

practice and it is poor commercial en gin e ering to lay o ut capital
,

in the purchase of a high class en gin e fo r superheat when the

—

economy thu s undoubtedly se cured i s thrown away at the

furnace This is wh y fl ue fire d superheaters are usually b e tter
.
-

than those independently fire d .

B u t so many boile rs cannot be s atisfactorily fitted with

su perheaters that it is necessary to provide the other description ,

and a single large apparatu s may superheat the o u tput of a

whole battery Of boilers ; and with a prO pe r furnace a fore ,

heater and c areful rational attendance and firing such an

, , ,

apparatu s ought to approach a b oiler in e ffici e ncy Of heat

utilization .

In fl ue fired apparatu s of course the superheat is Ob tained

-

from the gases before they have travers ed the entire surface Of
the boiler and the boiler has been deprived thereby Of a portion of
its heat just s o much in fact as suffices to give the supe rheat
—
, , .

In round numbers if the boiler adds heat units to the -

w ater and th e s u perheat is 100 F and the specific heat be taken

°
.

at the perhap s to o low fig ure of 0 5 the heat given to the stea m ,

w ill be 50 units or 5 per ce nt Of the total h ith e rto gi ven to the

boiler.

Apparently to give superheat should require additio n al fuel

to the extent in ordinary cases of from 5 to 10 per cent per
pound Of steam But thi s does no t necessarily follow for many
.
,

other factors come into play Thus the engine demands very
.
I3 “ '
S U I H It Il ICA I AND SU PE RH E ATE RS
‘ ‘

'
a t nl e l wh en
e - f
sin g s a tura ted s te am H e gives as the addi tio nal
u .

l ne l n omi nal ly re q uired for sup e rh ea t the follow i ng pe rcent age s :

‘

TA BL E VI
'
ST E AM CO NSU MP I IO N O F CO MP O U N D C O N D E NS IN G
‘

E N GI NE S U S ING ST E AM I N O R D I NARY
' I R AC I ICIC
‘ ‘

U n e - ll l l li ( l ul l -e lf . C H I-e ll . U ne ~
tl 1 ln l (In t-O ff ,

IT S“Ifi
‘ ‘
v

lll Ili ‘
ILI
'
H IS
’
III
‘
H '
IlI S4 I

Illll IS UL
‘ ’
Ill l
‘

l ll I7 ‘

Ii 2 I

1s 7 1
~
wa s 1
 TH E PR A CTI C AL E C O N O M Y O F SUPE RH E AT 13 1

T E ST OF F O ST E R S U P E R H E AT E R S BY MR A C W OO D A T P L A NT
. . .

O F TH E MA RY L AN D ST E E L Co .
,
S PA RR O W S P O INT MD , .
,

D E C E MB E R , 1 9 0 6 .

The boilers serving the electric power ho u se of the M arylan d -

S teel CO bei n g equ ipped with Foster s u perhe a ters it wa s

.
,

decided to ru n comparative tests for the pu rpose Of demon stra

ting the v a lu e Of s u perheated steam The e q uipment consists .

Of
Fo u r 1 9 and 3 1 x 2 2 vertical C ross compo und au toma tic ,

c u t O ff con den si n g en gin es each direct connected to

—
,
-

on e 300 k w D C gen erator ;

-
. . . .

Three D e L aval single st a ge turbines e a ch geared to two -

,

100 k w D e L aval D C generators

-
. . .

Two 1 4 a n d 1 4 Westinghouse Si n gle acti n g com —

,

po und au toma tic c ut off non condensing en gi n e s

,
- -

b elted to generators ;
S ix B . W boilers 1 4 feet wide >< 9 feet high equ ipped
.
,

with Foster superheaters .

A ll the boilers were arran ged for burnin g blast furn a ce gas -

and were provided wi th auxiliary han d fire d gra tes The -

.

s u perhea ters were a ll Of the Foster constr u ction S team wa s .

s u pplied to the power ho u se thro u gh a 1 2 i n ch ma i n covered

- -

with ordinary l l i n ch thick ma gn esia sectional covering not in

- -
,

the b est condition .

The fir st test wa s run with su perheated stea m ; the second

test was ri m with a redu ced s u perheat Obta i n ed b y spraying ,

water into the steam pipe The fact th a t there still remained
—
.

some su perhe at in the steam u n der the redu ced su perheat con
dition proves th a t none Of the water sprayed i n to the pipe reached
the engines and turbines as w ater The steam was something .

more than dry .

132 SUPE RH EAT A ND S U PE RH E ATE RS
Theel ectrical output o f the station was measu red and the
w ater supplied to the boilers was carefully weighed A sum .

mary of the result s Obtained is given below :

H ighr e
Sup r h at
e e .

C h a a c te of te a m suppl i e d sup e he te d
r r s ,
r a .

S te am p e su e b o il oom
-
r s r ,
e r- r 10 1 6 lb
e n g in oom e r -
'
10 0 8
V cuum
a 2 2 1 in .

D e c e a e in ste m con um p ti on d ue to i
r s a s h

c e e d up e h t
r as s r ea 1 6 8 2 pe r ce n t .

T aki n g into consideration the fact that this is a comparison

O f a low a n d a higher degree of s u perheat the result is very ,

s a tisfactory If in place of the low su perh eat the steam had

.
, ,

been s u pplied to the engines and tu rbines of the quality supplied

by the boilers witho u t the s u perhe aters the savi n g would have ,

been increased close to 20 per cen t says M r Wood an d this is ,

.
,

probably very near the tru th In this case the fuel economy .

co u ld not b e known fo r the boilers were s u pplied wi th w aste

,

blast f u rnace gas fo r f uel and ther e w ere no means Of know i n g

— .

h ow mu ch was u sed .

In the absen ce of definite and authoritative know ledge

Of the specific heat of s u perheated steam it is c u stomary to
refer to the e conomy derived from superheating on a basis Of
the weight Of steam cons u med per horse power hour In this ,
-
.

Wa y the economy is made to appear mu ch higher than really

it is fo r e ach po u nd of su perheated steam contains more heat
,

than a po und of saturated steam Thus let an engine con .

