Lab Report

HMT-L (ME-312L)

Submitted To: Sir Umer Ishaq

Submitted by: khubaib adnan

Registration No: 2021-ME-537

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Engineering and Technology Lahore
(Narowal Campus)
General Instructions

• Actively participate in class and don’t hesitate to ask questions.

• Carelessness in personal conduct or in handling equipment may result in serious injury to the
individual or the equipment. Do not run near moving machinery. Always be on the alert for strange
sounds. Guard against entangling clothes in moving parts of machinery.

• Make your workplace clean before leaving the laboratory. Maintain silence, order and discipline
inside the lab.

• In case of emergency, evacuate the place and move towards assembly point.
 LAB LAYOUT

White Board

16
Sitting Area
2

15

3
14

13

5
18 17
12

8 9 10 11
Course Learning Outcomes
CLOs CLOs Description
1 Perform experiments related to HMT lab to demonstrate basic concepts.
2 Prepare the results of experiments in written and graphical format to disseminate the
ideas, explanation of results and conclusions
3 Respond positively towards the instruction

List of Experiments
Sr.# Experiment Description
1 To determine the thermal conductivity of bar and compare its results.
2 To determine the thermal conductivity of the composite bar and compare the results.
3 To investigate the effect of change in cross-sectional area on temperature profile along
thermal conduction.
4 To investigate the rate of heat transfer resulting from radial heat conduction through a
planer wall of cylinder.
5 To investigate the relationship between power input and temperature difference across a
flat plate under free convection.
6 To demonstrate the relationship between the surface temperature and power input in forced
convection.
7 To demonstrate the relationship between the surface temperature and power input in forced
and free convection.
8 To demonstrate the relationship between the surface temperature and power input for
forced and free convention in pinned plate.
9 To study the heat transfer through a concentric tube heat exchanger working under parallel
flow conditions for different flow rates (cold fluid
10 To study the heat transfer through a concentric tube heat exchanger working under counter
flow conditions for different flow rates (cold fluid).
11 To visualize the phenomenon of convective, nucleate and film boiling.
12 To calculate the heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant pressure.
 Lab Session No 1
Learning Objective:
To investigate the Fourier's Law for linear heat conduction along a simple bar.
To determine the thermal conductivity of bar and compare its results.
Apparatus:
 Specimen of same material
 Heat Conduction apparatus
 Main digital Control panel (H111)
 Temperature Sensors

Figure 1
Theory:
Conduction:
Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to adjacent less
energetic particles because of interactions between the particles. In solids, conduction is the
combined result of molecular vibrations and free electron mobility. Metals typically have high free
electron mobility, which explains why they are good heat conductors. Conduction can be easily
understood if we imagine two blocks, one very hot and the other cold. If we put these blocks in
contact with one another but insulate them from the surroundings, thermal energy will be
transferred from the hot to the cold block, as evidenced by the increase in temperature of the cold
block. This mode of heat transfer between the two solid blocks is termed ‘conduction’
Heat Conduction Unit:
The apparatus we will be using in this experiment is the P.A. Hilton H940 Heat Conduction Unit,
which consists of three items. The first item is a transformer equipped with a circuit breaker. The
transformer has two cords which connect it to an AC outlet and to the second item, the calibration
unit
 Figure 2

The calibration unit has two basic functions. It delivers power to the heater element within the test
unit and it calibrates and displays the temperatures at nine locations along the test unit. The amount
of power delivered to the test unit is controlled by the power control knob on the right side of the
calibration unit; to its left is the temperature selector knob which is used to select one of the nine
thermocouple temperatures for display on the digital readout,
The third item is the test unit, which consists of two test geometries: an insulated brass bar which
allows a sample to be placed between the two ends, and an insulated disk. Both geometries are
equipped with a power supply, but we will only use the insulated bar for this experiment. The test
unit is also equipped with a cooling water hose. The purpose of the cooling water running
through the unit at the cold end of the bar is to remove heat that is produced at the hot end and
transferred by conduction to the cold end, keeping the cold end at a constant temperature. Once
the rate at which heat is generated is equal to the rate at which heat is removed, steady state
conditions (temperatures will be constant, and readings can be taken) will exist. The test unit has
two heater cords: one from the test bar and the other from the test disk. Be sure to use only the
heater cord for the bar, which connects to the heater plug located in the lower right-hand corner of
the calibration unit. Figure 4 shows the front view of the test unit.
In addition to this equipment, you will also find a box that contains the samples, thermocouples,
and conducting paste in a small syringe. The samples can be placed in the bar test unit by releasing
the clamps and sliding the cold end of the bar out. The thermocouples must be placed in order from
1 to 9. The conducting paste is designed only to decrease contact resistance when applied to the
ends of the connecting bars; it is not intended to enhance heat conduction.
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:
In this experiment we will investigate conduction in an insulated long slender brass bar like the
one

Figure 3

We will assume that the bar is of length L, a uniform hot temperature Th is imposed on one end,
and a cold temperature Tc is imposed on the other. We will also assume, because the bar is
insulated in the peripheral direction that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to an imposed
temperature differential along the bar. The equation that governs the heat flow is known as
Fourier’s Law, and in the axial direction it is written as:
qx = KA dT/dx
Where qx is the rate of heat conduction in the x-direction, k is the thermal conductivity of the
material, Ax is the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction, and dT/dx is the temperature
gradient in the x-direction. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature. More generally, Fourier's Law is a vector relationship which includes all
directions of heat transfer:

The thermal conductivity k varies between different materials and can be a function of
temperature, but it can be treated as a constant over small temperature range. Because of the
enhancement of heat transfer by free electrons, thermal conductivity is analogous to electrical
conductivity and as a result, metals that are good conductors of electricity are also good
conductors of heat. In this experiment we will investigate Fourier's Law by finding the thermal
conductivity k for brass and comparing this value to the actual value from one or more
references. To do so we will calculate the cross-sectional area Ax of the bar and the slope dT/dx
from a plot of measured temperatures vs. length. We can then use these values in a rearranged
version of Fourier's Law to find the thermal conductivity, k:
K = (qx/Ax) (dx/dT)
Procedure:
 Make sure that the main switch is initially off. Then insert a brass conductor (25mmdiameter)
section intermediate section into the linear module and clamp together.
 Turn on the water supply ensure the water flowing through the free end of the water pipe to
drainpipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
 Turn the heater power control knob control panel to the fully anticlockwise position and
connect the sensors leads.
 Switch on the power supply and main switch, the digital readouts will be illuminated.
 Turn the heater power control to 20 Watts and allow sufficient time for a steady state condition
to be achieved before recording the temperature at all nine sensor points and the input power
reading on the wattmeter (Q).
 Repeat this procedure for input power between 10 watts. After each change, sufficient time
must be allowed to achieve SteadyState conditions.
 Plot the temperature, T (℃) versus distance, x (meter) calculate the actual thermal conductivity
and theoretical.

Observations:
Heat transfer = Q = 5W
Diameter of material = d = 25mm
Area = A = 4.901×10−4m2
Table 1: linear heat conduction along a simple bar

Sr. Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 Slope K
No ℃ 𝑊
( ) (𝑚℃)
𝑚
Watt C° C° C° C° C° C° C° C° C° Slope K
℃ 𝑊
(𝑚) (𝑚℃)
1 5 93.2 95.4 89 45.9 45.8 45.4 33.8 34 32.1 924 11.02
2 10 94.3 87.1 93.1 46.8 45.8 44.8 34 34 32 907 22.45
3 15 98.1 103 97.2 46.1 46.8 46.4 34.4 34.4 31.9 1024 29.84
Graph:
Specimen Calculations:

Comments:
 Lab Session No 2
Objective:
To investigate the conduction of heat along a composite bar.
To determine the thermal conductivity of the composite bar and compare the results.
Apparatus:
 Specimen of different materials (Brass, Copper)
 Heat Conduction apparatus
 Main digital Control panel (H111)
 Temperature Sensors

Figure 4

Theory:
Conduction:
Conduction is defined as the transfer of energy from more energetic particles to adjacent less
energetic particles because of interactions between the particles. In solids, conduction is the
combined result of molecular vibrations and free electron mobility. Metals typically have high free
electron mobility, which explains why they are good heat conductors. Conduction can be easily
understood if we imagine two blocks, one very hot and the other cold. If we put these blocks in
contact with one another but insulate them from the surroundings, thermal energy will be
transferred from the hot to the cold block, as evidenced by the increase in temperature of the cold
block. This mode of heat transfer between the two solid blocks is termed ‘conduction’.
Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction:
In this experiment we will investigate conduction in an insulated long slender brass bar like the
one

