Unit title 4

CHAPTER 11 - DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

What is developmental psychology?

According to the American Psychological Association, developmental psychologists focus on human growth and
changes across the lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual, personality and emotional
growth.

PROGRESS BEFORE BIRTH: PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

• The prenatal period extends from conception to birth (± 40 weeks)

• Prenatal or antenatal period of gestation - refers to foetal development over the period of pregnancy from conception
to parturition (childbirth).
• Zygote - takes place when a spermatozoa bonds with a mature egg.
• The development that occurs during the prenatal stage is extremely rapid.
• Prenatal period is divided into three phases: the germinal stage, the embryonic stage & the foetal stage.

THE GERMINAL STAGE : FIRST STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Germinal stage - first phase of prenatal development, takes place the first two weeks after conception.

- Creation of zygote, a microscopic mass of multiplying cells that migrate along the mother's fallopian tube to the
uterine cavity.
- Zygote implants itself in the uterine wall around the 7th day.
- Placenta forms during the implantation process.
- The placenta is a structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the foetus from the mother's bloodstream and
bodily wastes to pass out to the mother.

EMBRYONIC STAGE : SECOND STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

- Weeks two until the end of the second month.
- Starts when implantation has been achieved which continues for six weeks until the end of week eight.
- Neural tube - the cells of the nervous system shapes in a construction called the neural tube from which the brain and
spinal cord grows.
- Most vital organs grow in this stage (heart, kidneys, digestive system, spinal cord, ribs)
- Arms, legs, hands, feet, fingers, toes, eyes and ears are discernible.
THE FOETAL STAGE : THIRD STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Foetal stage - lasting from 2 months of age

- This stage brings rapid bodily growth as muscles & bones begin to form.
- Foetus now becomes capable of physical movements as skeletal structure harden.
- Organs formed in the embryonic stage continue to grow and gradually begin to function.
- During the final three months of parental period, brain cells multiply at a brisk pace.
- A layer of fat is deposited under the skin to provide insulation.
- The respiratory system matures and the central nervous system gains increased control over bodily functions.

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT:

The foetus develops within a buffer of the womb, events in the external environment can affect it indirectly through the
mother, as the developing organism and it's mother are linked by the placenta.

1. GENETIC FACTORS
• Gene abnormalities - consequences of defective genes (may convey faulty messages)

• Examples include ethnically gene abnormalities such as spina bifida

• These faulty genes are transmitted from one generation to the next.

• The main afflicted family member that draws clinical attention to the disorder is called proband.

• Chromosome abnormality - refers to segments of chromosomal DNA that is irregular (such as down syndrome).

• Down syndrome had an extra chromosome at the 21st pair.

2. MATERNAL NUTRITION
• Maternal nutrition performs a vital role in perinatal growth.

• A foetus needs a variety of essential nutrients.

• Nutriment (growth-promoting agents) accessibility builds upon the quality & extent of the maternal reservoir & the

mothers metabolic competency to create a nutrient rich environment for various phases growth.
• Poor nutrition increases the risk of birth complications & deficits.

• Females who are in excellent health at the time of conception are better equipped to have more positive outcomes

during the pregnancy.

3. MATERNAL STRESS & EMOTION

• Maternal stress can have an impact on prenatal development.

• Elevated levels of prenatal stress have been found to be associated with increased stillbirths, impaired immune

response, heightened vulnerability to infectious disease, slow motor development and below-average cognitive
development.
• Emotional reactions to stressful events can disrupt the delicate hormonal balance that fosters healthy prenatal

development.

4. MATERNAL DRUG USE

• Alcohol consumption during pregnancy carries serious risks.

• Heavy drinking by a mother can be dangerous to a foetus.

• Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) influences about 1/3 of all children born to alcoholic females.

• Foetal Alcohol Syndrome - is a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with excessive alcohol use during

pregnancy
• Problems shown in childhood include microcephaly (a small head), heart defects, irritability, hyperactivity, delayed

motor development & impaired cognitive development accompanied by academic difficulties.

5. MATERNAL ILLNESS
• Numerous infectious diseases have been reported to affect the foetus' central nervous system.

• The placenta screens out many infectious agents but diseases like HIV can be transmitted to a foetus and cause

damage.

6. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXINS
• Babies in the womb are exposed to a surprising variety of environmental toxins that can affect them.

• Prenatal exposure to air pollution has been linked to impairments in cognitive development, increased obesity, deficits

in social competence and self-regulation.

• Exposure to toxins such as phthalate chemicals used in a variety of household products correlates with IQ deficits.

7. FOETAL ORIGINS OF ADULT DISEASE:

• Adverse events during prenatal development can 'programme' the foetal brain in ways that influence the person's

vulnerability to various types of illness decades later.

• Prenatal malnutrition has been linked to vulnerability to schizophrenia which usually emerges in late adolescence or
early adulthood.
• Low birth weight (which is a marker for a variety of prenatal disruptions) has been found to be associated with an
increased risk of heart disease many decades later in adulthood.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT:
Motor Development - refers to the progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities.
- Basic motor skills (grasping, reaching for objects, manipulating objects, sitting up, crawling, walking & running) is
typically mastered around 12 months of age.
- Early motor development depends in part on physical growth which is fast during infancy but also uneven than
previously appreciated.
- The first couple of years of life lengthy periods of no growth are interrupted by sudden bursts of energy.
- These growth spurts tend to be accompanied by restlessness, irritability & increased sleep.
- Early progress in motor skills has traditionally been attributed almost entirely to the process of maturation.

Maturation - is referred to as development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one's genetic blueprint.
- a product of genetically programmed physical changes that comes with age, rather than through experience &
learning.

Developmental norms - indicate the typical (median) age.

- developmental norms are useful benchmarks as long as parents don't expect their children to progress with
developmental norms.

Temperament - refers to characteristics of mood, activity level and emotional reactivity.

- infants show consistent differences in emotional tone, activity tempo & sensitivity to environmental stimuli early in life.
- Alexander Thomas & Stella Chess identified three basic styles of temperament that were apparent in most children.

EASY CHILDREN 40% SLOW-TO-WARM-UP 15% DIFFICULT 10%

happy Less cheery Tend to be glum

regular in sleep adaptable Less regular in sleep & eating Slower erratic in sleep & eating
no readily upset in adapting to change resistant to change relatively

ATTACHMENT:
Attachment - refers to the close emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers

! Infant-mother attachment is formed early in life.

! Children eventually form attachment to many people (fathers, siblings, grandparents & others).
! A child's first important attachment usually occurs with their mother because in many cultures she is typically the
primary caregiver especially in earlier months.
! Initially, babies show relatively little in the way of special preference for their mother.

2-3 MONTHS 6-8 MONTHS

- Infants may smile & laugh more when interacting with - Begin to show a pronounced preference for their
mother mother
- Can be handed over to strangers (babysitter) with little - Protests when taken away from her
difficulty - First manifestation of separation anxiety

Separation anxiety - emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have
formed attachment.
• Also occurs with other familiar caregivers as well as the mothers.

• This type of anxiety peaks at around 14-18 months & then begins to decline.
• Behaviourists argued that the infant-mother attachment develops because mothers are associated with powerful

reinforcing event of being fed.

• The mother therefore becomes a conditioned reinforcer.
• Harry Harlow (1958/1959)
• John Bowlby (1969/1973/1980) argued there must be a biological basis for attachment.
• Infants are biologically programmed to emit behaviour (smiling, cooing, clinging & so on) that triggers an affectionate
protective response from adults.
• Bowlby also asserts that adults are programmed by evolutionary forces to be fascinated by this behaviour & respond
with warmth, love & protection.
• These characters would be adaptive in terms of promoting children's' survival.
• Mary Ainstworth & her colleagues (1978) found infant-mother attachments vary in quality.
• Found these attachments fall into three categories.
• Fortunately most infants develop a secure attachment.

SECURE ATTACHMENT ANXIOUS-AMBIVALENT AVOIDANTATTACHMENT

ATTACHMENT

- Play & explore comfortably with - Also known as resistant attachment - Seeks little mother
their mother present - Babies appear anxious even when contact contact with their
- Becomes visibly upset when she their mothers are near - Are often not leaves
leaves - Protests excessively when she distressed when
- Are quickly calmed by her return leaves mother
- Are not particularly comforted
when she returns

- A fourth category was later added labelled disorganised-disoriented attachment (Solomon.)