,

s u me 100 po unds Of saturated steam L et certain s u perheated .

steam contain 5 per cent more heat per pound than satu rated
s team b u t let the weight u sed be 20 per cent less
,
.

Then when the heat consumption of satu rated steam is

that of the s uperheated steam is
and the actu al net economy is n o t 20 per cent b ut only
 C H APTE R XV I

SUPE RHE AT I N L O C O M O TI VE S

F R O M what has gone before it w ill be gathere d that sup e r

heaters a re somewhat diffic u lt to supply satisfactorily to many
classes of boilers E ither they must be placed beyond too great
.

an area Of boiler heating su rface to receive gas es suffi ciently hot

-

to give adeq u ate su perheat or they must b e placed too n e ar the

,

furnace fo r th e safety o f the superheater itself .

The locomotive is a n e xample of the former condi tion for ,

the whole of t he boiler heating surface pre cedes any pos sible
-

position of th e su perheater In on e case the inve ntor of a

.

locomotive s u perheater replaces a number of small fire tubes -

by On e large tube in o rd er that ho t gases m ay get thro u gh

in considerable volu me to the superheater at the smoke box en d -
,

and it may be he re said that there appears very little prosp ect
Of Obtai n i n g satisfactory su perheat without some serious stru e
tu ral di fferences from the ordin ary locomotive boiler being
made Thu s Mr F H H aughton Of R ichmond V a who has
. . . .
,
.
,

attacked the problem as a locomotive builder p u ts the front

-
,

tube plate Of the locomotive boiler some three or fo u r feet

—

farther back and in the space left vacant in the boile r barrel he
,
—

inserts a c ylinde r with tub e plate ends and the same n u mber
-
,

O f tubes within it that there are t u bes in the boiler b u t with ,

the difference that they are so much larger as just to slip over
the proj ecting ends of the tubes of the boiler They thu s .

1 34
 SUPE RH E AT I N L O C O M OTIV E S 135

s erve to lead the ga s es forward through the superh eate r b arre l .

In this are two ve rtical diaphragms which divide the super

heater into three chambe rs in free communication with each
other at the lower ends only of the plates There are two .

dry pipes from the boiler and they ente r the top end s of
,
”

e ach of the two o u te r chambers Th e s team which thus enter s

.

passes down over the fire tubes turns under the edges Of the
-
,

diaphragms and ascends amongst the tubes of the ce ntral

,

chamber whence i t passe s aw a y superhe ated to the c y linder s b y

,

a pipe Open i n g out from the cro wn O f th e s uperh e ater B e tter .

F ire H ughto Sup

.

FIG 2 6
. .
— -
tu be Of a
’
n s e rh e a t e r

to s ecure good superheating the tubes which are in commun i

cation with the middle chamber Of the su perheater may be ,

accordin g to the i n ventor s patents guarded from the w ater in

’
,

the boiler by means Of an inte rnal pipe or guard as in Fig 2 6 , . .

These can be renewed if damaged by heat and by changing the ,

number Of gu a rded tubes a certain regulation of su perheat i s

possible The guards serve to deliver hotter gases into th e
.

t ubes which traverse the middle division Of the s u perheater ,

and in this way they serve to overcome the chief di fficulty of

the locomotive boiler in respect of supe rheat .

In another form of H au ghton s su perheater Fi g 2 7 a lon g ’

, .
,

cylinder is let into the middle of the ordinary front tube plate and —
,

the ends Of the tube s which are removed for a great part Of the ir
SUPE R H E AT AN D SUPE RH EATE RS
1 38 SUPE RHE AT A ND SUPE RHEATE RS
with superheaters on the C anadian Pacific Railw ay and 1 75 ,

more are on order .

A t the e n d of 1 9 0 6 there w ere only 1 5 engines on all the

United S tates Railroads thus equ ipped .

M r Vau ghan complain s that the gases in the ordinary

.

locomotive smoke bo x are too cool fo r e ffective sup e rh e ating

-
,

and draws attention to the u se of the single large smoke tub e —

to admit a large volume of hotter gas to the su perheater b ut ,

he does no t seem to be aware of the principle of the H aughton

superheater .

Prov 1s1on 1s made to shut Off the flow of hot gas thro ugh
the large tube when steam is not flowing through the super
heater thu s affording protection to the pipes All the various
,
.

types described by M r Vaughan at the Indianapoli s meetin g

.

of the in J une 1 9 0 7 depend upon an en larged fire tu b e

, ,
-

or tubes fo r the better provision Of hot gas to the superhe ater

—
,

su ch t ubes being sometimes 5 diameter the pipes of the super

”
,

”
heater bei ng l i o u tside diameter an d thick The .

genera l e xperience of the C an adian Pacific Railway i s stated to

be a n economy fo r s u perheat of 10 to 1 5 per cent on freight
s ervice a n d 1 5 to 20 per cent o n passen ger service There have .

Of course been tro ubles The gas damper is fo un d to be essential

.
-

to the du rability of the su perheater tu bes as might be expect ed, .

Tro uble was experienced where fittings and union nuts w ere Of
brass as might ve ry well have been foreseen M ade of ste e l
, .

these parts ceased to give trouble and gen erally after a pre
, ,

limin ary elimination Of weak details maintenance has n ot ,

proved expen sive .

As rega rds l ubrication it has been fo und necessary to

,

lubric a te both cylinders and valves instead of only the valves

,

as in ordinary worki n g The a u thor remarks that he sees no

.

valid reason to ceas e the contin u ed application of superheaters

to locomotives .
 CH APTE R XVII

H I G H S U P E R H E AT

IN all new movements there is a tendency to carry things to

e xt remes and b y s ome enginee rs the use Of superheated steam
,

Of very high temperature is regarded as an e xtreme By high .

superheat is meant steam at 700 to 750 F Now such steam

° °
.

cann ot be passed into the working c ylinder with s afety nor is it ,

so employed One S chmidt was clo s ely conn ected w ith the
.

