Unit Case Studies/ Detailed Examples

Topic 1- 1.1. Environmental Value Systems

Foundations Literature and Media
★ Silent Spring by Rachel Carson (1962)
Rachel Carson published a book ‘Silent Spring'. It outlines the harmful
effects of DDT passing along the food chains to top predators. It
successfully created new public attitudes toward the use of pesticide,
DDT by illustrating the consequences of extensive use to human life. It
enhanced the awareness of the environmental pollution, resulting in
DDT being banned worldwide.

International Conference and Agreement

★ Rio Earth Summit (1992)
The UN Conference on Environment and Development, attended by 172
nations, outlined that radical changes in attitudes towards the
environment needed to limit the damage to the planet. It Had a global
impact - led to the adoption of ‘Agenda 21’ (a comprehensive action plan
to ensure sustainable development) by over 178 parties.

Environmental Disaster
★ Industrial accident in Bhopal, India (1984)
It exploded at a pesticide plant– releasing 42 tonnes of toxic methyl
isocyanate gas, killing 10,000 people in the first 72 hours and recorded
25,000 people in total due to this disaster. The environmental disaster,
Bhopal, has raised awareness of the risks of industrialization and the
danger of chemical factories in humanity.

1.3. Energy and Equilibria

Positive feedback
An apple starts to ripen the following day. According to Chemistry and
Biology facts, when a fruit is ripe, it releases ethylene through the skin.
The apples nearby also ripen when exposed to this gas. Once they are
fully ripe, they too begin to produce ethylene, which continues to ripen
the rest of the tree, generating a wave-like effect. Because ethylene gas
enhances the ripening of fruits, this feedback loop is frequently used in
fruit production.

Negative feedback
A kid got a fever, we put a thermometer under the arm and the
temperature suddenly increased. When our body gets too hot, it starts
to sweat. Those ‘sweat water’ is going to create evaporative cooling - they
carry a little bit of heat with them. However, our body also starts to
vasodilation. The blood is going to be carried towards the surface of the
skin and through the convection. So there is going to lose more of that
heat to our environment. Therefore, the temperature is gonna drop and
our body temperature will go back to normal.
1.4. Sustainability
Renewable: Solar energy, Hydropower, Wind, etc.
Non-renewable: Minerals, Fossil fuels, Nuclear energy, etc.
Replenishable: Forests, Timber, Water, etc.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) was a major assessment
of the human impact on the global environment. It was founded by the
United Nations in 2000, launched in 2001, and was published in 2005.
● Gave a scientific appraisal of the condition in the world’s
ecosystems and services they provided.
○ used a variety of environmental indicators to assess the
ecosystems such as biodiversity, pollution, population, or
climate
○ these factors are used to assess sustainability on a range
of scales, from local to global.
=> MEA was done on a global scale.
Aims
● assess how changes to ecosystems have affected, affecting, and
will affect human health and wellbeing.
● assess the scientific basis for action to conserve and use
ecosystems sustainably
Findings
● 60% of the world’s ecosystems have been degraded
● Over 25% of fish stocks are overharvested
● Human use 40%-50% of all available surface freshwater
● 35% of mangroves have been destroyed

1.5. Pollution
Origin: DDT was widely used as a pesticide from the 1940s until it was
banned in many countries in 1970 due to its environmental and health
impacts.
Use: It is effective in controlling insect-borne human diseases such as
malaria (by mosquitoes) and typhus (by lice).
● top predators were receiving high doses of DDT through
biomagnification.
● efficiently utilized by farmers in agricultural production
-> eliminate pests that will harm crops -> as an insecticide
The use of DDT remains controversial (in controlling diseases and its
environmental impacts) and led to a ban on its use in many countries;
including the United States.
Consequences: Bad effects on human health such as high risk of liver,
increased fertility, and pregnancy issues. Not only on humanity's health
but also on the whole ecosystem. With the excessive use of DDT, the
environment will be detrimentally impacted in terms of soil degradation,
disrupt the food chain, and greater rate of bioaccumulation of species in
aquatic environments.
In 1972, Rachel Carson published a book called “Silent Spring” which is
considered as a significant environmental movement as it shapes the
society’s perceptions and perspectives on the use of DDT.
Topic 2– 2.1. Species and Populations
Ecosystems and Niche
Ecology If two species have an identical or very similar niche they cannot live in
the same habitat. The Eurasian red squirrel and Eastern gray squirrel
both eat very similar foods. The gray squirrel outcompetes the red
squirrel.
Fundamental Niche
In the early spring, the male red-winged blackbird has good real estate in
the marshes. With the seasonal progress, however, tri-color blackbirds,
which are more aggressive, move into the marshes and take over the
best territory. So, before the arrival of the tri-color blackbird, the
marshes were a fundamental niche for the male red-winged blackbird.
=> Environment: Marshland
Realised Niche
The coexistence of wolves and coyotes living across North America.
Because both species inhabit the same area, coyotes would then
compete for food and territory. The realized niche for coyotes was small
due to the more aggressive nature of wolves. When European settlers
came to the continent, hunting reduced the population of wolves. This
favored the coyotes, and thus, their realized niche expanded.

Predation: A lion hunting a zebra or a wolf preying on a rabbit.

Herbivory: A deer grazing on grass or a caterpillar feeding on leaves.
Parasitism: Ticks feeding on mammals' blood or fleas infesting dogs.
Mutualism: Pollination, where bees collect nectar from flowers and, in
the process, transfer pollen, benefiting both the bees and the plants.
Disease: The flu virus infecting humans or malaria parasites infecting
mosquitoes and humans.
Competition: Lions and hyenas competing for prey or plants competing
for sunlight and nutrients.

2.2. Communities and Ecosystems

A food chain that involves producers, consumers, and decomposers.

Producers: Plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce

food through photosynthesis.
Consumers: Herbivores such as rabbits eat plants for energy.
Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi break down dead plants and animals,
returning nutrients to the soil.
This food chain: Plants -> Herbivores -> Decomposers

Bioaccumulation
Pesticides, such as DDT is an example of chemicals that can cause
bioaccumulation. When DDT enters the water bodies, it can be taken up
by aquatic organisms, enter the food chain, and start to build up in
organisms’ bodies and cannot be broken down.
Biomagnification
As predatory fish consume smaller fish that have accumulated DDT, the
concentration of DDT in the predatory fish increases. If larger animals,
such as humans, consume these predatory fish, they may be exposed to
even higher levels of DDT due to biomagnification.

2.3. Flows of Energy and Matter

Human impact on flows of energy and matter
Deforestation results in the loss of habitat for numerous plant and
animal species. This loss of biodiversity can disrupt energy flows and
matter cycling within ecosystems, as different species play specific roles
in nutrient cycling and energy transfer.

2.4. Biomes, Zonation, and Succession

2.5. Investigating Ecosystems

Five abiotic components of ecosystem
Sunlight: provides energy for photosynthesis → plants and other
autotrophs convert sunlight into chemical energy
● measured by: light meters and spectrophotometers
Temperature: affects the metabolic rates, growth, and reproduction of
organisms in an ecosystem.
● measured by: thermal meters and thermal imaging
Water: Water availability and quality are critical factors for the survival of
organisms in an ecosystem.
● measured by: streamflow meters, pH, dissolved oxygens, and
nutrient concentrations.
Soil: influences the types of plants that can grow in an ecosystem.
 ● Soil properties can be measured through pH tests, organic
matter content, and nutrient levels.
Air quality: including factors such as oxygen levels, carbon dioxide levels,
and pollutant concentrations, affects the respiratory systems of
organisms.
● air quality monitoring stations: pollutants and gas concentration.

