COMMINUTION TECHNOLOGY

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Comminution is derived from comminuere, which means, “to make small”

(Napier-Munn, 1999). The processes involved in comminution may be utilized
just to make large particles smaller or to achieve liberation of encapsulated
valuables. In the minerals industry, comminution begins with the miner, as rock
cutting and blasting may be considered the first stage of comminution. After
mining of rocks and ores, several comminution technologies may be utilized to
prepare the mine product for direct application or for further treatment by
metallurgical, pharmaceutical, chemical, building, ceramic and glass industries.

In the typical mineral processing plant context, comminution encompasses unit

operations such as crushing, grinding, screening and classification. Sizing
processes may not necessarily lead to size reduction but they are an integral
part of any comminution circuit and contribute directly to circuit performance
and efficiency of energy utilization. A study of the physical properties of
particles is also necessary for effective control and regulation of comminution
circuits and other technological processes. Comminution is expensive and it is
estimated that about 30-50% (up to 70% for hard ores) of total plant power
draw is consumed by this process. For a typical metalliferous processing plant,
about 50% of the operating cost may be attributed to comminution (Weiss,
1985; Wills, 1992,).

The high cost of comminution makes it necessary for the mineral processing
engineer to be innovative and come up with novel technologies and ideas
aimed at improving the current technology, its application and plant practice.
Circuit optimization by simulation is fast replacing the mostly subjective
exercise of ‘engineering judgement’ and there is currently enough data from
several mine-to-mill research groups to confirm that integrating the
comminution stages of mining and mineral processing rather than making them
competitive units of a mining company can generate significant economic
benefits. For example, by increasing the powder factor utilized in blasting, the
work index of the mine product can be reduced considerably leading to savings
in the energy used in crushing/grinding and an increase in the effective life of
mill/crusher liners and steel balls. The aim of this course is to discuss the basic
concepts of the current comminution technology and to challenge students to
be innovative and break new grounds.

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2.0 BASIC CONCEPTS

2.1 Purpose of Comminution

Mined ore occurs as lumps and particle size may be up to 1500 mm and
should be broken down to manageable sizes to effectively process the ore.
The process by which the particle size of the ore is progressively reduced is
referred to as Comminution. It is a very active mechanical process and may
involve crushing and grinding through impact, compression and attrition where
strain energy, shear energy, thermal, sound and kinetic energy induce
changes in the state of solids. Comminution may be carried out for a number
of reasons, which these include (Gaudin, 1939; Taggart, 1947, Wills, 1992):

I. Liberation of the valuable minerals (e.g. gold grains) from worthless

gangue materials.

II. Increasing the surface area available for leaching.

III. Convenience in transport

IV. Production of suitable material for subsequent processes

In the processing plant, comminution generally involves several stages of

disintegration since it would take an extra-ordinary machine to reduce a lump
from feed particle size of about 1000 mm to 75 m, for example. It also helps
to avoid over-crushing or grinding, reduces grinding cost and excessive slime
production and increases efficiency of subsequent concentration processes.
The set values of comminution and sizing equipment are generally evaluated
through particle size analysis of the products.

2.2 Mechanism of Particle Breakage

Generally, minerals are crystalline in nature and can be fractured by induced

stress. When they are loaded, because rocks consist of a variety of minerals
of various grain sizes, internal stresses are not evenly distributed. The
mechanical properties of the individual minerals and the presence of cracks
and flaws in the matrix affect the distribution of stress with the weaker zones
acting as sites for stress concentration.

The increase in stress at a given site is proportional to the square root of the
crack length perpendicular to the stress direction and there is a critical value
of the crack length at any stress level at which breakage can occur. As both
the stress level and concentration increase, there is rapid propagation of
crack through the material causing fracture.

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2.3 Theory of Comminution

Rocks must be intensely stressed before any substantial breakage can occur.
The stress may be stored as elastic energy and is lost when the particle
fractures. It has been established that most of the input to a comminution
machine is lost in overcoming friction from movable units and part is lost in the
form of heat and sound among others and just a small fraction goes into direct
particle size reduction. Various mathematical relations have been put forth to
quantify the actual energy used in particle breakage and the generation of
new surfaces. The theories of comminution deal with the relationship between
the product particle size and the energy input. All the theories/laws assume
that the material is brittle and that no energy is absorbed in processes such as
elongation or contraction.

Some of the laws have been attributed to Rittinger, Kick and Bond. Rittinger’s
law states that ‘the energy necessary for reduction is directly proportional to
the increase in surface area’. Kick (1883) demonstrated mathematically that
for a homogeneous piece of rock, the work input required to deform and break
it, is proportional to the reduction in diameter of the particles concerned.
According to Kick, ‘the energy required to produce similar changes in form of
geometrically similar bodies is a direct function of the weights or volumes of
the bodies. For example, if a unit of energy breaks a piece of material into four
¼ units, then a quarter of a unit of energy will be needed to break one of those
four. Bond’s law states that the total work useful in breakage, which has been
applied to a stated weight of homogeneous broken material is inversely
proportional to the square root of the diameter of the product particles (Bond,
1952). (Kick, 1883; Rittinger, 1867; Bond, 1952).

For an incremental energy dE required to produce an incremental change, dx,

in size, energy and breakage are related by:

dE = -Kdx/xn 2.1

In estimating the value of n, Kick (1883) assumed constant energy per unit
mass for similar relative reduction and arrived at the equation:

E = Klog(x1/x2) 2.2

Rittinger’s (1867) estimated constant energy per unit of surface area

generated:

1 1
E  K   2.3
 x 2 x1 

As a result of data treatment of a series of experiments, which covered a wide

range of ores, Bond (1952) established that,

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  1 1 
E  K   2.4
 x 2 x 1 

Where x1 and x2 represent the feed and product size, usually the 80% passing
size in microns and K is a constant. The value of K is, however, not the same
for each derivation.

Bond’s equation is used widely in calculations involving energy expended in

comminution processes and the particle size range where it is most applicable
is that of conventional ball milling. The value of K in the equation is 10W i,
where W i is the work index of the material. This parameter expresses the
resistance of the material to crushing and grinding and it is the work done in
reducing a material from a theoretically infinite feed size to 80% passing 100
m. The energy (E) or work done is generally the work in-put in kilowatt-hours
per short ton (1 short ton = 0.907 metric tonnes).

Available data indicates that the real relationship between energy and particle
size is a composite form of the three laws. Kick’s law agrees better with
crushing (above 1 cm) and Rittinger’s with fine grinding (10 – 1000 µm).
Bond’s law works between the two, which is the range for conventional rod
and ball mill grinding.

3.0 MINERAL LIBERATION AND PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS

3.1 Liberation

The main purpose of a mineral beneficiation is to separate the valuable

components of ores from the worthless constituents and concentrate the
minerals of interest to make a saleable product. Separation or concentration is
generally preceded by a step aimed at liberating the valuable minerals.

If this preceding step is comminution, then the design criteria should include a
suitable particle size that would ensure an economic level of liberation. Thus,
comminution and liberation are inextricably connected. In a situation where the
particle size is not reduced to a suitable level, valuable components may not
be extracted leading to loss of potential revenue. On the other hand if the
particle size is too small, a plant with very high energy/operational costs will
result. In designing a productive beneficiation system, it is necessary to
characterize the relationship between mineral liberation and size reduction
(Napier-Munn, 1999).

As it is with the definition of the term ore, that of liberation, is also based on
the economics of processes. In practice, a particle is said to be liberated when
for a given process, its composition is such that it can be selectively recovered
or discarded as concentrate or gangue respectively. Generally comminution
circuits create several particle compositions (Fig. 3.1). Particles that have not
been fully liberated may also be concentrated in a given process, however,
the increased weight due to the presence of unwanted components leads to a
reduction in grade of the concentrate.

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 Liberated particles

Binary composites

Tertiary composites

Fig. 3.1 Varying mineral associations obtained after breakage of a multiphase

component

The conventional techniques for measuring liberation include manual mineral

identification, fractionation and counting under a microscope. Modern
automated systems make use of image analysis in machines such as the
scanning electron microscope (SEM). These may be equipped with a
backscattered electron image (BEI) detectors and x-ray fluorescence (XF)
units for spot analysis.

3.2 Particle Characteristics

Particles may be characterized by parameters such as size, shape and

density. Some terms used in characterizing particles are:

• shape factor (Sf) – the property that determines the relationship

between the particle mass and its surface area and hence its response
to frictional restraint

Sf = T/(LB) 3.1

where T is the thickness measured parallel to the direction of motion; L

and B are the length and breath respectively.

• average diameter (D) – after measuring the length of three mutually

perpendicular sides of a particle, the average diameter may be
calculated from the equation;

D = (L+ B+ H)/3 or D = 3(L x B x H) 3.2

where, L, B, and H are the length, breadth and height of the particle
respectively. The average diameter of a sample of ore particles can
also be considered as the aperture width of a screen through which
80% of the sample passes in case of crushing and 95% in case of
grinding. This parameter can be estimated by sieve analysis when the
particles are relatively coarse.

• specific surface – the total surface area of particles in a unit weight of

ground material

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 • mesh – the number of openings per linear inch of screen material

• equivalent diameter – most particles are irregularly shaped and

therefore their diameters cannot be measured. The equivalent diameter
refers to the diameter of a sphere of the same material, which would
behave in the same manner as that particle, when submitted to some
specific operation.

3.2.1 Size analyses

Size analysis has several applications in the mineral, building, chemical and
pharmaceutical industry for effective control and regulation of many
technological processes. In the minerals industry, it may be utilized in
determining the quality of grinding and establishing the degree of liberation of
values from gangue at various sizes. It is also used in establishing the porosity
and permeability of rocks and soils. There are different methods of size
analysis of ores, which can be broadly classified as sieve and sub-sieve
techniques. Sedimentation or dispersion, elutriation (hydrosizing), microscopy
and granulometry (LASER) are sub-sieve methods of particle size analyses.
These techniques are preferred when the particles are finer than what screens
can handle, usually below 40 m (Gaudin, 1939; Taggart, 1947; Wills, 1992).
Microscopy may be used for individual grain analysis while the others are for
bulk sample analysis.