“
high su perheat so much talked Of a few ye ars ago N ow
”
.

in the S chmidt system there was a secondary superheater

thro u gh which the exhaust Of the high pressure cylinder was
-

passed on its way to the low pressure cylinder and this su per
-
,

heater was heated by the highly superheated steam O u its way

to the high pressu re cylinder H igh superheat was thu s merely
-
.

a method Of s u perheating the low pressu re steam in the process

-

of letti n g down the highly s u perheated boiler steam to a -

workab le temp e rature The S chmidt s u perheater also was con

.

structed somewhat differently from others the steam making ,

two passes thro u gh small pipes one of them coun ter current
,
-

to the hot gases .

U sually in small tube superheate rs the steam makes on e

-

pass thro u gh the loops Of pipe and it is argued by some that

,

there is risk that the column s of steam m a y and do come thro u gh

with un heate d cores As a remedy for this we have seen the
.

mi xing effect of the long cast iron cores of the accumulato r

-

1 39
140 SUP E RH E AT A ND SU PE R H EAT E RS
superheater and ,centring p insofthe core tub e of the
the of —

Foster apparatu s the core tube also preventing any po ssible

,
-

formation of cold cores of steam .

Ve locity of flow is regarded as e ssential b y man y small

tube makers in order to brush the heat off the small tubes and ,

this idea has b e en carried to such an exc e ss that the effe ct of

the superheater has been to cut down the steam pressure 10 -
,

1 5 and e ve n 20 per cent by the throttling effect

,
N eedles s to .

s ay such a reduction O f pressure may counte rvail the economy

,

de rived from superheat In large tube superheaters the tube

.
-

'
cross sectional steam passageway is made from 1 25 to 1 5 0
— - »

times the area Of the boiler steam pipe and the length of run -
,

o f the s team through the pipes is very great the steam bein g ,

turned over and mixed up at the end of e ach len gth Of pipe
in the header box thu s in s urin g e ffi c i ent sup e rheating through
-
,

o ut .

C ruse conside rs that time is distinctly an element in the

s uperheating operation and that steam su perheated by long
:

exposure may_ possess a superheat more permanent than

hastily heated steam the steam molecules being more perfectly
,
-

charged with heat This so far is merely spec u lation founded

.

o n the b e lief that th e superiority Of long e xpos u re to heat in a

long pipe o f many b e nds i s not alon e due to the elimination of

core effect .

There is still s o much to be l earned about steam and its

propertie s that no theory which seems to fit w ith Obse rved
b e havior in practice can be lightly passed over But long and .

slow movement through the s u perheater pipes can b e more

safe ly carried o ut when water control is employe d -
.

The s mall tube superheater is of course much le ss co stly

-

than a w ater controlled apparatus and has no equ al durability

-
.

Water controlled superheaters have worked for eight years

—

w ith no apparent deterioration whereas m anv s mall tube ,

-
 C H APTE R XVII I

GE NE RAL RE VIE W

F RO M all that has prece ded the student of the s ubj e ct of

,

s uperheat will gather that it bri s tles with difficulties and is in

e very application a matter Of compromise .

Briefl y to sum up the matte r it may first be pointed o ut

,

that a tube f u ll of clean w ater may be safel y exposed to almost

any practicable temperature for the water has a specific heat
,

of 1 ; i t readily absorbs heat from th e su rfaces it flow s over

;
e ach cubic f oot of wate r absorbs some 60 B T U for each . . .

degree F Of te mperature rise while when the evaporation

.
, ,

point is reached each foot of water will a bsorb without further

,

rise Of temperature some 9 00 B T U as latent heat N ot so

. . . .
,

however with steam It already has acquired its latent heat ;

,
.

i t does n o t readily absorb heat by mere contact with ho t tubes ,

b ut the tub e s mu st be considerably hotter than the steam .

I ts specific heat per unit of mass is but h a lf th a t of w ater while ,

p e r un i t O f volume at ordi n ar y pressures of 1 75 to 2 0 0 po u nd s

it is no t more than and its heat absorbent property i s-

therefore small as compared with w ater and i t will n o t readily ,

pre s erve the tubes in which it is heated f rom damage by

, ,

excess of temperatu re Then as regards the situation of the

.

su perheating apparatus this again is a matter of great d iffi

,

culty . In Ame r i ca the ordinary return tub e boiler and in -

1 42
 G E N E RA L R E V I E W 14 3

Great Britain the L ancashire ty pe of boiler s eem to be those

which Offer the best temperatures at the convenient point where
the superheater is to be set u p Other b oilers as a ru le do
.

n o t possess a place in which the s u perheater can be put that

is so favorably situ ated The gases have either passed over

.

too mu ch o r too little of the boiler surface so that they are too
-
,

cold o r still tO O hot .

C ontrol of the temperature of superheat natu rally O ffe rs a

problem fo r solu tion C onnected as the author is with the
.

on ly type u si n g w a ter control in inner tubes he is n o t un

-
,

natu rally apt to favor t hat system somewhat Bu t such a .

syste m involves considerable additional first cost and the ,

engi n eer who wo u ld adopt it must use h is own judgment as to

this first expenditu re and durability or a less first cost an d les s
du rability H e has ample choice fo r there are the cont ro l
.
“
,
:

syste ms by mean s Of heavy inner cores to act by heat inertia .

There are the excellen t o u ter gills of the Foster s u perhe a ter ,

which act also by heat inertia The Babcock and some other
.

su perheaters protect the s u perheater tubes when idle b y means

of water which is admitte d to the s u perheater ; this then act s
for s u ch period simply as a part of the boile r and the floodi n g ,

water is drained out before the apparatus is again called to act

as a s u perheater S ome s u perhea ters again are safegu arded
.
, ,

by mea ns of a do uble set Of dampers which regulate the propor

tion of hot gas a dmitte d to the superheater tubes while others , ,

again admit wastefu ll y and wrongf u lly in the author s

,
—
,
’

Opi n ion hu ge volu mes Of cold air in the case of separately

—

fired apparatu s The Babcock Boiler Co have a design for a

. .

water screen i n advance of the tube s of a separately fired super

-

heater .

