Developmental Psychology
Developmental Psychology
- Creation of zygote, a microscopic mass of multiplying cells that migrate along the mother's fallopian tube to the
uterine cavity.
- Zygote implants itself in the uterine wall around the 7th day.
- Placenta forms during the implantation process.
- The placenta is a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the foetus from the mother's bloodstream and
bodily wastes to pass out to the mother.
- This stage brings rapid bodily growth as muscles & bones begin to form.
- Foetus now becomes capable of physical movements as skeletal structure harden.
- Organs formed in the embryonic stage continue to grow and gradually begin to function.
- During the final three months of parental period, brain cells multiply at a brisk pace.
- A layer of fat is deposited under the skin to provide insulation.
- The respiratory system matures and the central nervous system gains increased control over bodily functions.
1. GENETIC FACTORS
• Gene abnormalities - consequences of defective genes (may convey faulty messages)
• These faulty genes are transmitted from one generation to the next.
• The main afflicted family member that draws clinical attention to the disorder is called proband.
• Chromosome abnormality - refers to segments of chromosomal DNA that is irregular (such as down syndrome).
2. MATERNAL NUTRITION
• Maternal nutrition performs a vital role in perinatal growth.
• Nutriment (growth-promoting agents) accessibility builds upon the quality & extent of the maternal reservoir & the
mothers metabolic competency to create a nutrient rich environment for various phases growth.
• Poor nutrition increases the risk of birth complications & deficits.
• Females who are in excellent health at the time of conception are better equipped to have more positive outcomes
• Elevated levels of prenatal stress have been found to be associated with increased stillbirths, impaired immune
response, heightened vulnerability to infectious disease, slow motor development and below-average cognitive
development.
• Emotional reactions to stressful events can disrupt the delicate hormonal balance that fosters healthy prenatal
development.
• Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) influences about 1/3 of all children born to alcoholic females.
• Foetal Alcohol Syndrome - is a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during
pregnancy
• Problems shown in childhood include microcephaly (a small head), heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, delayed
5. MATERNAL ILLNESS
• Numerous infectious diseases have been reported to affect the foetus' central nervous system.
• The placenta screens out many infectious agents but diseases like HIV can be transmitted to a foetus and cause
damage.
6. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS
• Babies in the womb are exposed to a surprising variety of environmental toxins that can affect them.
• Prenatal exposure to air pollution has been linked to impairments in cognitive development, increased obesity, deficits
MOTOR DEVELOPMENT:
Motor Development - refers to the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities.
- Basic motor skills (grasping, reaching for objects, manipulating objects, sitting up, crawling, walking & running) is
typically mastered around 12 months of age.
- Early motor development depends in part on physical growth which is fast during infancy but also uneven than
previously appreciated.
- The first couple of years of life lengthy periods of no growth are interrupted by sudden bursts of energy.
- These growth spurts tend to be accompanied by restlessness, irritability & increased sleep.
- Early progress in motor skills has traditionally been attributed almost entirely to the process of maturation.
Maturation - is referred to as development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint.
- a product of genetically programmed physical changes that comes with age, rather than through experience &
learning.
ATTACHMENT:
Attachment - refers to the close emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers
- Infants may smile & laugh more when interacting with - Begin to show a pronounced preference for their
mother mother
- Can be handed over to strangers (babysitter) with little - Protests when taken away from her
difficulty - First manifestation of separation anxiety
Separation anxiety - emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have
formed attachment.
• Also occurs with other familiar caregivers as well as the mothers.
• This type of anxiety peaks at around 14-18 months & then begins to decline.
• Behaviourists argued that the infant-mother attachment develops because mothers are associated with powerful
- Play & explore comfortably with - Also known as resistant attachment - Seeks little mother
their mother present - Babies appear anxious even when contact contact with their
- Becomes visibly upset when she their mothers are near - Are often not leaves
leaves - Protests excessively when she distressed when
- Are quickly calmed by her return leaves mother
- Are not particularly comforted
when she returns
• The type of attachment that emerges between an infant and mother appears to depend primarily on maternal
sensitivity
• Mothers who are sensitive and responsive to their child's needs are more likely to promote secure attachments than
mothers who relatively insensitive or inconsistent in their responding
• A mother's psychological heath and the quality of their intimate relationships impacts a mother's sensitivity to secure
attachment
• Secure attachments are more likely when mothers show healthy personality traits and when they are in happy,
harmonious intimate relationships
• The quality of attachment can have important consequences for children's subsequent development
• Children develop internal working models of dynamic relationships that influence their future interactions with a wide
range of people
• Infants with relatively secure attachment tend to become resilient, socially competent toddlers with high self- esteem &
more advanced language development
• In their school years, these children enjoy better relations with peers, strong self-regulation of emotions, greater
understanding of other's emotions & greater academic competence
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT:
The early pattern of language development is similar across very different cultures.
Language development tends to unfold at roughly the same pace for most children.
Language development is determined by biological maturation more than personal experience.
Variations among children in the pace of language acquisition & experience is not irrelevant.
Parents who are more responsive to infants' attempts at communication foster more rapid early language
development.
Even listening to and responding to early babbling can promote communication efforts and speed up language
acquisition.
It is also important for parents to talk to their infant children.
The amount and diversity of child-directed speech experienced during infancy predicts vocabulary growth & other
aspects of language development.
1) Moving towards producing words:
• Babies start learning basic vowel sounds while they are still in their mothers womb
• During their first six months of life a baby's vocalisations are dominated by crying, cooing & laughter
• Soon after infants start babbling, which becomes more complex & increasingly resembles the language spoken by
parents & others
• Infants start recognising the meaning of few highly frequent words as early as 5-6 months
• 10- 13 months – utter sounds that corresponds to real words, their words are similar in phonetic form and meaning
(dada, mama, papa)
2) Using words:
• 18 months vocabulary start to increase (they can use 3-50 words by 18 months)
• Their receptive vocabulary is larger than their productive vocabulary (they can comprehend more words spoken than
they can actually produce)
• 18 months toddlers have a vocabulary spurt - they realise everything has a name
3) Combining words:
• Near 2 years - infants start to combine words into sentences
• 3 years - they express complex ideas (e.g. plural, past tense)
• Language develop in a continuous manner, and not in stages.
- Fast mapping - Children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure. (Dog and octopus)
- Overextension - Child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to
[Overextension: extension of meaning based on similarities of shape, sound, size, colour. Examples: Child uses the
word apple to mean apple. tomato, and ball and the child uses the word cat to mean cat and dog].
- Under-extension - Child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to.
[Under-extension is a common semantic 'error' by children. It occurs when a word is given a narrower meaning than it
has in adult language i.e 'ball' is used for their ball, and no other balls. Common semantic error made by children. A
word is given a narrower (under extended) meaning. ”cat” is the family pet, but not other cats].
- Telegraphic speech - A child’s early sentences, which consist mainly of content. words; articles, prepositions and other
less critical words are omitted. [Telegraphic Speech: Refers to the two-word (noun + verb) sentence phase of language
development. Example: Andrew want ball or Cat drink milk or This shoe all wet].
- Over regularisation - Occurs when a child incorrectly generalises grammatical rules to irregular cases where they do
not apply. (Examples: 'The girl goed home'or 'I hitted the ball')
STAGES OF PERSONALITY:
- Erik Erikson was a German-American developmental
psychologist and psycho analyst.
- Erikson is known for his theory of psychological
development of human beings.
- Erikson coined the phase 'identity crisis".
- Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages.
- A stage is a developmental period during which
characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited and certain
capacities become established
- Each stage has psychosocial crisis (crucial turning point, and
not.a dire emergency)
- Personality is shaped by the way individuals seal with crises
- Each crisis entails a struggle between two opposing tendencies at a particular stage.
STAGE 1: TRUST VS MISTRUST (birth to 18 months)
• An infant depends completely on adults to attend to his/her basic needs of
• A balance is required.
others to care for us and love us. If we receive good care and love, we learn
to trust and will generally feel safe and secure in the world. If we don’t receive
good care and love, we struggle to trust and will generally feel fearful of the
world.
• Basic Virtue: Hope
• The child begin to take responsibility for feeding, dressing & bathing.
• Exert other efforts to regulate the child's behaviour.
• If parents are not satisfied with the child's effort, there are parent-child
gain more control over food choices, toy preferences, etc., we will develop
autonomy and generally feel more secure and confident. If we fail to gain
autonomy in these years, we will generally feel more shame and doubt.
• Basic Virtue: Will
gain more control over food choices, toy preferences, etc., we will develop autonomy and generally feel more secure
and confident. If we fail to gain autonomy in these years, we will generally feel more shame and doubt.
• Basic Virtue: Will
• A sense of confidence.
and openness.
• Individuals invest in others, forged important romantic relationships and find
values, and sense of self or we can receive various forms of derision and rejection.
Those who have their sense of self positively reinforced develop stronger feelings
of independence and control. Those who don’t receive positive reinforcement
end up with more insecurity and remain confused about themselves and their
future.
• Basic virtue: Fidelity
without progress.
• Conflict faced: If we succeed in building a good and productive life, we’re likely to
feel like we’re contributing to the world. If we fail to build a good and productive
life, we’re likely to feel uninvolved in the world.