3.2.1.1 Sieve Analysis

Sieve analysis is a process of estimating particle size composition and

distribution in a product. It may be carried out in test sieves connected in
series with decreasing sieve aperture. A known mass of ore is passed through
the set and the sieves should be manipulated in such a way that all the
particles have the chance of testing the possibility of passing through the
screen apertures.

Screens are arranged such that consecutive sieves have a constant

relationship between them. The three constants which correspond to three
different series are the square root of 2 (1.414), Tyler series; fourth root of 2
(1.189), modern series; and the tenth root of 10 (1.259), metric series. For
most practical purposes alternate sieves in the series are used in building the
nest.

Generally the sieve range should be chosen in such a way that no more than
5% of the sample passes the finest sieve or is retained on the coarsest. The
diameter of a particle is considered as the size of the minimum aperture
through which the particle passes. Sieve Analysis can be performed dry or wet
depending on the clay or slime content of the material. The appropriate
quantity of the ore sample is weighed, loaded onto the uppermost sieve and
covered. This quantity depends on the size of the largest particle in the
sample. The set of sieves is placed on the appropriate vibrator and shaken for
ten to thirty minutes. At the end of this period controlled screening may be

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performed manually and if the quantity of material passing through a sieve is
not more than 1% per minute, then screening is said to be complete.

In screen analysis the oversize of each sieve is weighed and the result treated
in the example below. Table 1 is a presentation of
results of screen analysis and Fig. 3.2 is a
graphical presentation. Instead of the nominal
sieve size, the geometric mean size may also be
used. For the range -250 + 180, the geometric
mean is given by (250 x 180).

Table 1. Results of Screen Analysis.

Particle Sieve fractions Nominal Cumulative Cumulative

size range, Aperture size Percent Percent
m Size, m Oversize, % Undersize, %
Weight, Percent,
G %
250 0 100
-250+180 8.0 10 180 10 90
-180+125 11.2 14 125 24 76
-125+90 12.8 16 90 40 60
-90+63 14.4 18 63 58 42
-63+45 16.0 20 45 78 22
-45+0 17.6 22 0 100 0
80.0 100

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 100

80
Cumulative %

60
cum % retained
cum % passing

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Nominal sieve size, microns

Fig. 3.2 Graph of cumulative percent against nominal sieve size

From the graph of cumulative percent against particle size as shown on Fig.
3.2, it is possible to estimate the percentage composition of any particle size
range of the sample. For example:

The percentage composition of the material passing 180 m, x = 90%

The percentage composition of the material passing 90 m, y = 60%

Therefore,

The percentage composition of the material between 90 and 180 m is given

by;

x – y = 90 - 60

= 30%

These graphs may be plotted on a semi-log sheet or log-log axes. The use of
log axes reduces the degree of scatter and is suitable for skewed distributions.
Other plots include that of the Rosin-Rammler relation as modified by Bennet
(Gilchrist, 1989):

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 log.log(100 / R)  logb  n log x 3.3

where R is the weight percent over size x. If a distribution conforms to this

relationship, then a plot of log.log (100/R) against log x is linear. Another
relationship is the Gates-Gaudin-Schuhman (GGS) relationship where,

m
x
y  100  3.4
k 

y is the percent passing size x, and k and m are constants.

3.2.1.2 Sub-sieve analysis

3.2.1.2.1 Sedimentation

Sedimentation is basically the act of settling solid particles in a fluid medium

under the force of gravity. It needs not necessarily be a downward movement
and electrical, magnetic and centrifugal forces could be used to increase the
settling velocities.

The principle of sedimentation could be illustrated by dispersing some test

material uniformly in water contained in a measuring cylinder. When the
particles are dropped, they undergo an initial acceleration before settling with
their different terminal velocities. After a time, t, a percentage of the particles
would settle through a distance, h, (Fig 3.3) and the terminal velocity is given
by:

V = h/t 3.5

H h

Fig 3.3. Sedimentation test in a cylinder

These particles would include those with terminal velocities greater than V.
However, smaller particles with terminal velocities less than V could settle if
they are attached to or sandwiched between two bigger particles. These fines
could be removed by re-pulping to the original level and repeating the
experiment (up to 5 repetitions would be most appropriate).

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Based on the velocity calculated from this experiment, the particle size can be
calculated by inserting the velocity component in Stokes equation.

D  Df 
ν  gd 2
s
3.6
18 η

After time t, all particles larger than d, would have fallen below the level h, and
particles of diameter less than d, say d1, would have fallen below a level h1
where h1< h. The efficiency of removal of particles of size d1 is given by:

E = (h – hi)/H 3.7

Since t = h/V and V  d2  h/d2 = h1/d12

Hence,
2
d 
h  h 1 
E d 3.8
H

For n decantations, efficiency of removal of particles of size d 1 at a separation

size of d is

= 1 – [1 – E]n 3.9

When combined with the pipette technique, samples may be taken

periodically at a given cross-section above the settled material in and
analyzed to monitor the settling rate. Sedimentation tests may be utilized in
the design of industrial settling tanks, thickeners and tailings dams.

3.2.1.2.2 Elutriation methods

Elutriation separates particles by means of a current of water moving upward

through a sorting column at constant velocity as illustrated in Fig 3.4. Particles
with terminal velocity greater than that of the fluid velocity appear in the
underflow while particles with lesser terminal velocities report in the overflow.
The process continues until classification is complete.

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 fines feed

sorting
column

coarse product

water
Fig 3.4. A schematic diagram of an elutriation system

For a sorting column of depth h, sorting material at a separating size d,

V  d2

where, V is the upward velocity of water. Particles of size s, where s < d will
move up the sorting column at a velocity Vs where,

Vs  (d2 – s2)

The time required for a particle of size s, to move through the column is given
by h/vs and that required for a complete volume change is h/v. To remove all
particles of size s, the number of volume changes required would be;
h
vs d2 1
 2 
 
3.10
h d s 2
1  s
2
v d

3.2.1.2.3 Electrical resistance methods, laser granulometry and

microscopy

An electrical resistance method used in particle size analysis is the coulter

counter. In this technique, particles pass through an electrolyte (in a tube) one
at a time. As a particle passes through, some fluid is displaced which causes a
change in the resistance between electrodes mounted in the unit. The voltage
produced and measured is proportional to the volume of the particle. It is
suitable for particles in the range 0.5 – 400 m.

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Laser granulometry is based on diffraction of a coherent light beam by
particles. Samples are prepared by dispersing the powder in a liquid by means
of an ultrasonic bath and circulated through a glass cell. The values of
illumination of the beam, with and without the sample are read by a detector
and the results given in cumulative percent undersize.

Microscopic techniques are utilized in determining the size of single particles

based on its projected area. Both the optical and electron microscopes may
be equipped with a graduated device for taking these measurements. The
optical microscope is very suitable in the range 0.25 – 50 m while the
electron microscope can handle particles as small as 0.005 m.

4.0 SCREENING

Screening or sieving is a direct sizing process. It is the process of separating a

mixture of relatively coarse particles into different size ranges by passing them
through a screen (sieve).

The principle is that each particle is tested to find whether or not it will pass an
opening of a particular size and shape. A screen (Fig. 4.1) is an assemblage
of such apertures designed to test many particles simultaneously. Aperture
size ranges from no upper limit down to about 40 m. Industrial screening is
normally limited to material of size above 250 m.

When the feed material is screened, two products are obtained, oversize and
undersize. Oversize material is the range of particle sizes above the screen
aperture size (opening), which remains on the screen and undersize is the
range of particle sizes below the screen aperture size, which pass through the
screen. If the aperture width of a screen through which screening is performed
is denoted d, then, the oversize product is denoted +d and the undersize
product -d. Material which has passed through a sieve with aperture width d
but remains on a sieve with aperture width n, where n<d is denoted (-d +n).
Ore may be screened for any of the following reasons:

• To prepare closely sized feed for some processes

• To prevent the entry of undersize into crushing machines thereby

increasing their capacity and efficiency

• To prevent oversize particles from passing to the next stage in closed

circuit fine crushing and grinding operations

• To produce a closely sized end product

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 Feed

Oversize

Undersize

Fig. 4.1 A screen

4.1 Factors Affecting Screening

The aim of every screening operation is to separate the feed into oversize and
undersize relative to the screen aperture. However, it happens that some
oversize material report in the through screen product while some undersize
material are seen in the over-screen product. The factors that influence the
behaviour of particles on a screen may be classified into the following groups
(Wills, 1992):

• Factors, which depend on the feed material – e.g. moisture content of

feed, stickiness of particles, electrostatic bunching, density and
percentage of near mesh particles. Others are thickness of material on
the screen and particle characteristics such as shape, orientation and
kinetic energy used in approaching the screen opening.

• Factors depending on the characteristics of the machine – e.g. angle of

inclination, motion imparted to the screen, active section, size of the
screen and state of its surface, the form and thickness of the screen
apertures.

4.1.1 Moisture Content of the Sample

Water, which is contained in fractures of particles, as well as chemically

bonded water, has virtually no influence on screening. The influence of
material dampness is greatly felt when screening fine particles due to their
large specific surface area. Damp particles may stick together to form larger
particles and blind the sieves. These result in restricted spreading of materials
on the sieve and, hence the passage of fines is also hindered and may remain
in the oversize product. The efficiency of screening decreases with increasing
moisture content up to a certain limit beyond which the mobility of the particles
increases and the material enters into a condition of wet screening. Here,
increase in moisture content increases the efficiency of screening (Fig. 4.2).

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 Screening Efficiency, %

Moisture Content, %

Fig. 4.2 Graph of Screening Efficiency vrs. Moisture Content

4.1.2 Dimensions of the Screen

The capacity of the screen increases with increasing width, surface area and
active section of the screen. Increase in length of the screen increases the
probability of particle passage through the screen.

4.1.3 Screen Aperture Shapes

A screen aperture may be in the form of a square, slot, circle or rectangle.