The engineer has plenty of cho i ce and he may e ven e le ct ,

to follow the lead Of some of the German engineers who make ,

little o r n o attempt to prote ct the superheate r from destruction ,

14 4 SUPE R H E AT A ND SUPE RH E ATE R S
b ut rather b u i ld it up o f the cheaper c lass of tubes and rep lace
i t as burned o ut still they say realizi n g a comme rcial e conomy
, , , .

As regards the more importan t protection Of the engine

b y regulating the temperature of the steam sent to it the risks , ,

as poi n ted out are apt to diminish as the n u mber of individual

,

superheaters combining to supply on e engine is increased for ,

the steam temperature wil l be an average of many perhaps

widely fluctu ating tributary streams All the foregoing sys .

tems of regu lation serve to control the temperatu re Of the

steam o u tp u t more o r less a n d in addition a thermostat device
, ,

may be e mploye d to spray w a ter into the main steam pipe and -
,

this will act i n stantly in atte m pe ratin g a too high te mperatu re -

,

for a very little hot water will soon destroy all superheat this ,

d isappearing as latent heat Of evaporation o f the wate r spray -

.

S uch w a ter spray sho u ld a lw a ys be of f u ll boile r temperatu re in

—

order that its effect in latent heat absorption may be rapid

-
.

N eedless to e mphasize the fact th a t given steam well super ,

heated and with no cores of half hea ted steam it matters not -
,

in what apparatus it has been su perheated the results at the ,

e n gine will be th e same It is in the application Of heat to the

.

steam at the furnace end that the final economy must be looked
for and s ecured It is Obviously indicative of bad engin e ering
.

where a saving of 20 per cent Of steam at the engine is a e com

p a n ie d by a savin g o f only sa y 8 per cent Of coal
, , This s ho ws .

a fau lt somewhere .

In qu oting tests of engines w ith and without s u perheat the

results have no bearing on the s u perheater They merely indicate .

W hat an engine can do w ith s u perheated steam and it w e re ,

useless to present numero u s tests for they cannot do more ,

than confirm the well recognized fact th at an economy o f 20

-

per cent of steam more o r less m a y be se c u red as a general fact .

Supe rheat in fact as such is not on trial E n gines are on tria l

, ,
.

and are n ow acce pte d o r conde mned o n their behav i or with

146 SUPE RH E AT A ND SUPE RH EATE RS
Ame r i can practice the Green e conom i z er havin g firs t crosse d
,

the Atlantic and b e come es tablished in America from the N orth

O f E ngland b e fore it O btained much hold in the S outh S o it
.

i s w ith other me an s to economy Fashion rather than calc u la

.
,

tion or judgment o r the dictates of commercial economy will ,

as Often decide on the employment of superheat its means of

,

generat i on or contro l The puri ty Of the N orth coun try w ater

.
-

and the ge n e rally superior hard ne ss of the chalk w ate r of

L ondon no doubt had their i nfluenc e i n b ringing about the dif
ferenc e as re gard s the f ccd heate r but no attempts at w ater
-
,

s oftening w e re made such a s are mad e tO day nor w as the

-
,

su rface cond en s er atte mpte d on land .

 C H A PTE R XIX

USE FUL UN IT S A ND D E FI N ITI O NS TAB LE S

, ,
E TC .

(
TH E B ritishand A merican ) u n it of work is the
f t pound
oo -
,

or the energy necessary to raise a wei ght Of one pound one foot
high .

The metric unit of work is the kilogra mmetre o r the energy ,

requ ired to raise 1 kilogram through 1 metre .

The kilogra m 2 2 046 pounds and the metre = 3 2 809 fee t ‘

H ence the kilo gra mmetre = 7 2 32 foot pounds -

.

P ower is the amo unt of work done per unit of time On e .

horse power is equal to the rate of work represented by lifti n g

-

poun ds 1 foot in 1 min u te .

O e f
n o rce de che va l = 75 k ilo gra mm e tres per s econd On e .

British horse power 1 0 139 force de cheval o r French horse

=-
‘

p ower .

is the total work done by the s team

Indi ca ted horse power -

against a moving piston in an

Friction a l horse power is the indicated horse power of an
— -

en gin e when running unloaded

B ra ke horse powe r I H P
—
FH P . . . . . . BH P. . .

'
Th e therma l efiicien cy Of an engine is the ratio Of the heat
converted into work to the total heat supplied to the engine .

The mechan ica l efitciency is th c 'ra tio Of the brake H P to . .

the 1n d 1c a t e d H P . .
, or
IH P. . .
148 SU PE RH E AT A ND SUPE RHE ATE RS
The British therma l unit is the amount Of heat
requ ired to raise the temperature O f water 1 F at or ne a r °
.

39 1 F (or as given by some at o r near 60

° °
.
, ,
,

The mechanica l equiva lent of the hea t unit is 778 poun ds raised -

1 foot .

The metric therma l unit is called the ca lorie and is the heat
n ecessary to raise 1 kilogram Of w ater 1 centigrade
°
.

1 B T U . . calorie
. .

1 calorie =
B T U 30 87 foot pound s . . .
-
.

The spec ific hea t Of a substance i s the ratio Of the heat n e ces
sary to raise a unit we ight Of the subs tance one degree to that
required fo r w ater the Spec i fic heat of which is said to be 1
,
.

The fo llowi n g values Of spec ific heat are usef u l for the en

C t i ro
as n

Copp er

Ice

H ydrog en

N i trog en

O x y ge n
S tur t d t m
a a e s ea

S t m t 2 12 F
ea a
°
. 0 4 80

The di ffe rence between the specific heat of a ga s a t co n sta nt ,

volume and at constant pres sure simply represen ts the work

done in o vercomin g the atmospheric pressure .

The ten acity of iron and steel increases u p to 500 F but °

.
,

b eyond thi s po int they rapidly b ecome weaker C opper is .

