SUMMARY OF LECTURE NOTES 6 (Chapter 7)

 Newton’s 2nd Law to describe the linear momentum equation.

 The Conservation of Momentum Principal is explained.

 The linear momentum equations for fixed, moving and deforming

control volumes are derived.

 The momentum-flux correction factor, 𝛽, for well-defined inlets and

outlets is derived.

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
7.1 Newton’s Laws and Linear Momentum Equation

Newton’s Laws – relating to motions of bodies and the forces acting on them

Newton’s 2nd Law - the acceleration of a body is proportional to the net force acting
on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.

For a solid body of mass 𝑚, Newton’s 2nd Law is expressed as

Net force acting Rate of change

on a body of momentum
𝑑𝑉 𝑑 𝑚𝑉
Newton’s Second Law: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Eq 7.1

where 𝐹 is the net force acting on the body and 𝑎 is the acceleration of the body under the influence of 𝐹 .

• The product of the mass and the velocity of a body is the linear momentum or
simply, the momentum of the body.

• Newton’s 2nd Law expressed as Eq 7.1 can also be stated as the rate of change
of momentum of a body is equal to the net force acting on it.

• In fluid mechanics, this is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
7.2 Conservation of Momentum

The momentum of a system remains constant when the net force acting on it is zero.

Momentum is a constant multiple of velocity (mass), therefore it is a vector quantity.

It can also be written in the scalar form for a specified direction such as

𝑑 𝑚𝑉𝑥
Linear momentum equation in the 𝑥 -direction 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = Eq 7.2
𝑑𝑡
or
𝑑𝜔 𝑑 𝐼𝜔 𝑑𝐻
Angular momentum equation 𝑀 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 = = Eq 7.3
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

where 𝑀 is the net moment or torque applied on the body, 𝐼 is the moment inertia of the body about the
𝑑𝐻
axis of rotation, 𝛼 is the angular acceleration, 𝜔 is the angular velocity and is the rate of change of
𝑑𝑡
angular momentum.

𝑑 𝜔𝑥 𝑑 𝐻𝑥
Angular momentum equation about the 𝑥 -axis 𝑀𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 = Eq 7.4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The angular momentum equation - the rate of change of the angular momentum of a body is
equal to the net torque acting on it.
Angular Momentum has similar conservative property as linear momentum.
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
7.3 Forces acting on a control volume

𝑑𝒱
Body forces – act throughout the entire body of the
control volume (eg. gravity, electric, and magnetic fields)
Surface forces – act on the control surface or boundary 𝑑𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝐴
only (eg. pressure and viscous forces and reaction forces
at points of contact)

Total force acting on a control volume 𝐹= 𝐹 body + 𝐹 surface Eq 7.5

Total force: 𝐹 = 𝐹 gravity + 𝐹 pressure + 𝐹 viscous + 𝐹 other Eq 7.6

Surface forces
Body force

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
7.4 The Linear Momentum Equation
Applying RTT where b = 𝑉, and thus 𝐵 = 𝑚𝑉, we obtain the general form of the linear momentum
equation that applies to fixed, moving or deforming control volumes (refer to previous Eqs 5.10 and 5.11).
. .
𝑑
𝐹= 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝒱 + 𝜌𝑉 𝑉𝑟 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 Eq 7.7
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

In Eq 7.7, 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉 − 𝑉𝐶𝑆 is the fluid velocity relative to the control surface and 𝑉 is the fluid velocity as
viewed from an inertial reference frame. The product 𝜌 𝑉𝑟 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 is the mass flow rate through an element
𝑑𝐴 into and out of the control volume.