Topic 3– 3.2. Origins of Biodiversity

Biodiversity and Causes of the Sixth Mass Extinctions
Conservation (1) Ordovician-Silurian Extinction (440 million years ago)
→ A result of global cooling and reduced sea levels, which impacted the
many marine species living in warm, shallow coastal waters.
→ Continental drift and subsequent climate change
● Caused the demise of around 57% of marine species.
(2) Late Devonian Extinction (365 million years ago)
→ Linked to major climate change, possibly caused by an eruption of the
volcanic Viluy Traps area.
● Caused rapid fluctuations in sea levels and reduced oxygen
levels in the oceans.
(3) Permian-Triassic Extinction (250 million years ago)
● The Great Dying → most severe in Earth’s history
→ Caused by a combination of volcanic activity, specifically massive
flood basalt eruptions
● Leading to climate change, ocean acidification, widespread
habitat loss
● The extinction of approximately 96% of marine species and 70%
of terrestrial vertebrate species.
(4) Triassic-Jurassic Extinction (210 million years ago)
→ Triggered by a vast eruption of the Siberian Traps, a gigantic and
prolonged volcanic event
● About 96% of species becoming extinct
(5) Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction (65 million years ago)
→ The impact of a large asteroid or comet, which resulted in a global
catastrophe
● Lead to the extinction of non-avian dinosaurs
● Caused widespread fires, tsunamis, and a "nuclear winter" effect
due to dust and debris in the atmosphere, leading to the
collapse of ecosystems worldwide
(6) Holocene extinction (11,700 years ago - present)
→ Caused by natural phenomena, human activity, unsustainable use of
land, water and energy use, and climate change.
● 40% of all land has been converted for food production.
● Nearly half of the planet's animal species are now in decline

3.3. Threats of Biodiversity

(1). Case Study of Species that has become extinct due to human activity.
● The Dodo
Dodo is the large flightless bird endemic to the island of Mauritius. No
major predators on Mauritius so the dodo had no need of flight. The
dodo was a ground-nesting bird. In 1505 Portuguese sailors discovered
Mauritius and used it as a restocking point on their voyages. Later on,
the island was used as a jail and the introduction of rats, pigs, and
monkeys. These ate dodo eggs and humans killed them for sport and
food. Crab-eating macaque monkeys → stealing dodo eggs. Conversion
of forest to plantations (growing crops, plants) also destroyed their
habitat. The species, Dodo, is known to be extinct by 1681. Island fauna
impoverished by loss of the dodo. This species had no fear with humans,
predators thus, they were prone to death → Very few skeletons remain.

(2) Case Study of Species that is Critically Endangered

● Carnaby’s Cockatoo
Carnaby’s cockatoo is a large, black bird, and an endemic species in the
Southwest of Western Australia and threatened by the destruction of its
habitat. Only 50% of the population (compared to 1950) is left.
It begins breeding when four years old and produces only two eggs each
year. The death/mortality rate during the first few years of life is
extremely high. They live for 40–50 years. However, they are difficult to
breed in captivity and their population is declining.
● They are protected by law and are officially listed as endangered
and likely to continue to decline in numbers.
Cockatoos have specialized habitat requirements → they feed in open
heathland on seeds and insect larvae → they migrate to populated
coastal areas in late summer and autumn.
The cockatoo’s habitat has been lost to wheat farming during the last
century and more recently to gravel mines, firebreaks and agriculture.
Competition from invasive species for the nesting sites. Poaching —
illegal robbing eggs and baby birds from nests is a lucrative activity
● Enforcement of the law is difficult in some remote areas → listed
as endangered species of the IUCN Red List.

(3) Case Study of Species that its Conservation Status has been Improved
by Intervention.
● The Whale Shark

The Great Barrier Reef Case Study

The Great Barrier Reef is a natural wonder and is also known as the
world's largest coral reef system, located in Queensland, Australia. Coral
reefs are like rainforests, they are very diverse and highly productive →
many threats to the ecosystem. Ecological, socio-political and economic
pressure are causing the degradation of the coral reef. Tourism is a
major contributor to the local economy but has negative impacts on the
reef because it is very fragile and is easily damaged. It is illegal to take
coral from the country of origin, but some like to break bits off for
souvenirs. Runoff from fertilizers and pesticides from the soils into the
sea has caused inorganic nitrogen pollution to increase by 3000%,
combined with sewage and pollution from coastal settlements there are
excessive nutrients in the water and algal blooms occur. Global warming
has increased sea temperature causing the reef to lose its color.
Increases in sea level and temperature have permanent effects on the
reef causing loss in biodiversity and ecological value of the area. All the
human impacts make the coral even more vulnerable to natural threats
such as disease and natural predators. Structural damage can be done
to the coral by storms and cyclones. Consequences→ combined with
human and natural processes lead to several damage to the reef and the
species that depend on it → leads to breakdown of the ecosystem
→ loss of biodiversity→ lead to a reduction in its value as an economic
resource.
● The worst bleaching event in 2016 → 90% of the coral system is
damaged → intensive and detrimental.

A Conflict between Exploitation, Sustainable Development, and

Conservation
● CAMPFIRE initiative in Zimbaque
Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources
(CAMPFIRE) → assist rural development and conservation.
12% of the natural habitats of Zimbaque are in protected areas. Local
people were relocated when these were set up. CAMPFIRE encourages
people to see wildlife as a resource, rather than a nuisance. The
program operates safari in order to generate revenue that is intended to
support community development projects and conservation efforts. The
program had positive effects on community participation,
empowerment, and natural resource management. However, it also
identified challenges related to governance, benefit distribution,
transparency, lack of clear rights and ownership for the community, and
the need for improved institutional arrangements. The CAMPFIRE
initiative has been recognized as a pioneering community-based wildlife
conservation project that has influenced other indigenous conservation
projects in Africa. It has contributed to poverty reduction in some rural
areas and supported the development of community infrastructure and
services.

3.4. Conservation of Biodiversity

Keystone species: Blue Whale, Sea Otter, Elephant, Wolves.
Charismatic species: Polar bears, elephants, and sea turtles.
● Charismatic species → popular, charismatic species that serve as
symbols and rallying points to stimulate conservation awareness
and action.

Danum Valley Conservation Area, Malaysian Borneo

Granting protected status to a species or ecosystem is not a guarantee
of protection without community support, adequate funding, and proper
research.
In North-eastern Borneo, the 3rd largest island in the world, a large area
of commercial forest is owned by the Sabah Foundation. The Yayasan
Sabah Forest Management Area (YSFMA) → an extensive area of
commercial hardwood forest containing within it protected areas for
undisturbed forest, areas that are being rehabilitated with ‘enrichment;
planting which is adding seedlings to heavily disturbed logged forest and
areas of commercial softwood forestry. DVCA has established the
biological importance of the native forest and acted as a focus for
 conservation in the region. The late 1980s, the area was under threat
from commercial logging. The establishment of the research programme
has created local awareness of the conservation value of the area ->
provided important scientific information about the forest. Danum
Valley is controlled by a management committee. The establishment of
the hotel has flourishing ecotourism and raising revenue for the local
area -> raises the international profile of the area, an important centre
for conservation and research. Many campaigns/ projects are being
supported and funded by the government and federal government. The
Danum Valley Field Centre is managed and maintained by a large staff of
local people -> being promoted widely in education.
=> The impacts of the DVCA have been overwhelmingly positive ->
covering nearly 500000 ha.

Topic 4 - Water 4.1. Introduction to Water Systems

Human influence on the hydrological cycle with regards to agriculture,
deforestation and/or urbanization.
● Agriculture
Deforestation removes the vegetation water stores. Forest removal
exposes the soil to the impact of rainfall which causes soil erosion and
reduces the soil stores. Water is no longer held in the vegetation,
meaning increased overland flow to surface stores. Evapotranspiration is
reduced. Young plants store larger amounts of water - if removed there
is an increase in overland runoff.
● Deforestation
In agriculture, soil stores may increase if irrigation is used. Groundwater
and surface water can become contaminated with agrochemicals, and
reduced by extraction. A decrease in infiltration and increase in overland
flow reasons due to heavy, powerful machinery, cultivation of sleeper
slopes, hedgerow removal
● Urbanization
Storm drains
Building activity - clears vegetation, exposes soil and increases the
overland flow
Replacing vegetated soil with impermeable surfaces - increases runoff,
increases the speed of overland flow, reduces infiltration
Less interception and infiltration
Lack of vegetation - more runoff and flash floods
Removal of trees - decrease EVT

4.2. Access to Freshwater

How shared freshwater resources have given rise to international conflict
● The Nile Basin conflict
The Nile River, one of the world's longest rivers, stretches across 11
African countries. This history surrounding the shared use of the Nile
River basin is highly complex and various factors have contributed to
conflicts over water allocation and management.
Historical Background:
The Nile basin countries were historically colonized by different
European powers, resulting in various agreements and treaties being
imposed that favored certain countries over others.
● For example, the 1929 and 1959 Nile Waters Agreements
between Egypt and Sudan granted them a very large share of the
Nile's waters, while upstream countries were marginalized.
Asymmetric Water Access:
Downstream countries like Egypt and Sudan have undergone significant
control and utilization of Nile waters, while upstream countries have had
limited access.
● Egypt heavily relies on the Nile for agriculture, with the river
providing over 90% of its water supply, enabling it to sustain a
vast population and agricultural output.
Population Growth and Development:
Rapid population growth and increasing development in upstream
countries have heightened the demand for water resources, intensifying
conflicts over water allocation.
● Ethiopia seeks to harness the Nile's waters for hydropower and
irrigation through projects like the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance
Dam (GERD), raising concerns among downstream nations.
Upstream-Downstream Power Dynamics:
Power dynamics between upstream and downstream countries have
played a role in shaping conflicts, with downstream countries asserting
historical rights and resisting changes to the status quo.
Egypt has historically perceived any alteration to the Nile's flow or water
usage by upstream countries as a threat to its national security and
economic stability, leading to tensions and diplomatic disputes.
Lack of Cooperative Framework:
Absence of a comprehensive and cooperative framework for Nile water
management has hindered collaborative efforts, heightening conflicts
among the Nile basin countries.
Climate Change and Uncertainty:
The impacts of climate change, including changing precipitation patterns
and prolonged droughts, have added to the uncertainty surrounding the
Nile's future water availability, heightening tensions. The potential
reduction in water flows due to climate change raises concerns among
all Nile basin countries regarding their ability to meet growing water
demands, amplifying the urgency to secure their water rights.
=> The Nile River basin is an example of how the shared use of a
freshwater resource can give rise to international conflicts. To address
these conflicts, the countries involved must engage in constructive
dialogue, prioritize equitable water management, and work towards
establishing a comprehensive and cooperative framework that ensures
sustainable water use for all stakeholders in the Nile River basin.

4.3. Aquatic Food Production Systems

WHALING IN JAPAN
Whaling was unregulated until 1946 when the International Whaling
Commission (IWC) was established Several whale species depleted in
number so were considered endangered like blue and gray whale
1960 - IWC banned commercial whaling - helped some species recover in
some areas
1982 - IWC introduced a moratorium on commercial whaling - lethal
scientific research was questioned
1986 - Ban came into effect Japan wanted ban reversed on recovered
stocks Hunts whales for "scientific purposes" to determine size and
dynamics of populations Drive hunts in Taiji - for meat/dolphinarium
trade
2014: IWC ruled Japan must stop whaling in the Antarctic, as it was not
strictly scientific. Japan has caught 3600 minke whales since 2005.
2019: left the IWC and resumed commercial whaling. Coastal regions
with 12 miles can do whatever they want but not in Antartic.
Due to COVID-19, the price of whale meat decreased as people are not
eating it.
Subsistence farming - Whaling by the Inuit
North American indigenous whaling - only hunted bowhead whale
Central part of culture and protein source 10,000 Inuit people in Alaska
were allowed to kill up to 336 bowhead whales in the 5 years 2013-18,
no more than 67 per year Bowhead are not endangered, the hunt is
sustainable
The way they are killed - concerns about pain and suffering
Debates: Anti-whaling Methods of capture can be cruel and cause pain
for animals
Whale watching brings in more money than whaling Whales that top off
the food chain show high levels of POPs - bioaccumulation
Pro-whaling:
Inexperienced whalers are rare and method of dispatch are so fast
Whaling provides a large amount of employment in fisheries,
restaurants and pet food.
Japanese Minke Whale is high in protein and low in saturated fat for
consumption.