15 0 SUPE R H EAT A ND SUPE RH E AT E RS
T AB L E VII
TAB L E O F PRO PE RTI E S O F SAT URAT E D STE AM
u s
H e at n i t p e r P o
-
u nd

fifgfl : ggff p ra fr o m Z e r o F a r e nh h it u b ic F W e i g ht
fi
Te m e e C eet
re
ture
.

in l b s a ro m e t ér D er p er
in at 2 9 9 2 2 in
Fa h r h t
en ei . P u d
o n . C ubi c Fo o t .

per sq
To t a l H e a t L at
. .

H e at
. .

. e nt
U S E FU L TA B LE S

wv P o o w
m té g
gl i éi; ~ o g o
7 M f v .

b io a $

mm ww w a o - c nm w m mw
o fi fi e h
— z
u A v-n ra v v

m
39
o
2 8 8
o
, © r n h © fi © 1 ~ ~ o wn w
fi M H —
v A r - v

é'
m w ~ m ¢H fl w ~ m m
a
z1 $ 9 a iz h a
Z oz -fl
c
r r

f ¢6
. .

c» ? l~ u i0 00 3 é o oa c a t

"
fi fl fi
w
p 4 — —4 —
4 t p i —— t fi

m Cw
M

uw MN
ig g w
a G
g
o
Q
cr ~
8 mu 6 f
f H
: wwfi
.

4 ~ h o o fl

O fi C J CQ 'O fl I Q l f/
J O J GJ C O r i f: l CQ '
fi W l
‘ V Or
—
/
r-d v-d d r-t — —
u ‘ r a r-d — —
r ‘ v i
152 SUPE RHE AT A ND SUPE RH E ATE RS
w mc w
m mS o m
0
w
mmN m; fi

i v—i r lv i iv lv
. .

v —l v —I r—l —d r —i v — -I H — — r— — —i
v —l
v —I v— I v-‘l
v ‘

m
m
m
i v l v— iv iv
.

r-h —n -q v—n -l H H v- i H r-l —i v—l v— —

v l — —l v— —l
v

o N H fi 0 G O mm www h w owmm
mH o 3 w m m o w h wmwm
mN w5 H
5
7 S ; 2 fi z o
fl o o o e o o o
i v—i v—l v lv
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

H r — —i M —i
v H r —i v—l —i
v —i
r H v —l v-i H v — — v—l ‘

N mm w mRE w m o mm ww mmmN
o m m a m h o m w m
h
g g z ac
A
N mfi fl 2 l fi o o o o o o
lv iv lvlv
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

—l
v —{ H
v —I
v —‘l
v H H r — —I v—l —l v—l r— —‘ y—l
v — — —n v—i
v
1 54 SUP E RHE AT A ND SUPE RH EATE R S

5
0
50 5 5
5
0
5 0 0
0
8 5
5 5 3 5 5 0
50 Q
8 5 0 0
8 8 0 n
0
8
0
3 8 8 M :

8 8 3 8 h 0
0
» 5
:
0 0
8 8
0
5 5 55 5
5 5 8 0 5
0
0 A 0 5 0

: : 0
5
0
5 5 0 0 0
5 5
0 5
: 5 0
5
0
5
5 5 5 5 5 0 5 5 5 5 0 0 0 5 0
: : 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 5 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 5 5 0 3 0
5 5
5 5 5 5 0
5 5 : 5 5 5
0
0
5
0
0
:

0
0
0 0
5
0
5
0 0 0
5
0
0
:
0 0
5
0
0
5 0 0
0
8 5
5 5 5 5 0 5 5 5 5
0 5 5
:
0 5 0 0
0
0
5
5 8 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 5 8 0
5 5
5 0
5 5 5 5 5 5
0
5 5
0
5
0
5 5
0
5 5 0 0
0
5 5 5
8 5
0 8

mm
o 0 0 0 0
0
h m 9
0
P 0 9 0 0 9 0 9 0 0
9
& 5 0
L L : M 5 : :L 5 : :L :
0
: :
E : 6 0
H
m 0 w w 0 m
o w m m m m m m o m m w
2
c
2
A

t S
t
o
w u m o m m m o m m m

m
o © o w m o e
Q o 5 m m w m o w o o 9 o m o m m 0 w a
b 5 k
. .

é b d b : b é é » m é
. . .

é fi o m 0

tX X X
N ”
:

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
0
5
0 0 0
8 8 0 5
0 0
5 0
8
5 5 5 50 5 55 8 8 0
0 0 0 0
0
8 8 8 8 0 5
8 0 0 5
0 5
8
5 0 0
8
0
5 8 0
m 0 5
8 8 8
0 0
8 8 8 8 5 0
0

m
4 5 5
O 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5
5
0
5 5 5
5
5 0
0
0 0

8
5
5 5 5 5 5 0
0
5 5 5

9
: 0 0 0 5
0
5
0
0 0 0
0
5
5 8 0 0 0
5
5 5 0 5 0
8 8 5
8
m
0 n 5 0 5 5 5 5 5 5
5 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 5 0 0 0
0 0 0 5
m
0 0
5 8 0
> 2 5 o 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 5 5 0
0 0 5 0 0 0
8
:
0 0
8
0
0 0 0 0 0
5 5 5 8 5
0
5 5
Z 0 0 0 0 0
5 5 0
5 5 5 0 0
O : 2 5 5
8 8 8
M Mm
m 0 0 0 0 5 5
O :L H
k
:L 6 9 m 0 0 0
E m ©
E w m m w m m © o
m m c m m o m 5 o
N
O w o m m w m m 5 h m m
8
H
m w m w h u w m H m m a 5 o m m 5 m m
w 0 m : N e m w m N w o m 9 o m fi m o 9 o w N
é b ; ¢ é : b flé ; 0 b w é m a
.

6 m é b m
.

b
.