Figure 5: Fourier's law of heat conduction

We will assume that the bar is of length L, a uniform hot temperature Th is imposed on one end,
and a cold temperature Tc is imposed on the other. We will also assume, because the bar is
insulated in the peripheral direction that all the heat flows in the axial direction due to an imposed
temperature differential along the bar. The equation that governs the heat flow is known as
Fourier’s Law, and in the axial direction it is written as:
qx = KA dT/dx
where qx is the rate of heat conduction in the x-direction, k is the thermal conductivity of the
material, Ax is the cross-sectional area normal to the x-direction, and dT/dx is the temperature
gradient in the x-direction. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred in the direction of
decreasing temperature. More generally, Fourier's Law is a vector relationship which includes all
directions of heat transfer:

The thermal conductivity k varies between different materials and can be a function of
temperature, but it can be treated as a constant over small temperature range. Because of the
enhancement of heat transfer by free electrons, thermal conductivity is analogous to electrical
conductivity and as a result, metals that are good conductors of electricity are also good
conductors of heat. In this experiment we will investigate Fourier's Law by finding the thermal
conductivity k for brass and comparing this value to the actual value from one or more
references. To do so we will calculate the cross-sectional area Ax of the bar and the slope dT/dx
from a plot of measured temperatures vs. length. We can then use these values in a rearranged
version of Fourier's Law to find the thermal conductivity, k:
K = (qx/Ax) (dx/dT)
Heat transfer through a composite wall:
A composite wall consists of two or more layers of different materials with varying thermal
conductivities, thicknesses, and boundary conditions. Conduction across a composite wall occurs
when heat flows from one side of the wall to the other through multiple layers of different
materials. The heat transfer rate through a composite wall depends on the thermal conductivity,
thickness, and surface area of each layer, as well as the temperature difference across the wall.
The overall heat transfer rate through a composite wall can be determined by applying the
principles of thermal resistance. Each layer of the wall offers a certain amount of thermal resistance
to heat flow, and the overall thermal resistance of the composite wall is the sum of the thermal
resistances of each layer. This can be expressed mathematically using the equation:
RTotal = R1 + R2 + R3 +... + Rn
Where, RTotal is the total thermal resistance of the composite wall, and R1, R2, R3,...Rn are the thermal
resistances of each layer.
The overall heat transfer rate, or heat flux, can then be determined using Fourier's law of heat
conduction, which states that the heat flux is proportional to the temperature difference across the
wall and inversely proportional to the total thermal resistance of the wall.
Heat transfer through a composite wall can be optimized by selecting materials with high thermal
conductivity for the layers with the largest temperature difference, and with low thermal
conductivity for the layers with the smallest temperature difference. Additionally, the thickness
and surface area of each layer can be adjusted to maximize the overall heat transfer rate.

Procedure:
 Firstly, make sure that the main switch is initially off.
 Then, select three parts of rods with steel in between brass and connect them by the application
of gentle pressure in such way that there is minimum amount of composition Resistance of
thermal contact between them.
 Measure the dimensions of the rods.
 Calculate the cross-sectional area of the rods
 Turn on the power supply to ensure that the water flowing through the free end of the water
pipe to drainpipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
 Then turn on the heater power control knob control panel and connect the sensor lead.
 Switch on the power supply from the main switch.
 To avoid heat conduction in radial direction, use thermal paste on the surface of the rod.
 Set the heat input at desired level and wait for settle down of temperature. Χ.
 Measure the temperature by digital thermometer. Note down the temperature from T1 to T7
with the help of multi-meter.
 Plot the graph between the temperature & distance.
 Using Fourier's law and graph, calculate the K value and find the error in experimental and
theoretical value of K.

Observation:
Diameter =25 mm.
Diameter of the Brass Rod (heater and cooler) = 25mm
Area of the heater and cooler =

U=is overall heat transfer coefficient.

U=702.83 Watt/m2C
Table 1: Heat along a composite bar

Q T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9
No.
of (W) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C)
obs.
1 5 44 43 40 35 34 32 31 31 30

2 10 60 55 53 45 39 36 35 33 32

3 15 95 93 88 54 47 44 40 39 35

Graph:
Specimen Calculations:

Comments:
 Lab Session No 3
Objective:
To investigate the effect of change in cross section area on the temperature profile along a thermal
Conduction.

Apparatus:
Setup of linear Heat Transfer (P.A.Hilton)
 Brass Bar
 Heat Conduction apparatus
 Main digital Control panel (H111)
 Temperature Sensors

Figure 6

In this experiment we are going to analyze the setup of long bar which is divided into three sections
where the whole setup of bar construction is same as there is one type of material arranged in a
way that two brass materials are covering brass small bar ni between them. So, when heat/power
si supplied from unit they get hot and the transfer is occurring most of conduction. The various
temperatures are measured and given sensor will figure out on itself. Then k and slopes are also
measured from given data.
At its core, thermal conduction is guided by Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction, a principle
formulated by French mathematician and physicist Joseph Fourier. This law establishes the
relationship between the rate of heat transfer, the material's properties, and the temperature
gradient across it. Mathematically expressed as Q=dk⋅A⋅ΔT, this equation highlights key factors
influencing heat conduction.
Theory:
The theory of a thermal heat conduction apparatus revolves around the fundamental principles of
heat transfer, particularly through conduction. Let's explore the key components and theories
involved:
Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction:
Mathematical Formulation:
 (Q): Heat transfer rate.
 (K): Thermal conductivity of the material.
 (A): Cross-sectional area through which heat is conducted.
 (Delta T): Temperature difference across the material.
 (D): Thickness of the material.

Thermal Conductivity (k):

Thermal conductivity is a material property representing its ability to conduct heat. It is a measure
of how effectively a material can transfer heat.
Effect on Heat Transfer:
Materials with higher thermal conductivity facilitate more efficient heat transfer.
Temperature Gradient (Delta T):
Temperature gradient is the rate at which temperature changes over a certain distance. In the
context of heat conduction, it represents the driving force for heat transfer.
Effect on Heat Transfer:
A larger temperature difference (Delta T) results in a higher rate of heat transfer.
Thermal Resistance (R):
Thermal resistance is a measure of a material's opposition to heat flow and is the reciprocal of
thermal conductivity multiplied by the material's thickness.
Practical Application:
Electronic Devices:
Efficient thermal management is crucial to prevent electronic components from overheating. Heat
sinks and thermal pastes are often used to enhance heat conduction and dissipate heat effectively.
Building Insulation:
Thermal heat conduction principles are employed in the design of insulating materials to regulate
indoor temperatures and improve energy efficiency.
Engineering Systems:
Various engineering applications, such as heat exchangers and cooling systems, rely on an
understanding of thermal heat conduction for optimal performance.
In summary, the theory of a thermal heat conduction apparatus is rooted in Fourier's Law and
encompasses the understanding of thermal conductivity, temperature gradients, and thermal
resistance. This knowledge is applied across diverse fields to design systems that efficiently
manage heat transfer and ensure the proper functioning of various devices and structures.
Conduction:
Conduction is the process of transferring heat or electrical energy within a material or between
materials in direct contact. In heat conduction, energy is transmitted through vibrating atoms or
molecules in a substance, and in electrical conduction, electric charge flows through materials
capable of permitting the movement of electrons. The efficiency of conduction is determined by
the material's thermal or electrical conductivity. Metals, with high conductivity, facilitate effective
heat and electrical transfer, while insulating materials resist such flow. Conduction is a
fundamental concept in understanding the transmission of energy without the physical
displacement of the material itself.
Fourier Law:
Fourier's Law, named after the French mathematician Joseph Fourier, describes the heat
conduction within a material and is a fundamental principle in thermal physics. The law states that
the rate of heat transfer through a substance is directly proportional to the temperature gradient
across the material and the material's thermal conductivity. where \(q\) is the heat transfer rate,
\(k\) is the thermal conductivity, \(A\) is the cross-sectional area through which heat is transferred,
\(\Delta T\) is the temperature difference, and \(\Delta x\) is the distance over which the
temperature varies. In simpler terms, Fourier's Law explains how heat moves from regions of
higher temperature to lower temperature within a material and quantifies this process, essential for
understanding heat conduction in various applications, from materials science to engineering and
environmental studies.