For a fixed control volume, 𝑉𝑟 = 𝑉, and the linear momentum equation becomes,
. .
𝑑
𝐹= 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝒱 + 𝜌𝑉 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 Eq 7.8
𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉 𝐶𝑆

When the flow is steady, the time rate of change of linear momentum of the contents of
the control volume is zero, and the linear momentum equation becomes,
.
𝐹= 𝜌𝑉 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 Eq 7.9
𝐶𝑆
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
Special Considerations (to simplify analysis of common problems)
.
For steady flow problems, use Eq 7.9. Note that most of 𝐹= 𝜌𝑉 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴 Eq 7.9
the problems being considered in this course is of steady type 𝐶𝑆

The integrals in Eq 7.8 are sometimes not easy to solve. It is helpful if the equation can
be re-written in terms of the average normal velocities and mass flow rates through
inlets and outlets of the control volume.(ie the equation is re-written in algebraic rather than integral
forms)

When defining the inlets or outlets, ensure that the control

surface slices normal to the inflow or outflow velocity at
each inlets or outlets.

The mass flow rate 𝑚 into and out of the control volume across
an inlet or outlet at which 𝜌 is nearly constant is
.
𝑚= 𝜌 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑐 = 𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴𝑐 Eq 7.10
𝐴𝑐

The momentum flow rate across a uniform inlet or outlet is then:

.
𝜌𝑉 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴𝑐 = 𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑚𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 Eq 7.11
𝐴𝑐
We can assume that 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 only if 𝑉 is uniform across the inlet or outlet. This is a reasonable assumption
for some types of inlets or outlets eg. well rounded entrance to a pipe or a wind tunnel test section or a slice
through a free water jet in air. Otherwise, we would require a dimensionless correction factor, 𝛽.
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, 𝜷
Equivalent 1-D
We can assume that 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 only if 𝑉 is uniform across the CV outlet 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
(uniform 𝑉)
inlet or outlet. This is a reasonable assumption for some types
of inlets or outlets eg. well rounded entrance to a pipe or a
wind tunnel test section or a slice through a free water jet in
air. Otherwise, we would require a dimensionless correction
Actual CV outlet
factor, 𝛽. (𝑉 is non- 𝑉 ≠ 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
uniform)
The algebraic form of Eq 7.8, for a fixed control volume (with correction factor (𝛽) must be applied here
correction factor included) can be written as
.
𝑑
𝐹=
𝑑𝑡
𝜌𝑉𝑑𝒱 + 𝛽 𝑚𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 − 𝛽𝑚𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 Eq 7.12
𝐶𝑉 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

𝛽 is a unique value of momentum-flux correction factor applied to each inlet and outlet on the control surface.
For the case of uniform flow, the value of 𝛽 is 1.
. 2
The momentum-flux correction factor, 𝛽 is given 1 𝑉
𝛽= 𝑑𝐴𝑐 Eq 7.13
by Eqn 7.13 𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑐 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔

The value of 𝛽 is always greater than and close to unity. 𝛽 Situation

However, there are some exceptions such as during laminar
1 1-D uniform flow
flows.
4/3 Fully developed laminar pipe flow
≈1.02 Fully developed turbulent pipe flow

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
The Linear Momentum Equation for Steady Flow
If flow is steady, the time derivative term of Eq 7.12 vanishes
(for convenience, the subscript “avg” for average velocity is dropped!), thus we have

Steady linear momentum equation 𝐹= 𝛽𝑚𝑉 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑉 Eq 7.14

𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

Eq 7.14 states that the net force acting

on a control volume during steady flow is
equal to the difference between the rates
of outgoing and incoming momentum
flows.

This statement is illustrated on the right.

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS

Steady flow with one inlet and one outlet

Many practical problems involve just one inlet and one
outlet. They are also called single-stream systems.

Eq 7.14 reduces to

One inlet and

one outlet 𝐹 = 𝑚 𝛽2 𝑉2 − 𝛽1 𝑉1 Eq 7.15

where subscripts 1 and 2 imply the inlet and outlet respectively. 𝑉𝟏 and
𝑉𝟐 denotes the average velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively.