é H 0
m :
m
m
X X X i x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x X
5
0
0
5 5
0 0
8
0 5 0
0
0 5 5 8 5 0
H 8
9
:
0 5 0 0 0
5
Q
mM
05
» 0 0 0 5
8
0 0 5 05

8 8 8 0
:

8 8 0 0 0
N
5
: 5 0
0
5 5
:
0 0 5 5 5 0
8 5 5 8 8 5 0 8 5 5
0 0 A 0
5
5 5
0
0 : : 0 0 0 0
5 0 0 5 0
0 5
: 0
m 5
8 5 5 5 5 5 0 0 5 0 0 5 5 0 0 0 0 5
0
0 : : 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 3 0 0

s
0 0 0 5 5
0 0 0
5 5 0
5 5 0 5 5 5 5 0 5 0
5 E
5 0 : 0 0 0 : 0 :
5 0
0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 :
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 0 5
0 T 0 5 0 0 0 5 5
0 0
8 0 .
5
5
0
5
0
5
5
5
5
5 5
0 5
5
0
5
0
5
5
5
5
5
0
5
5
5
2 50 50 0
0
5 8 5
5 5
8 9 0 0
m& @ 0 E
0
0 o 0 0 0 0 5 0
& m
L
5
L .
9
m: :L
0 0
5
.

H
0 0
k
0
& 5
:
0
5
0
5
: 6 :
0
:
L L
 U SE FU L TAB LES 15 5

TAB L E XII
S T E AM CA RRY I NG
- CA PA CITY OF EX T RA HEAVY STE AM PIPE S
- -

(E . H . F OS ER
T . P o we r Sp i l ty C
ec a N Y) o .
, . .

PO U NDS OF ST E A M PE R HO UR AT V E LO C IT Y O F
f eet p er m i nut e f or s atur a ted s team
d ry
f eet p er m i nute f o r s te am s u p er h ea te d
.

50 °
F
gl g
A ctu de
N fil al nfi
f eet p er m i nute f o r s te am s u p er h e a te d 1 00
.

g g F
°

f ii e
i e

i n Sq u a re f eet p er m i nute f o r s te am s up er h e a te d 1 5 0
°
F
.

f eet p er m i nute f o r s te am s u p er h e a te d 2 0 0 F
.

i hg
)
In h e s
°

feet p er m i nute f o r s t e am s u p er h e a te d 2 5 0 F
.

nc s c .
°
.

a e a e a e lb ae
‘

2 0 0 1b . G g . 1 5 0 lb . G g . 1 0 0 1b . G g . 50 . G g .

2 2 6 98 27
D V AN NOSTRAND COMPANY S
’

BOOKS ON

STE AM A ND A LLIE D SU BJ E CTS .

AU C H INC L O SS, Li nk and V alv e Motio n s Simpli fi e d

W . 8 .
.

Ill us tra t e d wi th 2 9 wo o d c u t a n d 2 0 l i thograph i c pl a te s toge th e r wi th

s

a Tra v el S cale a n d num e ro us us e fu l tab l e s Fourte nth E d iti n re

,

, . e o ,

vis ed 8 v o cloth
.
,

B AC O N F W A Tr e atis e on th e R i chard s St e am e n gi n e
,
. . -

Ind i cato r wi th d i r e cti on s fo i t s us e B y C harl e s T Porte r Re v is e d

,
r . . .
,
wi th note s a n d large a d d i ti on s a s d e v e lop d by Am ri can practi ce ; wi th e e

an a pp e nd ix conta i n ing us e ful form ulae a n d rul e s fo r e ngi n e e r s Illus .

tra t e d Fourth E d iti on

. 1 2 mo cloth .
$ 1 00
, .

BARRUS G H B oil e r T e s t s : E mb rac i n g th e R e su l t s o f on e

,
. .

hu ndr e d and thirty s e v e n e v aporat iv e t e s t s mad e o n s e v e nty o n e

-
“

,
-

b o il er s cond u cte d by th e a u thor 8 v o cloth

,
.
,

E n gi n e T es t s : E mb rac i n g th e R e su l t s of ov e r o n e hu ndr e d
f ee d w ate r t e s t s and oth e r inv e s ti gati on s o f v ari o us k ind s o f s t e am
-

e ngi n e s con d u ct e d by t h e au thor W i th num e ro us figu re s tab l e s

,
.
, ,

a n d d i agram s 8 v o cloth ill us trate d

.
, ,

T h e ab o v e tw o p u rcha s e d toge the r

B EAUMO NT W W P r a cti c al T r e atis e on th e St e am—e n gi n e
,
. .

Ind i cato r and Ind i cato r D i agram s W i th not e s o n E ngi ne Pe rform

, .

a n c e s E x pan si on o f S t e am B e hav i or o f S t e am i n S t e am e ngi n e Cy l i n d e r s

, ,
-
,

a n d on Ga s a n d Oi l e ng i n e D i agram s S econd E d ition r evis d a nd

—
.
,
e

en la rged 8 v o cloth i ll us trat e d

.
, ,
n et ,

B E R TIN L E Mari n e Bo il e r s : th e i r C on s t ru cti on and W o rk

,
.

i ng d e a h n g mor e e s p e ci ally wi th T ubu lous Bo il e r s Translate d by .

L e sl i e S R o b e rts on A ss oc M In s t C E M I Me ch E M I N A Con
,

. . . .
, ,
. . . . . . .
,
.

taini ng u pw ard o f 2 50 ill us trati on s Pr e fac e b y Si r W ill i am Wh i te

. .

.
,

D i r e ctor o f Na v al C on s tru cti on to th e A d mi ralty a n d ,

A ssis tant C ontroll e r of t he Na vy S ec nd E dition r evised a nd n l ged . o ,

e ar .

8 v o cloth i ll us trat e d
, ,
n et ,

B O OTH W H Wat e r Soft e ni n g and T r e atm e nt Co nd en si n g

, . .
,
Plant F e e d Pump s a nd H e aters fo r S te am U sers and M anu factu re rs
, ,
.

8 v o cl oth ill u s tra te d

, ,
n et ,
 B OOK S ON S T EA M AND ALLI E D SUBJ E CT S .