Figure 7

Procedure:
 Firstly, make sure that the main switch is initially off.
 Then, select three parts of brass rods having different cross-sectional area and connect them
by the application of gentle pressure in such way that there is minimum amount of composition
resistance of thermal contact between them.
 Measure the dimensions of the rods.
 Calculate the cross-sectional area of the rods
 Turn on the power supply to ensure that the water flowing through the free end of the water
pipe to drainpipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
 Then turn on the heater power control knob control panel and connect the sensor lead.
 Switch on the power supply from the main switch.
 To avoid heat conduction in radial direction, use thermal paste on the surface of the rod.
 Set the heat input at desired level and wait for settle down of temperature.
 Measure the temperature by digital thermometer. Note down the temperature from Tl to
 T3 and then T7 to T9 with the help of multi-meter.
 Plot the graph between the temperature & distance.
 Using Fourier's law and graph, calculate the K value and find the error in experimental and
theoretical value of K.

Observation and Calculations:

Diameter of the bar = D = 0.025 m
Area of the bar = A = πr² = 4.9 x104 m²
Total length of the bar = dx = 0.090 m
No. of sections in the bar = n = 3
Length of section A = LA = 0.025m Length of section B = Lg = 0.013m
Length of section C = c = 0.025m
Table 3: Temp along the input heat

No Q( T1(° T2(° T3(° T4(° T5(° T6(° T7(° T8(° T9(°

. of W) C) C) C) C) C) C) C) C) C)
ob
s.
1 8 59 54.5 53 - - - 32.5 32.3 32

2 10 74.6 68 66 - - - 32.3 32.1 31.8

3 12 79 76.4 68 - - - 32.1 32 31.7

Graph:

Specimen Calculations:

Comments:
 Lab Session No 04
Objective:
To examine the temperature profile and determine the rate of heat transfer resulting from the radial
steady conduction through the wall of cylinder.

Apparatus:
Setup of linear Heat Transfer (P.A.Hilton)
 Radial unit
 Temperature sensors
 Control system

Figure 8

In this experiment we are going to analyze the setup of long bar which is divided into three sections
where the whole setup of bar construction is same as there is one type of material arranged in a
way that two brass materials are covering brass small bar ni between them. So, when heat/power
si supplied from unit they get hot and the transfer is occurring most of conduction. The various
temperatures are measured and given sensor will figure out on itself. Then k and slopes are also
measured from given data.
At its core, thermal conduction is guided by Fourier's Law of Heat Conduction, a principle
formulated by French mathematician and physicist Joseph Fourier. This law establishes the
relationship between the rate of heat transfer, the material's properties, and the temperature
gradient across it. Mathematically expressed as Q=dk⋅A⋅ΔT, this equation highlights key factors
influencing heat conduction.
Theory:
Heat Transfer through the Cylinder:
Consider steady heat conduction through a hot water pipe. Heat is continuously lost to the outdoors
through the wall of the pipe, and we intuitively feel that heat transfer through the pipe is in the
normal direction to the pipe surface and no significant heat transfer takes place in the pipe in other
directions. The wall of the pipe, whose thickness is rather small, separates two fluids at different
temperatures, and thus the temperature gradient in the radial direction will be relatively large.
Further, if the fluid temperatures inside and outside the pipe remain constant, then heat transfer
through the pipe is steady. Thus, heat transfer through the pipe can be modeled as steady and one-
dimensional. The temperature of the pipe in this case will depend on one direction only (the radial
r-direction) and can be expressed as T = T(r). The temperature is independent of the azimuthal
angle or the axial distance. This situation is approximated in practice in long cylindrical pipes and
spherical containers.

Figure 9

In steady operation, there is no change in the temperature of thc pipe with time at any point.
Therefore, the rate of heat transfer into the pipe must be equal to the rate of heat transfer out of it.
In other words, heat transfer through the pipe must be constant. The heat of conduction through a
cylinder is given by

Cylinder Conductance:
As each shape feature its own conductance parameters as its resistance to heat is varying for each
shape also, we are using three bars of cylinder shape so we are going discus its dependency of
factors.
Heat Conduction Equation for cylindrical shape and its parameters. As we know that heat is
conducted through cylinder but its value will new result for given specific boundary conditions as
system is static either generated q is zero or unit directional analysis.
For I-Dimensional and steady state condition the above equation becomes

After integration and solve it the final equations becomes;

Multilayered Cylinder:
Steady heat transfer through multilayered cylindrical or spherical shells can be handled just like
multilayered plane walls discussed earlier by simply adding an additional resistance in series for
each additional layer. For example, the steady heat transfer rate through the three-layered
composite cylinder of length L shown in fig 3, with convection on both sides can be expressed.

The total Thermal resistance is expressed as:

The thermal resistance concept can also be used for other geometries, provided that the proper
conduction resistances and the proper surface areas in convection resistances are used.
 Figure 9: The thermal resistance network for heat transfer through (t
subjected to convection on both sides.

Procedure:
 Firstly, make sure that the main switch is initially off.
 Then, select three parts of brass cylinder having different cross-sectional area and connect
them by the application of gentle pressure in such way that there is minimum amount of
composition resistance of thermal contact between them.
 Measure the dimensions of the rods then calculate the cross-sectional area of the rods iv. Turn
on the power supply to ensure that the water flowing through the free end of the water pipe to
drainpipe to drain. This should be checked at intervals.
 Then turn on the heater power control knob control panel and connect the sensor lead.
 Switch on the power supply from the main switch.
 Set the heat input at desired level and wait for settle down of temperature. Measure the
temperature by digital thermometer. Note down the temperature from TI to
 T6 with the help of multi-meter.
 Plot the graph between the temperature & radius.

Observation and Calculations:

Total length of the cylinder = dx = 0.0030 m
Inner radius = R₁ = 0.004m
Outer radius = R2 = 0.055m

No. Heat
of flow T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
obs. rate
Q(W) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C) (0C)
1 10.2 35.2 34.5 33.9 33 31.5 29.7
2 10.3 36.6 34.5 34.2 32.8 32.2 31.6
Graph:

Specimen Calculations:

Comments:
 Lab Session No. 5
Objective:
To investigate the relationship between power input and temperature difference across a flat plate
under free convection and determine the convection heat transfer coefficient for flat plate.

Apparatus:
Setup of flat plate convection heat transfer (P.A.Hilton)
 Flat plate
 Free and Forced Convection Heat
o Transfer apparatus
 Heat Transfer Unit H111E

Figure 10

Theory:
Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer occurs through three main mechanisms: conduction, convection, and radiation.
Conduction involves the transfer of heat through a material without any bulk motion of the material
itself.
Convection involves the transfer of heat between a solid surface and a fluid (liquid or gas) in
motion.
Convection:
Convection can be classified into two main types: free (natural) convection and forced convection.

Free Convection:
Free convection occurs when a fluid (liquid or gas) flows naturally due to buoyancy forces induced
by temperature differences.
The heat transfer rate in free convection is influenced by the temperature gradient, fluid properties,
and geometry.

Forced Convection:
Forced convection involves the use of an external force, such as a pump or a fan, to move the fluid
and enhance heat transfer.
The heat transfer rate in forced convection is strongly influenced by the flow velocity, fluid
properties, and surface conditions.
 Figure 11

Flat Plate Convection:

Nusselt Number (Nu):
Nusselt number is a dimensionless parameter used to characterize the heat transfer in convection.
For flat plate convection, the Nusselt number can be expressed as a function of Reynolds number
(Re) and Prandtl number (Pr).
Reynolds Number (Re):
Reynolds number is a dimensionless parameter that characterizes the flow regime.
For forced convection over a flat plate, it is defined as the product of fluid velocity, characteristic
length,
5.4 Newton law of cooling:
Newton's Law of Cooling is a fundamental principle in the study of heat transfer, specifically in
the context of convective heat transfer. This law describes the rate of heat loss (or gain) from a
surface to a fluid (gas or liquid) surrounding it.
The law is typically expressed mathematically as:
=ℎ(∞)q=hA(Ts−T∞)
where:
q is the heat transfer rate, ℎh is the
convective heat transfer coefficient, A is the
surface area through which heat is being
transferred,
Ts is the temperature of the surface,
∞T∞ is the temperature of the fluid (or surroundings) far from the surface.
This equation is a simplification that assumes one-dimensional heat transfer and a constant
convective heat transfer coefficient. The negative sign indicates that heat is transferred from the
surface to the fluid if ∞Ts>T∞, and vice versa.
The law suggests that the rate of heat transfer is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between the surface and the surrounding fluid. The convective heat transfer coefficient (ℎh) is a
measure of the efficiency of heat transfer between the surface and the fluid and depends on various
factors such as fluid properties, flow conditions, and surface geometry.
Newton's Law of Cooling is commonly used in situations where convective heat transfer is the
dominant mode, such as in natural or forced convection. It is important in applications ranging
from the cooling of electronic devices to the analysis of heat exchangers and various engineering
systems where temperature gradients play a crucial role.