Square-shaped aperture screens are commonly used because they are easy
to make. However, it is advantageous to use screens with rectangular-shaped
apertures or slots because of their large active section, less inclination to
blinding and high tendency to allow passage of elongated particles. The
probability of particle passage through a screen with a slot or rectangular-
shaped aperture is high, but with less accuracy of separation than in the case
of a screen with square-shaped apertures.

t t

circular square
w w

t t

rectangular slot

Fig. 4.3. Some types of screen apertures (when w ≤ 3l then the aperture is a
rectangle, if w > 3t then it is a slot)
For a given screen surface, the open screen area is in the order; Ao(circle) <
Ao(square) < Ao(rectangle) < Ao(slot).

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where Ao is the open screen area, Al is the sum of the screen openings and A
is the total area of the screen surface.

4.1.4 Thickness of Material on the Screen

There is an optimum thickness of material on the screen at which maximum

screening rate is obtained. Three zones of different rates of particle passage
through a screen can be identified (Fig. 4.4).

In zone I, passage of particles through the screen is minimum because of the

large amount of materials on the screen and the inadequate segregation

In zone II, there is a thin layer of particles on the screen and their velocity of
passage is maximum. The particles are closely packed and are unable to
escape from the screen surface.

Fig. 4.4 Regions on the surface of a screen

In zone III, the surface of the screen is not fully utilised and there is disorderly
movement of the particles with the resulting low velocity of passage through
the screen. The thickness of material on the screen at the feed end increases
with increase in the rate of feeding. This may lead to decrease in efficiency of
screening if not compensated for by a corresponding increase in amplitude of
vibration.

4.2 Types of Screens

The different types of screens include grizzlies, vibrating, revolving, gyrating

and shaking screens (Matthews, 1985). Others are reciprocating, travelling
belt and DSM screens. Most movable screens are usually flat and inclined to
facilitate flow of feed. They are subjected to a periodic motion either parallel or
normal to the screen. In this way, particles bounce or roll on the deck as they

Comminution Technology 15
simultaneously move down the discharge end. The motion imparted gives
each particle a number of chances to fall through the opening.

Grizzlies are used in screening very coarse material and also to safeguard
primary crushers against overload. It consists of an assemblage of bars laid
across the path of the feed with suitable spacing. The bars are normally
inclined and may be powered to shake or vibrate in order to remove oversize
material effectively.

Revolving screens are slightly inclined rotating cylindrical screens used for
both wet and dry screening. The slight inclination allows the feed material
introduced at the feed end to roll about towards the discharge end and may
pass through the screen as undersize. The trommel is an example of a
revolving screen. Compound trommels use a number of concentric cylinders
with the coarsest mesh in the center. Trommels are mounted at the end of
most SAG mills to prevent scats from entering and blocking the discharge
launder.

Vibrating screens handle material of size 25 cm down to 250 m. These

screens can handle relatively fine, dry, moist or sticky material. Its periodic
motion is normal to the screen and can be induced either mechanically or by
electrical devices. Mechanically vibrated screens are for coarser feed while
electrically vibrated screens work better on fine wet feed. In multiple deck
systems the feed is introduced on the top coarse screen and the undersize
falls through to the finest screen thus producing a range of size fractions
(Taggart, 1947; Wills, 1992).

4.3 Screen Surfaces

Shape of aperture, aperture cross-section, opened screen area and type of

material used in its manufacture can differentiate screen surfaces from one
another. The kind of work to be done and the aperture required for the
particular work determines the screen to be used.
For fine screening, woven wire cloths are used. These are usually constructed
from stainless steel, copper, bronze or polyurethane. The wire diameter
chosen depends on the nature of the work and the capacity required. Thick
wires increase strength but open area would be decreased and hence
capacity. For very heavy-duty work the grizzly is most suitable. Between these
two extremes are the wedge wire screens, punched screens and others
(Matthews, 1985; Wills, 1992).

5.0 CLASSIFICATION

Classification is a process of separation of a mixture of mineral particles on

the basis of the velocities with which the particles fall through a fluid medium. It
is generally applied to mineral particles, which are too fine to be sorted
efficiently by screening (Gaudin, 1939; Taggart, 1947).

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The forces, which act on a particle falling through a fluid, are its weight, the
upthrust of the fluid and the resistance offered by the fluid and acting on the
area projected in the direction of travel (Fig. 5.1).

Weight of
particle

Upthrust Fluid resistance

forces

Fig. 5.1 Forces acting on a particle falling through a fluid

When equilibrium is attained between the gravitational and fluid resistance

forces, the body reaches its terminal velocity and thereafter falls at a uniform
rate. Resistance to the motion of particles in a fluid is due to shear forces or
viscosity of the fluid and this is called viscous resistance. At high velocities the
main resistance is due to the replacement of fluid by the body and viscous
resistance is relatively small. This is known as turbulent resistance (Fitch and
Roberts, 1985; Wills, 1992).

The factors that influence the behaviour of particles in a fluid media include its
size, shape, and density. Other parameters being equal, the velocity of fall
varies as the square of the particle diameter for small particles (below 50 m)
and as the square root when the particles are larger (above 0.5 cm).
Anomalies may, however, arise through flocculation or the presence of minute
air bubbles on the particles.

5.1 Free Settling

It refers to settling of particles in a volume of fluid, which is large with respect

to the total volume of particles. Hence, there is negligible particle crowding.
Free settling predominates when the pulp is less than about 15% solids by
weight.

The equation of motion of a particle through a fluid medium is described by

the following equation.

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 mdx
mg  m' g  D  5.1
dt

Where, m, m' are the masses of the particle and the fluid displaced
respectively, x is the velocity of the particle, g is the acceleration due to gravity
and D is the drag force. When the terminal velocity is reached,

dx
0 5.2
dt

Therefore,

D  ( m  m' ) g
5.3

gd 3 ( Ds  D f )
D 5.4
6

where d is the diameter of a spherical particle, Ds is the density of the particle

and Df is the density of the fluid. Stoke's law assumes the drag force to be
entirely due to viscous resistance.

D  3dv 5.5

where  is the viscosity of the fluid, , terminal velocity and d is the diameter of
a spherical particle. Hence,

gd 3 ( Ds  D f )
3dv  5.6
6

  gd 2
D s  Df 
. 5.7
18

Equation 5.7 is known as Stokes equation. Newton considered the drag force
was due to turbulent resistance and deduced that;

D  0.055d 2v2 Df 5.8

 3 gd Ds  D f   2
1

   5.9
 D 
 f 

Equation 5.9 is Newton's law for turbulence resistance. Stoke's Law works for
particles less than or equal to 50m and Newton's Law works for particles

Comminution Technology 18
greater than or equal to 5000m. Stoke's and Newton's Laws can be
simplified respectively as follows:

  k1d 2 Ds  Df  (Stoke's) 5.10

  k2 d Ds  D f  2
1
(Newton's) 5.11

where, k1 and k2 are constants and Ds -Df is the effective density of particle
with density of Ds in a fluid with density Df. The terminal velocity of a particle is
a function of the size of the particle and its density.

Note:

If two particles have equal densities, then the larger particle will have the
higher terminal velocity.

If two particles have equal diameter, then the denser particle will have the
higher terminal velocity.

Given two mineral particles of densities Da and Db, and diameters da and db
respectively, falling in a fluid with density Df, at equal rates, then according to
Stokes's law

da Ds  D f   db Db  D f 
2 2
5.12

1
da 
 Db  D f  2

  5.13
 Da  D f
db  


This expression (5.13) is known as the free settling ratio of the two particles.
According to Newton's law,

d a Db  D f
 5.14
db Da  D f

Consider a mixture of gold (specific gravity  19.0) and quartz (specific gravity
=2.65) particles being classified in water. For small particles obeying Stokes
law, the free settling ratio is 3.30 and for large particles obeying Newton's law,
it is equal to 10.91. The free settling ratio is therefore larger for coarse
particles obeying Newton's law than for fine particles obeying Stoke's law. This
means that the density difference between the mineral particles has more
pronounced effect on classification at coarser size ranges. The general
expression for free settling ratio can be deduced as follows:

Comminution Technology 19
 n
da 
 Db  D f 

  5.15
 Da  D f
db  


Where n equals 0.5 for small particles obeying Stoke's law and n equals 1 for
large particles obeying Newton's law. The value of n lies in the range 0.5 - 1
for particles between 50m and 5000m.

5.2 Hindered settling

In a system with a higher concentration of solids, the settling of particles is

considerably affected or hindered. In effect, the particle no longer settles
through a simple fluid but through a suspension of particles in the fluid. The
density of the system becomes that of the pulp instead of the carrier liquid.
Hindered settling is said to prevail under such conditions. Separation in such a
system is not very sharp since particles which are not supposed to settle
under normal conditions may be able to do so when there get attached to
other coarser or heavier particles. In classifiers where hindered settling
conditions prevail, density has a marked effect on separation whereas size
plays a dominant role in free settling classifiers.

Under these conditions the resistance to particle motion is mainly due to

turbulence resistance and Newton's law is applicable.

  k2 d Ds  Dp  2
1
(Newton's) 5.16

where, Dp is density of the pulp.

The hindered settling ratio can be derived from the above Newton's equation
as follows:

d a Db  Dp
 . 5.17
db Da  Dp

5.3 Teeter Beds

When arising current of water passes through a tube containing mineral

particles, those, which are neither heavy enough to fall nor light enough to
move up with the stream are held in the section above the area of hydraulic
water entry. In this crowded zone, the grains are free to move but are unable
to do so without colliding with other grains. As a result they stay in place. Such
a disposition of material is called a teeter bed or the solids are said to be in a
condition of full teeter. The mixture behaves as a perfect suspension and
tends not to separate. Teeter chambers may be created in classifiers which
use hydraulic water to effect separation. It may also be produced by putting a
constriction in a column either by tapering the column or by inserting a grid
into the base (Dor and Anable, 1934; Taggart, 1947; Wills, 1992).

Comminution Technology 20
5.4 Classifiers

The main types of classifiers are (Hitzrot, 1951; Wills, 1992):

i. Mechanical Classifiers (e. g. Rake or spiral classifier).

ii. Non-mechanical Classifiers (e. g. Settling cones and hydraulic classifiers).
iii. Centrifugal Classifiers (e. g. Cyclones). When water is used as the fluid
medium it is called a hydrocyclone.