JAMIE SO N A C E A T ex t b ook on St e am an d St e am
,
.
,
. .
—

ngin s incl ud ing T urbi s and Bo il r s Sp ci ally rrange d f the

e e ne e . e a or
f E ngi n r s q u al i fyi ng fo r t h In s ti tu t i on of C i i l En gi n e r s t h
,

u se o ee e v e , e
D i ploma s d D gr s of T chn i cal C oll g s d U i rsi ti s Ad anc d
an e ee e e e an n ve e ,
v e

S ci nc C rti ficat s f Bri tis h d Coloni al Board s of E d u cati on d

e e e e o an an
H onou r s C rti ficat s of t h C i ty and G uild s f Lond on I s ti tu t e in
,

e e e o n
M chan i cal E ngin ering d Engi n rs gen rally Fift th E d iti
,

e e , an ee e . een on ,
revis ed . Illus trat ed . 8v0 , cloth .

El e m e nt ary Man u a l on St e am an d th e St e am e n gi n e -
.

S pe ci ally arrange d fo r th e use of Fi r s t y e ar S ci e nce and Art C i ty and -

G uil d s o f L on d on In s ti tu t e a n d othe r E l e m e nta ry E ngi n e e ri ng S tu d e nt s

,

, .

Ten th E dition r evis ed 1 2 mo cloth , .

$ 1 50 .

KENNE DY R Mod e rn E n gi n e s and P o we r Ge ne rators A

,
. .

Practical Work P rim M o r s d th Tran sm issi o of Pow r S t am

on e ve an e n e : e
El ctri c Wat r d H ot ai r W i th tab l s figu r s and full pag
,

e ,
e ,
an -
. e ,
e ,
—
e en
gra ings 6 ol s 8 cloth illus trat ed
v . v . vo , ,

Singl e olum es e ach v ,

KE R SH AW J B C ,
. . . Fu el , Wat e r ,
and Ga s An al y sis , for
S t am U s rs 8 cloth
e e . vo , n et,

KLE IN J ,
. F; D e sign o f a H igh sp ee d -
St e am - e ngi n e . Wi th
not e s ,
d ia gra n
r form
s, u la s and ta b l es S , . e co n d t
E d i io n , r evis ed a nd
en la rged 8v0 .
; cloth i ll us trat d ,
e n et,

KLE INH ANS B Bo il e r C on s truct i on A P ra ct i c al E x

,
F . . .

planati on o f th b s t mo d e rn m e tho d s of Bo il r C on s tru cti on from th

e e e ,
e

l ayi ng o u t of s h t s to t h compl t d Bo i l r W i th d i agram s and fu ll

ee e e e e

page e ngr a i ngs 8 c cloth llus trat e d

v . v , ,
i

K O E STER ,
F . St e am e l e ctri c P o we r P l ant s and th e i r C on
-

LUC KE C E ,
. . P o we r P lant P ap e rs . F orm I . Th e St e am
P ower Plant . P M p hl e t (8 x 1 3 ) n et,

P I C KW O R TH C N Th e I ndi c a to r H an d b ook A P r a cti c al

,
. .

M anu al for E ng ne e rs P art I The In d i cator : i ts C on s tru cti on and

i . .

Appl i ca ti on 8 1 i llus trati on s 1 2 mo cloth

. $ 1 50 .
, .

Th e P art II Th e Ind i cator D i a

I nd i c at o r H and b oo k . .

gram : i t s Analysis and C alculati on W i th ta bl e s an d figu res 1 2 mo . .

,

cloth i llus trat ed

,
. $ 1 50 .
 D . V AN N O S T RAND COMPANY S ’

P RAY T J r St e am T ab l e s and E ngi n e Co n s t ant

,
.
,
. . Co mpil e d
from Re gnault R ank i n e a nd D ix on d i re ctly mak ing use
, , ,
o f t h e e x act

r e cord s 8 v o cloth .
,

K
RAN I NE , W S t e am -
.
J . M
e n gi n e and O th e r P ri m e . Th e
M
o v e rs W i th d i agram o f the e chanic al rop e rti e s o f te am Fold ing
. M P S .

plat e s n um e ro us tab l e s a n d ill us trat i on s Fifteenth E d ition thor ,

.
,

M illar
,

o u ghl y r e is v ed by W . J . . 8vo , cloth

Us e fu l R ul e s and T ab l e s fo r E n gi n ee r s and O th e rs Wi th .

App e n d ix Tab l e s T e s t s and Formulae fo r t h e use o f E l e ctri cal Engin e e r s

, ,

Comprising Sub mari n e El e ctri cal Engin e e ring El e ctri c Li ghting a nd

, .

Tran s m issi on o f P ow e r B y An d r ew J am i e s on C E
,

S even th ,
. .
,

E d it i n thoro u ghl y r e is e d by W J M i llar

.

o ,
8 v o cloth v . . .
,

R EE D S’
Mari n e Bo il e rs on th e C au s e s and Pr e . A Tr e at is e
v e n t io n f th i r P r im i ng wi th R e mark s o n th e i r G e n ral M anag e m e nt
o e ,
e .

1 2 mo cloth i ll us trat d
, ,
e

R O B E R T SO N, L S Wat e r tu b e B oil e rs Ba s e d on a Short

. .
-
.

Co u rse o f L e ctu r e s d e l i v e re d at Un i v e r si ty C oll e ge London Wi th up , .

w ard o i 1 7 0 i ll us trat ion s a n d d i agram s 8 v o cloth i ll us trate d .

, , .

R O SE , J K
. e y t o
,
E n gi n eME
s a nd E
. n gi n e r u n ni n g A -
.

Practi cal Tr at s upon th M anag m nt f S t am ngin s d Bo il rs

e i e e e e o e —e e an e ,

for t h u of tho s e w ho d e si re to pa ss an xam i nation to ta k e charge

e se e

of an e ngin e b o il e r W i th num rous illus trati on s n d In s tru cti on s

or . e ,
a
u pon E ngi n r s C l cul ti n In d ic to D i agram s Engin Adj us tm e nts
ee
’
a a o
‘

s, a r ,
e

a n d oth r V al u a b l e Informat i o n n e c e ss ary fo E ngin e e rs n d Fi r m e n

,

e r a e .

