UNIT 2 COMMUNITY BASED

ORGANISATIONS AND
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Contents
2.0 Aims and Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 CBO-Approach to Rural Development
2.3 Basic Characteristics of CBOs
2.4 CBOs and Rural Development
2.5 CBO-Approach and Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP)
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Suggested Readings and References
2.8 Model Answers

The main aim of this unit is to acquaint you with the nature and basic characteristics
of Community Based Organisations (CBOs). We have explained the essential character
of C B d - ~ p p r o a c hand its emergence in response to 'top-down' approach of Indian
state in regard to rural development. We have described the significance and role of
CBOs ih natural resources management in rural areas. We have also discussed the
manifeskation of CBO-approach in the development activities of an outside agency,
viz., Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP). After studying this unit you
should be able to:
understand the essential character of the approach adopted by community based
organisations in regard to sustainable development of rural communities;
locite the context and reasons for the emergence of CBO-approach vis-A-vis the
Stabe's 'top-down' approach to rural development;
describe the basic characteristics of community based organisations (CBOs);
identify some of the strengths and limitations of CBOs;
explain the significance and role of CBOs in the sustainable management of
natural resources in rural areas; and
assess the manifestation of CBO-approach in the activities undertaken by AKRSP
regarding sustainable development of local communities in rural areas.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Community based organisations (CBOs) have the requisite potential for bringing
sustainable development to local communities in rural areas. Institutions of state and
other development agencies are increasingly seeking the involvement of CBOs in
conceiving, planning and implementation of rural development programmes. During
the post-implementation, stage, CBOs are encouraged to become owners/managers of
the assets created through rural development programmes. CBOs are generally
established with the motivation and support from outside agencies such as state or
other development agencies or even large NGOs. Some CBOs have also emerged
independently from within local communities with the motivation and missionary zeal
of indigenous community leaders. In this unit, we will focus on such CBOs as have
been established with the motivation and support from institutions of state and other
development agencies.
 At the very outset, we will explain to you the significance and nature of approach Community Based
adopted by community based organisations in regard to rural development. CBO- Organisations and Rural
Development
approach basically emerged as a response to the failure of State's 'top-down' approach
to rural development. You will learn that CBO-approach is characteristic of interactive
and contributory participation of local rural community during all the stages of
development programme. Even during post-implementation stage, CBO-approach
envisages that communities remain involved in the management of assets created
through rural development programmes.

Next, we will explain the basic characteristic of community based organisations. We

will briefly describe the process related to the formation of CBOs and depict the
essential features of CBOs. Notwithstanding other aspects, a distinctive characteristic
of a community based organisation is that its members are usually stakeholders who
later on turn out to be ownerslmanagers of assets created through rural development
programmes. We will also briefly indicate the strengths and limitations of community
based organisations. You will learn that m a l development programmes/projects planned,
implemented and maintained by community based organisations are generally more
efficient in terms of distribution of benefits and have greater sustainability.

The issues of equitable, efficient and sustainable management of natural resources

have acquired a centre-stage in rural development. We will explain the significance
and role of CBOs in joint forest management, watershed development and participatory
irrigation management. You will note that CBOs in these fields have a specific
nomenclature, viz., Forest Management Committee (FMC), Watershed Association
(WA) and Water User's Association (WUA) etc. You will learn that CBOs have
been substantially successful in the effective management of natural resources in
rural areas.

A fundamental requirement for the existence of CBOs pertains to the role and
. support of outside agencies, viz., institutions of state or other development agencies.
In the end, we will explain the significance and role of a development agency, namely,
Aga Khan Rural Support program& (AKRSP) in the promotion of village level
institutions such as village development committees (CBOs) for the effective
implementation ofirural development programmes. You will learn about the manifestation
of CBO-approach in the development activities of AKRSP, which is aimed at promotion
of self-reliance, skills development and creation of rural assets among local communities
in rural areas.

CBO-APPROACH TO RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
The approaches to rural development have evolved from state's 'top-down' approach
through 'passive participation' to 'interactke and contributory participation' of people
in the process of,rural development. The last approach, which strives to institutionalise
people's participation through mobilisation of communities, is characteristic of community
based organisations (CBOs). In this section we, will acquaint you with the significance
and essential nature of the approach adopted by community based organisations
(CBO-approach) for imparting sustainable development to rural communities.

2.2.1 Significance and Emergence of CBO-Approach

The major objectives of rural development programmes have been the alleviation of
poverty, elimination of illiteracy, improvement in health and the consequent enhancement
of the standard of living of rural population. Most of the rural development programmes
in the past were exclusively conceived and designed by the ministries and departments
of the government. The needs of the 'rural people were assessed and programmes
were formulated by the higher institutions of the state. There was hardly any
 VOs: Role and Experiences consultption, let alone meaningful participation of rural communities. The rural
.in Rural Development development schemeslprogrammes were then implemented by various functionaries
of the state. Most implementing agencies and their functionaries had little knowledge
of the local conditions in rural areas. Above all, they usually remained less interested
in the outcome of development projects or programmes. Not surprisingly, many of the
ea~lierrural developmeilt programmes failed to achieve their objectives despite the
immense investments made by the Indian state.

Later an, it was realized that people's participation is the key element for the success
of rurd development programmes. Efforts were made to encourage participation but
such efforts failed to bring about meaningful and sustained participation of rural
people. People participated in various state sponsored rural development schemes and
projects but in a very limited way, i.e., nominally and formally only. They lacked
enthusiasm to participate in a sustained manner in such rural development programmes.
The reason being, that people did not develop a sense of belongingness to rural
develoipment programmes. They had a feeling that ultimately they will not be the
owners of the assets created by various rural development programmes. Therefore,
for all practical purposes, rural development programmes mainly remained government
programmes and they did not become people's programmes.