Procedure:
 Place a flat plate into a test duct.
 Record the ambient temperature value.
 Turn on the power supply, by making sure that the velocity of the air input is zero.
 Set the value of Q.
 Measure the temperature of air at the air inlet by the using of Multi-meter.
 Measure the temperature of the heating surface at the given power supply, by carefully
contacting the surface by the probe of the multi-meter.
 Measure the temperature of air at the air outlet. viii. Calculate the temperature difference
and the convective heat transfer coefficient.
 ix. Plot the graph between temperature of heat surface and the power input.

Observation and Calculations:

Ambient Temperature =
Surface area of plate =11cm * 10cm = 110cm^2
Air velocity=0 m/s (free convection)
Graph:

Specimen Calculation

Comments:
 Lab Session No. 6
Objectives:
To demonstrate the relationship between the surface temperature and power input in forced
convection.
To determine the convection heat, transfer co-efficient.

Apparatus:
 Flat plate
 Free and Forced Convection
Heat Transfer apparatus
 Heat Transfer Unit H111E

Figure 12

Theory:
We observed the temperature at the inlet and outlet & hot surface for the free convection in which
determined the relationship between the power and surface temperature.
Convection:
Convection is the process of heat transfer by the bulk movement of molecules within fluids such
as gases and liquids. The initial heat transfer between the object and the fluid takes place through
conduction, but the bulk heat transfer happens due to the motion of the fluid.
 Figure 13

Advection:
The transfer of heat or matter by the flow of a fluid, especially horizontally in the atmosphere or
the sea. The transfer of heat through the horizontal movement of air is called advection.
Advection is a more specific process, defined as the transport of something (such as temperature,
moisture, or a substance) from one place to another by bulk motion of a fluid, generally
horizontally.
Free convection:
As a body is totally placed in such kind of environment where
convection is placed by a medium but the medium/environment
is totally natural as no external source is there to affects the
medium properties which is causing heat transfer in between
body and environment.
Natural convection, known also as free convection is a
mechanism, or type of mass and heat transport, in which the fluid
motion is generated only by density differences in the fluid
occurring due to temperature gradients, not by any external
source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.). In natural
convection, fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat and by
thermal expansion becomes less dense and rises. Thermal
expansion of the fluid plays a crucial role. In other words, heavier
(denser) components will fall, while lighter (less dense)
components rise, leading to bulk fluid movement.
Newton's Law of Cooling:
This relationship was derived from an empirical observation of convective cooling of hot bodies
made by Isaac Newton in 1701, who stated that "the rate of loss of heat by a body is directly
proportional to the excess temperature of the body above that of its surroundings." Accordingly,
the temperature of a hot object Tl which is cooling down as a result of exposure to a convective
flow at T2 < Tl, would vary as:
If the energy loss from the hot body to the cooler fluid is replenished by a heat flux q such that Tl
remains constant then the steady state version of Newton's Law of Cooling can be expressed as:

This rate equation is universally used to define Heat Transfer Coefficient h for all convective flows
such as free, forced, single, and multiphase involving either heating or cooling. It should be noted
that in some cases h is temperature dependent and rate of heat transfer is not a linear function of
the driving force (Tl — T2). It should also be noted that the defining driving force varies from
system to system but the complexity of any particular process is usually reflected in the
formulation of the expression for h, whose value depends upon the nature and properties of the
flow system and ranges from 10 W/m2K for Natural Convection between air and a vertical plate
to 100,000 W/m2K for dropwise condensation of saturated water vapor at a vertical plate.
The study of convective heat transfer is ultimately concerned with finding the value of the heat
transfer coefficient, as defined by Newton's Law of Cooling, in terms of the physical parameters
of the convection system.
Applications:
 Heat exchangers in engines, radiators, air conditioners, and other systems rely on forced
convection to transfer heat between fluids.
 Forced air cooling is essential for preventing overheating and maintaining reliable
operation of electronic components.
 the surface temperature of the drying surface, and the airflow rate allows engineers to
control the drying process and achieve desired product quality.

Procedure:
 Place a flat plate into the test duct.
 Record the ambient temperature value.
 Turn on the power supply, and set the velocity of air at desired level.
 Set the value of Q.
 Measure the temperature of the air at the air inlet by using multimeter.
 Measure the temperature of the heating surface at the given power supply, by careful
contacting the surface by the probe of the multimeter.
 Measure the temperature at the air outlet.
 Calculate the temperature difference and convective heat transfer co-efficient.
 Plot a graph between temperature and power input.
Observations and Calculations:
For Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient:
Q = (h) (A) (ΔT)
Where:
• q is the heat transfer rate,
• ℎ is the convective heat transfer coefficient,
• A is the surface area,
• ΔT is the temperature difference
Table 1:
Q = 5W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 36 30 6 279.15 1.6283
1 37 30 7 280.15 1.6225
1.3 35 30 5 278.15 1.6341

Graph:

Table 2:
Q = 10W
 Plate Ambient Heat transfer
Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 38 30 8 281.15 3.2334
1 37 30 7 280.15 3.2450
1.3 35 30 5 278.15 3.2683

Graph:

Table 3:
Q = 15W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 40 30 10 283.15 4.8159
1 38 30 8 281.15 4.8502
1.3 37 30 7 280.15 4.8675

Graph:
Specimen Calculations:

Comments:
 Lab Session No. 07
Objective:
To demonstrate the relationship between the surface temperature and power input in forced and
free convection.
To determine the convective heat, transfer co-efficient for the finned plate.
Apparatus:
 Finned plate
 Free and Forced Convection Heat Transfer apparatus
 Heat Transfer Unit H111E

Figure 14

We observed the temperature at the inlet and outlet & hot surface for the free convection in which
determined the relationship between the power and surface temperature.
Convection:
Convection is the process of heat transfer by the bulk movement of molecules within fluids such
as gases and liquids. The initial heat transfer between the object and the fluid takes place through
conduction, but the bulk heat transfer happens due to the motion of the fluid.

Advection:
The transfer of heat or matter by the flow of a fluid, especially horizontally in the atmosphere or
the sea. The transfer of heat through the horizontal movement of air is called advection.
Advection is a more specific process, defined as the transport of something (such as temperature,
moisture, or a substance) from one place to another by bulk motion of a fluid, generally
horizontally.
Free convection:
As a body is totally placed in such kind of environment where convection is placed by a medium
but the medium/environment is totally natural as no external source is there to affects the medium
properties which is causing heat transfer in between body and environment.

Natural convection, known also as free convection is a mechanism, or type of mass and heat
transport, in which the fluid motion is generated only by density differences in the fluid occurring
due to temperature gradients, not by any external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.). In
natural convection, fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat and by thermal expansion
becomes less dense and rises. Thermal expansion of the fluid plays a crucial role. In other words,
heavier (denser) components will fall, while lighter (less dense) components rise, leading to bulk
fluid movement.
Newton's Law of Cooling:
This relationship was derived from an empirical observation of convective cooling of hot bodies
made by Isaac Newton in 1701, who stated that "the rate of loss of heat by a body is directly
proportional to the excess temperature of the body above that of its surroundings." Accordingly,
the temperature of a hot object Tl which is cooling down as a result of exposure to a convective
flow at T2 < Tl, would vary as:

If the energy loss from the hot body to the cooler fluid is replenished by a heat flux q such that T l
remains constant then the steady state version of Newton's Law of Cooling can be expressed as:

This rate equation is universally used to define Heat Transfer Coefficient h for all convective flows
such as free, forced, single, and multiphase involving either heating or cooling. It should be noted
that in some cases h is temperature dependent and rate of heat transfer is not a linear function of
the driving force (Tl — T2). It should also be noted that the defining driving force varies from
system to system but the complexity of any particular process is usually reflected in the
formulation of the expression for h, whose value depends upon the nature and properties of the
flow system and ranges from 10 W/m2K for Natural Convection between air and a vertical plate
to 100,000 W/m2K for dropwise condensation of saturated water vapor at a vertical plate.
The study of convective heat transfer is ultimately concerned with finding the value of the heat
transfer coefficient, as defined by Newton's Law of Cooling, in terms of the physical parameters
of the convection system.

Procedure:
 Place a flat plate into the test duct.
 Record the ambient temperature value.
 Turn ON the power supply and set the velocity of air at desired level.
 Set the value of Q.
 Measure the temperature of the air at the air inlet by using the multi-meter.
 Measure the temperature of the heating surface at the given power supply, by carefully
contacting the surface by the probe or the multi-meter.
 Measure the temperature of the air at the air outlet.
 Calculate the temperature difference and convective heat transfer coefficient.
 Plot a graph between temperature of heating surface and the power input.