1 2 mo cloth ill us trat ed

, ,

R O WAN, F J P ract
. i ca l P h
. y si c s o f th M
Th e
e od e rn St e am
b o il e r W i th an Intro d u cti on by Prof R H Thu r s ton W i th n u m e ro us
. . . .

illus trati on s a n d d i agram s 8 v o cloth illus trate d .

, ,

SC H U MANN, F . A Man u a l o f
e ntil ati on i n i t s H e ati n g an d V
P racti cal Appl i cation fo th e u e o f E ngin e rs n d Archi te cts E m ,
r s e a
b raci ng a Se r i s f Tab l s a n d Fo rm ulae for D im n si on s of H e ating
.

e o e e

Flo w a n d R t u rn P i p es for S t e am and H ot w at r Bo i l r s Fl u e s

,

e tc -
e e , e .

1 2 mo ill us trat e d f u ll roan

, , $ 1 50 .

SC R IB NE R , J E n gi n e e r.s a n d M M e ch an
. i c s C o mp a n i on ’ ’
.

Compr isin g Un i t e d S tat e s We i ghts an d M e asu re s M e n su rati on o f Sup er ,

fi c e s a n d S ol i d s Ta b l e s o f S q u ar e s a n d C ub e s S q u ar e a n d C ub e R oot s
, ,

C irc umf e re nce a n d Are a s o f Ci rcl e s th e M e chan i cal P ow e rs Ce ntre s of

,

, ,

Gra i ty Gra i tati on o f Bo d i e s Pe nd ul um s Sp e ci fic Gra v i ty of Bod i e s

v ,
v , , ,

S tre ngth We i ght and C rus h o f M at e ri al s Wat e r w he e l s Hyd ro s tati cs

, , ,
-
, ,

Hyd raul i cs S tati cs Ce ntre s of P e rcussi on a n d G yration Fri cti on H e at

, , , , ,

Tab l e s o f th e W e i ght o f M e tal s S cantli ng e t c S te am and S t e am e ngin e , , .

,
-
.

Twenty fi s t E d ition r evis ed

-
r 1 6mo fu ll morocco , $ 1 50 .
,
.
 B OOK S ON ST E A M A ND ALL I E D SU B J ECT S .

SE ATO N, A E A Man u al o f Mari n e E n gi n ee ri n g C omp risi n g

. . .

t h e D e si gn i ng C on s tr u ct i on and Wor k i ng o f M ar i n e M ach i n e ry

,
W i th , .

nume ro us tab l e s a n d ill us trati on s re d u c e d from Work ing Drawings .

S ixte n th E d ition r e v is e d thro u gho u t wi th an a dd i t i onal chapt e r o n

e ,

Wate r tub e Bo il e r s 8 v c cloth

-
.
,

and R O U NTH W AITE H M A P ock e t b ook o f Mari n e ,

. .
-

E ngin e ring Rul e s and Tab l s Fo th e u e f M arin E ngin r s n d

e e . r s o e ee a
Na al Arch i t ct s D si gn r s Dra u ghts m e n S u p r i nt e n d nt s
v e , nd all
e e , ,
e e a

e ngag d i n t h e d si gn
e n d con s tr u ct i on f M ar i n M ach i n ry Na al n d
e a o e e v a
M rcanti l S nth E diti n i d nd n l g d Pock e t si e L athe r
,

e e . eve o ,
r ev s e a e ar e . z . e ,

wi th d i agr am s $ 3 00 .

SH O C K , W H St e am B oil e rs : th e i r D e sign C o n s tru ct i on

. .
, ,
and M anage m nt 4 to half morocco e .
,

STI LLMAN, P St e am e n gi n e Indi cator and th e Imp rov e d

.
-

M anom e te r S te am an d V acuum Gau ge s : the i r U til i ty a n d Appl i cati on .

N ew E d ition 1 2 mo fl e xib l e cloth .

$1
,

STO D O LA , D r A St e am Tu rb i n e s Wi th an App e ndi x on

. . .

Ga s T u rbi n e s a n d th e fu tu r e of H e at E ngin e s Au thor i ed tran s lat i on

,
. z

by Dr L o uis C Lo e w e n s te i n (L e h igh Un i e rsi ty ) W i th 2 4 1 c u t s a n d

. . v .

3 l i thograph e d ta b l e s 8 v o cloth i ll us trat e d n et .

, , ,

TO MP KINS ,
o f Mari n e E n gi n ee ri n g Se c o nd
A . E . T e x t - b ook .

E d iti n o n ti ly,
w itt n
e ng d nd nl
re g d W i th o e r 2 50
re r e ,
rea rra e ,
a e ar e . v
figu r e s d i agr am s n d full pag plat e s 8 cloth i llus trat e d n t $ 6 00
, ,
a -
e . vo , , ,
e , .

V AN NO ST R AND S Y e ar B oo k ’
of
‘

Me ch a n ic a l E n gi n ee ri n g D ata .

W i th many tab l e s and d i agram s .

(Fi r s t ye ar o f issu e . In P r ess .

WATSO N E ,
. P Small E n gi n e s and Bo il e rs A Manu al of
. .

C oncis a n d e Sp e ci fic D i re cti on s for th e C on s tru cti on o f Small S te am

e ng i n e s nd a Bo il e r s of M o d e rn Ty p e s from Fi v e H ors e po w e r d o wn to -

mo d e l si s ze . Illus trat e d wi th num e ro us d i agram s and half ton e c u t s -

.

1 2 m o cloth,

Z EUNE R , A , D r . . T e chn i ca l T h e rmo dy nami c s . T ran sl at e d

from t h e Fifth co mp le te ly revi sed Germ a n E d i ti on Dr Z e un
of . er s
’

o ri gi nal tre at is o n Th e rmo d yn am i c s by P rof F K l i n L e h i gh

,

e J . . . e
Un i v e r si ty 8 o cloth tw o olum e s llustrat Vol I 4 60 pag s
,
.

. v , ,
v ,
i ed . .
, e ,

V o l I I 556 page s
. .
n e t,

P u b li s h e r s a n d B o o k s e lle r s,

23 MURRAY and 27 WARREN STREETS, NEW YORK .