By1980s the development practitioners realized that 'top-down' approach had failed
to encourage people's participation in rural development. They realized that it was not
sufficient to ask rural communities to implement such development projects as were
planned by ministries or other institutions of the state. It was further realized that rural
communities must be involved in local level planning for the successful implementation
of rural development programmes. It made a sound sense, since having lived in the
area h r many generations; a rural community usually has a direct knowledge of the
local conditions. Even the technically and theoretically well versed, well intentioned
and sincere development functionaries of state may not have intimate knowledge of
the socio-cultural and economic conditions prevalent in rural areas. It was realized
withim the development paradigm, that role and participation of communities need not
rem& limited to the activities related to the implementation of rural development
progrbmes. Rather, such participation must be extended beyond implementation
stage whereby local communities must be assigned the responsibility-(or ownership)
to maintain the assets created in the course of rural development programmes.

A vast number of assets created through development efforts in rural areas usually
get dilapidated because of negligence or subsequent lack of maintenance by the
development agencies. Since the local community is the direct or indirect beneficiary
of m a 1 development programmes, it is in the best interest of the community to look
after assets created by such programmes. The local community is the first to notice
any faults or become aware of any damage inflicted on assets in rural areas. Thus
the assets created by any development project are likely to be much better maintained
by the community rather than outside development agencies or institutions of state.
For such a situation to materialize, it is necessary to have an interactive participation
between local communities and development agencies even during the post-
implementation stage of rural development programmes. The whole process involving
participation of local communities during all stages of rural development programmes,
viz., conception, designing, formulation, implementation and post-implementation
(maintenance of assets) lays the foundations of community based approach to rural
development. For institutions of state, have large NGOs and other development
ageqcies, community based organisations have turned out to be the most suitable
'
medium for bringing sustainable development in rural areas.

2.212 Essential Nature of CBO-Approach

Keeping in view the past experience and according due recognition to people's
participation as a key factor in sustainable development, the Indian state took policy
 measures to invite participation of local communities in rural development programmes. Community Based
Organisations and
This approach of seeking active involvement and participation of local (target) Development
communities in development programmes is a more recent approach to rural
development. It is indeed a of departure in the history of rural development as
it required a change in the attitude and behaviour on the part of development
functionaries as well as village communities. The participatory approach implies that
target communities are not merely beneficiaries enjoying the fruits of development;
rather they are active partners in the process of rural development. Community based
approach to rural development envisages:
participation of the target community from the very outset in a rural development
project or programme;
conception, designing and planning of the development programme at the local
level with the participation of the rural community;
involvement of the target community in all the actitities related to the
implementation of the programme;
involvement of the local community in the maintenance of assets created by the
programme; and
contribution of resources (including financial) proportionately as specified or agreed
with the development agency for meeting the cost of the development programme.
All these tasks require a consistent, time-bound and organised participation of local
community running a rural development programme. organisations rooted in local .
communities are formed to undertake and perform these responsibilities so 8s to
institutionalise the participation of communities in rural areas. This, in essence, is the
CBO-approach to rural development. Participation of target communities lies at the
root of CBO-approach. The CBO-approach envisages to run rural development
programmes more efficiently, equitably and in a sustained manner. It empowers
village communities thus enabling them to manage their own development.

The main impetus for the adoption of CBO-approach on such an unprecedented scale
came from lessons learned from the earlier (poorly performing) rural development
programmes. However, there were other factors, too, which pointed up in the same
direction. A serious and considered view emerged from within the voluntary sector
that community centered participatory approach should be adopted for bringing
sustainable development in rural areas. International donor countries and multilateral
aid agencies such as World Bank and United Nations insisted on community
I

I participation in rural development. There was strong evidence based on development

experience in different coun@ies which suggested that without community participation.
j
I no development prograrnpe succeeded anywhere in the world. All these considerations
I asked for a prominent and decisive role of CBOs and reduced the role of state (only

/ as facilitator) in the process of rural development. T h ~ sdevelopment is in tune with

the essence of voluntarism It is also in consonance with the development vision and
agenda of international funding agencies. It suited the Indian state since, in the long
run, the state may be able to reduce the cost incurred on the salaries of development
functionaries engaged in rural development. Notwithstanding specific programme related
considerations; there is also a larger justification for the CBO-approach in rural
development. India being a democratic country, rural development through community
based organisations may broaden and deepen democracy at the grassroots level in
rural society.

2.2.3 Locating CBO-Approach in the- Concept of 'Ladder of

I Participation'

1 In order to understand and appreciate how the CBO-approach is different from other
participatory approaches. Robert Chambers (2002) has employed the concept of
\
VOs: Role and Experiences 'ladder of participation' as follows:
in Rural Development
Ladder of Participation

i) Passive Participation: The process of participation starts with the passive

participation of the community. The villagers remain mere recipients of benefits
and do not play any role. The planning and implementation of programme strictly
remains in the hands of Development Agencies (DAs).
ii) Consultative Participation: Villagers are consulted to obtain their opinions, but
decision making remains with development agencies. Information received from
communities may or may not be used in designing and implementation of the
programme.
iii) Contributory Participation: Beneficiaries share the cost of the projects.
Contribution may be in cash or kind or in the form of labour. Sometimes this
contribution is saved for the future maintenance of the assets created by the
project.
I

iv) Funptional Particiwon: Institutionalisation of community participation in the

form of collective action. Institutions such as Gram Vikas Mandal, Self-Help
Groups, User Groups, Forest Project Committees, etc. are formed for effective
and transparent implementation of the project. Development Agencies share all
information about the project with the villagers.
V) Znte&ctive Participation: Development Agencies interact with the community
intensely and build capacity of the community to take decisions about the projects.
Roles and responsibilities of stakeholders such as Development Agencies (DAs)
and village institutions are decided during this stage. The DAs act as facilitators
and the community becomes the implementer of the programme.
vi) Self-Mobilisation: In this stage, the comqunity generates awareness about its
resources, problems and possible solutions. The community starts realising its
development needs. The Development Agencies provide support to the village
community to link up with other agencies.
Participatoq approaches inherent in the earlier rural development programmes remained
limited to the first two stages of the ladder of participation, viz., passive and consultative
participation. CBO-approach incorporates contributory, functional and interactive
participation of the community in rural development programmes. CBO-approach
strives to elevate rural communities to the highest rung of the ladder of participation,
viz., self-mobilisation of the rural community. When a rural community mobilises itself
with the application of CBO-approach, it can be said to have been empowered.