- Children in this category appear confused about whether they should approach or avoid their mother.
- These children are especially insecure.

• The type of attachment that emerges between an infant and mother appears to depend primarily on maternal
sensitivity
• Mothers who are sensitive and responsive to their child's needs are more likely to promote secure attachments than
mothers who relatively insensitive or inconsistent in their responding
• A mother's psychological heath and the quality of their intimate relationships impacts a mother's sensitivity to secure
attachment
• Secure attachments are more likely when mothers show healthy personality traits and when they are in happy,
harmonious intimate relationships
• The quality of attachment can have important consequences for children's subsequent development
• Children develop internal working models of dynamic relationships that influence their future interactions with a wide
range of people
• Infants with relatively secure attachment tend to become resilient, socially competent toddlers with high self- esteem &
more advanced language development
• In their school years, these children enjoy better relations with peers, strong self-regulation of emotions, greater
understanding of other's emotions & greater academic competence

LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT:
The early pattern of language development is similar across very different cultures.
Language development tends to unfold at roughly the same pace for most children.
Language development is determined by biological maturation more than personal experience.
Variations among children in the pace of language acquisition & experience is not irrelevant.
Parents who are more responsive to infants' attempts at communication foster more rapid early language
development.
Even listening to and responding to early babbling can promote communication efforts and speed up language
acquisition.
It is also important for parents to talk to their infant children.
The amount and diversity of child-directed speech experienced during infancy predicts vocabulary growth & other
aspects of language development.
1) Moving towards producing words:
• Babies start learning basic vowel sounds while they are still in their mothers womb
• During their first six months of life a baby's vocalisations are dominated by crying, cooing & laughter
• Soon after infants start babbling, which becomes more complex & increasingly resembles the language spoken by
parents & others
• Infants start recognising the meaning of few highly frequent words as early as 5-6 months
• 10- 13 months – utter sounds that corresponds to real words, their words are similar in phonetic form and meaning
(dada, mama, papa)

2) Using words:
• 18 months vocabulary start to increase (they can use 3-50 words by 18 months)
• Their receptive vocabulary is larger than their productive vocabulary (they can comprehend more words spoken than
they can actually produce)
• 18 months toddlers have a vocabulary spurt - they realise everything has a name

3) Combining words:
• Near 2 years - infants start to combine words into sentences
• 3 years - they express complex ideas (e.g. plural, past tense)
• Language develop in a continuous manner, and not in stages.

- Language development is determined by biological maturation.

- Toddlers typically can say between three and 50 words by 18 months.

- Fast mapping - Children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure. (Dog and octopus)

- Overextension - Child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to
[Overextension: extension of meaning based on similarities of shape, sound, size, colour. Examples: Child uses the
word apple to mean apple. tomato, and ball and the child uses the word cat to mean cat and dog].

- Under-extension - Child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to.
[Under-extension is a common semantic 'error' by children. It occurs when a word is given a narrower meaning than it
has in adult language i.e 'ball' is used for their ball, and no other balls. Common semantic error made by children. A
word is given a narrower (under extended) meaning. ”cat” is the family pet, but not other cats].

- Telegraphic speech - A child’s early sentences, which consist mainly of content. words; articles, prepositions and other
less critical words are omitted. [Telegraphic Speech: Refers to the two-word (noun + verb) sentence phase of language
development. Example: Andrew want ball or Cat drink milk or This shoe all wet].

- Over regularisation - Occurs when a child incorrectly generalises grammatical rules to irregular cases where they do
not apply. (Examples: 'The girl goed home'or 'I hitted the ball')

STAGES OF PERSONALITY:
- Erik Erikson was a German-American developmental
psychologist and psycho analyst.
- Erikson is known for his theory of psychological
development of human beings.
- Erikson coined the phase 'identity crisis".
- Erikson divided the lifespan into eight stages.
- A stage is a developmental period during which
characteristic patterns of behaviour are exhibited and certain
capacities become established
- Each stage has psychosocial crisis (crucial turning point, and
not.a dire emergency)
- Personality is shaped by the way individuals seal with crises
- Each crisis entails a struggle between two opposing tendencies at a particular stage.
STAGE 1: TRUST VS MISTRUST (birth to 18 months)
• An infant depends completely on adults to attend to his/her basic needs of

food, clothes, safety and shelter

• If needs are met- secure attachments, the child becomes optimistic, and

trusting attitudes towards the world

• If needs are not met- distrusting and pessimistic personality may result

• A balance is required.

