intensity time.

In this example, exposure

would have the of milliamperæminutes.
Di2
Values such as milliampere-seconds, becquerel
(curie)-minutes, and rads are also common.
While the output of *ray machines can be where:
selected by the operator within the limits of the EF = exposure factor source-to-
machine, the radiographer must consider the half- film distance
life of isotope sources in determining their = X-ray tube current
output at any given time. A satisfactory exposure = time
of 3.2 TBq-min (100 Ci-min) that required 1
minute when made 75 days ago with a 3.7 TBq = gamma ray source strength
(100 Ci) source, will now require 2 minutes
at the same source-to-film distance because the Inverse Square Law
source has decayed to 19 TBq (50 Ci). When no absorber is present (e.g., in air),
Exposure Calculations the radiation intensity from any radiation
The density of a radiograph depends on the source decreases as the square of the distance
amount of radiation absorbed by the film from the source increases, In other words, the
emulsion and how it was developed. The amount
of radiation absorbed depends on the axnount md intensity is inversely proportional to the square
energy of the radiation source (primary radiation) of the distance from the source, This occurs
that passes through the object, the amount of because the radiation diverges as it travels away
scatter reaching the film, and the action of any from the source, so that the same amount of
intensiWing screens that were used. radiation covers a larger area. Thus, the radiation
For any given radiation energy, the is less intense farther from the sourceFigure 1.7
controllable that govern exposure are the source tms effect, which is known as the
output in rads/minute, the time that the film is inverse square law.
exposed, and the source-to-film distance. Mathematically, this law is expressed as
Because the output of X-ray machines is
proportional to the tube current, or Figure 1.7: Schematic diagram
microamperes may be used when output in illustrating the inverse square
rads/minute is not available. For gan•ma ray
sources, output is measured in becquerels law
(curies).
Exposure Factor
To make exposure values more general, the
source-to-film distance may be factored into the
exposure equation to provide what is called an
"exposure factor." As shown in Equation 6 (X-
ray) and Equation 7 (gamma ray), the exposure
factor is the E value divided by the square of the
source-to-film distance, For example, exposure
of 400 mAm at 508 mm (20 in.) source-to-film
distance has an exposure factor of 1 mAm/in. 2,
as does an exposure of 100 n'LAm at 254 rnrn
(10 in.) source-to-film distance.
 The inverse square law is very important
in RT because different source-to-film
distances are often used for different
radiographs.

Source-to-film distance changes may be

needed to satisfy image unsharpness
requirements, for coverage of the object
in one exposure, adjust radiation intensity so as
to adjust exposure time, and similar reasons.
Radiographic Equivalence Factor
While many RT operations are performed
on one type of material, others are sometimes
used to
materials are encountered, it is useful to have
radiograph unusual materials. When unusual
some means of determining exposures for the
new material based on exposure data for the

welleknown material, This can be done with a

chart or table of radiographic equivalence
factors that is similar to Table 1.2.
To use the table, choose the radiation energy

of interest and the corresponding material of

interest. Multiply the resulting equivalence
factor by the thickness of the material to be
radiographed. This results in a thickness value
of either aluminum or steel, depending on the
radiation energy, that has approximately the
same absorption as the thickness of new
material; For example, at 220 kV, 13 mm (0.5
in.) of copper is equivalent in absorption to 13
mm (0.5 in,) x L4 = 18 mm (0.7 in.) of steel.
To radiograph 13 (0.5 in.) of copper at 220
kV, use the sm•ne exposure that was used for
18 mm (0.7 in.) Of steel.
Exposure Charts
Exposure charts are a means of simplifying
2 (DI)2 the selection of the proper values of the
(D2)2 vmables needed to produce acceptable

radiographs. A cormnon type of exposure

where: chart is shown in Figure 1.8 1 . As in all such
intensity charts,
certain variables of RT have been fixed or
D distance
predetermined. In Figure 1.8, the fixed variables machine, 220 kV, 200 kV, 180 kV or 160 kV
are film type, source-to-film distance, screen type might be chosen. The chart shows that exposures
and thickness, and desired film density, while would range from about 5.3 mAm at 220 kV to
kilovoltage, material thickness and exposure are 70 mAm at 160 kV. If the x-ray machine were
controllable operated at 5 mA, the required exposure time at
The chart simplifies the relationships 160 kV would be 14 minutes, while at 220 kV,
between material thickness, kilovoltage, and the time would be
exposure by fixing the other variables. This 1.3 minutes.
makes it easier for the operator to select Charts in which other variables are fixed are
exposure values- For example, in the RT of a also useful. For example, if the source-to-film
25 Inm (l in.) thick steel part with this X-ray distance, film, screens, density, film processing,
md exposure are fixed, a chart can be prepared
Table 1 02: Approximate Radiographic equivalence factorsa
X-rays
(kilovolts) Gamma Rays
MaterÄl 50 100 ISO 220 400 1000 2000 4 to 25 Ir„192 cs-137 Co-60 Radium
Magnesium 0.6 0.6 0.05 0.08

