ASSESSMENT OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS AND HEAVY

METALS LEVEL IN WATER FROM KUMODUGU GANA RIVER IN

GEIDAM L.G.A, YOBE STATE.

BY

MUHAMMAD MUHAMMAD
ID NO: U/CHM/18/635

SUPERVISOR
MAL. ABUBAKAR BILYAMINI MU’AZU

SUMMITED TO:

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY, YOBE STATE UNIVERSITY

DAMATURU IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD OF
BACHELOR DEGREE OF SCIENCE IN CHEMISTRY

NOVEMBER, 2023

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 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that the project titled Assessment of Physiochemical Parameters

and Heavy Metals in komodugugana (River Yobe) Geidam Local Government
Area, Yobe States has been duly carried out by Muhamad Muhammad
(U/CHM/18/635) of Department of Chemistry, Yobe State University, and has
been approved by the examiner.

…………………………… …………………………….
MAL. ABUBAKAR BILYAMINI MU’ AZU
Date
SUPERVISOR

………………………….. …………………………….
Dr. U.M. Umar Date
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

………………………….. ………………………….…
EXTERNAL EXAMINER Date

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All praise, gratitude and appreciation goes to Almighty Allah, for giving me the
opportunity, strength and courage which is not only a dream come true but an
unforgettable experience.

The success and final outcome of this project required a lot of guidance and
assistance from many people and I am extremely privileged to have got this all
along the completion of my project. All I have done is only due to such supervision
and assistance and I would not forget to thanks them.

I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my supervisor, mal.

Abubakar Bilyamini Mu,azu, who gave the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project, who also helped me in doing a lot of Research and I came to
know about so many things, I am really thankful to Him and also to all Chemistry
department lecturers who contributed to this moment. I will also like to
acknowledge and extend my gratitude to my HOD in person of Dr. U. M. Umar.

This journey would not have been possible without the support of my Father Alh.
Muhammad Adamu plateau and my Mother Haj. Hauwa, Abdullahi who made
provisions for my finances throughout, encouraged me in all my pursuits and
inspired me to follow my dreams. And also my siblings, Maryam Muhammad,
Karima Muhammad Adam, Salamatu Muhammad Adam, Abubakar Yahaya.

My special gratitude also goes to my class mate that helped me during my studies.

Finally, special thanks to all my friends and colleagues for their support and
encouragement. God bless you all.

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[

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 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water is a vital resource for the sustenance of life on Earth, and its quality is of utmost

importance for both human and ecological health. Ensuring the safety and purity of water

requires regular assessment of various physicochemical parameters and heavy metal

concentrations. These assessments provide valuable information about the overall quality and

potential contamination of water sources, American public health association (APHA, 2017).

Physicochemical parameters are important indicators of water quality, as they provide

information about the physical and chemical characteristics of water that can impact its

properties and suitability for different uses, American public health association (APHA, 2017).

These parameters include temperature, pH, conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids (TDS),

dissolved oxygen (DO), and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Each parameter provides

valuable insight into the condition of the water and can help identify potential sources of

contamination or pollution, American public health association (APHA, 2017).

On the other hand, heavy metals are elements with high atomic weights that can have harmful

effects on human health and the environment even at low concentrations (World Health

Organization, 2011). Common heavy metals found in water sources include lead, cadmium,

mercury, arsenic, chromium, and nickel. These metals can enter water bodies through various

anthropogenic activities such as industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and improper waste

disposal. Assessing the concentrations of heavy metals in water is crucial to ensure compliance

with local regulations and to protect human health and the integrity of aquatic ecosystems.

1
The assessment of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals in water involves the collection

of water samples from different sources such as rivers, lakes, ponds, groundwater, and drinking

water supplies. These samples are then subjected to rigorous laboratory analysis using a range of

techniques, including spectrophotometry, atomic absorption spectroscopy, and ion

chromatography, among others. The results obtained from these analyses provide a

comprehensive overview of the physicochemical characteristics and heavy metal concentrations

present in the water samples, (WHO, 2011).

The data obtained from the assessments are essential for the development and implementation of

appropriate water management strategies. Monitoring physicochemical parameters helps in

identifying potential changes in water quality and can assist in the early detection of pollution

sources. Additionally, the analysis of heavy metal concentrations guides regulatory agencies and

policymakers in setting permissible limits and enforcing pollution control measures, (WHO

2011).

1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Water is an essential natural resource necessary for the survival of all living organisms.

However, the presence of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals in water sources can

pose significant health risks to humans and ecosystems (Cheng et al., 2018). Physicochemical

parameters such as pH, temperature, turbidity, conductivity, and dissolved oxygen levels can

influence the overall quality and suitability of water for various uses.

Heavy metals, including lead, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, and chromium, are known to be toxic

and can accumulate in living organisms over time, leading to adverse health effects. These heavy

2
metals find their way into water bodies through various sources such as industrial effluents,

agricultural run-off, and improper waste disposal practices, (Cheng et al., 2018).

The assessment of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals in water is crucial to ensure the

safety and quality of water for human consumption, aquatic life, and agricultural purposes,

(Mousavi and Razeghi, 2018). Monitoring and analyzing these parameters can provide valuable

information on the overall health of water bodies and the potential risks they pose to human

health and ecosystems.