• Conflict faced: Because we’re completely helpless at this age, we depend on

others to care for us and love us. If we receive good care and love, we learn
to trust and will generally feel safe and secure in the world. If we don’t receive
good care and love, we struggle to trust and will generally feel fearful of the
world.
• Basic Virtue: Hope

STAGE 2: AUTONOMY VS SHAME AND DOUBT (2-3 years)

• Parents start toilet training.

• The child begin to take responsibility for feeding, dressing & bathing.
• Exert other efforts to regulate the child's behaviour.

• If all goes well the child acquire a sense of autonomy.

• If parents are not satisfied with the child's effort, there are parent-child

conflicts, the child may develop a sense of shame and doubt.

• Conflict faced: If we successfully complete toilet training and are allowed to

gain more control over food choices, toy preferences, etc., we will develop
autonomy and generally feel more secure and confident. If we fail to gain
autonomy in these years, we will generally feel more shame and doubt.
• Basic Virtue: Will

STAGE 3: INITIATIVE VS GUILT (3-5 years)

• Children experiment and take initiatives that may at times be in conflict

with their parents' rules.

• Over-controlling parents may make the children feel guilty for taking

initiative = self-esteem may be impacted.

• Parents needs to support their children's emergency independence while

maintaining appropriate control and boundaries.

• Children will have the sense of initiative while learning to respect the

rights and privileges of others.

• Conflict faced: If we successfully complete toilet training and are allowed to

gain more control over food choices, toy preferences, etc., we will develop autonomy and generally feel more secure
and confident. If we fail to gain autonomy in these years, we will generally feel more shame and doubt.
• Basic Virtue: Will

STAGE 4: INDUSTRY VS INFERIORITY (6-11 years)

• Learning extends from the family to the broader social context of the

neighbourhood and school.

• Children learn to value achievement and take pride in accomplishments = a

sense of competence and increased self-esteem.

• If things do not go well = a sense of inferiority.

• A sense of confidence.

• Conflict faced: If we’re encouraged to improve our abilities and if our

accomplishments are commended, we’re likely to develop a sense of

confidence. If we’re discouraged and/or ridiculed by parents, teachers, or peers,
we’re more likely to doubt our abilities
• Basic virtue: Competency

STAGE 5: IDENTITY VS CONFUSION (12-18 years)

• Normative task of adolescence is identity versus role confusion
• Identity crises is the pursuit of alternative behaviours and styles, striving to
successfully build different experiences into a solid identity
• “Finding themselves” - who am I?
• Conflict faced: In our teenage years, we can receive affirmation of our ideals,
values, and sense of self or we can receive various forms of derision and
rejection. Those who have their sense of self positively reinforced develop
stronger feelings of independence and control. Those who don’t receive
positive reinforcement end up with more insecurity and remain confused
about themselves and their future.
• Basic virtue: Fidelity

STAGE 6: INTIMACY VS ISOLATION (19-40 years)

• Intimacy vs isolation is the concern with the ability/capacity to share intimacy with others & should lead to empathy

and openness.
• Individuals invest in others, forged important romantic relationships and find

healthy, well balanced & developed sense of love.

• Depends on the previous stage.
• Conflict faced: In our teenage years, we can receive affirmation of our ideals,

values, and sense of self or we can receive various forms of derision and rejection.
Those who have their sense of self positively reinforced develop stronger feelings
of independence and control. Those who don’t receive positive reinforcement
end up with more insecurity and remain confused about themselves and their
future.
• Basic virtue: Fidelity

STAGE 7: GENERATIVELY VS STAGNATION (40-64 years)

• Generatively vs self absorption involves concern for future generations, resulting

in unselfish guidance to younger people

• Unsuccessful Generatively leads to feelings of living a life that is empty and

without progress.
• Conflict faced: If we succeed in building a good and productive life, we’re likely to

feel like we’re contributing to the world. If we fail to build a good and productive
life, we’re likely to feel uninvolved in the world.
• Basic virtue: Care

STAGE 8: INTEGRITY VS DESPAIR (65 years-death)

• Integrity vs despair involves overcoming the tendency to dwell on mistakes of the

past, as well as the imminent presence of death

• Dealing with the fear of death represents an important challenge at this stage

• People need to find meaning and satisfaction in their lives, rather than bitterness

and resentment
• Looking back on the life you have lived. Are you happy or not?

• Conflict faced: In our later years, we tend to look back on life. If we can develop a

sense of pride in our accomplishments, we’re likely to feel satisfied. If we fail to

develop this pride, we’re likely to feel our life has been wasted.
• Basic virtue: Wisdom

PERSONALITY, COGNITIVE & MORAL DEVELOPMENT:

-> By Jean Piaget
• Jean Piaget was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development.
• Piaget's theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology".

SENSORIMOTOR DEVELOPMENT (0-2 years):

- Cognitive development: Transitions in youngsters’ pattens of thinking, including reasoning, remembering and
problem solving.
- Thought in their mind before downing something. The “thought process”.
- Know it is there without it actually being there. Can’t see it.

Piagets's stage theory

- Sensorimotor period lasts from birth to about age 2. A child develops the ability to coordinate sensory input with
motor actions.
- Object permanence develops when a child recognised that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer
visible.

PRE-OPERATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (2-7 years):

Preoperational period: Extends roughly from age 2 to 7. (What they cannot do)

- Piaget emphasised the shortcomings in pre-operational thought. (Not aware)

- Conservation: is referred to as the awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their
shape or appearance. (Different 200ml cups of water/ amounts of clay - one flat one is not. “They cannot see that it is
the same”)
- Centration: is the tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects (e.g,
concentrating on the height of the water instead of the width) the aspect appealing to them. Only focus on one (tall
narrow glass - think there is more water but actually it is the same amount as the short glass).
- Irreversibility: Is the inability to envision reversing and action, children cannot mentally 'undo' something (e.g, what
would happen if water is poured back from the tall beaker into original beaker) or [3+2 = 5 but cannot do 5-3 = 2.]
- Egocentrism: is characterised by a limited ability to share another person's viewpoint (e.g, asking a girl whether her
sister has a sister - Annie and Jade example) - only their point of view. Thinks of anther sister and not their sister
standing next to them.
- Animism: the belief that all things are living (e.g, when does the ocean stop to rest or table hurt me but the table was
just there) Giving human qualities to non-living things.

CONCRETE OPERATIONAL PERIOD (7-11 years):

Concrete operational period: Extends roughly ages 7 to 11.
- Child can perform operations only on images of tangible objects and events.
- Children during this stage can master reversibility and decentration. Opposite of centration.
- Reversibility allows a child to mentally undo an action. (Can do 2+3 = 5 and 5-3 = 2)
- Decentration allows the child to focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously. (The glasses is the
same quantity now.)
- Children can do the previous stage things now!
- The newly found ability to coordinate several aspects of a problem helps a child appreciate that there are several ways
to look at things
- The ability in turn leads to a decline in egocentrism and to a gradual mastery of conservation.
- Children develop new problem solving capacities.

FORMAL OPERATIONAL PERIOD (12 years and ONWARDS):

Formal operational period: Begins around 12 years and onwards.
- Children begin to apply their operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects.
- Youngsters come to enjoy the contemplation of abstract concepts.
- Thought processes in the formal operational period can be characterised as relatively systematic, logical and
reflective.
- According to Piaget, youngsters graduate to relatively adult modes of thinking in the formal operations stage.
- He did not mean that further cognitive development occurs once children reach this stage, however, he believed that
after children achieve formal operations, further developments in thinking are changes in degree rather than
fundamental changes in the nature of thinking.
- (It never stops).