Observations and Calculations:

Temperature Distribution:
 • Note the temperature distribution along the length of the finned plate and the flat/pinned
plate.
• Observe any variations in temperature between the two plates.
Steady-State Conditions:
Confirm that the system has reached a steady-state condition by observing stable
temperature readings.
Heat Transfer Coefficients:
Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficients for both the finned plate and the
flat/pinned plate using the appropriate heat transfer equations.
Effect of Fins:
Analyze the impact of the fins on heat transfer by comparing the convective heat transfer
coefficients of the finned plate with those of the flat/pinned plate.
Use the following formula to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient: q=h⋅A⋅ΔT
Where:

• q is the heat transfer rate,

• ℎ is the convective heat transfer coefficient,
• A is the surface area,
• ΔT is the temperature difference.

Q = 5W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 31 27 4 277.15 0.142442517
1 30 27 3 276.15 0.142958333
1.3 29 27 2 275.15 0.143477898
Graph:

Q = 10W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 32 27 5 278.15 0.283860821
1 31 27 4 277.15 0.284885035
1.3 30 27 3 276.15 0.285916666

Graph:
 Q = 15W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 32 27 5 278.15 0.425791231
1 31 27 4 277.15 0.427327552
1.3 30 27 3 276.15 0.428874999

Graph:

Q = 20W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 34 27 7 280.15 0.563668659
1 31 27 4 277.15 0.569770069
1.3 30 27 3 276.15 0.571833332
Graph:

Specimen Calculations:

Comments:
 Lab Session No. 08
Objectives:
To demonstrate the relationship between the surface temperature and power input for forced and
free convention in pinned plate.
Compare the results of heat transfer by pinned plate with flat-pinned plate.

Apparatus:
 Pinned plate
 Free and Forced Convection Heat Transfer apparatus
 Heat Transfer Unit H111E

Figure 15

Introduction:
Convection, conduction, and radiation are the three modes of heat transfer. Convection heat
transfer is critical in many industrial applications. Convection can be classified into numerous
groups based on a variety of characteristics. In its broadest terms, it is separated into two typesfree
and forced convection. The fluid to be heated is blasted or pumped past the heated surface by a
pump or a fan in forced convection, whereas in natural (or free) convection, fluid flow is produced
naturally based on density variation in the heated fluid.
For the free convection, convection is the primary method through which heat is dissipated from
a hot surface. Heat is also dissipated through conduction and radiation, but these effects are not
taken into account in this experiment. When air comes into touch with a hot surface, it is heated
by the surface and rises due to a reduction in density. Cooler air replaces the hot air, which is then
heated by the surface and rises. This is known as free convection. The higher the surface
temperature, the stronger the convective currents and the more heat (power) dissipated. When more
power is applied to a surface; the temperature of the surface must rise in order for the power to be
dissipated.
Despite the complexity of convection, the rate of convection heat transfer Q [W] is observed to be
proportional to the temperature difference, and is conveniently expressed by Newton’s law of
cooling as,

Q = hAs(Ts- T∞)
Where,
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient [W/m2]
As is the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts is the surface temperature
T∞ is the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface or the ambient air temperature.

In free convection the heat transfer rate from the surface is limited by the small movements of air
generated by this heat. More heat is transferred if the air velocity is increased over the heated
surface. This process of assisting the movement of air over the heated surface is called forced
convection. Therefore, a heated surface experiencing force convection will have a lower surface
temperature than that of the same surface in free convection, for the same power input.

Theory:
We observed the temperature at the inlet and outlet &hot surface for the free convection in which
we determined the relationship between the power and surface temperature.
Convection:
Convection is the process of heat transfers by the bulk movement of molecules within fluids such
as gases and liquids. The initial heat transfers between the object and the fluid takes place through
conduction, but the bulk heat transfer happens due to the motion of the fluid.

Figure 16
Advection:
Change in a property of a moving mass of air because the mass is transported by the wind to a
region where the property has a different value (e.g., the change in temperature when a warm air
mass moves into a cool region).
Free Convection:
Free convection refers to fluid motion induced by buoyancy forces. Buoyancy forces may arise in
a fluid for which there are density gradients and a body force that is proportional to density. In
heat transfer, density gradients are due to temperature gradients and the body force is gravitational.
Forced Convection:
Forced convection is a special type of heat transfer in which fluids are forced to move, in order to
increase the heat transfer. This forcing can be done with a ceiling fan, a pump, suction device, or
other.

Newton's Law of Cooling:

This relationship was derived from an empirical observation of convective cooling of hot bodies
made by Isaac Newton in 1701, who stated that "the rate of loss of heat by body is directly
proportional to the excess temperature of the body above that of its surroundings." Accordingly,
the temperature of a hot object T, which is cooling down as a result of exposure to a convective
flow at Tr < Ti, would vary as:

If the energy loss from the hot body to the cooler fluid is replenished by a heat flux q such that It
remains constant, then the steady state version of Newton's Law of Cooling can be expressed as:

This rate equation is universally used to define Heat Transfer Coefficient for al convective flows
such as free, forced, single, and multiphase involving either heating or cooling. It should be noted
that in some cases h is temperature dependent and rate of heat transfer is not a linear function of
the driving force (Tr - T2.) It should also be noted that the defining driving force varies from
system to system but the complexity of any particular process is usually reflected in the
formulation of the expression for h, whose value depends upon the nature and properties of the
flow system and ranges from 10 W/mK' for Natural Convection between air and a vertical plate to
100,000 Wm/°K for dropwise condensation of saturated water vapor at a vertical plate.
The study of convective heat transfer is ultimately concerned with finding the value of the heat
transfer coefficient, as defined by Newton’s Law of Cooling, in terms of the physical parameters
of the convection system.
Procedure:
 Place a flat plate into the test duct.
 Record the ambient temperature value.
 Tum ON the power supply and set the velocity of air at desired level.
 Set the value of Q.
 Measure the temperature of the air tithe air inlet by using the multi-meter.
 Measure the temperature of the heating surface at the given power supply, by carefully
contacting the surface by the probe of the multi-meter.
 Measure the temperature of the air at the air outlet.
 Calculate the temperature difference and convective heat transfer coefficient.
 Plot a graph between temperature of heating surface and the power input.
Observations & Calculations:
Ambient Temperature = T∞= 290C
Surface area of finned plate =?
Qconv = hcA (Ts-T∞)
Surface Area of Flat Plate:
A = 0.022 m2
Surface Area of Finned Plate:
A = 0.127 m2
Calculation of surface Area of Pinned Plate;
Dia of a Pin = 12.5 mm
Length of Pin = 65 mm
Surface area of Pin = 2πrL
Surface area of Pin = 2552 mm2
Total Surface area = [110 * 110] + [17 * 2552] A
Total Surface area = 54384 mm2
Total Surface area = 0.054 m2
 Q = 5W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 31 27 4 277.15 0.142442517
1 30 27 3 276.15 0.142958333
1.3 29 27 2 275.15 0.143477898

Graph:

Q = 10W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 32 27 5 278.15 0.283860821
1 31 27 4 277.15 0.284885035
1.3 30 27 3 276.15 0.285916666
Graph:

Table3:
Q = 15W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 32 27 5 278.15 0.425791231
1 31 27 4 277.15 0.427327552
1.3 30 27 3 276.15 0.428874999

Graph:
Table 4:
Q = 20W

Plate Ambient Heat transfer

Air velocity TH – TA TH – TA
Temperature (TH) Temperature (TA) Coefficient, h
(m/s) (℃) (K)
(℃) (℃) W/m2. K
0.5 34 27 7 280.15 0.563668659
1 31 27 4 277.15 0.569770069
1.3 30 27 3 276.15 0.571833332

Graph:

Specimen Calculations:

Comments:
 Lab Session No. 09
Objectives:
To study the heat transfer through a concentric tube heat exchanger working under parallel flow
conditions for different flow rates (cold fluid).
To perform the energy balance and find the performance parameters of heat exchangers.

Apparatus:
 Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger
 Water Tank
 Thermometers
 Volumetric Flow Meters

Figure 17

Theory:
Heat Exchanger
A heat exchanger is an equipment in which heat exchange takes place between 2 fluids that enter
and exit at different temperatures. The main function of heat exchanger is to either remove heat
from a hot fluid or to add heat to the cold fluid. The direction of fluid motion inside the heat
exchanger can normally categorized as parallel flow, counter flow and cross flow. In this
experiment, we study only the parallel flow and counter flow. For parallel flow, also known as
concurrent flow, both the hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction. Both the fluids enter and
exit the heat exchanger on the same ends. For counter flow, both the hot and cold fluids flow in
the opposite direction. Both the fluids enter and exit the heat exchanger on the opposite ends. In
this experiment, we focused on the shell and tube heat exchanger. Examples in practice in which
flowing fluids exchange heat are air intercoolers and preheaters, condensers and boilers in steam
plant, condensers, condensers and evaporators in refrigeration units, and many other industrial
processes in which a liquid or gas is required to be either cooled or heated.

Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and conduction through
the wall separating the two fluids. In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient to work with
an overall heat transfer coefficient U that accounts for the contribution of all these effects on heat
transfer. The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids at a location in a heat exchanger depends
on the magnitude of the temperature difference at that location, which varies along the heat
exchanger.

Classification of Heat Exchangers by Flow Arrangement

There are four basic flow configurations:
 Counter Flow
 Parallel Flow
 Cross flow
 Hybrids such as Cross Counter-flow and Multi Pass Flow

Counter Flow:
Following figure shows an idealized counter-low exchanger in which the two fluids flow parallel
to each other but in opposite directions.

Parallel Flow:
In parallel flow heat exchangers, the streams flow parallel to each other and in the same direction.
Cross Flow:
Cross-flow heat exchangers are intermediate in efficiency between countercurrent flow and
parallel flow exchangers.

Cross/Counter Flow:
In industrial heat exchangers, hybrids of the above flow types are often found. Examples of these
are combined cross-flow/counter-flow heat exchangers and multi pass flow heat exchangers.

Classification of Heat Exchangers by Type of Construction:

Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
The simplest type of heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes of different diameters called
the double-pipe heat exchanger. One fluid in a double-pipe heat exchanger flows through the
smaller pipe while the other fluid flows through the annular space between the two pipes. Two
types of flow arrangement are possible in a double-pipe heat exchanger
1) Parallel Flow
2) Counter Flow
Compact Heat Exchanger
Another type of heat exchanger, which is specifically designed to realize a large heat transfer
surface area per unit volume, is the compact heat exchanger. The ratio of the heat transfer surface
area of a heat exchanger to its volume is called the area density. A heat exchanger with 700 m2/m3
is classified as being compact. Examples of compact heat exchangers are car radiators (P = 1000
m2/m3), glass ceramic gas turbine heat exchangers (P = 6000 m2/1ü3), the regenerator of a Stirling
engine (p = 15000 m2hn3), and the human lung (P = 20000 m2/m3).
In compact heat exchangers, the two fluids usually move perpendicular to each other, and such
flow configuration is called cross-flow. Two types of flow arrangement are possible in a compact
heat exchanger:
Unmixed Flow
The cross-flow is said to be unmixed since the plate fins force the fluid to flow through a particular
inter-fin spacing and prevent it from moving in the transverse direction (i.e., parallel to the tubes).

Mixed Flow
The cross-flow is said to be mixed since the fluid now is free to move in the transverse direction.
Both fluids are unmixed in a car radiator. The presence of mixing in the fluid can have a significant
effect on the heat transfer characteristics of the heat exchanger.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:
Shell-and-tube heat exchangers contain a large number of tubes (sometimes several hundred)
packed in a shell with their axes parallel to that of the shell. Heat transfer takes place as one fluid
flows inside the tubes while the other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell. Baffles are
commonly placed in the shell to force the shell-side fluid to flow across the shell to enhance heat
transfer and to maintain uniform spacing between the tubes. Despite their widespread use, Shell
and-tube heat exchangers are not suitable for use in automotive and aircraft applications because
of their relatively large size and weight. Note that the tubes in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger
open to some large flow areas called headers at both ends of the shell, where the tube-side fluid
accumulates before entering the tubes and after leaving them.

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers arc further classified according to the number of shell and tube
passes involved.
1) Heat exchangers in which all the tubes make one U-turn in the shell arc called one-shell
pass and two tube-passes heat exchangers.
2) Heat exchanger that involves two passes in the shell and four passes in the tubes is called
a two-shell-passes and four-tube-passes heat exchanger.

Performance Characteristics of Heat Exchanger

Performance characteristics of heat exchanger are calculated as follows:
To calculate overall heat transfer coefficient, log mean temperature difference must be calculated:

Then overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by following formula:

Efficiency or heat exchanger is calculated as follows:

Procedure:
 Make sure that water supply is properly attached.
 By adjusting the knobs on pipes, select the parallel flow type configuration.
 Note down the readings of mass flow Rates of hot and cold water.
 After some time, note the values of temperature of hot and cold fluids at three points (inlet,
mid and outlet).
 Change the mass flow rate of cold and hot fluid.
 Repeat the above procedure for every mass flow rates.
 Calculate the heat lost by hot fluid, heat gained by cold fluid, power lost to surroundings and
efficiency for all mass flow rates.

Observations And Calculations:

Temperature Distribution:
• Observe any variations in temperature between the two plates.
• Analyze the impact of the fins on heat transfer by comparing the convective heat transfer
coefficients of the finned plate with those of the flat/pinned plate.
• Use the following formula to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient:

For Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient:

Q = (h) (A) (ΔT)
Where:

• q is the heat transfer rate,

• ℎ is the convective heat transfer coefficient,
• A is the surface area,
• ΔT is the temperature difference
Table:

Graph:

Comments:
 Lab Session No. 10
Objectives:
To study the heat transfer through a concentric tube heat exchanger working under counter flow
conditions for different flow rates (cold fluid).
To perform the energy balance and find the performance parameters of heat exchangers.

Apparatus:
• Concentric Tube Heat Exchanger
• Water Tank
• Thermometers
• Volumetric Flow Meters

Introduction:
Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the exchange of heat between two fluids that are
different temperatures while keeping them from mixing with each other. There are many types of
heat exchangers which apply different types of hardware and configuration of heat transfer
equipment. There are shell and tube, plate and shell, adiabatic wheel, plate fin, pillow plate and
other. It also has two types of flow arrangement which are parallel and counter flow. Heat
exchangers are commonly used in practice in a wide range of applications, from heating and air-
conditioning systems in a household, to chemical processing and power production in large plants.
Heat exchangers differ from mixing chambers in that they do not allow the two fluids involved to
mix. Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and conduction
through the wall separating the two fluids. In the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient to
work with an overall heat transfer coefficient U that accounts for the contribution of all these
effects on heat transfer. The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids at a location in a heat
exchanger depends on the magnitude of the temperature difference at that location, which varies
along the heat exchanger. For this experiment, the has been designed specifically to demonstrate
the working principles of industrial heat exchangers. The apparatus and materials requires only a
cold water supply, single phase electrical outlet and a bench top to enable a series of simple
measurements to be made by students. Experiments can be readily conducted in a short period of
time, to accurately show the practical importance of the temperature profiles, co-current and
counter-current flow, energy balances, log mean temperature difference and heat transfer
coefficients.

Theory:
Heat Exchanger:
A heat exchanger is an equipment in which heat exchange takes place between 2fluids that
enter and exit at different temperatures. The main function of heat exchanger is to either remove
heat from a hot fluid or to add heat to the cold fluid. The direction of fluid motion inside the heat
exchanger can normally categorized as parallel flow, counter flow and cross flow. In this
experiment, we study only the parallel flow and counter flow. For parallel flow, also known as co-
current flow, both the hot and cold fluids flow ni the same direction. Both the fluids enter and exit
the heat exchanger on the same ends. For counter flow, both the hot and cold fluids flow in the
opposite direction. Both the fluids enter and exit the heat exchanger on the opposite ends. In this
experiment, we focused on the shell and tube heat exchanger. Examples in practice in which
flowing fluids exchange heat are air intercoolers and preheaters, condensers and boilers in steam.

Plant, condensers, condensers and evaporators ni refrigeration units, and many other industrial
processes ni which a liquid or gas si required ot eb cither cooled or heated.
Heat transfer in a heat exchanger usually involves convection in each fluid and conduction through
the wall separating the two fluids. nI the analysis of heat exchangers, it is convenient to work with
an overall heat transfer coefficient U that accounts for the contribution of al these effects on heat
transfer. The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids at a location in a heat exchanger depends
on the magnitude of the temperature difference at that location, which varies along
the heat exchanger.
Classification of Heat Exchangers by Flow Arrangement
There are four basic flow configurations:
 Counter Flow
 Parallel Flow
 Cross flow
 Hybrids such as Cross Counter-flow and Multi Pass Flow
Counter Flow:
Following figure shows an idealized counter-low exchanger in which the two fluids flow parallel
to each other but in opposite directions.

Parallel Flow:
In parallel flow heat exchangers, the streams flow parallel to each other and in the same direction.

Cross Flow:
Cross-flow heat exchangers are intermediate in efficiency between countercurrent flow and
parallel flow exchangers.