Check Your Progress I

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this
unit.
1) The following statements are based on the text you have already read. State
whether these statements are true or false by putting a tick mark (4) in the
relevant box.
True False
a) People's participation is the key element for the success of rural
development programmes. [ I [ 1
b) Top-down approach failed to encourage people's participation in rural
development programmes. [ I [ 1
c ) Rural Communities need not be involved in the local level planning for
the successful implementation of rural development programmes.
[ I r I
 ' Community Based
d) The assets created by a development project are likely to be much Organisations and Rural
better maintained by the community rather than by an outside Development
development agency. [ I [ 1
e) Community based approach envisages participation of local community
during all stages of a rural development programme. [ I [ 1

f) Community based participation considers that people are merely

beneficiaries enjoying the fruits of development. [ I [ 1

g) CBO-approach does not strive to institutionalise participation of local

communities in rural areas. [ I [ I

h) CBO-approach is most conducive for bringing sustainable development

in rural areas. [ I [ I
2) Explain briefly, the concept of 'contributory', 'functional' and interactive
participation in the context of CBO-approach to rural development.
(Hint: see the text)
......................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................

2.3 BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF CBOs

Community Based Organisations (CBOs) display some unique characteristics. They
are based in local communities, are voluntary in nature and lack rigid formal structure.
They are membership-based and are stakeholders in a development project. The
members become ownerslmanagers of assets created by a rural development
programme. Some aspects such as developing a community based project, approaching
a community, working with a community and the like have already been covered in
the syllabus (refer MRD-103, Block 3, Unit 3). In this section, we will mainly focus
on the description of the essential nature and basic characteristics of Community
Based Organisations (CBOs).

2.3.1 Formation of CBOs

Community based organisations (CBOs) are small, informal organisations based within
the local communities they serve. This makes it difficult for them to interface with
other stakeholders in the development sector such as donors or government agencies.
Many CBOs run development programmes, sometimes through intermediary NGOs.

If a community has to act as programme delivery and receiving mechanisms, efforts

must be made to form a community based organisation. A CBO needs information
and training to plan and implement the project. Even when the project is likely to
prove beneficial to the community, the CBO still needs to be motivated. If the CBO
has to take charge, its members will have to spend time for the project, especially
the members of the executive committee. Initial motivation is usually furnished by the
external agents, very often the NGOs. Once community leaders commit themselves
to the idea of forming a CBO and taking charge of the project, they can motivate
 VOs: Role and Experiences Motidating and training of a CBO are the responsibilities of an external agent, viz.,
in Rural Developqent the department of state government, development agency or an NGO.

The process of forming a CBO may begin with a Participatory Rural Appraisal
(PRA). The aim of this exercise is to understand the status of the village with
reference to a particular development project and the needs and demands of the rural
community. The objectives of the project may be explained, especially how its provisions
will meet needs and demands of the community. A gramsabha meeting may be an
apprapriate venue for such a discussion. Considerable time needs to be invested at
the motivation and mobilisation stage to ensure participation which is necessary for
the sustainability of development project. Whether the community agrees to form a
CBO1maydepend on the motivating effort of a development agency. An "inspirational
visit" may be arranged to the community that has successfully implemented the
project. For all meetings, including the very first meeting, both the time and venue
of the meeting are chosen with care. The time chosen should be convenient to all the
members of the community and the venue should be a public place where everyone
feels free to walk in.

The CBO has to develop its rules and regulations and procedures for carrying out the
activities and for conducting meetings, appointing office bearers, etc. The CBO has
to be registered under the appropriate law - as a cooperative, as a society, or as
public trust. To do so, it will have to have a constitution. This would require interacting
with bureaucracy and preparing or obtaining the required set of documents. An
agreement or a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) is usually signed between the
1 CBO and the Ministry or the Development Agency, which owns, controls, or manages
the resource. .

Providing technical and administrativelrnanagerial training to the CBO is an extremely

important responsibility of the external agent. The training may be in the form of
classtoom training or hands-on practical training. It may comprise visiting another
community which has successfully implemented the project. Technical training may
include gauging the quality of materials to be used in repairs or construction, ascertaining
the quality of the finished structures, and taking accurate measurements etc.
Ad~nistrativelmanagerialtraining may be given for writing the constitution, dealing
with bureaucracy, keeping minutes of the meetings, writing the agenda of the meeting,
condbcting a meeting, holding elections of the executive committee or other office
bearers, maintaining project bank account and keeping accounts of the CBO.

I
. 2.3.2 Some Basic Features of CBOs
Some of the important features of CBOs are as follows:
i) Membership-Based
If a village has the drinking water scheme, for instance, swajaldhara, then all the
residents - households - will be covered by the scheme. The village population would
thus constitute the community with reference to that project. However, this may not
always be the case. In a canal irrigated village, all farmers who are entitled to receive
water may constitute the CBO, but farmers whose lands fall outside the command
area of the project and are not entitled to receive water may not be part of the CBO.
The canal may irrigate lands in several villages in which case farmers from different
villages may become members of the CBO. As a rule, a CBO will draw its members
from a single village. Even when this is not dictated by the requirements of project
managerial, administrative, social and political considerations demand it.

ii) Motivation from an outside Agency

Government programmes and projects are formulated in a ministry or a department
and implemented by goSernment agencies, panchayati raj institutions or non-
governmental organisations. An agency implementing government programme is called
a project-implementing agency (PIA). It is very often the responsibility of a PIA to Community Based
~ r ~ a ~ s a t i oand
n s Rural
promote the CBO. CBOs may be set up by other development agencies, too, such Development
as NGOs or private donor agencies or multilateral aid institutions to implement their
own participatory development programmes and projects.
iii) Representation of Marginalised Groups
An executive committee is (s)elected by the CBO to manage the programme. Inclusion
of women and'scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the executive committee is
mandatory in most CBOs. Since equitable distribution of project benefits is one of the
major reasons for setting up CBOs, representation of all groups and individuals in the
community is ensured. Fixing appropriate time for holding meetings and choosing a
neutral venue to hold them become important considerations. The place for meeting
should be selected in such a way where all groups may participate in the meeting.
iv) Interactive Participation
Instead of the questionnaire-based assessment of the local situation, Participatory
Rural Appraisal (PRA) approach is adopted. Non-experts or local people cease to be
mere objects, i.e., recipiees of benefits. They become active participants in assessing
their own situation and needs while devising solutions to problems in a community
based organisation. For more details regarding contributory, functional and interactive
participation refer to section 2.2 of this unit.
V) Reliance on Indigenous Knowledge
Top-down, expert driven descriptions and diagnoses of problems and solutions are not
often sought by CBOs unless a particular type of problem demands it. CBOs rely
upon local knowledge and indigenous expertise to define problems and find solutions.
Dependence on external agents is minimised so as to bring in sustainable development.
vi) Community Contribution
1

Those who are expected to profit from the development project also make a contribution
to the project. Contribution may be in cash. For instance, in a watershed development
project, 10 percent of the cost of a water-harvesting structure is contributed by those
farmers who benefit from it. Contribution may be in kind. For example, a tube well
owner may provide water free of charge for constructing a water harvesting structure.
On the other hand, a farmer who may not be able to spare cash or material may
contribute his laboul: He may help build the structure. Swajaldhara scheme of the
Government of India provides funds for helping village communities to reach national
norms of drinking water availability. Even though assistance under the scheme is
generous, tangible contribution is required from the village community for the installation
of the scheme. Once installed, the community has to take total responsibility for its
maintenance. The main purpose of asking for contribution is to inculcate a sense of
ownership among the stakeholders. If the community develops the sense of ownership,
only then will it maintain it, use it prudently and render the arrangement sustainable.

2.3.3 Strengths and Limitations of CBOs

The programmes and projects planned, implemented and maintained by CBOs are
expected to be more efficient, more equitable in terms of distribution of benefits, and
have greater sustainability. They are also expected to empower communities and thus
strengthen democracy. In order to decide whether these objectives are realised in
practice, a thorough evaluation of CBO-based projects needs to be undertaken.
Further, to arrive at a reliable and valid inference, CBO-based projects will have to
be compared with similar non-CBO-based projects, i.e., projects designed, implemented
and maintained by government departments or panchayati raj institutions. There are
several studies with projects spread over the three continents, Africa, Latin America,
Asia, which have evaluated projects with reference to specific outcomes. The strength
VOs: Role and Experiences and effectiveness of a CBO can be evaluated based on the fallowing criteria:
in Rural Development
sustainability of the development project;
enhancement of public delivery system;
capacity building of community for collective action;
empowerment of marginalised and disadvantaged sections;
procedure and method of selecting beneficiaries, or target community; and
nature of accountability and transparency.
There are some limitations in developing a CBO-approach. A village is not socially
or economically a homogeneous unit. Every village usually has groups which are
politically, socially and economically powerful and therefore dominate decision-making.
The lower castes, the marginal and small farmers, women, may be altogether left out
in the process of decision-making. Their interests may not be considered at all while
making decisions. Inequities in the village may not be redressed just because the
programme is managed by a CBO. Indeed they have been occasionally known to be
aggravated because of the presence of CBO. This may h pen due to mainly two
d
factors: firstly, participation is a time-consuming process. e better-off people in the
village have greater time at their disposal and so will be able to participate more
effectively and actively, specially if it suits their interests. Hence it is important to
organise meetings at a time convenient for all the members. secondly, women and
lower caste groups may find it difficult to overcome inhibition; or even obstacles and
barriers to participate in a public forum of a CBO. These groups may not attend the
meetings; if they attend, they may not speak up. If they do speak up, they may not
be heard - their concerns or points of view may not be heeded.

A village will already have an elected panchayat. With the 731dand 74'hConstitutional
Amendments, the powers and role of panchayats have been enhanced which sometimes
becomes a source of conflict with the existence and functioning of CBOs.

Further, replicating the CBOs or scaling up the model of CBO-led programmes may
not be an easy task. The success of a particular CBO depends on a number of
factors such as the type of village leadership and social cohesion in the village.
Behind every successful CBO, there is a very able and conscientious leader and a
dedicated NGO or some other favourable circumstances which are difficult to replicate.
Thus scaling up of community based development programmes still remains a major
challenge in the field of rural development.

Check Your Progress I1

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this
unit.

1) The following statements are based on the text you have already read. State
whether these statements are true or false by putting a tick mark (4) in the
relevant box.
True False
a) CBOs usually find it difficult to interface with other stakeholders such
as donors or government agencies. [ I [ 1
b) Motivation and training of a CBO are the responsibilities of an external
agent, viz., department of state government, development agency or an
NGO. [ I [ 1
 Community Based
C) The process of forming a CBO begins with a Participatory Rural + Organisations and Rural
Appraisal (PRA). [ I [ 1 Development

d) No Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) is required between CBO

and the external development agency. [ I [ 1

e) An external development agency can not set up a community based

organisation. [ I [ I

f) Representation of scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women is

mandatory in the executive committee of a CBO. [ I [ 1
g) Non-experts and local people simply remain as recipients of benefits in
a CBO. [ I [ I
h) CBOs rely upon local knowledge and indigenous expertise to define
problems and find solutions. [ I [ 1
2) List the main criteria used for evaluating the effectiveness. of a CBO.
(Hint: see the text)
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
...........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
..........................................................................................
.
I

2.4 CBOs AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

The issues of equitable, efficient and sustainable management of natural resources
' have acquired a centre stage in rural development. In this section, we will explain to
you the significance, relevance and role of community based organisations (CBOs)
in the effective management of natural resources, in the context of rural development.

2.4.1 CBOs and Management of Natural Resources

As the limitations of earlier rural development programmes were becoming evident,
a simultaneous shift was also taking place in the priorities and perspectives related
to development.

/ The major natural resources land, water and forests, were deteriorating at an
alarming rate. The traditional community based institutions for managing these common
property resources (CPRs) had been breaking down and new institutions had failed
to emerge to take their place. Fuelled by individual greed and driven by market
forces, natural resources were being exploited, unchecked by any long-term national
planning. Even long-established, customary checks and balances were proving to be
insufficient. This jeopardised the means of livelihood of millions in rural Lndia and also
resulted in the degradation of environment. These concerns brought to the dentre
stage the issues of equitable, efficient, and sustainable management of natural resources
in rural development programmes. Numerous official programmes were initiated to
develop and manage water, land, and forests. However, their blueprint, top-down
character had hardly any room for involvement of the village communities. Not
1I surprisingly, the programmes were not successful in realising their goals.

On the international scene, degradation of environment had become a major, dominant

issue in the developed world. This concern was reflected in the policies and
VOs: Role and Experiences programmes of the bilateral and multilateral (international) development agencies. By
in Rural Development 1980s it became a serious public concern in India.

Thus on one hand, the need to involve the community in a major way in rural
development programmes was being acknowledged, on the other hand, programmes
to develop and manage natural resources, especially CPRs, were gaining in importance.
There seemed to be "a good fit" between the programme content (focus on CPRs)
and the mechanism (CBOs) for implementation: (i) the local community has a direct
stake in the outcome of the CPR programmes, though all its members may not have
the same stake; (ii) local community also has direct knowledge of the situation, though
all its members may not be equally informed. Further, when the community members
run the programme, they can be more effectively monitored, since they have close
ties with the community. It would be difficult for them to ignore sanctions for offences
since they belong to people with whom they are connected in various ways and have
I ~ n gstanding relationships. Although the new approach is most extensively and
vigorously applied in natural resource management programmes, it is not limited to
them. For instance, under Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan - an ambitious educational
programme - village education committees are formed which have an important role
to play in the implementation of the programme.

While the generic terms used for CBOs are stakeholders groups and village level
.institutions, the CBOs are known by their specific names under different natural
resources management (NRM) programmes and projects. For instance, under the
Participatory Irrigation Programme (PIM), the CBO is known as a Water Users'
Association (WUA). Under the Joint Forest Management Programme (JFM), the
CBO is known as a Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMC). In the Watershed
Development Programme (WDP), the CBO is known as a Watershed Association
(WA). Depending on the specific programme or project under whose auspices it has
been promoted, the activities and functions of the CBOs vary. But essentially, they
all perform the same role: they assess the needs of the community; explore the
options for meeting them; select the most appropriate opbon; implement it; and maintain
the assets created by the programme; all within the framework of the project. CBOs
are expected to manage projects more efficiently and equitably so that they will be
more sustainable than government departments.

2.4.2 CBOs and Joint Forest Management

Forest is an extremely important natural resource for any nation. Its produce have
great commercial value. More important is its impact on the climate of the region as
well as ion the soil. Depletion of forest cover disturbs atmospheric, environmental, and
ecological balance and adversely affects all forms of life - human, animal and plant.
The preservation and conservation of forests is thus imperative. In India, there is an
added dimension to their importance since tribal communities and those communities
which live on the fringes of the forests rely on forest to meet their needs - fuel wood,
fodder and small timber. They also depend on forests for their livelihood. These
communities enjoy certain customary rights and concessions with regard to use of
forests md forest produce.
I

The very first Forest Policy was formulated in 1894. For about a century Indian
forest policy had emphasised nationalisation and commercial utilisation of country's
forests. Even after independence, government leased millions of acres of forests at
subsidised rates to private sector operators since priority was given to industrial use
of forests. The rights and responsibilities of the communities which depended on
forests for their various daily needs, had been eroding.

By 198C)s, concern over the degradation and depletion of natural resources and
deteriorating environment had grown to such an extent that appropriate policy measures
were initiated. A separate Ministry for Environment and Forests was established. The
34
Forest Conservation Act was passed which placed considerable limitations on logging. Community Based
The National Forest Policy of 1988 was introduced which redefined the objectives of Organisations and
Development
forest management but did not envisage a direct role for the people in its day-to-day
management. The main objectives of this policy were: maintaining of environmental
stability through preservation; restoration of ecological balance; protecting generic
resources; meeting the basic needs (fuel wood, fodder and small timber) of the tribal
people and those rural communities living in and around forests; protection of their
customary rights and responsibilities, etc. To implement the policy objectives successfully,
it was necessary to change the attitude of the state forest department and their
personnel. It was also necessary to motivate the communities for their active
involvement in the development, conservation and management of forests. It was
realised that given the easy access to forests, indiscipline and our socio-political
culture, it was not possible for the state forest department to enforce its property
rights over the forests. This led to a path-breaking policy-decision in June 1990. The
policy set out to involve forest community in the management of degraded forests
thus initiating joint forest management (JFM). JFM policy specifies the rights for
protecting communities for the first time. Later, the government also issued a similar
order for management of good forests.

An agreement is made between the state through forest department and the village
forest management committee (known variously as FMC or VFC or VFMC) for
releasing the forest areas for joint forest committee JFM. A village Forest Committee
or Forest Management Committee (FMC) is basically a community based organisation
(CBO). Forest Management Committee (FMC) has to manage a well-defined,
designated forest area, a function performed earlier by the state forest department.
Each state lays down detailed procedures and norms for constituting and running
FMC, such as defining the management unit and participants, constitution of the
executive committee, powers of the executive committee and norms for sharing
timber and Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP). The participants may be the entire
village or groups of village households, hamlets, and user groups. Most FMCs are
registered under the Societies Registration Act of 1860. The executive committee
(EC) has three constituents: Forest Department (FD) representatives, people's
representatives, and others. The latter two may be elected, selected, or appointed
ex-officio. The EC has the power to frame rules, accept and cancel memberships,
apprehend offenders and punish them. The committee also decides how non-timber
forest produce (NTFP) and timber should be shared. Very often there is a provision
of allocating part of the proceeds to the village development fund.

While working for JFM, Village Forest Committees (VFCs) have found that they face

agencies as well as with the NGOS. Sometimes there are conflicts within the village
or between villages, which may lie on the periphery of the same forest. To sort out
these problems in a concerted and efficient manner, NGOs have been promoting
federations of village forest management committees (VFMCs). What is 'true of
VFMCs is equally true of all CBOs.

2.4.3 CBOs and Watershed Development

Watershed development scheme is a nationwide scheme to arrest deterioration of
natural resources. A watershed is a geo-hydrological unit or an area that drains at a
common point. The watershed approach to development aims at managing land and
water resources falling within the watershed area for sustainable production. Central
government sponsored watershed development projects (WDPs) have been taken up
under four major programmes: Drought Prone Area Programme; Desert Development
Programme; Integrated Wasteland Development Projects; and National Watershed
VOs: Role and Experiences foreigh development and aid agencies and institutions which have adopted watershed
in Rural Development approach in their developmental work. These different programmes were initiated at
different times, most of them in the 1980s. Realising that these different programmes
were simply variations of a common theme, it was decided to formulate a common
set of operational guidelines, objectives, strategies, and expenditure norms for a
Watershed Development Project (WDP). As a result, in 1994, the Ministry of Rural
Devebpment Government of India brought out Guidelines for Watershed Development.

According to the guidelines, village communities were to form Watershed Associations

(WAS) or Watershed Committees (WCs) displaying all the features characteristic of
Community Based Organisations (CBOs). All gramsabha members (i.e., every adult
in the village) constitute a watershed committee (WC), which will play a pivotal role
in the management of the project. The WC will be guided by a Watershed Development
Team (WDT), which will have expertise in certain areas. The WDT is constituted
by the Project Implementation Agency (PIA) and comprises "expert outsiders" - not
villake residents. The WDP describes the types of activities to be undertaken, the
kindd of assets to be created (and maintained subsequently), budget for different
activities, and the time frame. There is also an exit protocol for the PIA implying that
the CBO, (the Watershed Association in this instance) will take complete charge of
maintaining the physical assets created by a project such as land and water conservation
structures. The focus of the scheme has been on capacity building of the village
community so that it could manage its resources. Training, therefore, is a very important
element of the scheme. The watershed scheme has turned out to be one of the most
progressive in terms of community participation and application of CBO-approach.

The WA or the WC plans the watershed activities, decides the locations of the
structures to be built and supervises their construction. For the above tasks it is given
technical support, guidance, and training. Structures have to be created using local
labaur from the village community. Potential beneficiaries have to make a contribution
- in cash, kind, or labour - towards erecting the structure. Once created, structures
have to be maintained by what are known as user groups. User groups are constituted
by h o s e members of the community who are expected to benefit from the structure.
Thus a watershed may have as many user groups as there are structures, often with
overlapping menibers. These arrangements are rooted in the main principles inherent
in the CBO approach: (i) local knowledge of community is relied upon for designing
a watershed project; (ii) the user groups are made responsible for the maintenance
of the structures; (iii) local monitoring, i.e., stakeholders' interests. The managers of
the programme are monitored by the villagers themselves with whom they are involved
in a number of relationships. For the first time in the history of rural development,
funids were provided directly to the village community for the execution of watershed
development projects.
f

2.4.4 CBOs and Participatory Irrigation Management

WDPs, which are comparatively new, are implemented in rainfed regions, or where
there is little irrigation. The scheme for Participatory Irrigation Management (PJM)
is meant for canal-irrigated regions. The state irrigation departments (SID) build and
maintain water storage (reservoirs and dams) facilities and canals; supply water to
the farmers whose land fall in the command area of the irrigation project; and
determine and collect water charges.

The farmers were encouraged to take part in improving the irrigation potential even
during the British rule. However, there has been under utilisation of the Indian irrigation
system. Since independence various irrigation commissions and committees have
reiterated the need for farmers' participation in irrigation management. Several policies
w4re formulated for irrigation management transfer (IMT). IMT means turning over
management of irrigation to the end-users, .i.e., the farmers so as to improve
mhintenance of the canals and management of water distribution. The most recent
of them was the formulation of the National Wbter Policy of 1987 whlch recommends Community Based
transferring irrigation canals to farmer's organisations for efficient distribution of Orga"iSBtions and
Development
water for irrigation. With the growing realisation that no developmental effort succeeds
without the stakeholders' participation, several Indian states began to implement the
recommendation of the 1987 policy.

The Government of Andhra Pradesh took a bold step in 1997 and enacted a law to
transfer management of irrigation canals to water users' associations (WUAs), thus
minimising the role of government functionaries. Other states such as Rajasthan,
Tamil Nadu and Madhya Pradesh have followed suit. In 1995, Gujarat adopted
participatory irrigation management programme with a persuasive, non-compulsory
approach. It set up 13 pilot projects to promote WUAs with the assistance of a
reputed nongovernmental organisation working in the field of natural resource
management (NRM). Water Users' Associations (WUAs) is another nomenclature
variation of community based organisation (CBOs) in the field of irrigation. Like
Andhra Pradesh, in Gujarat it is going to be mandatory for the farmers to form
WUAs so as to receive water for irrigation from the canal. No farmer will be able
to receive water for irrigation from the Narmada project unless he is a member of
a Water User's Association (WUA).

?'he state irrigation department builds dams and constructs reservoirs to store rainwater
for irrigation. At the time of project design, the area to be irrigated with canal water
- called command area - is demarcated. All the farmers whose fields fall in the
command area are entitled to irrigate their fields.

The main canal may have branches, which, in turn, have distributaries. A distributary
splits up into minors, which may further subdivide into sub-minors. Usually, the farmer
receives water from field channels, which transmits water from the sub-minor to the
field. The sub-minor would have an outlet through which water flows into the field
channels. The WUA is usually formed at the sub-minor level comprising all farmers
whose lands fall in the command area of the sub-minor.

The functions, which the State Irrigation Departments (SIDs) had performed earlier,
are taken over by the WUA (community based organisations), which comprise all
command area farmers, i.e., those farmers who are entitled to receive water from
a WUA. They are responsible for repairing and maintaining canals and keeping them
clean so that water can flow smoothly. Since canals continue to be the governnient
property and all canals of the same project are part of a system, the SID continues
to be responsible for major repairs. The WUA (s)elects an executive committee;
frames rules and regulations for conducting meetings; appoints office holders; distributes
*water; determines water charges; cbllects water charges and disciplines those who
flout rules and norms. The constitution and functioning of WUAs are characteristic

- Check Your Progress 111

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answer.
b) Check your answer with the model answer given at the end of this
unit.
1) The following statements are based on the text you have already read. State
whether these statements are true or false by putting a tick mark (4)in the
relevant box.
True False
a) The equitable, efficient and sustainable management of natural resources
have acquired a centre stage in rural development. [ I [ 1
VOs: Role and Experiences
in Rural Development b) In Participatory Irrigation Programme (PIM), a CBO is known as Water
User's Association (WUA). [ I [ 1
c) Under the Joint Forest Management (JFM) Programme, the CBO is
known as the Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMC).[ ] [ 1

d) After independence, government did not lease forests to private operators

for the industrial use of forests. [ I [ 1

e) The path breaking policy decision in 1990 sought the involvement of

forest communities in ~ o i h tForest Management (JFM) of degraded
forests. [ I [ I

f) Project Implementation agency plays no role in the constitution of

Watershed Development Team that guides a Watershed Committee (WC).
[ I [ I
g) The scheme for Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) is meant
for canal irrigated regions. [ I [ 1
h) Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT) means turning over management
of irrigation to the end users, i.e., farmers. I ] [ 1
2) Write a short note on Watershed Associations.
(Hint: see the text)
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
.........................................................................................
........................................................................................
I

.......................................................................................

2.5 CBO-APPROACH AND AGA KHAN RURAL

SUPPORT PROGRAMME (AKRSP)
We have explained in the preceding sections that most community based organisations
(CBOs) are established with outside support from institutions of state or other
development agencies. An outside agency motivates and encourages the community
to form a community based organisation. It imparts technical and administrative skills
to the CBO. It seeks the active involvement of the CBO during all stages, i.e., from
inception and planning till the implementation of a rural development programme. In
the post-implementation stage the concerned development agency encourages the
CBO to become ownerslmanagers of the assets created through rural development
programme. More and more development agencies are adopting CBO-approach for
implementing rural development programmes. In this section, we will acquaint you
with the basic aspects of Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) and the
manifestation of CBO-approach in its development activities pertaining to promotion
of self-reliance, skill development, and creation of rural assets among local communities
in rural areas.

2.5.1 Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) and Village-

Level Institutions (CBOs)
Thd Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) is a development agency promoted
by Aga Khan Foundation (AKF). It is based in Gujarat. Since the early 1980s, it has Community Based
Orgadsations and Rural
devoted to enhancing rural livelihoods through sustainable management of natural Development
resources in western and central India. Its efforts are not limited to problems of food
self-sufficiency only, rather, it has been addressing wider issues of poverty alleviation
and improvements in the quality of life in rural communities. Its programmes have
strived to bring sustainable socio-economic development in rural areas. Its essential
vision is that rural socio-economic development is best achieved and sustained through
the involvement of 'village-level institutions' (CBOs) that are autonomous and transparent
in their functioning. The Aga Khan Rural Support Programme has engaged in close
partnership with village level institutions (CBOs) to implement strategies pertaining to
rural development. The programme has been furnishing support to village-level and
community-led institutions (CBOs) for enhancing their effectiveness and sustainability.
It has been imparting management and technical skills to CBOs for effective planning,
implementation and maintenance of local development activities in rural areas. The
partnership between Aga Khan Rural Support programmes (AKRSP) and local rural
communities has strived to:
build assets through community management of natural resources - water storage,
irrigation infrastructure, soil conservation and forestry;
a increase income growth through improved agricultural productivity and fanning
methods; land development and management; and supporting micro-enterprise
among rural communities;
mobilise local financial resources by promoting savings and providing financial
services to village level institutions (CBOs);
encourage technical innovations among rural communities so as to halt
environmental degradation; and help reduce the drudgery of poor people, particularly
women; and
enhance social development especially equity, social justice and women's
empowerment in rural communities.
t
The ultimate objective is to enable local communities so that they acquire confidence
and competence to make informed decisions for achieving sustainable and equitable
development. Through partnerships with village level institutions (CBQs), particular
success has been achieved in improving the local management of micro watersheds
and creating a variety of water harvesting structures in rural areas. In the following
we will briefly examine the manifestation of CBO-approach in development activities
undertaken by AKRSP regarding promotion of self-reliance, skill development, and
creation of assets among local communities in rural areas.
i) Promotion of Self-Reliance
AKRSP strategy of rural livelihood is to place community in the centre stage of
development. This increases the effectiveness of development assistance, hence leading
to reduction in poverty. Involving the poor in the community organisations results in
the emergence of local leadership (including that of women). These local leaders play
a crucial role in bringing social change and sustainable development through the
organisation of the local community. Village level institutions (CBOs) form the basis
of community organisation. 'Village Development Committees' are constituted
comprising representatives of all communities in the village (including at least 30
percent women's representatives). These committees develop village development
plans and work closely with Panchayats.

Community based organisations such as farmers' federations and women's self-help

groups facilitate the process of community driven development. Community based
organisations are enabled by introducing them to micro-credit schemes. Federations
of farmers' groups have considerably reduced agricultural input-costs (seeds, fertilizers
VOs: Roll and Ex~erienca and pesticides) through bulk-purchases based on the demand of member CBOs.
in Rural Development
Community based organisations have also contributed to improved cropping techniques,
rational use of fertilizers, and adoption of appropriate low-cost technologies. I

A number of community based organisations together form apex institutions (federation

of various CBOs) at the block and taluka level. These institutions act as forums
where regional issues are discussed and solutions are formulated. They also interact
with government and other agencies (including banks) and disseminate information
and benefits of various schemes. These federations also serve as agriculture extension
agents. They acquire knowledge about cropping practices and pass on information to
farmer's groups in remote areas. They also help member village level institutes
(CBOs) to sell their produce at the best price through collective marketing of agricultural
produce. Social awareness campaigns are also launched in various regions by farmer's
federations and women's federations. These campaigns are aimed at reducing wasteful
expenditure on social customs, promoting education of girls, increasing anti-liquor
awareness, encouraging organic farming etc.
ii) Skill Development
Rural development activities of AKRSP also include human resource development.
Efforts have been made to build up the skill base among rural communities. Rural
communities are given training related to organisation building and financial management.
The aim is to support the effectiveness and sustainability of village level institutions
(CBOs). Key resource persons are provided with technical skills to plan, implement
arid maintain the development activities. The ultimate objective is to enable rural
commllnities to acquire the requisite potential (access, confidence and competence)
so that they may make informed choices from a range of available options pertaining
to rural development. Training programmes have been conducted to increase awareness
about savings and credit schemes among village level institutions (CBOs). Rural
communities are also given orientation in the principles of natural resources
management.
ii) Creation of Rural Assets
The AKRSP has enabled to build village level institutions (CBOs) and community
capital through efficient management of natural resources, viz., water storage, enhanced
water use efficiency, irrigation systems, social conservation or forestry. Efforts have
been made to construct small scale infrastructure such as check-dams, irrigation
canals and water harvesting structures and agricultural storage facilities. Institutional
stpctures are created at the village level through which rural poor are able to
participate in the management of common resources.

Income growth is promoted by idcreasing agricultural productivity among rural

communities. This is envisaged by enabling village level institutes (CBOs) through
improved farming methods, viz., use of drip-irrigation, provision of better seeds, creation
and improvement of markets, land development, micro-credit and enterprise
development. Local capital is mobilised by promoting savings among village level
institutes (CBOs) and fur~lishingfinancial services to enable local communities to
have access to credit.

Aga Khan Rural Support Programme has been designing, implementing and managing
various development activities with the active involvement and close partnership of
Village level institutions (CBOs) so as create sustainable community assets in rural
areas.

2.6 LET US SUM UP

Community Based Organisations (CBOs) have acquired a critical relevance in the
field of rural development. Institutions of state and other development agencies (including
I
large NGOs) are increasingly motivating and supporting local communities to form Community Based
community based organisations. They impart technical and administrative skills to Organisations and Rural
Development
CBOs for their effective contribution to the process of rural development. CBOs are
further encouraged to become ownerslmanagers of assets created through rural
development programmes. In fact, CBOs are seen as the most effective medium for
bringing sustainable development in rural areas.

We have, in the beginning, explained the nature and significance of CBO-approach

to rural development. The CBO-approach has basically emerged as a response to the
limitations inherent in the 'top-down' approach adopted earlier by the Indian state. It
is rooted in the interactive and contributory participation of rural communities in the
process of rural develbpment. The CBO-approach has the potential to run rural
development programmes more efficiently, equitably and in a sustahed manner, thus
empowering rural communities. We have explained that CBO-approach strives to
uplift local communities to the highest level of participation, i.e., self-mobilisation of
rural communities in the process of rural development.

We have also briefly described the process related to the formation of community
based organisations. The motivation, technical and administrative training furnished by
outside agencies (State development agencies, NGOs) remain to be of critical
importance in the formation of CBOs. We have described the basic characteristics
and also some of the strengths and limitations of CBOs. CBOs have the potential to
impart sustainability to rural development programmes. They enhance capacity building
of local communities and in the process empower marginalised and disadvantaged
sections in rural society. Main limitations of CBOs are germane to socio-economic
conditions and the already existing power structure in rural areas.

We have explained the significance and role of CBOs in natural resources management,
viz., joint forest management, watershed development and participatory imgation
management. Participation by CBOs generates a feeling of belongingness towards
development programmes related to natural resources. Since CBOs are also assigned
the responsibility to maintain the assets, they impart sustainability to development
projects pertaining to watershed development, imgation management etc. It also leads
to equitable distribution of natural resources among members of local communities.
We have emphasised the motivation support and role of outside agencies in the
formation of CBOs. We have, towards the end, explained the significant role played
by a development agency namely, Aga Khan Rural Support Programme (AKRSP) in
the promotion of village level communities for the effective implementation of rural
development programmes. We have also explained the manifestation of CBO-approach
in the AKRSP developmknt efforts specifically related to promotion of self-reliance,
skill development and creation of rural assets among local communities in rural
society.

2.7 SUGGESTED READINGS AND REFERENCES

Arul, M. J., Participatory Management of Forests", Working Paper No. 119, Anand
Institute of Rural Management, Anand: Gujarat, 1998.
http ://www.geocities.com/Athens/5503/jfm-b.html
Chambers, Roberts, Whose Reality Counts? Putting The First Last, London:
Intermediate Technology Publications, 1997.
Chambers, Robert, Operationalising Participatory Approaches in Natural Resource
Management, Report of-the Workshop on ABC Workshop, Ahmedabad:
Development Support Centre, Ahmedabad, 2002.
Dasgupta, Monica, Grandvoinnet, Helene and Romani, Mattia, Fostering Community-
Driven Development: What Role for the State? World Bank Policy Research
Working Pap& No. 2969, 2003.
VOs: Role and Experiences Hans P. Binswanger, and Swarninathan S. Aiyar, Scaling Up Community - Driven
in Rural Development Development: Theoretical Underpinnings and programme Design Implictions,
Working Paper No. 3039, World Bank, 2003.
Mansuri, Ghazala and Rao, Vijayendra, Community-Based and-Driven Development:
A Critical Review World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3209, Feb. 2004.
McIver, R.M. and Charles H. Page, S o c i e ~ :An Introductory Analysis, London:
Macrnillan & Co., 1953.
Mohanty, Ranjita, Are Project Created Institutions Sustainable, Seminar 514, June,
2002.
Reddy K. Pratap and Katar Singh, (ed.) Designing and Managing Rural
Development Organisation, New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Company,
Pvt. Ltd, 2000.
Report, Joint Forest Management in Gujarat: A Status Report, Ahmedabad, VIKSAT,
2002.
Report, Joint Forest Management: People's Participation in Forestry, Agricultural
Finance Corporation Ltd., Bombay, 1994.
Saint, Kishore, Rethinking Participation, Seminar 516, August, 2002.
Uphoft', Norman, Milton J. Esman and Anirudh Krishna, Reasons for Success:
Learning from Instructive Experiences in Rural Development, West Hartford:
Kumarian Press, 1998.