5.4.1 Mechanical Classifiers

Mechanical classifiers use a horizontal current to effect separation. Essentially

they are settling tanks with an inclined bottom. Mechanical devices are used to
agitate the pulp and transport the settled grains away from the separating
zone.

When feed is introduced, particles with high velocities fall to the bottom of the
tank. Above the settled zone is a quick sand zone where essentially hindered
settling takes place. Above this zone free settling material flows horizontally
across the top from the feed inlet to the overflow weir where fines are
removed.

Mechanical classifiers are used to classify products from washing plants and
also in closed circuit wet grinding operations. In such operations, small dense
material may be returned to the mill causing overgrinding. The names of these
classifiers are obtained mainly through the mechanism that draws settled
material from the classifier. Examples are rake and spiral classifiers. These
devices drain settled solids up the slope at the same time agitate the fluid and
release fines, which have been trapped at the bottom (Wills, 1992). Fig. 5.2 is
a representation of a spiral classifier.

Comminution Technology 21
Fig. 5.2 Spiral Classifier

The slope of the bottom of the classifier is very important in the operation of a
mechanical classifier. Steep slopes give good drainage and a cleaner drier
product but the sand may slip back. Spiral classifiers work with steeper angles
than rake classifiers.

In the operation of the rake classifier, the speed of the rakes is also very
important. It determines the degree of agitation and the tonnage of sand
removal. For coarse separation, high degree of agitation is necessary but for
finer separation less agitation is needed.

The height of the overflow determines the pool volume. In the separation of
finer material it is better to have a greater overflow height. Low pulp density is
suitable for the separation of fine material (Taggart, 1947; Wills, 1992).

5.4.2 The Cyclone

It is a classifying device that makes use of centrifugal force to increase the

settling rate of particles. The fluid used may be water (hydrocyclone) or air
(pneumatic cyclone). It is made up of a cylindrical section connected to a
conical shaped vessel with an opening at the apex. The cylindrical section is
closed off at the top with a pipe protruding into the body of the cyclone. This
pipe is called the vortex finder. Cyclones may be installed in clusters (Hitzrot,
1951; Bradley, 1965; Stanley, 1987b; Wills, 1992).

The feed is introduced under pressure through the feed inlet, tangential to the
cylindrical section of the cyclone. This produces a spiral motion, which
generates a vortex in the cyclone with a low-pressure zone along the vertical
axis of the cyclone.
Particles in the pulp stream are subjected to outward centrifugal force and
inward drag force or centripetal force. The coarsest, heaviest particles are

Comminution Technology 22
forced by centrifugal forces to the inner walls of the cyclone displacing the
finer, lighter particles and excess water towards the centre. Thus, particles are
graded by size and mass from outside to inside of the spinning mixture.

The upward stream generated due to reduced pressure at the centre carries
the finer and lighter particles through the vortex finder as overflow. The coarse
and heavy particles, spiral down the walls and discharge through the apex as
underflow or sands (Fig. 5.3).

Overflow

Feed

Underflow

Fig. 5.3 Perspective view of a hydrocyclone showing the vortex flow

schematically.

Cyclones work best on particles of size less than 150 m but grater than 5 m.
Cyclones are preferred to mechanical classifiers in closed circuit grinding
operations for the following reasons:

✓ Separation is sharper

✓ It occupies little space

Comminution Technology 23
✓ Energy consumption is very low

✓ Centrifugal force is used to accelerate the settling rate of particles

✓ Oxidation of particles within the circuit is reduced, which is advantageous

in sulphide flotation circuits

✓ It works better on fine materials

The factors that influence the efficiency of cyclones include feed pressure,
feed rate, feed inlet diameter, pulp density, diameter of vortex finder, position
of vortex finder and diameter of apex or spigot (Lilge, 1961; Bradley, 1965;
Stanley, 1987b; Wills, 1992).

The feed pressure depends to a large extent on the pump pressure and the
number of cyclones in operation. Low pressures can be detected by observing
the discharge from the spigot. When the discharge is ropey then the pressure
is low; however, the pressure is said to be good when the discharge takes the
shape of a cone with a small vertical angle. A discharge with a very large
angle is not acceptable since it may indicate excessive dilution of the
underflow or very high pressures. In addition to increasing the pump speed,
pressure can be increased by taking some cyclones off line. This should be
done one at a time.

There should be a constant ratio between the spigot diameter and the vortex
finder. If this ratio is distorted due to wear of any of these units the cyclone
efficiency is affected. Wear of the vortex finder enlarges the diameter resulting
in an increase in overflow yield and production of coarser overflow, which may
not be good for leaching. On the other hand if the spigot wears off faster than
the vortex finder does, the underflow yield will increase, thus increasing the
circulating load. The overflow will become finer but its yield will decrease.
Observing and changing the appropriate liners can restore good performance.

Low pulp density leads to the discharge of fine overflow and vice-versa. If the
opening of the vortex finder is directly adjacent the feed discharge pipe, there
will be short circuiting in the cyclones since feed material will be sucked
directly by the vortex finder. If it is too deep inside the body of the cyclone
some coarse particles will report in the overflow (Hukki, 1967; Trawinski, 1969;
Tarr, 1972).

6.0 CRUSHING

Comminution Technology 24
Crushing is a coarse particle disintegration process and is accomplished by
compression of ore particles against rigid surfaces or by impact against
surfaces in rigidly constrained motion paths. This process may be performed
in several stages with small reduction ratios. Depending on the crushing
stage, crushing is classified into primary, secondary and tertiary. Several
particle size ranges have been given by researchers in an attempt to
distinguish the various stages of size reduction and one of them is given
below (Stanley, 1987a):

Primary crushing -1500 mm to -350 mm

Secondary crushing -350 mm to -75 mm
Tertiary crushing -75 mm to -15 mm

The reduction ratio, R, of a crushing operation may be defined as

R = D/d 6.1

D - screen aperture size through which 80% of the feed material passes.
d - screen aperture size through which 80% of the crushed product
passes.

The reduction ratio could be between 3 and 6:1 in each stage. Multistage
crushing (i.e. crushing in stages) has a number of advantages and allows:

i. Screening operations in between stages, allowing removal (scalping) of

fine materials from feed to the next stage and so reducing the size
requirements of the subsequent stage and minimising over crushing or
grinding of the material.

ii. Separation unit(s) to be incorporated between comminution stages, so

that, valuable minerals can be recovered at coarse sizes to minimise
energy requirements.

For a multistage crushing of reduction ratios R 1, R2,…,Rn, the overall

reduction ratio,

R = R1  R2 …... Rn

Other formulae for reduction ratio are;

1.
B
R
b

where, B - is the gape of the crusher in millimetres and b – is the set of the
crusher in millimetres.

2.

Dav
Comminution Technology
R 25
dav
Where, Dav – is the average diameter of the feed particles and dav – is the
average diameter of the crushed product.

6.1 Crushers

The machines used for crushing rocks are referred to as crushers. Crushers
may be classified in terms of the stage in which they are used as primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary crushers. They may also be classified in
terms of the nature of their grinding surfaces or the motion of the crushing
unit. Examples are roll, jaw, cone, impact and gyratory crushers (Taggart,
1947; Wills, 1992).

6.1.1 Primary Crushers

Primary crushers are robust machines used to reduce lumpy or run-off-mine

ore to sizes suitable for transportation by conveyors and also for secondary
crushers. They are classified into:

Gyratory crushers
Jaw crushers
Impact crushers

6.1.1.1 Jaw crushers

These machines have this name because the grinding surfaces open and
close like the jaws of an animal. The Jaw Crusher is made up of a fixed jaw set
at an acute angle to a movable jaw, which is pivoted so that it swings relative
to the fixed jaw. There are three kinds of Jaw crushers, which are
distinguished by the position of the pivot. The Blake crusher is pivoted at the
top while the Dodge is pivoted at the discharge end. The Universal is pivoted
in an intermediate position and thus has variable receiving and delivery ends
(Fig. 6.1).

The ore is introduced through the gape and is alternately nipped and released
to fall further into the crushing chamber until it falls from the discharge
aperture as crushed product. The two basic forms of the Blake Jaw Crusher
are the double and single toggle crushers.

Comminution Technology 26
Fig. 6.1 (a) Universal Crusher (b) Dodge Crusher (c) Blake Crusher)

6.1.1.1.1 Double toggle jaw crusher

The essential features of a double toggle jaw crusher are illustrated in Fig. 6.2.
During operation, rotation of the eccentric causes upwards and downwards
movement of the pitman, which in turn causes the swing jaw to oscillate
forward and backwards via the toggle plates. During the upward stroke of the
pitman the swing jaw swings towards the fixed jaw and in the downward stroke
of the pitman the swing jaw recedes away from the fixed jaw. The maximum
displacement of the movable jaw is called the throw of the crusher and may
vary from 10 mm to 75 mm. A small throw is suitable for brittle material while
elastic rocks may require a larger throw (Taggart, 1947; Stanley, 1987a).

6.1.1.1.2 Single toggle jaw crusher

The single toggle jaw crusher is shown in Fig. 6.3. In this machine, the
movable jaw is directly suspended on to the eccentric shaft eliminating the
pitman. The rotation of the eccentric causes not only horizontal movement of
the movable jaw but also its vertical movement. The resulting elliptical jaw
motion tends to push the rock through the crusher chamber giving the single-
toggle crusher a higher capacity than the double-toggle crusher of the same
gape (Stanley, 1987a; Wills, 1992).

Fig. 6.2 Double Toggle Jaw Crusher

Comminution Technology 27
 Fig. 6.3 Single Toggle Jaw Crusher

6.1.1.1.3 Summary

Single-toggle Crusher

Advantages:
1. Higher Capacity
2. A more compact machine than the double-toggle crusher
3. Capital cost is less than double-toggle crushers of the same size.

Disadvantages:

i. Wear rate on the jaw plates is higher due to eccentric movement of the
jaw.
ii. Higher maintenance cost due to the high degree of strain on the drive
shaft imposed by having the moveable jaw attached to the eccentric shaft.