However, the lack of regular and comprehensive assessment of physicochemical parameters and

heavy metals in water sources is a significant concern. Many regions lack monitoring programs

or have inadequate resources to conduct thorough assessments. As a result, the potential risks

associated with water contamination go unnoticed, leading to potential health hazards for

individuals consuming the contaminated water.

Moreover, the assessment of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals in water is essential

for establishing effective water management strategies and pollution control measures. Without

proper assessment, it becomes challenging to implement appropriate measures to protect water

sources and ensure their long-term sustainability, (Mousavi and Razeghi, 2018).

Therefore, there is a need for robust and regular assessment of physicochemical parameters and

heavy metals in water sources to identify potential contamination risks, protect human health,

and conserve water resources (Njoku et al., 2019).

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1.2 JUSTIFICATION
Assessment of physicochemical parameters and heavy metals in water is crucial for

monitoring water quality and safeguarding human health and the environment. The presence of

heavy metals in water sources poses significant risks and can lead to various adverse effects on

ecosystems and human health, (Ogwueleka, 2009). These metals, such as lead (Pb), cadmium

(Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), and chromium (Cr), are known to be toxic and have

cumulative effects, even at low concentrations.

Industrial activities, agricultural practices, mining operations, and improper waste disposal

contribute to the contamination of water sources with heavy metals and other pollutants,

(Ogwueleka, 2009). These contaminants can enter water bodies through runoff, leaching, or

direct discharge, potentially compromising the quality of both surface water and groundwater.

Heavy metals can bioaccumulate in organisms, including humans, through the food chain

(WHO. 2011). Chronic exposure to heavy metals through contaminated drinking water can lead

to various health issues, including neurological disorders, kidney damage, liver dysfunction,

cardiovascular diseases, and even cancer. Hence, the monitoring and assessment of heavy metals

in water are crucial for protecting public health, (World health organization 2011).

Heavy metals in water can harm aquatic ecosystems and disturb the balance of natural habitats.

They can accumulate in sediments and affect the growth and reproduction of aquatic organisms,

leading to biodiversity loss and ecosystem degradation (USEPA 2004). Assessing the levels of

heavy metals in water provides valuable information for understanding their environmental

impact and developing appropriate mitigation strategies, (United States Environmental

Protection Agency,

4
2004).

Numerous regulatory bodies, such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the United States

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and European Union (EU), have established guidelines

and maximum allowable limits for heavy metal concentrations in water, EC. (1998). Assessing

water quality parameters, including heavy metals, ensures compliance with these regulations and

helps identify potential sources of contamination for effective remediation, (European

Community 1998).

Water resource management: Understanding physicochemical parameters, such as pH,

temperature, conductivity, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen, in addition to heavy metal

concentrations, is essential for managing water resources effectively (Liu et al. (2019). These

parameters provide insights into the overall water quality, assess the suitability for various uses

(e.g., drinking water, irrigation, industrial purposes), and aid in the identification of potential

contamination sources, (Liu etc Al. 2019).

1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

1.3.1 AIM

The aim of the study is to assess the physicochemical parameters and level of heavy

metals in water from Kumadugu Gana River in Geidam L.G.A, Yobe State.

1.3.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The objective of this study is:

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 i. To determine the physicochemical parameters (temperature, pH, conductivity, colour,

acidity, hardness, sulphate, chloride, DO, BOD, COD, alkalinity) of water from

Kumadugu Gana River

ii. To Determine the level of heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury, Arsenic, chromium,

thallium, indium, copper) in water from Kumadugu Gana River

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 CHAPTER TWO

BACKGROUND

The presence of heavy metals in water can have detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems

and human health. The sources of heavy metals include natural processes such as weathering and

erosion of rocks, as well as anthropogenic activities such as industrial discharges and agricultural

runoff. The study investigates the spatial distribution of heavy metal concentrations in sediments,

identifies potential sources, and assesses their ecological risk.

Assessing the physicochemical parameters and heavy metal concentrations in rivers is crucial for

monitoring the health of aquatic ecosystems. Rivers serve as important water sources for various

human and ecological activities, making it essential to understand the quality of the water being

supplied. Such studies provide valuable data for assessing the overall environmental condition of

rivers, identifying potential pollution sources, and implementing necessary remediation

measures, El-Moselhy et al (2012).

Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and arsenic, can pose severe health risks to

humans when present in drinking water or consumed through the ingestion of contaminated

organisms. Studying heavy metal levels in rivers helps evaluate potential exposure risks for local

communities who rely on these water sources. Findings from such studies can aid in formulating

water quality standards and implementing effective water treatment processes to ensure the

safety of the population, (Balabanova et al 2018).

Elevated levels of heavy metals in rivers can significantly affect aquatic organisms and the

overall ecology of the area. Some heavy metals can accumulate in the tissues of aquatic

organisms, leading to bioaccumulation and biomagnification in the food chain. Higher levels of

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heavy metals can induce toxic effects in organisms, affecting their reproduction, growth, and

survival. Understanding the physicochemical parameters and heavy metal concentrations in

rivers allows the assessment of potential ecological risks and aids in implementing appropriate

conservation and management strategies, (Bhuiyan et al., 2010).