SUMMARY:

Criticism of Piaget's Theory:

1. Piaget believed that his theory described universal processes that should lead children everywhere to progress
through uniform stages of thinking at roughly the same ages. subsequent research has shows that the sequence of
stages is largely the same, but the timetable children follow in passing through these stages varies considerably
across culture. Piaget underestimated the influence of cultural factors on cognitive development.
2. Piaget appears to have under estimated young children's cognitive development. Children understand object
permanence and are capable of some symbolic thought much earlier than Piaget thought, some evidence suggests
that the pre-operational children are not as egocentric as Piaget thought.
3. children often simultaneously display patterns of thinking that are characterised of several stages. this 'mixing of
stages and the fact that the transitions between stage stages are gradual rather than sudden makes us question the
value of organising cognitive development in terms of stages. Progress in children's thinking occurs in overlapping
waves rather than distinct stages with clear boundaries.

Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: (opposite of Piaget)

- He focuses on the social context of the child and his/her cognitive development.
- Cognitive development fuelled by social interactions with parents, teachers and older children who can provide
invaluable guidance.
- Language acquisition: Crucial in fostering cognitive development
- Culture influences how cognitive growth develops.
- He emphasises that, the child's cognition in a social context for a cultural way of doing things.
- The child masters cultural tasks.
- Children use private speech to plan their strategies, regulate their actions and accomplish their goals.
- As children grow older, private speech is internalised and becomes the normal verbal dialogue that people have with
themselves.
- Children use private speech to plan their strategies, regulate their actions and accomplish their goals.
- As children grow older, private speech is internalised and becomes the normal verbal dialogue that people have with
themselves.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: (part 2)

- Lev Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who developed a theory about how our social interactions influence our
cognitive development.
- This is known as Les Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Developments.
- Vygorsky's social development theory asserts that a child's cognitive development and learning ability can be guided
and mediated by their social interactions. His theory (also called Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory) states that learning is
a crucially social process as opposed to an independent journey of discovery. He expands on this by stating that a
child's learning benefitted greatly from being guided by a more knowledgeable member of the community such as a
parent or teacher.
- Vygotsky's sociocultural theory also suggested that children internalise and learn from the beliefs and attitudes that
they witness around them. He believed that culture played an Important role in shaping cognitive development and
therefore that this development varied across cultures. Vygotsky also stressed the importance of language as the root
of all learing.
- Vygotzky developed his theories around the same time as Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget was developing theories
about cognitive development, but they differ on almost every point. Some of Vygotsky’s work is still being translated
from Russian.
- The sociocultural theory of cognitive development explores the influence the world has on individual development. It
asserts has learning is a mostly social process whereby development occurs through interactions with people who
possess more knowledge or cicil than the learner.
- Psychologist Lev Vygotsky established this theory of learning, believing that parents, teachers, peers, caregivers, and
society at large influences an individual's cognitive development. Learning at is root involves interacting with others
around you. Vygotsky asserted that learning was a cultural phenomenon, with children from different cultures
embracing different styles of learning.
- According to Vygotsky, learning is a process of acquiring knowledge, beliefs, and problem solving strategies through
interactions with what he termed “more knowledgeable others. It is through out interactions with others that we make
sense of the information we encounter. It is on inherently social process, one in which we depend on others to help us
understand the world. Social learning thus precedes Individual development and is unique to the individual.

Lawrence Kohlberg's model attempts to explains how youngsters develop a sense of right and wrong
- Morality involves the ability to figure out right from wrong and to behave accordingly.
- Lawrence Kohlberg devised a stage theory of how moral development based on subject's responses to presented
moral dilemmas.
- Kohlberg was interested in a person's reasoning, not necessarily their answer.
- He theorised that people progress through a series of three levels of moral
development, each of which can be broken into two sub levels.
- Each stage represents a different way of thinking about right and wrong.

Pre-conventional level:
- Younger children at the pre-conventional level think in terms of external
authority.
- The acts are considered wrong or right based on whether or not they are
punished for them.

Conventional level:
- Older children who have reached the conventional level of moral reasoning see rules as necessary for maintaining
social order.
- They accept rules as their own.
- They internalise the rules not to avoid punishment, but to be virtuous and win approval from others.
- Moral thinking is inflexible.
- Rules are viewed as absolute guidelines that should be enforced rigidly.

Post-conventional level:
- Adolescence represents the move to the post-conventional level of moral reasoning, where acts are individually
judged by a personal code of ethics.