Double-toggle Jaw Crusher

Advantage:

Used for hard abrasive rocks where wear rate of the single-toggle crusher
would be too great.

Comminution Technology 28
6.1.1.2 Gyratory crushers

The Gyratory crusher, consist of an outer stationary crushing shell (having its
apex pointing downwards) and an inner crushing head. The crushing head is
made to gyrate, receding from and approaching all points on the periphery of
the outer shell though the two do not touch each other. The rock/ore is
crushed in between the stationary inverted bowl and the crushing head as the
crushing head approaches the periphery of the shell. The fixed crushing
section is composed of segments called concaves and the mantle is mounted
on the crushing head through which passes the main shaft of the crusher. The
assembly is supported below in bearings and its upper end is mounted in a
spider. The main shaft fits into a cylindrical eccentric, which is driven through
bevel gearing and a shaft. The gyratory crusher is shown in Fig. 6.4 (Taggart,
1947; Wills, 1992)

Unlike the jaw crusher the gyratory crusher crushes on a full cycle thereby
having a much higher capacity than a jaw crusher of the same feed opening.

6.1.1.2.1 Comparism between jaw and gyratory crushers

The choice of a crusher depends on the capacity required, the maximum size
of ore which the crusher would be required to handle and the money available
for maintenance.

Comminution Technology 29
 Fig. 6.4 Gyratory Crusher
Jaw Crusher

✓ When crusher gape is more important than capacity, it is advantageous

✓ Easier to sectionalise to ease transportation

✓ Lower capital and maintenance cost

✓ Handles clayey or sticky materials better

✓ Its set can be adapted more easily

✓ Good for extra hard, tough material

Gyratory Crusher

✓ Has relatively higher capacity

✓ Installation cost is lower since it does not vibrate

✓ Feeding is easier since it can crush in all directions

✓ Crushes on full cycle

✓ Works better on laminated feed giving out cubic products

✓ Lower power consumption

✓ Works better under choking instead of arrested feeding conditions

6.1.2 Secondary and Tertiary Crushers

Secondary and Tertiary crushers are much lighter in construction than the
heavy-duty primary crushers. These include cone crushers, roll crushers and
impact or hammer mills. Smaller versions of jaw and gyratory crushers may
also be used as secondary crushers.

6.1.2.1 Cone Crushers

Cone crushers are essentially gyratory crushers except that the spindle is
shorter on the cone crusher and is not suspended but supported from below
in a curved universal bearing beneath the crushing head.

The cone crusher is made up of an inner movable crushing cone and an outer
stationary crushing cone the surfaces of which are lined with wear resisting
steel. The crushing head gyrates inside a bowl, which flares outward. This
increase in cross-sectional area towards the discharge end helps in

Comminution Technology 30
accommodating the broken ore particles. It is a good example of an arrested
crusher. The outer crushing surface can be lifted away from the lower surface
when an un-crushable material enters the machine. This is accomplished by
means of heavy coiled springs arranged in circular fashion around the crusher
(Stanley, 1987a; Wills, 1992).

The principal types of cone crushers are the standard and short head cone
crushers and the gyradisc crusher. The standard and the short head differ
mainly in the shape of their crushing chambers. The standard cone (Fig. 6.5)
has stepped liners, which allow a coarser feed than the short head. The short
head crushers have a steeper head angle, which prevents choking when fine
materials are handled. It also has a longer parallel section between cone and
bowl and a narrower feed opening. The gyradisc crusher is a special type of
cone crusher used for producing very fine material particularly in the sand
quarrying industry (Stanley, 1987a).

Fig. 6.5 Standard Cone Crusher

6.1.2.2 Roll Crushers

The standard roll crusher has two horizontally mounted cylinders which
revolve towards each other (Fig. 6.6). One may be mounted solidly on fixed
bearings while the other can move linearly against a hydraulic unit or held
back by springs. Rolls crush the ore by nipping it between the approaching
rolling faces and it is necessary that the material is seized and drawn down.

Single roll crushers have one rotating cylinder which revolves towards a fixed
plate. Others use three or four cylinders, in some cases with variable
diameters and speed. For reasonable size reduction to occur, very large rolls
are required in relation to the size of the feed particles and this makes the
capital cost of rolls relatively high.

Comminution Technology 31
The nature of the roll surface depends on the desired end product. Smooth
rolls are used for fine crushing whereas coarse crushing is often performed in
toothed rolls or rolls with corrugated surfaces.

High pressure grinding rolls (HPGR) also known as the roller press or roller
mills are used in cases where selective liberation of minerals is required. It has
a high reduction ratio and it is reported to reduce grinding strength and
improve leachability due to microcraking.

Fig. 6.6 Roll crusher

Rolls find application in the crushing/grinding of coal and other non abrasive
material. High pressure grinding rolls, in particular, find application in liberation
of diamonds from host rocks and in feed preparation for heap leaching.
Currently, industrial rolls may be up to 2.7 m in diameter. The set may be
adjusted using a device known as shims. The capacity, C, of rolls is given by:

C = 188.5NDWsd 6.2

where N – rev/min; D – diameter of rolls; W – width of rolls in metres; s – s. g.

of feed and d – distance between rolls.

For two rolls of radius R, set with a gap of 2d and angle of nip , the largest
particle that can be crushed is given by:

Particle size = 2R(1 – Cos/2) + 2d 6.3

6.1.2.3 Hammer Mills

In hammer mills material is fed through a hopper into the path of rotating
hammers that swing freely from a rotor. Size reduction is mainly by impact
either through collision between hammers or on subsequent collision with
impact plates that enclose the crushing chamber (Fig. 6.7). The material will

Comminution Technology 32
remain in the chamber until small enough to escape through a robust grid on
the discharge section while oversize is swept upwards for further size
reduction. Due to excessive wear of the hammers, hammer mills are not
suitable for abrasive material. Impact mills are similar to hammer mills.
However, they have higher capacities and there is no grid but particles are
discharged through an opening between the sweep circle of the hammers and
impact plates.

Fig. 6.7 Hammer (impact) mill

6.2 Crushing Circuits

Crushing is a power intensive operation. Therefore there is the need to reduce

the amount of material sent to the operation. To remove undersize material
from the feed stream to these operations, crushers can be made to work in
open or in closed circuits (Wills, 1992).

i. Open Circuit: In open circuit, the material passes through the crusher
only once (Fig. 6.8).

ii. Closed Circuit: In closed circuit, the material passes through the crusher
several times. The crushed product is screened and the oversize material
sent through the same crusher for re-crushing (Fig. 6.9).

Crusher

Screen Oversize
Comminution Technology 33
 Fig. 6.8 Open Circuit Crushing

Crusher

Oversize

Screen

Undersi ze

Fig. 6.9 A Crushing Circuit Operated in Closed Circuit

6.3 Crushing Plant Control and Safety

Several variables affect the performance of a crushing circuit but not all can
be adjusted. The three main adjustable variables are ore feed rate, feed size
and crusher set. Control of a crusher station involves keeping all sections in
balance and responding promptly to signals and alarms that may be given
from time to time.

Comminution Technology 34
6.3.1 Crusher Protection

Run–off–mine ore generally contains a high proportion of foreign material.

These include iron and steel in the form of hammerheads, scraper blades,
wires and burnt out blasting fuse. Also present are pieces of timber, roots of
trees, polythene and occasionally sticks of explosives.

Some of these may not be able to harm the primary crusher because they are
robust but are dangerous to the secondary crushers, mills, conveyor belts and
other equipment. These should be removed from the ore stream as
completely and safely as possible. Guard magnets suspended over conveyor
belts are used to remove magnetic material such as ‘tramp’ iron and steel.
These electromagnets are powerful and can pick out large pieces of iron and
steel travelling over the belt. At intervals, they can be swayed away from the
belt and unloaded. Guard magnets cannot pick out non-ferrous metals and
metal detectors, which give signals to indicate the presence of metallic objects
in the feed, are used. Metal detectors measure electrical conductivity (Wills,
1992). It is important that supervisors check whether the metal detector is
functioning at the beginning of every shift. Bringing a metallic object close to it
and waiting for a signal can do this. Some of the materials are non-metallic
and operators should lookout and pick out the clearly visible ones.

6.3.2 Motor Lubrication, Pressure and Temperature Control

A motor drives the crusher and like all machines with movable parts it is
equipped with lubrication systems. For efficiency and long life the lubrication
oil level should be kept at an acceptable level at all times. A signal is given
whenever the oil level falls below an acceptable level and it should be
checked and acted upon accordingly. The lubrication oil pump should be
checked if the oil level or flow is low. The pressure and temperature should
also be checked. If the lubrication oil temperature gets high (usually above
80oC) then the cooling fan and radiator should be checked. A faulty
lubrication system may also lead to a rise in the temperature of the main
bearings. Excessive increase in pressure above the set values may mean
blockage of the oil filters and they have to be cleaned or it necessary
changed.

An alarm condition should be acknowledged by pressing the appropriate

alarm accept bottom. However, a fault indicator lamp will remain illuminated
until the fault is rectified.

6.3.3 Product Particle Size

If by visual observation it is realised that the crusher product is coarser than

expected, the set of the crusher should be adjusted. For a gyratory, the closed
side setting adjusted by raising or lowering the main shaft through a sleeve
bearing above and the eccentric by means of a hydraulically actuated piston.
A new mantle is usually set at a low percentage hydro-set. As crushing
proceeds it wears and the discharge setting becomes bigger and adjusting the
hydro-set to a slightly higher value restores the setting. This adjustment

Comminution Technology 35
continues till the mantle is changed. In the case of a jaw crusher, metal plates
are pushed behind the fixed jaw to move the crushing surfaces closer. By
experience every plant has a given number of metal plates to push behind the
fixed jaw before changing liners.

6.3.4 Oversize Particles in the Run-off-mine Ore

A well-designed blasting operation will still produce quantities of rocks, which

require secondary breakage. Such rocks are usually too large to be fed
directly into the primary crusher. Such oversize blocks can be reduced to
manageable sizes by secondary blasting, drop balling or hydraulic impact
breakers.