Along x-coordinates 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚 𝛽2 𝑉2,𝑥 − 𝛽1 𝑉1,𝑥 Eq 7.16

Vector Equations
All relations here are vector equations. Additions and
subtractions are vector additions and subtractions.
See bottom-right figure
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
Example 7-1 Force to Hold a Deflector Plate in Place

A reducing elbow is used to deflect water flow at a rate of 14kg/s in a

horizontal pipe upward 30o while accelerating it. The elbow discharges
water into the atmosphere. The cross sectional area of the elbow is
113cm2 at the inlet and 7cm2 at the outlet. The elevation difference
between the centers of the outlet and inlet is 30cm. The weight of the
elbow and the water in it is considered negligible.
Determine (a) the gauge pressure at the center of the inlet of the elbow
and (b) the anchoring force needed to hold the elbow in place.

Solution – a reducing elbow

deflects water upward and
discharges it to the atmosphere.
(see diagram on the right)
The pressure at the inlet of the
elbow (section 1) and the force
needed to hold the elbow in Control volume
place are to be determined. diagram

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2

7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
Example 7-1 contd Force to Hold a Deflector Plate in Place

Assumptions:
1. Flow is steady and the frictional effects are negligible.
2. The weight of the elbow and the water in it is negligible.
3. The water is discharged into the atmosphere and thus the gauge
pressure at the outlet is zero.
4. The flow is turbulent and fully developed at both the inlet and outlet of
the control volume and we take the momentum-flux correction factor,
𝛽 =1.03.
Take density of water to be 1000kg/m 3.
Analysis:
(a) the gauge pressure
Take the elbow as the control volume
and designate the inlet by 1 and outlet
by 2. Use x- and z-coordinates as
shown.
The continuity equation for this one-
inlet, one-outlet, steady-flow system is Control volume
𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚 = 14 kg s. diagram
Note that 𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑉 Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
 Example 7-1 contd Force to Hold a Deflector Plate in Place

Inlet velocity Outlet velocity

𝑚 14 kg/s 𝑚 14 kg/s
𝑉1 = = = 1.24 m/s 𝑉2 = = = 20.0 m/s
𝜌𝐴1 1000 kg/m3 0.0113 m2 𝜌𝐴2 1000 kg/m3 7 x 10−4 m2

Use Bernoulli equation to approximate the pressure

2 2 2 2
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑉2 − 𝑉1
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑔 + 𝑧2 − 𝑧1
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

3 2
20 m/s 2 − 1.24 m/s 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃atm = 1000 kg/m 9.81m/s + 0.3 − 0
2 9.81 m/s2

𝑃1,gage = 202174.2 N/m2 = 202.2 kN/m2 = 202.2 kPa

Control volume
(b) the anchoring force diagram

The momentum equation for steady

𝐹= 𝛽 𝑚𝑉 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑉
one-dimensional flow is (Eq 7.25) 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

Let 𝐹𝑅𝑥 and 𝐹𝑅𝑧 respectively be the x- 𝐹𝑅𝑥 + 𝑃1,gage 𝐴1 = 𝛽𝑚𝑉2 cos 𝜃 − 𝛽𝑚𝑉1
and z-components of the anchoring
force of the elbow 𝐹𝑅𝑧 = 𝛽 𝑚𝑉2 sin 𝜃
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
Example 7-1 contd Force to Hold a Deflector Plate in Place

(b) the anchoring force

Solving for 𝐹𝑅𝑥 and 𝐹𝑅𝑧 ,

𝑭𝑹𝒙 = 𝜷𝒎 𝑽𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 − 𝑽𝟏 − 𝑷𝟏,𝒈𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑨𝟏

𝐹𝑅𝑥 = 1.03 14 kg/s 20 cos 30𝑜 − 1.24 m/s − 202174.2 N/m2 0.0113 m2
𝐹𝑅𝑥 = −2052.7 N

𝑭𝑹𝒛 = 𝜷𝒎𝑽𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

𝐹𝑅𝑧 = 1.03 14 kg/s 20 sin 30o m/s

𝐹𝑅𝑧 = 144.2 N

The negative result for 𝐹𝑅𝑥 showed that the

initially assumed direction is wrong and it Control volume
diagram
should be reversed. ie 𝐹𝑅𝑥 acts in the
negative x-direction.
𝑭, 𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
𝑭𝑹𝒛 = 𝟏𝟒𝟒. 𝟐 𝐍