The Transition of Adolescence:

• Adolescence has been characterised by modern developed society as an interaction of multifaceted biological,
cultural, economic & historical powers.
• The task, rights and hopes of both childhood & adulthood are shared and superimposed in this period.
• Adolescence is characterised by physical changes and an increase in sexual hormones as sexual maturity is reached.
• Peer relationships deepen during this transitional period, autonomy in decision-making develops, intellectual
endeavours are pursued and the need for social belonging intensifies.

Normality Adolescence:
• Normality in adolescent development refers to the degree of psychological adaptation that is achieved while
navigating the difficulties and meeting milestones characteristic of this period of growth.
• Adolescence is a period of establishing individuation (self-definition) and autonomy (striving for freedom or mastery).
• Adolescents are confronted with developing the capacity to function autonomously, while maintaining connection and
seeking support from others when needed
• They develop capacity for interdependence and the ability to form and sustain mutually supportive relationships
outside the family. Friendships are more important.
• Adolescent adjustment is an extension of previous childhood psychological functioning.
• Psychological disturbed children are at greater risk of psychological disorders during adolescence. A lot of disorders
comes from this stage.
• Risk behaviour can be defined as any behaviour that places a person at risk for negative physical, psychological or
social consequences.
• The rate of risk behaviour tends to peak between the late teens and early twenties.
- Sexual activities
- Junk food
- Drinking
Stages of Adolescence
• Early adolescence - from age 12 to 14, growth spurts begin for boys; girls may have already experienced rapid growth.
Adolescents may question family values and begin to experiment with challenging behaviour.
• Middle adolescence - between the ages of 14 and 16, adolescents try to show more independence, and sexual
behaviour intensifies. Peer groups are highly influential.
• Late adolescence - between the ages of 17 and 19, activities lead towards the greater definition of self and of
belonging to certain groups within society.

Components of Adolescence:
1. Self-esteem:
Self-esteem is a measure of self-worth based in perceived success and achievements
- How much a person is valued by others (peers and family).
- Perception of positive physical features.9

2. Moral Development:
Moral development refers to a set of values and beliefs about codes of moral behaviour
- Younger children and adolescents develop patterns of behaviour characteristic of their family, education environment.
- Imitation of specific peers and adults they admire.

3. Socialising Processes:
- The focus of acceptance in peer relationships
- Development of a mature social cognition
- Being viewed as socially competent by peers influence positive self-esteem

4. Cognitive maturation:
- Progression from concrete thinking to logical and abstract thinking
- Self-regulation and reflection

Physical Development in Adolescence:

• Puberty is the stage during which sexual functions reach maturity, marking the beginning of adolescence. It is during
puberty that the primary sex characteristics, the structures necessary for reproduction, develop fully
• In females, the onset of puberty is singled by menarche - the first occurrence of menstruation
• In males, it is singled by sperm production
• At this time , males begin to show acne, facial and body hair, voice change, muscle development and the ability to
ejaculate.
• Females also develop acne, as well as body hair, breast development round contours, enlargement of uterus, clitoris
and labia, as well as menstruation.

Aspects of Identity & Description:

Vocational Identity
Career choice & aspirations; current or intended occupation

Intellectual Identity
Academic aspirations and achievements

Political Identity
Political beliefs, values and ideas; may include membership and political groups
Spiritual/Religious Identity
Religious beliefs, attitudes, practices and behaviour may relate to specific moral and ethic codes

Relationship Identity
Intimate, social and family relationships

Sexual Identity
Sexual orientation - heterosexual, homosexual or bisexual

Cultural Identity
Identity with cultural heritage and practices; may include language preferences

Ethnic Identity
A sense of belonging to a particular ethnic group. The beliefs of the group may influence one's thinking, perception,
feelings and behaviour

Physical Identity
Body image and believes about appearance

Personality
Characteristics that define patterns of behaviour

Four identity stages:

Know where to plot your identity status:
There are four different identity statuses:
1. Identity diffusion is being in a state of apathy, with no
commitment to an ideology
2. Identity foreclosure refers to a premature commitment
to visions, values and values roles - typically those
prescribed by one's parents when an adolescent
3. Identity moratorium - involves delaying commitment
for a while to experiment with alternative ideologies
and careers
4. Identity achievement - is accomplished when a person
achieves a sense of self and is able to clearly direct his/
her efforts by thinking through various possibilities