The crusher may get blocked when excessively hard or large rocks are
encountered. A hydraulic hammer or rock breaker can be used to hit and
break the rocks for crushing to continue. This method, however, demands the
services of a skilled person since the rock breaker may harm the crusher
should it miss the rock. In other cases it may be necessary to lift the boulder
with a crane from the crushing chamber for it to be fragmented outside.

The gyratory crusher must not be started with its cavity full of material. This
may lead to damage of the drive mechanism and the crusher it self due to the
excess load. The chamber should be cleared before the crusher is started.
Shovelling material out of it may empty the chamber. The gyratory crusher has
a built-in safety mechanism which helps to prevent damage in-case
excessively hard materials are feed into it. There is a shear pin which breaks
when materials which are too hard to crush enters the crushing chamber

6.3.5 Dust Control

Dust may be controlled at this section by the use of a dust collector and also
by spraying water. Some of the sprays are automatic while others are
controlled manually. The presence of excessive dust may be due to blocked
channels or faulty extraction system. It may also be that no water is being
sprayed.

6.3.6 Blending

Blending of material during feeding may be recommended. This is because it

is important to feed ore with a constant grade of the metal of interest and also
of the right hardness and size. Thus with a supervisors fore knowledge of the
ore on the ROM pad or different areas in the pit, the right blend could be
obtained. Good blending helps both in maintaining smooth operations and in
metallurgical accounting.

6.3.7 Trouble Shooting and General Operation

While the crushing plant is operating, there are some checks that should be
made daily. These include the following:

Comminution Technology 36
✓ Check the oil levels and pressures.

✓ Check bearing and oil temperatures.

✓ Check the apron feeder pans and the rubber skirts for wear and damage.

✓ Check the dribble feeder conveyor and the rubber skirting for wear and
damage.

✓ Check and clean up any ore spillage.

✓ Check all guards for damage and stability.

✓ Check the pulley system on the crusher for wear and damage.

✓ Check that the dust collectors are operational.

✓ Check ore profile on conveyors for indication of wear of chute liners, and
blockages.

✓ Check for worn or incorrectly adjusted belt scrapers.

✓ Check conveyor belts for cuts or frayed edges.

✓ Check for conveyor off -tracking.

✓ Check idlers for build -up or jamming.

✓ Check conveyor and drive belts for slippage.

✓ Check unusual noises.

✓ Look out for blockage in the discharge hopper.

✓ Check distribution of feed into the crusher since non-uniform distribution

leads to uneven loading and wear.

✓ Check spillage.

✓ Check the size of ore on conveyors – coarse product indicates wider

crusher opening.

6.3.8 Safety and House keeping in the Crushing Plant

There are risks attached to extracting and handling the ore, other materials
and the possible misuse or malfunction of equipment. It is therefore necessary
for every worker to be conscious of safety. Good housekeeping and strict
adherence to safety regulations should be observed while in the crushing
plant.

Comminution Technology 37
6.3.8.1 House keeping

House keeping involves general cleanliness of the work area and makes the
area safer. When the work area is clean then problems like leakage could be
detected much more readily and the plant functions better. The places that
should be inspected and/or cleaned include the following:

✓ The underside of the crusher

✓ The drive floor area of the crusher

✓ Apron feeder rollers and tracks

✓ Presence of oil leaks

✓ Weightometer frame

✓ Clean any spillage from walkways and keep it free from trip hazards.

✓ Unusual noise

✓ Fire extinguishers should be kept in their proper location

✓ All hoses are to be rolled up after use.

6.3.8.2 Safety equipment

Personal protection equipment is always provided to protect every worker

from the agents that have the potential to cause harm. Hard hats, safety
boots, safety glasses and full cover clothing (e.g. overalls) must be worn at all
times in all parts of the crushing plant.

✓ Eye protection must be worn in all plant areas except the control room and
the offices.

✓ Ear protection should be worn in noise generating areas of the plant.

✓ Gloves should be worn for certain duties: e.g. leather or heavy fabric
gloves be worn during cutting, pinching or scraping.

✓ Heat resistant gloves should be worn at all times when handling hot
materials.

✓ Aprons and welding jackets must be worn when welding or handling hot
materials.

✓ Be sure that the hard hat fits properly. Hard hats with cracks or holes
should be replaced immediately. It is not advisable to take your hard hats
or work clothes home with you, except for washing and cleaning purposes.

Comminution Technology 38
✓ A dust mask (respirators) must be worn when exposed to dust particles.

✓ Consumption of intoxicants (e.g. alcohol and narcotic drugs) on the job is

forbidden.

6.3.8.3 Equipment maintenance and personal safety

If faulty equipment is being worked on, flow of gas, liquids, electricity or the
use of the faulty equipment by another person could endanger the worker. It is
therefore important to use a personal danger tag.

Equipment, switches or valves should not be used when there is a danger tag
attached to it. An authorised person will isolate the equipment but the person
working on it should use a personal danger tag.

Every person working on a job must write his name, identification number,
date and sign the danger tag before hanging it on the main isolating switches
or valves.

The only person who should remove a danger tag is the one who places it.
However, a supervisor may remove the tag after establishing that it is safe to
do so, if the person who placed it is not available.

If at the end of a shift, a job is not completed, the personal danger tag should
be removed and replaced with an out of service tag. If workers are in a team,
then the leader of the team should ensure that this is done.

Danger and out of service tags should be removed and destroyed after use.

Comminution Technology 39
7.0 GRINDING

Grinding is the final stage of comminution designed to reduce the particle to a

size fine enough to complete liberation of the valuable minerals or produce
material of a high surface area for the subsequent hydrometallurgical
treatment.

The operation is performed in rotating cylindrical drums and it may be done

dry or in a suspension in water. The grinding media can be in the form of steel
balls, rods, and hard rock or in some cases the ore itself. Grinding can take
place in several ways, including impact or compression, due to forces applied
almost normally to the particle surface; chipping due to oblique forces; and
abrasion due to forces acting parallel to the surface (Fig. 7.1).

Fig. 7.1 (a) impact or compression, (b) chipping, (c) abrasion.

7.1 Wet and Dry Grinding

Grinding circuits may be operated wet or dry, depending on the subsequent

process and nature of the products (Taggart, 1947; Wills, 1992). Some of the
advantages of wet grinding are:

✓ lower power consumption per tonne of product

✓ higher capacity per unit mill volume

✓ possibility of using wet screening and classification for close product

control

✓ elimination of dust problems and

✓ use of simple handling and transport methods such as pumps, pipes and
launders.

The advantages dry grinding include the following:

Comminution Technology 40
✓ less wear on the liners and grinding media

✓ for materials which undergo physical or chemical change in the presence

of water

✓ when a high proportion of fines is desired in the product.

7.2 Motion in a Tumbling Mill

Due to the rotation and friction of the mill shell, the mill charge is lifted along
the rising side of the mill, tumbles over itself and grinds the ore to a finer size.
The speed of rotation of the mill is important since it determines the nature of
the product and the amount of wear on the shell liners (Bond, 1961; Crabtree
et al, 1964).

At relatively low speeds or with smooth liners, the charge tends to roll or
cascade down the slope to the toe of the mill charge and comminution is
essentially by abrasion. This cascade regime leads to finer grinding with
increased slimes and increased liner wear (Fig. 7.2).

At faster rotation speeds, the media are projected clear off the charge to
describe a parabolic path before landing at the toe of the charge. This is
known as the cataracting regime and leads to comminution mainly by impact
with a coarser end product and reduced liner wear.

Fig. 7.2 Motion of Charge in a Tumbling Mill

If the mill speed is further increased, a critical speed is reached and from this
speed onwards, the charge is carried around in a fixed position against the
mill shell and very little comminution occurs. This regime is referred to as the
centrifuge regime.

Comminution Technology 41
In Fig. 7.3, a ball (or rod) is lifted up the shell of a mill of radius R metres,
which is evolving at N rev/min. The ball abandons its circular path for a
parabolic path at a point P, when the weight of the rod or ball is just balanced
by the centrifugal force, i.e.:

mv 2  mgCos  7.1
R

Where, m is the mass of the ball in kg, v is the linear velocity of the ball in m/s,
and g is the acceleration due to gravity m/s2.

mv 2
R

 
mg

Fig. 7.3 Forces on a Grinding Medium

Since,
2RN
v 7.2
60

4 2 N 2 R
Cos   0.0011N 2 R 7.3
602 g

When the diameter of the ball, d, is taken into consideration, then,

Dd 
Cos  0.0011 N 2   7.4
 2 

where D is the diameter of the mill.

The critical speed of the mill occurs, when  is 0 and at this point Cos  = 1

Therefore,
42 .3
Nc  7.5
Dd

Where, Nc (rev/min) is the critical speed of the mill. In practice mills are
operated at speeds of between 50% and 90% of the critical speed.

Comminution Technology 42
7.3 General Description of a Tumbling Mill

Tumbling mills are basically steel cylinders or shells, which are rotated about
the horizontal by a drive. The drive is usually an electric motor. The ends of
the shell are closed off with cast iron or steel and trunnions project out of the
centre. The trunnions are hollow and serve as feed inlet and discharge units
and also support the mill in bearings on foundations, which are usually made
of reinforced concrete (Fig 17). The discharge trunnion has a slightly bigger
diameter than the feed end and allows a gentle slope for materials to be
discharged. The internal surface of the mill and that of the trunnions are
covered with liners to protect them from wear. Liners which may be made of
ferrous alloys, rubber or a combination of polymers and ferrous metals are
held in place either by bolts passing through the mill walls or wedged in
position (Taggart, 1947; Stanley, 1987b).

Since mills run continuously, feeders are provided to deliver feed into the mill
feed trunnion. The types of feeders include scoop, drum, spout and hopper
feeders. Scoop and drum feeders are attached to and rotate with the mill while
spout and hopper feeders are stationary and not attached directly.

Scoop feeders are composed of a curved hollow scoop in the form of an

involute or spiral, which scoops material from a feed box and discharges it into
the feed trunnion. These feeders have replaceable metal edges and the inner
surface is lined with protective material.