𝑭𝑹𝒙 = −𝟐𝟎𝟓𝟐. 𝟕 𝐍
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
Example 7-2 Force to Hold a Reversing Elbow in Place

A reversing elbow forces the fluid to make a 180o U-turn before it is

discharged into the atmosphere. The elevation difference between the
centers of the inlet and the exit sections is still 0.3m.
Determine the anchoring force needed to hold the elbow in place. The
water flow rate and inlet/outlet sizes from Ex 7-2 apply here.

Solution – the inlet and outlet

velocities and the pressure at the inlet
of the elbow remain the same, but
the vertical component of the
anchoring force at the connection of
the elbow to the pipe is zero in this
case. (𝐹𝑅𝑧 = 0)
Control volume
The horizontal component of the anchoring force is diagram
determined from the momentum equation written in the
x-direction. Note that the outlet velocity is negative since
it is in the negative x-direction.
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
Example 7-2 contd Force to Hold a Reversing Elbow in Place

The horizontal component of the

anchoring force is determined from the
momentum equation written in the x-
direction. Note that the outlet velocity is
negative since it is in the negative x-
direction.

𝐹𝑅𝑥 + 𝑃1,gage 𝐴1 = 𝛽𝑚 −𝑉2 − 𝛽 𝑚𝑉1 = −𝛽 𝑚 𝑉2 + 𝑉1

Control volume
𝐹𝑅𝑥 = −𝛽 𝑚 𝑉2 + 𝑉1 − 𝑃1,gage 𝐴1
diagram
𝐹𝑅𝑥 = − 1.03 14kg/s 20 + 1.24 m/s − 202174.2 N/m2 0.0113m2
𝐹𝑅𝑥 = −306.3 − 2284.6 = −2590.9 N

Discussion
If the reversing elbow is replaced by a straight nozzle (like the one used by firefighters),
for the same flow characteristics, what would be the force exerted on the fire man?
𝐹𝑅𝑥 + 𝑃1,gage 𝐴1 = 𝛽 𝑚𝑉2 − 𝛽 𝑚𝑉1 = 𝛽𝑚 𝑉2 − 𝑉1

𝐹𝑅𝑥 = 1.03 14kg/s 20 − 1.24 m/s − 202174.2 N/m2 0.0113m2

𝐹𝑅𝑥 = 270.5 − 2284.6 = −2041.1 N

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
Example 7-3 Water Jet Striking a Stationary Plate
Water is accelerated by a nozzle to an average speed of 20m/s, and
strikes a stationary vertical plate at a rate of 10kg/s with a normal
velocity of 20m/s. After the strike, the water stream splatters off in all
directions in the plane of the plate.
Determine the force needed to prevent the plate from moving horizontally
due to the water stream.
Solution – a water jet strikes a vertical stationary plate
normally. The force needed to hold the plate in place is to
be determined
Assumptions:
1. Flow of water at nozzle outlet is steady.
2. The water splatters in directions normal to the approach
direction of the water jet.
3. The water jet is exposed to the atmosphere and thus the
pressure of the water jet and the splattered water leaving
the control volume is atmospheric. Control volume
4. The vertical forces and momentum fluxes are not considered diagram
since they have no effect on the horizontal reactive forces.
5. The effect of momentum-flux correction factor is negligible,
therefore 𝛽 =1. Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
7.0 MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW SYSTEMS
Example 7-3 contd Water Jet Striking a Stationary Plate

Analysis:
The momentum equation for steady one-dimensional flow is given as (Eq 7.14)

𝐹= 𝛽 𝑚𝑉 − 𝛽𝑚 𝑉
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

Writing this in the x-direction and noting that

𝑉1,𝑥 = 𝑉1 and 𝑉2,𝑥 = 0

−𝐹𝑅 = 0 − 𝛽𝑚𝑉1

Substituting the given values,

𝐹𝑅 = 𝛽𝑚𝑉1 = 1 10kg/s 20m/s = 200 N

Therefore the support must apply a 200N horizontal

Control volume
force in the negative x-direction to hold the plate diagram

in place.
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
EXERCISE 7 – pg 1
7.1) Express Newton’s first, second and third laws.
7.2) Is momentum a vector? If so, in what direction does it point?
7.3) Express the conservation of momentum principle. What can you say about the
momentum of a body if the net force acting on it is zero?
7.4) Explain the importance of the Reynolds transport theorem in fluid mechanics. Describe
how the linear momentum equation is obtained from it.
7.5) Describe body forces and surface forces. Explain how the net force acting on a control
volume is determined. Is fluid weight a body force or surface force? How about
pressure?
7.6) How do surface forces arise in the momentum analysis of a control volume? How can
we minimise the number of surface forces exposed during analysis?
7.7) What is the importance of the momentum-flux correction factor in the momentum
analysis of slow systems? For which type of flow listed below is it significant and must it
be considered in analysis: laminar flow, turbulent flow, or jet flow?
7.8) Write the momentum equation for steady one-dimensional flow for the case of no
external forces and explain the physical significance of its terms.
7.9) Two firefighters are fighting a fire with identical water hoses and nozzles. One is
holding the hose straight so that the water leaves the nozzle in the same direction that
it comes, while the other holds it backward so that the water makes a U-turn before
being discharged. Which firefighter will experience a greater reaction force?
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
 EXERCISE 7 – pg 2
7.10) A rocket in space (no friction or resistance to motion) can expel gas relative to itself at
some high velocity V. Is V the upper limit to the rocket’s ultimate velocity?
7.11) Describe in terms of momentum and airflow why a helicopter hovers.
7.12) Does it take more, equal, or less power for a helicopter to hover at the top of a high
mountain than it does at sea level? Explain
7.13) A horizontal water jet from a nozzle of constant exit cross-section impinges normally on a
stationary vertical flat plate. A certain force F is required to hold the plate against the water
stream. If the water velocity is doubled, will the necessary holding force also be doubled?
Explain.
7.14) A constant-velocity horizontal water jet from a stationary
impinges normally on a vertical flat plate that is held in
a nearly frictionless track. As the water jet hits the plate,
it begins to move due to the water force. Will the
acceleration of the plate remain constant or change?
Explain.
7.15) A 90o elbow is used to direct water flow at a rate of 25 kg/s in a
horizontal pipe upward. The diameter of the entire elbow is 10 cm. The
elbow discharges water into the atmosphere. The elevation difference
between the centers of the exit and the inlet of the elbow is 35 cm. The
weight of the elbow and the water is considered negligible. Determine
(a) the gauge pressure at the center of the inlet of the elbow and (b)
the anchoring force needed to hold the elbow in place. Take the
momentum-flux correction factor to be 1.03.
Advanced Hydraulics Part 2
EXERCISE 7 – pg 3
7.16) Repeat Q7.15 for the case of another (identical) elbow being attached to the existing elbow
so that the fluid makes a U-turn.
7.17) A horizontal water jet impinges against a vertical flat plate at 30 ft/s and splashes off the
sides in the vertical plane. If the horizontal force of 350lbf is required to hold the plate
against the water stream, determine the volume flow rate of water.
7.18) Water accelerated by a nozzle to 15 m/s strikes the vertical back surface of a cart moving
horizontally at a constant velocity of 5 m/s in the flow direction. The mass flow rate of water
is 25 kg/s. After the strike, the water stream splatters off in all directions in the plane of the
back surface.
a) Determine the force that needs to be applied on the brakes of the cart to prevent it
from accelerating.
b) If this force were used to generate power instead of wasting it on the brakes,
determine the maximum amount of power that can be generated.

5 m/s
15 m/s

Advanced Hydraulics Part 2