The Expanse of Adulthood

- Patterns of development during the adult years are becoming increasingly diverse
- In adulthood (even more so than childhood or adolescence) there are many divergent pathways and timetables
- Further, the boundaries between young, middle and late adulthood are becoming blurred

Levinson's Four Seasons and the Crises of Midlife (Levinson, 1986):

Pre-adulthood Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood

birth - 20 years 17 - 45 years 40 - 65 years 60 years and above

Transition periods are:

1. Early adult transition
2. Midlife transition
3. Late adulthood transition

• Transition periods are often stressful, as individuals explores the possibilities for change in the self self and the world.
• An individual shows commitment to the vital choices that form the foundation for a new era.
• An individual re-evaluate the structure in which he has been living, and explore the opportunities of changes in his
perception of himself or of the world.
• The beginning of an era has new expectations: An individual is at the tipping edge of both rich satisfaction and/ or
butter disappointments
• At the end of the era, an individual often finds that the era gave both much more and much less than was expected.

Ageing:
- Age-related physical changes include changes in appearance, neuron loss, sensory loss and hormonal changes.
- Cognitive functioning research indicates that general mental ability remains fairly stable, with small declines in IQ after

the age of 60.

- Fluid intelligence is more likely to decline with age while crystallised intelligence remains stable or increases.
- Mental speed declines in late adulthood, and memory losses have been reported in many studies these are moderate

and variable.

Things that can happen when you are aging:

- Bone structure weakens
- Dementia
- Memory loss
- More vulnerable for diseases
- Can get thinner and so on

The psychosocial aspects of ageing:

‣ Death is not a single event but a progression, and. different body systems die at different rates
‣ Individuals who lack pulse or are not breathing can be revived before their brain cease to function
‣ This medical definition focuses primarily on irreversible brain stem damage and states that, in absence of neurological
functioning , the patient is dead even through respiration and circulation can be artificially maintained for a limited
period of time
‣ In contrast, to the Middle Ages, when Individuals were encouraged to recognise their own mortality and prepare for
death with dignity, in Western society today most people engage in a denial of death, and trying to cling to life with all
they have.
‣ Bereavement is the loss of something, but most commonly someone.
‣ Bereavement is followed by grief.
‣ Grief refers to the psychological and bodily reaction that occurs in people who suffer bereavement.

‣ Five stages of Kubler-Ross:

i. denial
ii. anger
iii. bargaining
iv. depression
v. acceptance.

At-risk and vulnerable children (A South African example):

• THE SOUTH AFRICAN GOVERNMENT DEFINES A VULNERABLE CHILD AS ONE ‘WHOSE SURVIVAL, CARE,
PROTECTION OR DEVELOPMENT MAY BE COMPROMISED DUE TO A PARTICULAR CONDITION, SITUATION OR
CIRCUMSTANCE AND WHICH PREVENTS THE FULFILMENT OF HIS AND HER RIGHTS’.
• VULNERABLE CHILDREN CAN INCLUDE CHILDREN WHO ARE ILL, CHILDREN WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES,
CHILDREN WHO ARE INFECTED AND AFFECTED BY HIV AND AIDS, ORPHANS, CHILDREN FROM
DYSFUNCTIONAL FAMILIES AND CHILDREN WHO ARE LIVING IN POOR HOUSEHOLDS OR VIOLENT
COMMUNITIES THAT MAY NEGATIVELY IMPACT THEIR DAILY FUNCTIONING OR SURVIVAL.
• THERE ARE DOCUMENTED INTERVENTIONS AND SUPPORT SERVICES THAT CAN HELP VULNERABLE CHILDREN
TO FUNCTION BETTER.
• EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IMPROVES SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR AND SCHOOL READINESS FOR AT-RISK AND
VULNERABLE CHILDREN.
• PSYCHOSOCIAL SUPPORT SERVICES CAN HELP TO MAKE THINGS BETTER IN THE LIVES OF VULNERABLE
CHILDREN.