A drum feeder comprises of an open ended cylindrical unit, which receives,

feed and discharges into the feed trunnion with the help of a built-in scoop.

A spout feeder is just a continuation of a pipe or chute feeder which protrudes

into the trunnion.

Hopper feeders are composed of a hopper with its discharge end protruding
into the mill trunnion. Unlike the spout feeder seals are provided between the
hopper and the trunnion to prevent leakage of pulp. The hopper may be
mounted on wheels to allow easy withdrawal.

Products may be discharged from the mill in several ways but the simplest is
the overflow discharge system in which pulp overflows from the mill through
the outlet trunnions. In most mills, the overflowing pulp leaves the body of the
mill through the apertures of a screen or grate (diaphragm), which is fixed
close to the discharge end and covers the entire cross-section of the mill. The
movement of an assembly of radial lifter arms behind the screen towards the
discharge trunnion exerts some kind of pumping action on the pulp and
moves it through the diaphragm. Other variations of this arrangement are the
peripheral and open-end discharge.

Comminution Technology 43
7.3.1 Types of Tumbling Mills

The essential parts of a mill are the shell, trunnions and liners. Mills could be
differentiated from each other through the dimensions, dimension ratios,
shape of milling volume, sizes and shapes of grinding media among others.
Depending on the type of grinding media, tumbling mills are classified as ball
mills, rod, SAG and autogeneous mills (Norman and Decker, 1985; Wills,
1992).
In ball mills the grinding medium is made up of balls occupying about 45% of
mill volume. The mill has a length to diameter ratio of between 1.5 and 1 or
less. Those having ratios between 3 and 5 are called tube mills. Ball mills are
classified according to the nature of their discharge ends. They are the simple
trunnion overflow mills and the grate discharge (Fig. 7.4). The balls may be
made of steel, porcelain or flint pebbles. They are used in the latter stages of
grinding and are rated by power than by capacity. In Ghana, some ball mills of
diameter 6.1 m and length 9.0 m with powers approaching 5, 800 kW are in
use. Operating speeds are usually in the range 70 to 80% of the critical
speed.

Fig. 7.4 Grate Discharge Mill.

In rod mills the grinding medium is made up of rods occupying about 45% of
mill volume. Like balls, the rods have varying diameters and their length is
about 100 mm less than the minimum internal distance of the mill in which it is
to be used. Rod mills are classified according to the mode of discharge into
central peripheral discharge mills, end peripheral discharge mills and trunnion
overflow mills. Central peripheral discharge mills are fed at both ends through
the trunnions and discharge the ground product through circumferential ports
at the center of the shell. They are mostly applicable for coarse grinding with a
minimum of fines. End peripheral discharge mills are fed at one end through
the trunnion and the ground product is discharged from the other end by
means of several peripheral apertures. They are used mainly for dry and
dump grinding, where moderately coarse products are required. In the
trunnion overflow feed is introduced through one trunnion and discharges
through the other. It is used only for wet grinding and mainly to convert
crushing plant product into ball-mill feed.

Comminution Technology 44
Semi-autogenous grinding mills or SAG mills utilise grinding media which is
made up of a combination of ore particles and a reduced load of balls or rods
which constitute about 6 to 10% of the mill volume. However, the percentage
loading of balls could be adjusted to suit local conditions. The length to
diameter ratio is about 1:1.5. In Ghana SAG mills of diameter 8.0 m and length
5.1 m with powers of 5,800 kW are in use. Like ball mills, SAG mills usually
have variable speed drives capable of running at different percentages of the
critical speed. SAG mills use bigger diameter balls than ball mills because they
are used mainly for primary grinding.

Autogenous mills utilise grinding media generated within the mill from suitably
sized pieces of the run-of-mine ore itself. These mills have a length to
diameter ratio of about 1:2. The two main sub-divisions are pebble milling and
ROM milling. In pebble milling, grinding medium of the required size is
separated from the ROM prior to comminution. Later these are used as media
when the remainder has gone through crushing. ROM milling involves the
entire ROM ore stream without initial change in size distribution. Autogenous
milling is relatively cheap since grinding media cost is eliminated. The charge
in this mill fills about 35-50% of the mill volume.

7.4 Grinding Circuits

Grinding is a power intensive operation. It is the most energy intensive

operation in mineral processing (Joe, 1979; Mular, 1985; Wills, 1992).
Therefore there is the need to optimize the amount of material sent to the
operation. To remove undersize material from the feed stream to these
operations, mills can be made to work in open or in closed circuits.

I. Open Circuit: In open circuit, the material passes through a particular

mill only once. SAG mills are usually run in open circuit.

II. Closed Circuit: In closed circuit, the material passes through the mill
several times. The milled product is classified and the oversize material
sent through the same mill for milling. The material sent back to the mill
for regrinding is referred to as the circulating load.

7.4.1 Circulating Load

The mill is supposed to grind its feed to a specified fineness. However, not all
the materials attain the required size after passing through the mill once. The
mill product is therefore classified to remove materials, which are still coarse
and sent for regrinding. This material known as the circulating load is normally
returned to the same mill, which is in a closed circuit with the classifier
(Taggart, 1947; Stanley, 1987b). Circulating loads in the milling circuit may be
caused by:
• Relatively coarse mill product

• Relatively high pulp density

Comminution Technology 45
• Lower cyclone pressure

• Wear of the spigot relative to the vortex finder of the cyclones

• Wear of cyclone liners

Circulating load is normally expressed as a percentage of the weight of the

new feed. For example, in Fig. 7.5 1, 2,…. , and 5 represent products, Qi –
mass of a product, and  i - percentage of a particular particle size range in a
product.

Classification
Overflow
New 1 2 MILL 3 4
Feed

5
Underflow

Fig. 7.5 Closed Circuit Grinding

Particle size balance in classification:

Q3 3 = Q4 4 + Q5 5 7.6

Mass balance of solids in classification:

Q3 = Q4 + Q5 7.7

By solving the two equations simultaneously, the circulating load,

C = Q5/Q4 = Q5/Q1 = ( 4 -  3 )/ ( 3 -  5 ) 7.8

Circulating load is normally expressed as a percentage of the weight of the

new feed and the following calculation may be applied:

Comminution Technology 46
 weight of original feed  weight of product undersize
% circulating load  x100
weight of product undersize
7.9
7.5 Factors affecting Mill Performance

Several factors affect the performance of a mill. The major ones are presented
below (Prentice, 1943; Bond, 1958; Bond, 1962; Crabtree et al, 1964; Hukki,
1967; Lynch, 1977; Vermeulen, 1985; Stanley; 1987b).

7.5.1 The mill speed, normally expressed as a fraction of the critical

speed

In the cascade regime (relatively low mill speeds), mainly abrasive

comminution occurs leading to more fines creation, and increased liner wear;
whiles in the cataracting regime (at higher mill speeds) essentially
comminution by impact occurs leading to coarser end product and reduced
liner wear.

7.5.2 The ball loading

The ball loading is the fraction of the mill volume filled by the grinding medium.
Although the maximum mill capacity is obtained at rod or ball fillings of 40 to
45%, the specific grinding energy is a minimum at about 15 to 20% ball load.
In practice ball loads less than 25% are not used because low ball-loads give
excessive liner wear.

Steel balls wear down as grinding proceeds. Thus, the required ball load
should be maintained by introducing more balls into the mill as and when
necessary. Also the right quantity and size of balls should be fed to the mill.
Ball loading of varying sizes will reduce the interstices in the grinding medium
and if these are not maintained, the mill discharge may not be fine enough.
This leads to an increase in the tonnage of the circulating load and a reduction
in throughput.

The production of coarse mill product may lead to accumulation in the mill
discharge sump due to reduced flow of pulp and the trash screen may get
blinded and overflow. The pumps are also affected adversely. In such a case,
remedial measures at the milling section would be better than bypassing the
trash screen to feed coarse material and trash into the leaching tanks. Plant
operators should inform their supervisors for the necessary action to be taken.

7.5.3 The fraction of mill volume filled by the ore

For a given ball loading it is undesirable to under-fill or over-fill the mill with
ore. Under-filling or low ore charge leads to greater wear through metal to
metal contact. The internals of the mill are damaged and there is also reduced
grinding rate. Overfilling or high ore charge leads to reduction in the force of
the collisions resulting in inefficient grinding and reduced grinding rate. High

Comminution Technology 47
charge also leads to blocking of discharge grate and pebble build up in the
mill.

7.5.4 Effects of worn lifters and discharge grates

Tumbling mills have inner liners, which are used to protect the inner walls of
the mill shell from wear and also to reduce slipping of the mill charge. They are
equipped with projections, which are responsible for lifting the charge along
the rising side of the mill. When the lifters wear off, they become smoother
and unable to provide the lifting effect on the charge (Fig. 7.6).

Fig. 7.6. Lifter profile effect on lifting of balls: (a) new liner-lifter arrangement,
(b) worn out liner-lifter arrangement.

The mill charge begins to slip in the shell leading to cascading grinding, where
the mill charge rise along the rising side of the mill to a relatively short height
and slide over one another causing grinding by mainly abrasion. Worn lifters
therefore increase slimes production and wear of steel media. There is
increased operating cost due to frequent replacement of the grinding media.

The adverse effects of worn lifters can be rectified by increasing mill speed,
where possible, increasing ball load within mill weight limitations and periodic
shut down of the mill to replace the worn lifters.

7.6 Factors Influencing Grinding Rate

Grinding rate is determined by factors, which can be grouped into:

I. Factors which depend on the ore:

• Particle size of the feed and mill product,

• Grindability of the ore

ii. Factors which depend on exploitation parameters of the mill. These include

Comminution Technology 48
• open and closed circuit grinding,
• efficiency of classification,
• percentage media loading,
• particle size distribution, shape, density and hardness of the grinding
medium,
• percentage solids in the mill,
• mill speed.

iii. Factors, which depend on the constructional parameters of the mill, that is,
mill size, and the form of the liners.
7.6.1 Ore Grindability and Particle Size

Grinding rate depends directly on the grindability of the feed material. The
easier it is to grind the material, the higher the quantity that can be ground per
unit time. The grinding rate is high when the mill is fed with finer particles and
vice versa for an expected product particle size. However, qualitative
relationship can only be established on the basis of experimental data for a
particular material. This is because various materials behave differently
according to their physical properties during grinding.