Cross/Counter Flow:
In industrial heat exchangers, hybrids of the above flow types are often found. Examples of these
are combined cross-flow/counter-flow heat exchangers and multi pass flow heat exchangers.
Classification of Heat Exchangers by Type of Construction:
Double Pipe Heat Exchanger:
The simplest type of heat exchanger consists of two concentric pipes of different diameters called
the double-pipe heat exchanger. One fluid in a double-pipe heat exchanger flows through the
smaller pipe while the other fluid flows through the annular space between the two pipes. Two
types of flow arrangement are possible in a double-pipe heat exchanger
3) Parallel Flow
4) Counter Flow

Compact Heat Exchanger:

Another type of heat exchanger, which is specifically designed to realize a large heat transfer
surface area per unit volume, is the compact heat exchanger. The ratio of the heat transfer surface
area of a heat exchanger to its volume is called the area density. A heat exchanger with 700 m2/m3
is classified as being compact. Examples of compact heat exchangers are car radiators (P = 1000
m2/m3), glass ceramic gas turbine heat exchangers (P = 6000 m2/1ü3), the regenerator of a Stirling
engine (p = 15000 m2hn3), and the human lung (P = 20000 m2/m3).
In compact heat exchangers, the two fluids usually move perpendicular to each other, and such
flow configuration is called cross-flow. Two types of flow arrangement are possible in a compact
heat exchanger:
Unmixed Flow:
The cross-flow is said to be unmixed since the plate fins force the fluid to flow through a particular
inter-fin spacing and prevent it from moving in the transverse direction (i.e., parallel to the tubes).
Mixed Flow:
The cross-flow is said to be mixed since the fluid now is free to move in the transverse direction.
Both fluids are unmixed in a car radiator. The presence of mixing in the fluid can have a significant
effect on the heat transfer characteristics of the heat exchanger.

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers contain a large number of tubes (sometimes several hundred)
packed in a shell with their axes parallel to that of the shell. Heat transfer takes place as one fluid
flows inside the tubes while the other fluid flows outside the tubes through the shell. Baffles are
commonly placed in the shell to force the shell-side fluid to flow across the shell to enhance heat
transfer and to maintain uniform spacing between the tubes. Despite their widespread use, Shell
and-tube heat exchangers are not suitable for use in automotive and aircraft applications because
of their relatively large size and weight. Note that the tubes in a shell-and-tube heat exchanger
open to some large flow areas called headers at both ends of the shell, where the tube-side fluid
accumulates before entering the tubes and after leaving them.

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers arc further classified according to the number of shell and tube
passes involved.
3) Heat exchangers in which all the tubes make one U-turn in the shell arc called one-shell
pass and two tube-passes heat exchangers.
4) Heat exchanger that involves two passes in the shell and four passes in the tubes is called
a two-shell-passes and four-tube-passes heat exchanger.
Performance Characteristics of Heat Exchanger
Performance characteristics of heat exchanger are calculated as follows:

To calculate overall heat transfer coefficient, log mean temperature difference must be calculated:

Then overall heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by following formula:

Efficiency or heat exchanger is calculated as follows:

Procedure:
 Make sure that water supply is properly attached.
 By adjusting the knobs on pipes, select the counter flow type configuration.
 Note down the readings of mass flow Rates of cold and hot water.
 After some time, note the values of temperature of hot and cold fluids at three points (inlet,
mid and outlet).
 Change the mass flow rate of cold and hot fluid.
 Repeat the above procedure for every mass flow rates.
 Calculate the heat lost by hot fluid, heat gained by cold fluid, power lost to surroundings and
efficiency for all mass flow rates.
Observations and Calculations:
Temperature Distribution:
• Observe any variations in temperature between the two plates.
• Analyze the impact of the fins on heat transfer by comparing the convective heat transfer
coefficients of the finned plate with those of the flat/pinned plate.
• Use the following formula to calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient:

For Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient:

Q = (h) (A) (ΔT)
Where:

• q is the heat transfer rate,

• ℎ is the convective heat transfer coefficient,
• A is the surface area,
• ΔT is the temperature difference

Table:
No of Hot in Cold in Mid hot Mid cold Hot out cold out
Obs.
1 59 43 55 36 53 32
2 55 42 52 33 50 30
Graph:
Specimen Calculations:

Comments:
 Lab Session No. 11
Objectives:
To visualize the phenomenon of convective, nucleate and film boiling.

Apparatus:
• Thermometer
• Condenser
• Heater
• Boiling Heat Transfer Unit H656
Theory:
Heat transfer is one of the core courses of engineering science. The three primary modes
of heat transfer are conduction, convection & radiation. Boiling Heat Transfer has a wide range of
industrial application such as in boilers & evaporation. The unit allows the students to visualize
and quality different modes of boiling heat transfer. Experimental measurements are used for
estimating the boiling heat transfer coefficient at varying heat flux and in the presence or absence
of stiffing. The unit Boiling Heat transfer consists of a high strength thermal shock proof glass
cylinder. Enclosed at top & bottom. At the bottom of tank is a small heating cylinder immersed in
a volatile solvent that boils at low pressure. A water-cooled condenser presents at the top of
cylinder for condensation. Sensors are provided for measurement of temperature, pressure, cooling
water flow rate & input power.
Heat Flux and Excess Temperature:
Heat flux can be defined as rate of heat transfer per unit area:
Excess temperature is defined as the temperature difference between heat source and saturation
temperature of the fluid. If T is temperature of heat source and test at is saturation temperature,
then excess temperature is given by following equation:

Boiling:
During the production of vapor bubbles, due to surface tension, the vapor inside a bubble must be
at a higher pressure than the surrounding liquid. The pressure difference increases as the diameter
of the bubble decreases and is insignificant when the bubble is large.
However, when the bubble is minute, an appreciable pressure difference exists. The pressure inside
a bubble is the vapor pressure corresponding with the temperature of the surrounding liquid. Thus,
when no bubbles exist, or when they are very small, it is possible for the liquid temperature in the
region of the heat transfer surface to be well above the temperature of the bulk of the liquid. As
the value of the excess temperature increases, the curve traverses four different regimes:
1) natural or free convection
2) nucleate boiling
3) transition boiling
4) film boiling
Convective Boiling:
When the heating surface temperature is slightly hotter than the saturation temperature of the
liquid, the excess vapor pressure is unlikely to produce bubbles. The locally warmed liquid
expands and convection currents carry it to the liquid-vapor interface where evaporation takes
place and thermal equilibrium is restored. Thus, in this mode, evaporation takes place at small
temperature differences and with no bubble formation.
Nucleate Boiling:
As the surface becomes hotter, the excess of vapor pressure over local liquid pressure increases
and eventually bubbles are formed. These occur at nucleating points on the hot surface where
minute gas pockets, existing in surface defects form the nucleus for the formation of a bubble. The
nucleate boiling regime can be separated into two distinct regions.
From the start of nucleate region to the point C, isolated bubbles
are formed at various preferential nucleation sites on the heated
surface. But these bubbles are dissipated in the liquid shortly after
they separate from the surface, The space vacated by the rising
bubbles is filled by the liquid in the vicinity of the heater surface,
and the process is repeated. The stirring and agitation caused by
the entrainment of the liquid to the heater surface is primarily
responsible for the increased heat transfer coefficient and heat
flux in this region of nucleate boiling. In region C-A, the heater
temperature is further increased, and bubbles format such great
rates at such a large number of nucleation sites that they form
numerous continuous columns of vapor in the liquid. These
bubbles move all the way up to the free surface, where they
breakup and release their vapor content. The large heat fluxes
obtainable in this region are caused by the combined effect of
liquid entrainment and evaporation.
Transition Boiling:
As the heater temperature and thus the AT excess is increased past
point A, the heat flux decreases. This is because a large fraction
of the heater surface is covered by a vapor film, which acts as an
insulation due to the low thermal conductivity of the vapor
relative to that of the liquid. In the transition boiling regime, both
nucleate and film boiling partially occur. Nucleate boiling at point
A is completely replaced by film boiling at point B. Operation in
the transition boiling regime, which is also called the unstable
film boiling regime, is avoided in practice. For water, transition
boiling occurs over the excess temperature range from about
300C to about 1200C.
Film Boiling:
Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum, is called the Leiden frost point, in honor of J. C.
Leiden frost, who observed in 1756 that liquid droplets on a very hot surface jump around and
slowly boil away. As the heating surface temperature rises the rate of production of vapor bubbles
becomes so high that eventually the surface becomes enveloped in a blanket or film of vapor which
prevents the liquid from wetting the surface. When this happens, the insulating effect of the film
greatly reduces the rate of heat transfer. Unless the heat input is correspondingly reduced, the
heating surface temperature will rise until by a combination of radiation and convection the
temperature difference is sufficient to drive the heat through the resistance offered by the vapor
film. Frequently a metallurgical or other failure will occur before the new equilibrium condition is
reached and for this reason the condition where film boiling is just established is often called "Burn
Out".