Aluminum 1.0 1.0 0.12 0.18 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.40

2024 (aluminum) 2.2 1.6 0.16 0.22 0.35 0.35 0.35

alloy
Titmium 0.45 035

Steel 12.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

18-8 (steel) alloy 12_0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1000 1.0 1.0 1.0

Copper 18.0 1.6 1.4 1300 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1

Zinc 1.3 1.3 1200 1.1 1.0 1.0 10

Brassb 1.3 1.2 1200 1.1 141 1.1
12
Inconel X alloy-coated 1.3

Zirconium 2.3 2.0 1.0

14,0 12.0 5.0 2.5 3000 4.0 3.2 2.3 2.0

Uranium 25.0 3900 12.6 5.6 3.4

a
Aluminum is the standard metal at 50 kV 100 kV and steel at the higher voltages gamma rays. The thickness of
another metal is multiplied by the corresponding factor to obtain the approximate equivalent of the standard metal.

The exposure applying to this thickness of the standard metal is used, EXAMPLE: To radiograph 12.7 mm
(0.5 in.) of copper at 220 kV, multiply 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) by the factor 1 obtaining an equivalent thickness of 17.8 mm (0.7
in.) of steel.
b
Tin or lead alloyed in brass will increase these factors.

Reprinted from ASNT's NDT Handbook, second ediöon: Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing Overview
 Although not stated, this chart applies only to one specific X-ray machine and the film processing time, temperature, and are
also fixed.
ASNT Level Il Study Guide: Radiographic Testing
Figure 18: Typical exposure Figure 1.9: Typical gamma
chart for steel. This chart may be ray exposure chart for Ire192,
applied to film X (see Figure 1 based upon the use of film X
*3), with lead foil screens, at 1.5 (see Figure 13)
film density and 1 m (40 in.) 1 oto

source-to-film distance 2

100

D 2.5

0.8
1.5

0.3

0 6.4 12.7 19 25 31.8 38

(015) (05) (0.75)
Equivalent Thickness millimeters
of steel (inches of steel)

Reprinted from ASNT's NDT Handbook, second edition:

Volume 10, Nondestructive Testing Oveniew

508.0
6.0
30

10

5
3

e
0.2
1

0.1
that shows the relationship between kilovoltage and thickness for a given material.
Exposure charts for isotopes typically plot the exposure factor (rather than the exposure)
against material thickness for various resulting

film densities as shown in Figure 1.9. This type of chart reflects the need to allow for source-
tofilm distance variance to accornmodate different tmcknesses, because the operator cannot
control the energy or the output of an isotope.
Deviations from some fixed of exposure chart can be compensated for mathematically as
follows' source-to-film distance use the inverse square law;
2, film type — use the characteristic curves of the films;
3. desired film density — use the characteristic curve of the film.
4. film processing — if characteristic curves for other temperatures, chemicals or
development times are available, use them; otherwise, see item 2, below.

Changes to the following variables of the

exposure chart cannot be accurately predicted:
l . X-ray machine all X-ray machines are different; two X-ray machines operating at the
same nominal kilovoltage and tube current may produce significantly different
energies and intensities of radiation;
2. film processing — a change in chemicals, temperature, or development time will
change the resulting film density and contrast;
3, type or thickness of screens or filters —

any change in the energy spectrum of the radiation reaching the film, such as thosc
produced by screens and filters, may change the density and/or contrast of the
resulting
Thicknos, Intensity, Distance, and Time

The relationships between object thickness, source intensity, source-to-film distance, end
exposure time are mathematical and require that calculations be made or that the radiographer
interpret charts. The calculations for changes in source-to-film distance, intensity, or time are
simple arithmetic functions as demonstrated in Figure 1.10.

Variaåons in Object Thickness

An acceptable exposure of an object with varying requires intelligent use of the
RT variables. The use of filters or higher radiation energy will reduce contrast, but
sensitivity may become unsatisfactory. Reductions in energy or removal of filters will
increase contrast. The use of slower films

increases contrast and sharpness, wl'üle faster films reduce contrast and sharpness.
For high subject contrast situations, two or more films of the same or different speeds may be
exposed simultaneously in the same film holder. The parts of the image showing suitable density
on any one film are interpreted using a single film while two or more films are superimposed in
order to view the lower density regions of the image.