7.6.2 Mill Size and Construction

The grinding rate of a mill is related to the mill size as expressed by the
equation:

Q = cD2.5L

where,

Q - the grinding rate i.e. quantity ground per unit time

D - the internal diameter of the mill i.e. the mill diameter inside the liners

L - the effective length of the grinding compartment of the mill.

c - a constant, which depends on milling efficiency.

The power draft of a mill varies approximately as D 2.5 and directly as L, where
D is the mill diameter inside the liners and L is the effective length of the
grinding compartment of the mill. This means that the grinding rate of a mill is
proportional to the diameter of the mill raised to the power 2.5 and linearly
proportional to the length of the mill.

7.6.3 Percentage Ball Loading

The rate of grinding is dependent on power consumption. With increase in

percentage ball loading, energy consumption also increases and reaches a
maximum at about 45% ball loading. The grinding rate increases
correspondingly to a maximum at a percentage ball loading of about 45%.

Comminution Technology 49
Further increase in percentage ball loading beyond 45% leads to reduction in
energy consumption and grinding rate of the mill.
7.6.4 Particle Size Distribution, and Hardness of the Balls

Ball loading of different sizes provides a higher grinding rate than ball loading
with the same size balls. This is because for balls of different sizes, there is a
greater packing density and much greater particle to particle contact and
interaction.

Very large and hard lumps require large diameter balls, while fine and soft
ores can be ground by smaller balls.
The grinding rate is higher if the grinding medium is made of wear resisting
material, which does not deform easily with time. The harder the balls the
higher the grinding rate.

7.6.5 Percentage Solids

Since the total volume of the pulp in the mill is constant an increase in the
amount of water in the mill implies that the solids content is low and vice
versa. If the water content in the mill is low, then the pulp density is high.
Consequently, the grinding media (balls) falling through a more dense
medium exerts less force of deformation on the charge.

Again the water content determines the fluidity of the material in the mill. The
denser the pulp, the more coarse materials find their way into the discharge. In
the overflow type of mills the coarse particles enter the mill discharge and the
coarse particles content of the mill product increases. But in the grate
discharge type of mills, the dense pulp, containing coarse particles are
withheld by the grate and this reduces the content of coarse particles in the
mill product.

When the pulp is very light or dilute, the material flows quickly through the
grate in the case of the grate discharge mills and this leads to coarser mill
products. In the case of the overflow type higher dilution leads to increase in
the fines content of the mill product.

7.6.6 Mill Power

The energy consumption (or power draft) of a tumbling mill is directly related to
the energy available in the tumbling load. The energy available in the load is
the energy that produces ore breakage and consequently determines the
fineness of the product for a given feed rate and feed sizing. Thus for
maximum fineness of grind, the power draft of the mill must be maximum. The
main factors affecting a mill’s power draft are mill dimensions and speed, and
the load level.

7.6.6.1 Mill Dimensions and Power Draft

Comminution Technology 50
The power draft of a mill varies approximately as D 2.5 and directly as L, where
D is the mill diameter inside the liners and L is the effective length of the
grinding compartment of the mill.

It can be deduced that the maximum possible power draft of which a mill is
capable at any moment will depend on the state of wear of the liners,
particularly the shell liners so that the power maximum tends to rise gradually
as liners wear. This slow rise is punctuated by sudden falls when liners are
renewed.

7.6.6.2 Mill Speed and Power Draft

Mill power also depends on mill speed. Mill power draft varies approximately
linearly with speed. As critical speed is approached, there is a sudden fall in
power draft at the onset of centrifuging.

7.6.6.3 Mill Load and Power Draft

The load of a mill is referred to as the mill content, which consists of a mixture
of grinding media and pulp. The load level, which is the level of the free
surface of the load with respect to the mill axis when the mill is stopped, has a
very significant effect on mill power. The load level is directly related to the
proportion of the mill volume occupied by the load (Fig. 7.7). It can be
deduced that the lower the load the less the volume of the mill occupied by the
load.
Volume,
Percentage of Mill Volume,
Load volume as percentage of mill

50
5
0 r
40
4
Percentage

0 I
volume

30
3
0
Load Volume as

20
2
0
10
1
0
%

0.0 0.1
0.0 0.2
0.2 0.3
0.3 0.5
0.4
0.4 0.5
0.5 0.6
0.6 0.7
0.7 0.8
0.8 0.9
1.0 0.9
1.0 I/r
I/r

Fig. 7.7. Relationship between Load Level and Load Volume

Comminution Technology 51
Commencing at small load volume, mill power draft increases initially on a
rising curve as load volume increases. But as the filling (load volume)
increases, the curve flattens out and goes through a fairly flat peak around
45% mill volume. Thereafter the power draft falls rapidly with increasing load
volume (Fig. 7.8).

Thus, operational maximisation of mill power means essentially keeping the

load at whatever volume maximises power. In other words, the mill weight
should be monitored within the permissible limits corresponding to maximum
power consumption and grinding rate. The mill weight can increase due to
increased feed rate and/or increased circulating load. The effect of mill over-
weight can be rectified by flushing the mill with more water and or reducing the
feed rate.

110
Percentage of maximum mill power

100

90

80

70

60

50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Load volume as percentage of mill volume

Fig 7.8. Variation of Mill Power with Load Volume

2.10 Mill Circuit Control and Safety

2.10.2 Trouble Shooting and General Operation

The following may be applicable to a milling circuit incorporating a ball/SAG

mill and cyclones. When a SAG or ball mill is running at a steady feed rate, the
following checks are necessary. Samples may be taken every hour for
analysis in order to monitor the efficiency of the machines and processes
(Buah et al, 1998; Buah et al, 1999).

✓ The feed rate: A weightometer installed on the mill feed conveyor

measures the tonnage of ore processed per hour. This serves as a guide
in varying the speed of apron feeders that draw material onto the mill feed
conveyor.

Comminution Technology 52
✓ Discharge densities: The amount of water added to the mills must be cont
✓ rolled to correspond with the quantity of ore milled so as to create a
consistent mill feed density. Density is usually measured on a scale. A
one-litre bucket is filled to overflowing and placed on the density-
measuring instrument. The outside of the bucket should be cleaned before
placing it on the scale. The pulp density can then be read on the scale.
The scale should be calibrated at least once a day. This can be done by
filling the one litre bucket with process water and placing it on the density
scale. It should read 1.00 indicating 0% solids. If it does not read so, the
dial should be adjusted to conform.

✓ The mill discharge hopper level should be maintained at a specific set

point.
✓ The density of the mill discharge or cyclone feed should be measured. It
helps in controlling the addition of water into the ball mill discharge hopper
with a working knowledge of the cyclone feed density.

✓ The operating pressure of the cyclones needs to be monitored to ensure

effective classification.

✓ The ratio of the vortex finder diameter to spigot diameter is an important

classification parameter and must be checked and corrected for wear.

✓ Cyclone overflow sizing must be monitored to deliver materials of suitable

size for the subsequent process.

✓ Check the cyclone underflow density

✓ Check discharge pump gland seals for leakage of slurry.

✓ Check mill feed spouts for leakage of slurry.

✓ Check each mill shell liner bolt for leaks.

✓ Check that the temperature on the mill panels is within operating limits.

✓ Ensure that mill power and weight are within the acceptable ranges.

✓ Check bearing temperatures and unusual sounds for example slipping

belts, knocking bearing etc.

2.10.3 Milling Circuit Safety and House Keeping

Safety is a priority around the milling area. Grinding mills are large and
powerful pieces of machinery, which can cause serious damage if care is not
taken. Grinding mill areas can be dirty and become an unsafe area to work in.
However, good house keeping creates a safe workplace. It is important to
keep the mills and equipment in a clean and tidy condition. In addition to the

Comminution Technology 53
standard safety equipment and systems, the following guidelines are to be
followed:

✓ Never run mills with safety guards not in place

✓ Never leave trip hazards on walkways and work areas around the mills

✓ Never touch valves, switches, process lines, handles and panels unless
specifically asked.

✓ Hose all grating around the mills once every shift

✓ Hose down sumps and hopper covers

✓ Hose down process piping and cable trays

✓ Clean mill bearing covers, pinion covers and gearboxes once each shift

✓ Hose the mill floors at the end of every shift

✓ Do not hose down any electrical cabinets or motors

✓ Report any slurry leakage or major spillage problems to your supervisor

2.10.3.1 Noise

One other agent that has the potential to cause health problems is noise.
Noise can best be described as unwanted sound. Noise from most machines
in the crushing and grinding section is usually undesirable and needs to be
reduced to the lowest possible level. The loudness or intensity of sound is
normally measured in decibels. Below are the loudness levels of some
common sounds and mining equipment in decibels (Vice and Nel, 1987;
Montgomery and Kelloway, 2002).

Sound Decibels

Quiet room 20

Quiet conversation 60

Loud conversation 70

Loud motor horn 100

Trucks 89-101

Bull dozers 102-106

End loaders 95-96

Comminution Technology 54
Road graders 91-96

Primary crushers 88-91

Secondary crushers 91-101

Vibrating screen 98-109

Ball mill 89-104

Diamond drill 101

Surface pneumatic drills 97-98

Hearing loss or deafness can result from excessive exposure to noise. It is of
two types, conductive and perceptive deafness. Conductive deafness can
result from high intensity noise that may rupture the ear drum while perceptive
results from long exposure to a lot of noise, as occurs in industry. Perceptive
deafness is not curable but is preventable.

Table 7.1 shows some noise levels and the tolerable exposure periods. Ear
muffs or plugs should be employed when the noise levels are to be
encountered up to the times indicated.

Table 7.1. Noise levels and tolerable exposure periods

Decibels Time of Exposure

80 - 100 8 hours
85 - 105 4 hours
90 - 108 2 hours
92 - 112 1 hour
95 - 115 30 min.
100 - 118 15 min.
102 - 122 7 min
> 126 Always wear ear protectors

Comminution Technology 55
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