By studying physicochemical parameters and heavy metal levels, researchers can identify

potential pollution sources. Heavy metals can enter rivers through various anthropogenic

activities, including industrial discharge, mining activities, agricultural runoff, and improper

waste management. Analyzing the distribution and concentration patterns of heavy metals in

rivers helps pinpoint the potential pollution sources, enabling regulatory bodies to take necessary

actions to mitigate pollution and enforce stricter environmental standards, (Bhuiyan et al., 2010).

2.0 IMPORTANCE OF ASSESSING PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS AND

HEAVY METAL IN WATER

Physicochemical parameters provide valuable information about the overall water quality

of a river. Parameters such as pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, conductivity, and

nutrient levels can indicate the presence of pollutants or environmental stressors that may impact

aquatic ecosystems and human health (World Health Organization, 2017).

The presence of heavy metals in river water can indicate pollution sources such as industrial

discharges, mining activities, agricultural runoff, or untreated sewage. Assessing heavy metal

concentrations helps identify specific sources of pollution, aiding in the development of effective

pollution control measures (Bhuiyan et al., 2010).

Physicochemical parameters and heavy metal concentrations directly affect the health of river

ecosystems. Elevated levels of heavy metals can be toxic to aquatic organisms, leading to

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population declines and ecosystem imbalances. Studying these parameters helps evaluate the

ecological health of rivers and assists in the conservation and management of aquatic resources

(Klaassen, 2013).

Water from rivers is often used for drinking, irrigation, and industrial purposes. Contamination

by heavy metals can pose significant risks to human health through bioaccumulation in the food

chain or direct exposure. Assessing physicochemical parameters and heavy metal concentrations

helps safeguard human health by identifying potentially hazardous areas and informing

appropriate water treatment strategies (Lin et al., 2011).

Governments and environmental agencies establish regulations and guidelines for

physicochemical parameters and heavy metal concentrations in river water. Regular assessments

allow monitoring of compliance with these standards, promoting sustainable water management

and ensuring the safety and well-being of both ecosystems and human communities (U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.).

2.1 DEFINITION AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS

IN WATER

2.1.1 Temperature

Temperature refers to the measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a substance. In

the context of water quality, temperature affects various chemical and biological processes. It

can influence the solubility of gases, such as oxygen, and affect the metabolic rates of aquatic

organisms. Temperature can be measured using a thermometer or electronic temperature probe

(United States Geological Survey, 2018).

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2.1.2 PH

pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It represents the concentration of

hydrogen ions (H+) in a substance. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral,

values below 7 indicating acidity, and values above 7 indicating alkalinity. Water pH affects the

solubility and bioavailability of various substances, as well as the behavior of aquatic organisms.

pH can be measured using a pH meter or pH indicator strips (United States Geological Survey,

2018).

2.1.3 Conductivity

Conductivity refers to the ability of a substance to conduct an electric current. In water

quality analysis, conductivity is a measure of the solution's ability to transmit electrical flow. It

reflects the presence of ions, specifically dissolved salts and minerals, in the water. Conductivity

measurements are often used to assess the overall mineral content and salinity of water. It is

measured using a conductivity meter or probe (United States Geological Survey, 2018).

2.1.4 Color

Colour in the context of water quality analysis refers to the visual appearance of water. It

indicates the presence of dissolved or suspended substances that absorb or scatter light. Water

colour can be influenced by natural substances, such as decaying vegetation, or human activities,

such as industrial discharges. Colour can be determined using a colorimeter or by visually

comparing it against a colour chart (United States Geological Survey, 2018).

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2.1.5 Acidity

Acidity refers to the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution. It is a measure of

how acidic or sour a substance is. In water quality analysis, acidity is an important parameter as

it affects the chemical balance and the health of aquatic ecosystems. Acidity can be measured

using a pH meter or by titration with an acid-base indicator (United States Geological Survey,

2018).

2.1.6 Hardness

Hardness refers to the concentration of calcium and magnesium salts, specifically carbonates and

bicarbonates, in water. It indicates the presence of dissolved minerals, primarily calcium and

magnesium ions. Water hardness can affect the taste, texture, and suitability of water for various

purposes, such as irrigation and industrial processes. Hardness is typically measured using a

standard soap solution or complex metric titration (United States Geological Survey, 2018).

2.1.7 Sulphur

Sulphur concentration in water refers to the presence of dissolved sulphate (SO 42-) ions.

Sulphur levels can be influenced by natural sources, such as volcanic activity, or human

activities, such as mining and industrial discharges. High sulphur levels can have detrimental

effects on water quality and aquatic life. Sulphur can be determined using analytical techniques,

such as ion chromatography or spectrophotometry (United States Geological Survey, 2018).

2.1.8 Chloride

Chloride refers to the concentration of chloride ions (Cl-) in water. It is a measure of the salinity

or salt content in water. Chloride levels can be influenced by natural processes, such as

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weathering of rocks, or human activities, such as road salt application. High chloride

concentrations can affect water quality and the corrosion of infrastructure. Chloride can be

measured using ion-selective electrodes or titration methods (United States Geological Survey,

2018).

2.1.9 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Dissolved Oxygen refers to the concentration of molecular oxygen (O2) dissolved in water. It is

a crucial parameter in assessing water quality and the health of aquatic ecosystems. DO is

necessary for the survival of aquatic organisms and is an indicator of the water's ability to

support life. DO can be measured using a dissolved oxygen meter or by titration methods (United

States Geological Survey, 2018).

2.1.10 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Biological Oxygen Demand refers to the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to

decompose organic matter present in water over a specific period. It is used as an indicator of

organic pollution in water bodies. High BOD levels indicate a high presence of organic

pollutants, which can lead to oxygen depletion and negatively affect aquatic life. BOD is

typically measured by incubating water samples in sealed bottles and measuring the remaining

oxygen concentration after a specific period (United States Geological Survey, 2018).

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2.2 COMMONLY MEASURED PHYSICOCHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN WATER

QUALITY ASSESSMENT

2.2.1 Temperature

Water temperature plays a crucial role in various biological and chemical processes. It is

measured using a thermometer or temperature probe, American Public Health Association.

(2017).

2.2.2 pH

pH measures the acidity or alkalinity of water. It is an important parameter as it affects the

solubility and availability of nutrients and contaminants. pH is measured using a pH meter or pH

indicator, American Public Health Association. (2017).

2.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

DO indicates the amount of oxygen dissolved in water, which is crucial for aquatic life. It

is measured using dissolved oxygen probes or sensors, American Public Health Association.

(2017).

2.2.4 Electrical Conductivity (EC)

EC measures the water's ability to conduct electrical current and is closely related to the

concentration of dissolved ions. It provides information about salt content and can be a useful

proxy for assessing water quality. It is measured using an electrical conductivity meter or sensor,

American Public Health Association. (2017).

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2.2.5 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

TDS is the total amount of dissolved solids, including inorganic salts, organic matter, and

suspended particles present in water. It is measured by measuring conductivity and calculating

the TDS level, American Public Health Association. (2017).

2.2.6 Turbidity

Turbidity measures the cloudiness or clarity of water caused by suspended particles. It

affects the penetration of sunlight and can affect aquatic ecosystems. Turbidity is measured using

a turbidimeter or a nephelometer, American Public Health Association. (2017).

2.2.7 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)

TSS measures the concentration of suspended solids in water. It includes particles that can

be trapped by a filter. TSS is typically measured by filtering a known volume of water and

weighing the dried filter, American Public Health Association. (2017).

2.2.8 Nutrients

Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are essential for aquatic plant and algae growth.

The concentrations of nutrients, particularly in the form of nitrates and phosphates, are measured

using specific chemical tests or colorimetric methods, American Public Health Association.

(2017).

2.2.9 Heavy Metals

Heavy metals like lead, mercury, and cadmium can be present in water due to industrial

pollution. They can be toxic to both humans and aquatic life. They are typically measured using

14
atomic absorption spectroscopy or inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, American

Public Health Association. (2017).

2.2.10 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

COD measures the amount of oxygen required to oxidize organic and inorganic

contaminants in water. It is an indicator of the water's organic pollution level. It is measured

using specific chemical tests or colorimetric methods, American Public Health Association.

(2017).

2.3 HEAVY METALS

2.3.1 Lead (Pb)

Lead is a common heavy metal found in water due to old plumbing systems, corrosion of

pipes, and industrial activities. It can have detrimental effects on neurological development,

particularly in children, and is associated with a range of health issues (USEPA, 2021).

2.3.2 Mercury (Hg)

Mercury can enter water bodies through industrial discharges and atmospheric deposition.

It can transform into methylmercury, a highly toxic form that accumulates in fish and seafood,

posing a risk to human health, especially if consumed in large quantities (FAO/WHO, 2010).

2.3.3 Cadmium (Cd)

Cadmium is often present in water sources due to industrial waste, phosphate fertilizers,

and mining activities. Chronic exposure to cadmium through drinking water or contaminated

food can lead to kidney damage, bone diseases, and even cancer (WHO, 2011).

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2.3.4 Arsenic (As)

Arsenic occurs naturally in groundwater in some areas and can enter water bodies through

industrial activities, mining, and the use of arsenic-containing pesticides. Long-term exposure to

arsenic through drinking water has been linked to various health issues, including skin lesions

and cancers (WHO, 2011).

2.3.5 Chromium (Cr)

Chromium can be found in different forms, with hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] being the

most toxic. Industrial processes and improper waste disposal can lead to high levels of chromium

in water sources. High concentrations of Cr(VI) in drinking water have been associated with an

increased risk of lung cancer (USEPA, 2019).

2.3.6 Copper (Cu)

Copper is often present in water due to corrosion of copper pipes and fittings. While it is

an essential micronutrient, high concentrations of copper in drinking water can cause

gastrointestinal issues, liver and kidney damage, and Wilson's disease in individuals with a

genetic predisposition (WHO, 2011).

2.4. SOURCESCES OF HEAVY METALS

2.4.1 Natural Sources

Some heavy metals occur naturally in the Earth's crust and can be released into aquatic

environments through geological processes such as weathering, erosion, and volcanic activities.

Natural sources include rock formations, sediment deposits, and mineral leaching.

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2.4.2 Anthropogenic Sources

Human activities contribute significantly to heavy metal contamination in aquatic

environments. Anthropogenic sources include:

2.4.3 Industrial activities

Industries such as mining, metal smelting, manufacturing, and chemical production release

heavy metals into water bodies through effluents, spills, and leaching from waste disposal sites.

2.4.4 Urban runoff

Urban areas contribute to heavy metal contamination through stormwater runoff, which

carries pollutants such as heavy metals from roads, roofs, and other impervious surfaces. Major

sources include vehicle emissions, construction activities, and improper disposal of litter and

household chemicals.

2.4.5 Agricultural practices

The use of fertilizers, pesticides, and livestock manure can lead to the runoff of heavy

metals into water bodies. Irrigation practices using water sources containing heavy metals can

also contribute to contamination.

2.4.6 Waste disposal

Improper disposal of industrial and domestic waste, including landfill leachate and

improper wastewater treatment, can introduce heavy metals into water bodies.

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2.4.7 Atmospheric deposition

Industrial emissions and the combustion of fossil fuels release heavy metals into the

atmosphere. These metals can subsequently deposit onto water bodies through wet and dry

deposition, leading to contamination.

2.4.8 Sewage and wastewater

Untreated or inadequately treated sewage and wastewater discharge can contain heavy

metals that contribute to aquatic contamination.

2.4.9 Point source pollution

Direct discharges from specific pollution sources, such as industrial outfalls and

wastewater treatment plants, can release heavy metals into water bodies.

2.4.10 Non-Point Source Pollution

Diffuse pollution from multiple sources, including agriculture and urban areas, can

contribute to heavy metal contamination in aquatic environments.

2.5 HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF HEAVY METAL CONTAMINATION IN

WATER

Heavy metal contamination in water can have significant toxicological and health

implications for humans and aquatic organisms. The toxicity of heavy metals largely depends on

the specific metal, its concentration, and the duration of exposure. The following are some key

toxicity and health implications associated with heavy metal contamination in water:

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Exposure to mercury, especially in its organic form methylmercury, can cause severe damage to

the central nervous system, leading to neurological disorders, cognitive impairments, and

developmental delays in children. It also poses risks to cardiovascular health and immune

function (Clarkson, Magos, & Greenwood, 2003).

Lead toxicity can affect multiple organ systems, including the nervous, cardiovascular,

reproductive, and renal systems. Chronic exposure to lead has been linked to learning

disabilities, behavioral problems, decreased IQ, and impaired kidney function. It can also pose

significant risks to infants and young children (Needleman, 2004).

Cadmium is a highly toxic metal that mainly affects the kidneys and lungs. Prolonged exposure

to cadmium can lead to kidney damage, lung diseases, and an increased risk of cancer. It also has

harmful effects on the skeletal system and reproductive health, including infertility (Nordberg et

al., 2007).

Arsenic contamination in water can lead to various health problems, including skin lesions,

cancers (such as skin, lung, bladder, and kidney cancers), cardiovascular diseases, and

neurological effects. Chronic exposure to high levels of arsenic has been linked to increased

mortality (Hughes, 2002).

While copper is an essential micronutrient, excessive exposure to copper in drinking water can

be toxic, particularly for individuals with Wilson's disease or systemic copper overload

disorders. Acute copper toxicity can cause gastrointestinal issues, liver damage, and hemolytic

anemia, while chronic exposure can lead to liver and kidney damage (WHO, 2011).

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Zinc is an essential micronutrient; however, at high concentrations, zinc can cause adverse health

effects. Excessive intake of zinc from contaminated water can lead to gastrointestinal problems,

copper deficiency, and impaired immune function (WHO, 2011).

Hexavalent chromium (Cr6+) is a highly toxic form of chromium that can cause skin irritation,

respiratory problems, and an increased risk of lung cancer. Ingestion of high levels of chromium

in drinking water has been associated with gastrointestinal issues and liver and kidney damage

(O'Brien, Davies, & Cherrie, 2003).

It is important to note that the threshold limits for safe concentrations of heavy metals in drinking

water and the specific health implications may vary between countries. Regular monitoring,

proper water treatment, and adherence to regulatory guidelines are necessary to minimize the

health risks associated with heavy metal contamination in water.

2.6 CHALLENGES AND LIMITATIONS IN WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT

2.6.1 Biological Complexity

Water quality assessment involves the analysis of complex ecosystems and interactions

between various biological components. Assessing the ecological health and functioning of

aquatic systems can be challenging due to the complexities involved (APHA, 2017).

2.6.2 Data Availability and Quality

A lack of sufficient and reliable data can hinder accurate water quality assessments.

Monitoring networks might have limited spatial coverage or gaps in certain parameters, making

it challenging to obtain a comprehensive understanding of water quality (USEPA, 2020).

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2.6.3 Analytical Techniques and Sampling Methods

Different analytical techniques and sampling methods may introduce bias or errors in

water quality assessment. It is essential to select appropriate methods and ensure their accuracy

and precision (Vivier et al., 2006).

2.6.4 Emerging Contaminants

The presence of emerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products,

and microplastics poses challenges in water quality assessment. Their detection and

quantification require advanced analytical methods and knowledge about their potential impacts

(Daughton, 2018).

2.6.5 Water Resource Management and Policy

Assessing water quality involves considering the socio-economic and policy aspects

related to water resource management. Identifying suitable management actions and developing

effective policies for water quality improvement can be a complex task (WHO, 2011).

2.7 HEAVY METALS ASSESSMENT

Assessing heavy metal pollution in rivers is essential for understanding water quality and

its potential impacts on aquatic ecosystems and human health. Numerous studies have been

conducted to assess heavy metal concentrations in rivers, employing various sampling and

analytical techniques. Here are some key findings from existing research:

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2.7.1 Spatial variation

Heavy metal concentrations in rivers often exhibit spatial variations due to different

pollution sources and hydrological conditions. For example, a study by Chattopadhyay et al.

(2019) found significantly higher concentrations of heavy metals (such as lead, cadmium, and

zinc) in urbanized areas compared to rural areas in the River Ganga, India.

2.7.2 Source identification

Identifying the sources of heavy metal pollution is crucial for effective pollution control

strategies. Chen et al. (2018) employed a multivariate statistical analysis to determine the sources

of heavy metals in the Beijiang River, China. The study identified industrial activities and

agricultural inputs as major sources of heavy metal pollution in the river.

2.7.3 Seasonal variations

Heavy metal concentrations in rivers can vary seasonally due to changes in factors such as

runoff, weathering processes, and anthropogenic activities. Gholami et al. (2019) conducted a

study in the Karoon River, Iran, and observed higher concentrations of heavy metals during the

wet season compared to the dry season. These variations highlight the need for continuous

monitoring to capture temporal trends and the overall impact of seasonality on heavy metal

pollution.

2.7.4 Bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms

Heavy metals can accumulate in aquatic organisms, posing a potential risk to both the

ecosystem and human health. A study by Deng et al. (2020) examined heavy metal

concentrations in several fish species from the Pearl River, China. The results showed significant

22
bioaccumulation of heavy metals, indicating the potential transfer of heavy metals through the

food chain.

2.7.5 Ecological impact

Heavy metal pollution can have detrimental effects on aquatic ecosystems. A study by

Ramesh et al. (2019) assessed the impact of heavy metals in the Coleroon River, India, on the

growth and photosynthetic efficiency of aquatic macrophytes. The research revealed significant

impairments in the growth and photosynthetic capacity of these plants due to heavy metal

exposure.

It is important to note that the assessment of heavy metals in rivers depends on various factors

such as sampling methods, analytical techniques, and local conditions. These findings highlight

the need for standardized protocols and continuous monitoring to accurately assess and manage

heavy metal pollution in rivers.

2.8 IMPLICATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Heavy metal contamination in rivers can have serious environmental implications. Li et al.

(2018) highlighted the ecological risks associated with heavy metal accumulation in the Daliao

River Basin. Elevated levels of heavy metals can harm aquatic organisms, disrupt the food chain,

and negatively affect ecosystem health.

Zhang et al. (2019) emphasized the environmental concerns linked to heavy metal contamination

in rivers. High concentrations of heavy metals can pose risks to drinking water sources,

agricultural irrigation, and overall water quality. These contaminants can also accumulate in

23
sediments, potentially leading to long-term impacts on benthic organisms and sediment-dwelling

species.

The temporal variations in heavy metal contamination, as found by Liu et al. (2017), raise

concerns about the potential for acute and chronic effects on aquatic ecosystems. Seasonal

fluctuations in heavy metal concentrations may coincide with sensitive life stages of organisms,

such as spawning or hatching, which can increase their vulnerability to the toxic effects of heavy

metals.

Meza-Figueroa et al. (2019) stressed the environmental implications of heavy metal

contamination from mining activities. Mining operations can result in the release of large

quantities of heavy metals into rivers, leading to ecosystem degradation and posing risks to

human health through the consumption of contaminated fish or water.

The spatial variations in heavy metal contamination, highlighted in the study by Wan et al.

(2016), raise concerns about the unequal distribution of environmental risks. Urban areas, often

characterized by industrial and anthropogenic activities, may experience higher contamination

levels, exposing nearby communities and ecosystems to potential harm.

24
 CHAPTER THREE

3.1 MATERIAL AND METHOD

3.1.1 Chemicals and reagents

Nitric acid (HNO 3), Company (Sigma-Aldrich), Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Company

(Sigma-Aldrich), Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) (Sigma-Aldrich), EDTA (Ethylene diamine

tetraacetic acid) Company (Fisher Scientific, Sigma-Aldrich, and Merck. Agilent Technologies),

Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) standards Company (including Agilent Technologies,

PerkinElmer, and Analytika. PerkinElmer), pH buffer solutions Company (Fisher Scientific,

Sigma-Aldrich, and Merck. Analytika), Conductivity standards (manufacturers, including Hanna

Instruments, Mettler Toledo, and Thermo Fisher Scientific)

3.1.2 Equipment

Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS) Company (PerkinElmer), ICP-MS

(Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry) (PerkinElmer, Agilent Technologies, and

Thermo Fisher Scientific. Agilent Technologies), pH meter (Hanna Instruments, Mettler Toledo,

and Thermo Fisher Scientific. Shimadzu), Conductivity meter (Hanna Instruments, Mettler

Toledo, and Thermo Fisher Scientific. Thermo Fisher Scientific), Turbidity meter (Hach,

Thermo Fisher Scientific, and Hanna Instruments. Hanna Instruments), Dissolved oxygen (DO)

(Hach, YSI, and Thermo Fisher Scientific. Mettler Toledo).

3.1.3 Sample location

The water samples were collected from Kumodugu Gana River (River Yobe) in Geidam

Local Government Area, Yobe State Nigeria

25
3.1.4 Sample collection

Geidam has a natural river, two Samples were collected in a plastic container at different

sites considering the interconnectivity of water channels at strategic points and the availability of

water flow throughout the year.

3.1.5 Sample assessment

Samples Assessment and Their Procedure in the Assessment of Physicochemical

Parameters and Heavy Metals in Water:

3.1.6 Water Sampling Procedure

Water samples were collected using various methods, including grab sampling, composite

sampling, and automatic samplers. The specific procedure may vary depending on the study

objectives and target parameters. A commonly followed procedure is outlined below:

Ensured that sampling equipment is cleaned and free from contaminants, and was select

appropriate sampling locations to capture a representative sample, considered factors such as

source (river, lake, well), proximity to pollution sources, and variability within the water body,

the sampling containers were rinsed with the water to be sampled, then fill them to the required

volume, leaving enough headspace for preservation purposes. The samples were handled with

care to avoid contamination, and the containers were sealed tightly to prevent evaporation or

leakage, each of the sample containers were labelled with essential information such as sampling

location, date, and time, Methods for the Determination of Metals in Environmental Samples" -

United States Environmental Protection Agency.

26
3.2 Physicochemical Parameters Assessment:

Physicochemical parameters provide information about the physical and chemical

characteristics of the water sample. Commonly measured physicochemical parameters include

pH, conductivity, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen.

3.2.1 Temperature

A digital thermometer were used to measured the water temperature at the sampling

location. By taking the reading at a depth of approximately 0.5 meters below the water surface,

the temperature was recorded in degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit, (Environmental Protection

Agency, 2019). Standard Operating Procedure.

3.2.2 PH

The pH meter was Calibrated using buffer solutions of known pH value. Then the pH

electrode submerged into the river water sample, the reading was allowed to stabilize, and the pH

value were recorded, (United States Geological Survey, 2015)

3.2.3 Conductivity

A conductivity meter calibrated with a standard solution were used by Immersing the

conductivity probe into the water sample, ensured no air bubbles trapped and the reading was

allowed to stabilize, the conductivity value was recorded, (International Organization for

Standardization, 2008).

27
3.2.4 Colour

The collected water sample colour are compared to a standardized colour chart, and then

the corresponding colour rating was be recorded (City of Colorado Springs, 2013).

3.2.5 Acidity

A few drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution was added to the collected water sample

in a clean dry glass container, and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution was added slowly drop by

drop the coloured changed from colourless to pink. The volume of NaOH solution used were

recorded for neutralization as it indicates the acidity level, Environmental Protection Agency.

(2019).Total Acidity Titration Method.

3.2.6 Hardness

A soap solution were added to the collected water sample drop by drop and stirred gently

until no suds, the number of the drop required multiplied by a conversion factor to determine the

hardness value in parts per million (ppm), (United States Geological Survey, 2019).

3.2.7 Sulphur

A few drops of barium chloride solutions were added to the collected water sample and

white precipitate was observed which indicates the presence of sulphur, (United States

Environmental Protection Agency, 1992).

28
3.2.8 Chloride

The Collected water sample was put in a clean container, and a chloride test kit or a

chloride ion electrode were used to determined the chloride ion concentration directly,

(American Public Health Association, 2012).

3.2.9 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)

Dissolved oxygen meter or a Winkler titration method for analysis. Ensured the water

sample is free from air bubbles and correctly calibrated before taking measurements of the

dissolved oxygen concentration at varying depths of the river and the values was recorded,

(United States Geological Survey, 2002).

3.2.10 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The collected water sample were incubated in a dark at a controlled temperature (typically

20°C) for a fixed period., the remaining dissolved oxygen was measured using Winkler titration.

The BOD value were calculated by subtracting the final DO concentration from the initial DO

concentration, (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1997).

3.2.11 Alkalinity

A few drops of phenolphthalein indicator were added to the collected water sample and

was titrated with standardized hydrochloric acid (HCl) until the colour changed from pink to

colourless, the volume of HCl used for titration was recorded, which indicated the level of

alkalinity, (National Environmental Methods Index, 2001).

29
3.3 Heavy Metal Assessment:

Assessing the presence and concentration of heavy metals in water is an important aspect

of water quality analysis. Here is an. example of the procedure for the assessment of heavy

metals and physicochemical parameters in water:

3.3.1 Heavy Metal Analysis:

A calibration curve were prepared using standard solutions with known concentrations of

the heavy metals under investigation, different concentrations to cover the expected range. For

heavy metal, a known volume of the filtered water sample was taken in a clean container

depending on the analysis method, various techniques used for heavy metal analysis, including

atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-

MS). The concentration of heavy metal in the sample was measured by comparing its absorbance

or intensity to the calibration curve, to ensured accuracy and precision, EPA (U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency). (2020).

30
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS

4.1.1 Physiochemical Parameters

The table below shows the result of physiochemical parameters that include temperature, pH,

conductivity, hardness, chloride acidity and alkalinity of the water sample from Kumadudgu

Gana River in Geidam Local Government Area of Yobe State as compared to WHO standards

limits.