• Basic virtue: Care
• People need to find meaning and satisfaction in their lives, rather than bitterness
and resentment
• Looking back on the life you have lived. Are you happy or not?
• Conflict faced: In our later years, we tend to look back on life. If we can develop a
SUMMARY:
Lawrence Kohlberg's model attempts to explains how youngsters develop a sense of right and wrong
- Morality involves the ability to figure out right from wrong and to behave accordingly.
- Lawrence Kohlberg devised a stage theory of how moral development based on subject's responses to presented
moral dilemmas.
- Kohlberg was interested in a person's reasoning, not necessarily their answer.
- He theorised that people progress through a series of three levels of moral
development, each of which can be broken into two sub levels.
- Each stage represents a different way of thinking about right and wrong.
Pre-conventional level:
- Younger children at the pre-conventional level think in terms of external
authority.
- The acts are considered wrong or right based on whether or not they are
punished for them.
Conventional level:
- Older children who have reached the conventional level of moral reasoning see rules as necessary for maintaining
social order.
- They accept rules as their own.
- They internalise the rules not to avoid punishment, but to be virtuous and win approval from others.
- Moral thinking is inflexible.
- Rules are viewed as absolute guidelines that should be enforced rigidly.
Post-conventional level:
- Adolescence represents the move to the post-conventional level of moral reasoning, where acts are individually
judged by a personal code of ethics.
Normality Adolescence:
• Normality in adolescent development refers to the degree of psychological adaptation that is achieved while
navigating the difficulties and meeting milestones characteristic of this period of growth.
• Adolescence is a period of establishing individuation (self-definition) and autonomy (striving for freedom or mastery).
• Adolescents are confronted with developing the capacity to function autonomously, while maintaining connection and
seeking support from others when needed
• They develop capacity for interdependence and the ability to form and sustain mutually supportive relationships
outside the family. Friendships are more important.
• Adolescent adjustment is an extension of previous childhood psychological functioning.
• Psychological disturbed children are at greater risk of psychological disorders during adolescence. A lot of disorders
comes from this stage.
• Risk behaviour can be defined as any behaviour that places a person at risk for negative physical, psychological or
social consequences.
• The rate of risk behaviour tends to peak between the late teens and early twenties.
- Sexual activities
- Junk food
- Drinking
Stages of Adolescence
• Early adolescence - from age 12 to 14, growth spurts begin for boys; girls may have already experienced rapid growth.
Adolescents may question family values and begin to experiment with challenging behaviour.
• Middle adolescence - between the ages of 14 and 16, adolescents try to show more independence, and sexual
behaviour intensifies. Peer groups are highly influential.
• Late adolescence - between the ages of 17 and 19, activities lead towards the greater definition of self and of
belonging to certain groups within society.
Components of Adolescence:
1. Self-esteem:
Self-esteem is a measure of self-worth based in perceived success and achievements
- How much a person is valued by others (peers and family).
- Perception of positive physical features.9
2. Moral Development:
Moral development refers to a set of values and beliefs about codes of moral behaviour
- Younger children and adolescents develop patterns of behaviour characteristic of their family, education environment.
- Imitation of specific peers and adults they admire.
3. Socialising Processes:
- The focus of acceptance in peer relationships
- Development of a mature social cognition
- Being viewed as socially competent by peers influence positive self-esteem
4. Cognitive maturation:
- Progression from concrete thinking to logical and abstract thinking
- Self-regulation and reflection
Intellectual Identity
Academic aspirations and achievements
Political Identity
Political beliefs, values and ideas; may include membership and political groups
Spiritual/Religious Identity
Religious beliefs, attitudes, practices and behaviour may relate to specific moral and ethic codes
Relationship Identity
Intimate, social and family relationships
Sexual Identity
Sexual orientation - heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual
Cultural Identity
Identity with cultural heritage and practices; may include language preferences
Ethnic Identity
A sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group. The beliefs of the group may influence one's thinking, perception,
feelings and behaviour
Physical Identity
Body image and believes about appearance
Personality
Characteristics that define patterns of behaviour
• Transition periods are often stressful, as individuals explores the possibilities for change in the self self and the world.
• An individual shows commitment to the vital choices that form the foundation for a new era.
• An individual re-evaluate the structure in which he has been living, and explore the opportunities of changes in his
perception of himself or of the world.
• The beginning of an era has new expectations: An individual is at the tipping edge of both rich satisfaction and/ or
butter disappointments
• At the end of the era, an individual often finds that the era gave both much more and much less than was expected.
Ageing:
- Age-related physical changes include changes in appearance, neuron loss, sensory loss and hormonal changes.
- Cognitive functioning research indicates that general mental ability remains fairly stable, with small declines in IQ after
and variable.