Unsustainable fishing and associated fishery management strategies

Main fish of the Grand banks was cod and fishery yields of 800,000 fish
stock annually 40,000 people employed in 1968. Once the world's richest
fishery but closed in 1992 to allow stocks to recover. Expected to be
closed for three years but to this day still hasn't opened back up. Since
then, two decades have passed and stocks still haven't recovered.
Irreversible change so North Atlantic Ocean Fisheries now catch half of
what they did 50 years ago

The impacts of aquaculture

● Rice Paddy Farming in South East Asia
Farming where paddy rice fields are stocked with fish in the waters.
Paddy fields of rice have trenches which become refuges for fish.
When paddy fields are flooded, young fish are introduced and after 3
weeks, rice is well established so fish are let into rice fields.
Advantages:
Environmentally sustainable.
Rice higher yields due to more natural fertilizer.
Pest incidence decreased in rice and no need for pesticides or
herbicides.
Rice productivity increases due to the fish so farmers do not need to use
fertilizers.
Polyculture system of intensive subsistence farming
Disadvantages:
Demands of labour are high
Preference of other types of fish.
Some of the commonly cultured fish are not desirable
Fish predators can lower fish yield
Change in the nutrient balance, and the introduction of alien species,
which may have impacts for local biodiversity.

4.3. Aquatic Food Production Systems

Give an example of an area of high marine productivity caused by
upwellings and nutrient enrichment of surface waters
The coast of Peru and Chile is an excellent example of how upwellings
and nutrient enrichment of surface waters support high productivity and
diverse food webs. This region experiences one of the most productive
marine ecosystems in the world, known as the Humboldt Current
System or the Peru-Chile Current System.
The coast of Peru and Chile is influenced by the Humboldt Current, a
cold, nutrient-rich ocean current that flows northward along the western
coast of South America. The prevailing winds in this region, such as the
trade winds and the southward-flowing Antarctic Circumpolar Current,
drive coastal upwelling. Upwelling brings deep, nutrient-rich waters to
the surface, providing an abundant supply of nutrients like nitrates,
phosphates, and silicates that are essential for phytoplankton growth.
The nutrient-rich waters of the Humboldt Current System support
massive phytoplankton blooms, particularly of diatoms and other
fast-growing algae. These phytoplankton populations experience rapid
growth due to the availability of nutrients and sunlight, leading to high
rates of primary productivity. The high primary productivity supports a
diverse range of organisms throughout the food web.

4.4. Water Pollution

The process and impacts eutrophication
Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone and Eutrophication
In the US part of the Gulf of Mexico - Louisiana, Mississippi and Florida
Caused by excess nitrates and phosphates from Mississippi River Basin
agriculture.
High rainfall draws the nutrients in the river basin to the gulf
Red tide caused by algae blooms
Tourism and fishing industries threatened
Solutions:
Red tide Buffer Zones Change to local diets and what they eat - decrease
the demand for local agriculture thus reduce the need for fertilizers.
Nutrient trading - voluntary market-based reduction of nutrient use
Trading scheme between producers that can reduce nutrients at
low-cost and those who face higher-cost nutrient reduction -
cost-effective, new profit opportunities for farmers & entrepreneurs.
● Eutrophication is a process that occurs when a body of water
 becomes enriched with nutrients, leading to excessive plant and
algal growth.

Freshwater Pollution: organic matter, industrial wastewater, domestic

sewage, micro contaminants, salinization, acidification, heavy metals,
toxic substances…
Marine Pollution: oil spill, discharge from ship/ industrial waste,
aquaculture, power stations, thermal pollution from water discharge of
nuclear power plants…