Table 4.1: Comparison of the physico-chemical parameter of Kumadugu Gana River with
WHO-World Health Organization standards for irrigation water
Parameters Sample WHO Standards

Temperature (oC) 26.63 20-30

pH 6.84 6.5-8.5
Electrical Conductivity (µS/cm) 0.06 700-3000
Hardness (mg/L) 0.83 500
Chloride (mg/L) 96.67 7.04
Acidity (mg/L) 24 -
Alkalinity (mg/L) 405 -

4.1.2 Heavy Metal

The Table 4.2 below shows the result of heavy metals (lead, copper, chromium, nickel, arsenic

and cadmium) concentration in the water sample from Kumadudgu Gana River in Geidam Local

31
Government Area of Yobe State as compared to WHO standards limits, while mercury is not

detected

Table 4.2: Mean values heavy metals concentration in water sample from Kumadudgu
Gana River and comparison with WHO guideline

Parameters Sample WHO Standards

Lead 0.036±0.01 0.1

Copper 0.001±0.01 2
Mercury ND 0.001
Cadmium 0.00 0.003
Chromium 0.00 0.05
Nickel 0.013 0.02
Arsenic 0.013 0.01
Values are presented as mean± STD, n =3, ND: Not Detected, STD: Standard Deviation
4.2 DISCUSSION

Physicochemical parameters of water are important for assessing and monitoring water quality.

These parameters include temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, conductivity, total

dissolved solids, and various chemical components. Changes in these parameters can have

negative effects on the composition and diversity of aquatic ecosystems, including zooplankton,

aquatic avifauna, and aquatic insects. Poor water quality, indicated by high levels of pollutants

and contaminants, can lead to a decline in species richness and density. Monitoring

physicochemical parameters is crucial for identifying potential threats to water resources and

implementing conservation measures. Additionally, these parameters are used to assess the

suitability of water for various purposes, such as drinking water supply. Understanding and

32
managing the physicochemical parameters of water is essential for maintaining the health and

sustainability of aquatic ecosystems.

The temperature of the water sample is 26.63 °C as Table 4.1. The temperature was between the

WHO standard limit. Water temperature is one of the most important physical characteristics of

aquatic systems. As water temperature rises, the rate of photosynthesis increases, thereby

providing adequate amounts of nutrients (FOEN, 2011). According to the Department of

Environment (DoE) standards for irrigation water the value of temperature is within the

acceptable limit as Table 4.1.

The pH of the water sample is 6.84 as Table 4.1. The pH value is within WHO standards, which

indicates the basic condition. Electrical conductivity (EC) or Conductivity itself is not a human

or aquatic health concern, but it can serve as an indicator of other water quality problems. High

values of EC show that a large amount of ionic substances are present in water (Kabir et al.

2002). Table 4.1 shows that the EC of the sample is 0.06. According to WHO standards for

irrigation water, the EC condition of river water was within the permissible limit as Table 03. It

indicates that there may be no efficient sources of ionic substances or a lack of proper dilution.

The total hardness (TH) of the sample is 0.83 as in Table 4.1. The general scale of hardness

provided by the Water Quality Association the value of Hardness of water as CaCO 3 ranged from

120-180 mg/L which is hard (Lehr et al. 1980). According to WHO standards for irrigation water

(Table 4.1), the hardness of the sample water is within the permissible limit. The acidity of the

water sample is 24 mg/L. The alkalinity of the water sample is 405 mg/L; which shows that the

alkalinity of this river was moderate. The Chloride (Cl -) concentration of the water sample is

96.67 mg/L as Table 4.1. The value of chloride concentration is very high.

33
Heavy metals in water can have adverse effects on both human health and the environment.

These metals can enter water sources through natural processes or anthropogenic activities such

as industrial effluent, domestic sewage, mining, and agricultural waste. The presence of heavy

metals in water can lead to contamination, which can spread diseases and have fatal

consequences. The result of the study showed the presence of some heavy metals concentration

such as lead, copper, chromium, nickel, arsenic and cadmium in the water sample from

Kumadudgu Gana River in Geidam Local Government Area of Yobe State as compared to WHO

standards limits, while mercury is not detected.

34
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 SUMMARY

The results obtained from the kumodugu gana river in geidam l.g.a, yobe state, investigated

showed that the physiochemical parameters which include, temperature, pH, conductivity,

hardness, chloride, acidity and alkalinity, had values that are within the WHO permissible limits

for drinking water.

Also, the result obtained after analyzing the content of heavy metals such as ( Pb, Cu, Hg, Cd,

Cr, As, ) showed that the samples is within the permissible limit of World Health Organization.

5.2 CONCLUSION

Based on the result obtained, it is concluded that the physiochemical parameters of water such as

temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, conductivity, total dissolved solids,are all within

the accepted and permissible for drinking water by World Health Organization (WHO). which

shows that the river water in these area is safe for drinking. Also, the result shows that samples

obtained from Kumadudgu Gana River in Geidam Local Government Area of Yobe State, are

found below the permissible limit of World Health Organization (WHO). Also, the finding

shows that the concentration of ( Pb, Cu, Hg, Cd, Cr, As,) In the sample were all below the

permissible limit of WHO.. It is concluded that all the water samples are absolutely safe for

drinking as stipulated by WHO.

35
5.3 RECOMMENDATION

Based on this study, it’s recommended that water in these areas requires treatment before

consuming. Also, further monitoring should be conducted to examine and determine the extent

of pollution by other physiochemical and heavy metals in these areas.

36
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