Procedure:
1. Firstly, turn on the apparatus.
2. Set the heat input and we can see the given input on display of the apparatus.
3. Note the temperature of the liquid present in flask that is refrigerant 13 la with the help
of thermometer placed inside the flask and dipped in the liquid.
4. Note the temperature of the metal present in the flask, we can see the temperature of
the flask on the display.
5. Now through changing our heat input all the values varying like the value of
temperature of the liquid and metal surface.
6. After noting all the temperature values, we can find critical heat flux through further
calculations.

Observations and Calculations:

Calculate the heat flux (q) using the formula:
q=P/A
where:
• P is the power input (W)
• A is the area of the flat plate (m^2)
Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient (h) using the formula:
h = q / (T_s - T_∞)
where:
• q is the heat flux (W/m^2)
• T_s is the surface temperature of the flat plate (°C)

Data Analysis:
Calculate the heat transfer rate for both hot and cold fluids using the following equations:
Hot fluid: Qh = mh x cp x (Th,in - Th,out)
Cold fluid: Qc = mc x cp x (Tc,out - Tc,in)
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) using the following equation:
U = Q / (A * LMTD)
where:
Q is the average heat transfer rate of hot and cold fluids
A is the heat transfer area
LMTD is the logarithmic mean temperature difference
Analyze the relationship between heat transfer rate, flow rate, and temperature difference.
Table:

Graph:

Chart Title
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

T(sourse) T(liquid) Q
Comments:
• Nucleate boiling where small bubbles of vapor form at discrete points
• Transition boiling occurred that when film on heating element started to develop and
Nucleate boiling began to end.
• Critical heat flux boiling where the boiling surface is heated above a certain critical
temperature and a film of vapor forms on the surface.
 Lab Session No. 12
Objectives:
To calculate the heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient at constant pressure.

Apparatus:
• Thermometer
• Condenser
• Heater
• Boiling Heat Transfer Unit H656
Theory:
Heat transfer is one of the core courses of engineering science. The three primary modes
of heat transfer are conduction, convection & radiation. Boiling Heat Transfer has a wide range of
industrial application such as in boilers & evaporation. The unit allows the students to visualize
and quality different modes of boiling heat transfer. Experimental measurements are used for
estimating the boiling heat transfer coefficient at varying heat flux and in the presence or absence
of stiffing. The unit Boiling Heat transfer consists of a high strength thermal shock proof glass
cylinder. Enclosed at top & bottom. At the bottom of tank is a small heating cylinder immersed in
a volatile solvent that boils at low pressure. A water-cooled condenser presents at the top of
cylinder for condensation. Sensors are provided for measurement of temperature, pressure, cooling
water flow rate & input power.
Heat Flux and Excess Temperature:
Heat flux can be defined as rate of heat transfer per unit area:
Excess temperature is defined as the temperature difference between heat source and saturation
temperature of the fluid. If T is temperature of heat source and test at is saturation temperature,
then excess temperature is given by following equation:

Boiling:
During the production of vapor bubbles, due to surface tension, the vapor inside a bubble must be
at a higher pressure than the surrounding liquid. The pressure difference increases as the diameter
of the bubble decreases and is insignificant when the bubble is large.
However, when the bubble is minute, an appreciable pressure difference exists. The pressure inside
a bubble is the vapor pressure corresponding with the temperature of the surrounding liquid. Thus,
when no bubbles exist, or when they are very small, it is possible for the liquid temperature in the
region of the heat transfer surface to be well above the temperature of the bulk of the liquid. As
the value of the excess temperature increases, the curve traverses four different regimes:
5) natural or free convection
6) nucleate boiling
7) transition boiling
8) film boiling
Convective Boiling:
When the heating surface temperature is slightly hotter than the saturation temperature of the
liquid, the excess vapor pressure is unlikely to produce bubbles. The locally warmed liquid
expands and convection currents carry it to the liquid-vapor interface where evaporation takes
place and thermal equilibrium is restored. Thus, in this mode, evaporation takes place at small
temperature differences and with no bubble formation.
Nucleate Boiling:
As the surface becomes hotter, the excess of vapor pressure over local liquid pressure increases
and eventually bubbles are formed. These occur at nucleating points on the hot surface where
minute gas pockets, existing in surface defects form the nucleus for the formation of a bubble. The
nucleate boiling regime can be separated into two distinct regions.
From the start of nucleate region to the point C, isolated bubbles
are formed at various preferential nucleation sites on the heated
surface. But these bubbles are dissipated in the liquid shortly after
they separate from the surface, The space vacated by the rising
bubbles is filled by the liquid in the vicinity of the heater surface,
and the process is repeated. The stirring and agitation caused by
the entrainment of the liquid to the heater surface is primarily
responsible for the increased heat transfer coefficient and heat
flux in this region of nucleate boiling. In region C-A, the heater
temperature is further increased, and bubbles format such great
rates at such a large number of nucleation sites that they form
numerous continuous columns of vapor in the liquid. These
bubbles move all the way up to the free surface, where they
breakup and release their vapor content. The large heat fluxes
obtainable in this region are caused by the combined effect of
liquid entrainment and evaporation.
Transition Boiling:
As the heater temperature and thus the AT excess is increased past
point A, the heat flux decreases. This is because a large fraction
of the heater surface is covered by a vapor film, which acts as an
insulation due to the low thermal conductivity of the vapor
relative to that of the liquid. In the transition boiling regime, both
nucleate and film boiling partially occur. Nucleate boiling at point
A is completely replaced by film boiling at point B. Operation in
the transition boiling regime, which is also called the unstable
film boiling regime, is avoided in practice. For water, transition
boiling occurs over the excess temperature range from about
300C to about 1200C.
Film Boiling:
Point D, where the heat flux reaches a minimum, is called the Leiden frost point, in honor of J. C.
Leiden frost, who observed in 1756 that liquid droplets on a very hot surface jump around and
slowly boil away. As the heating surface temperature rises the rate of production of vapor bubbles
becomes so high that eventually the surface becomes enveloped in a blanket or film of vapor which
prevents the liquid from wetting the surface. When this happens, the insulating effect of the film
greatly reduces the rate of heat transfer. Unless the heat input is correspondingly reduced, the
heating surface temperature will rise until by a combination of radiation and convection the
temperature difference is sufficient to drive the heat through the resistance offered by the vapor
film. Frequently a metallurgical or other failure will occur before the new equilibrium condition is
reached and for this reason the condition where film boiling is just established is often called "Burn
Out".
Procedure:
1. Firstly, turn on the apparatus.
2. Set the heat input and we can see the given input on display of the apparatus.
3. Note the temperature of the liquid present in flask that is refrigerant 13 la with the help
of thermometer placed inside the flask and dipped in the liquid.
4. Note the temperature of the metal present in the flask, we can see the temperature of
the flask on the display.
5. Now through changing our heat input all the values varying like the value of
temperature of the liquid and metal surface.
6. After noting all the temperature values, we can find critical heat flux through further
calculations.

Observations and Calculations:

Calculate the heat flux (q) using the formula:
q=P/A
where:
• P is the power input (W)
• A is the area of the flat plate (m^2)
Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient (h) using the formula:
h = q / (T_s - T_∞)
where:
• q is the heat flux (W/m^2)
• T_s is the surface temperature of the flat plate (°C)

Data Analysis:
Calculate the heat transfer rate for both hot and cold fluids using the following equations:
Hot fluid: Qh = mh x cp x (Th,in - Th,out)
Cold fluid: Qc = mc x cp x (Tc,out - Tc,in)
Calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient (U) using the following equation:
U = Q / (A * LMTD)
where:
Q is the average heat transfer rate of hot and cold fluids
A is the heat transfer area
LMTD is the logarithmic mean temperature difference
Analyze the relationship between heat transfer rate, flow rate, and temperature difference.
Table:
No. Heat Temperature Metal Heat Temperature Convective
of Input of Liquid Temperature Flux Difference Heat
obs. Transfer
(W) (°C) (°C) (kW/m²) (°C) (kW/m²C)
1 50 34 46 26.32 12 2.192
2 100 33 50 52.63 17 2.92
3 150 35 53 78.98 18 4.38
4 200 34 55 105.3 21 5.01
5 250 34 57 131.6 23 5.721

Graph:

Convective Heat Transfer

vs Temperature Difference
7
Convective Heat Transfer

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Temperature Difference

Y-Values
Specimen Calculations:

Comments: