Edward the Confessor and the Normans

Then, in 1042, the line of succession returned 10 a descendant

of Allred the Great. This king, Edward, had gained the title “the
Confessor” because he was a deeply religious Christian. He had
spent many of his early years in Normandy, a region once settled by
Scandinavians and now a part of France. Norman on his mother's
side, Edward had developed a close friendship with his cousin
William, Normandy's ruler. Once Edward took the English throne, his
association with the Normans further weakened Saxon power. His
death in 1066 led directly to a Norman conquest of England and
brought the end of the Anglo-Saxon period of literature, as we shall
see in the next unit,

ANGLO-SAXON LITERATURE

Scholars now believe that the literature of the British Isles began
with Celtic Druids. These priests assumed the function of storytell-
ers, memorizing and reciting long, heroic poems about Celtic
leaders and their deeds. In the same way, Anglo-Saxon literature
began not with books, but with spoken verse and incantations. Their
purpose was 10 pass along tribal history and values to an audience
that could not read.

To be sure, some Anglo-Saxons were familiar with the written

word. In the third century in northern Europe, they had devised an
alphabet of letters called runes. When they came to Britain, they
brought this alphabet with them and used it until the Latin alphabet
we have today superseded it. Yet they employed runes chiefly for
inscriptions on important buildings, on statues, and the like, Few
early Anglo-Saxons could read or write

Origins of Anglo-Saxon Poetry

The reciting of poems often occurred on ceremonial occasions

such as the celebration of a military victory. A warrior's comrades
would gather in his hall or castle, and the performance would begin.
The performers were usually professional minstrels, known as
scops, and their assistants, called gleemen. The scops and glee-
men recited for hours and. in some instances, even for days.

Scholars now suppose that these recitations took place to the

accompaniment of a harp. The poems followed a set formula of
composition, which probably made them easier 10 memorize. A
lormal, ngid pattern of word stresses gave the lyrics a terse,
q effect. A mid-line pause, called a caesura, occurred in
. Another part of the pattern was alliteration, the repetition
3 ,. especially intial consonant sounds.

s of Anglo-Saxon Verse

h ow about 30,000 lines of Anglo-Saxon verse still exist. Almost

‘all of it is found in four works dating from about AD 975to 1050. The
‘early verse falls mainly into two categories. One is heroic poetry,
‘which recounts the achievements of warriors involved in great
‘battles. The other is elegiac poetry, sorrowful laments that mourn
the deaths of loved ones and the loss of the past

eps many years after their composition, the poems have

ot undergone many changes. Later scops may have adapt-
3 then. and so may have monastic scribes. Nevertheless, pagan
eres remain, particularly in the ever-present sense of an

- ominous fate, or wyrd. Consider, for example, these lines from one

of the elegiac poems, “The Wanderer":

He then, wise in soul, with weighty

thought thinks deeply upon this dark-

» Beowulf Legend

Of the heroic poetry, the most important work is Beowulf, the

story of a great pagan warnor renowned for his courage, strength,
~ and dignity. Beowulf is an epic, a long heroic poem. Because it is
the first such work to be composed in the English language, it is
considered the national epic of England.

Like most Anglo-Saxon poets, the author of Beowulf is unknown.

Although versions of the poem were probably recited as early as the
sixth century, the text that we have today was composed in the
gighth century and not written down until the eleventh. Thus, the
poem includes many references to Chnstian ideas and Latin
classics. Clearly evident in Beowulf, however, are the values of a
warnor society, especially such values as dignity, bravery, and
prowess in battle:

And Beowulf was ready, firm with our

Lord's

High favor and his own bold courage and

strength.

Emphasis on such values did not disappear in Christian times, It

appeared in later Anglo-Saxon poems such as The Battle of Maldon,
which commemorates a great military defeat of the Danes.

Poets of the Christian Era

Among the few known poets of the Christian era, two are worthy
of mention—Caedmon and Cynewulf. Caedmon, who apparently
The Literature
of 449-1066

When you read literature, it is important to know its historical

context. Doing so will help you to understand the writer's ideas and
techniques

Historical Context In 449 the island of Britain was invaded by warlike Germanic

peoples known as Angles and Saxons. These invaders brought with

them their pagan beliefs and traditions, which appear in Anglo-
Saxon poetry and legends. They also brought with them a grim,
fatalistic view of the world. These Germanic invaders were followed
by Roman missionaries, who converted Britain to Christianity,
During this time, different kinds of literature developed, including
the oral poetry of the Anglo-Saxons and written historical and
religious prose. The literature of the time shows both pagan and
Christian influences.

Very few people were able to read during this period. Therefore,
an oral tradition flounshed. The Anglo-Saxons were fond of poetry,

which was developed and passed on by scops, or poel-singers. |

Eventually, some of this oral literature was written down by monks in

monasteries, who are largely responsible for having preserved oral

matenal

Writers’ Because most literature was oral, it was composed in such a

Techniques way that it was easily memorized. Lines of poetry with regular
rhythms were easier 10 remember than was prose. Poets used
alliteration for the same reason. In addition, Anglo-Saxon poets were
fond of the kenning, a compound metaphorical name for something,
such as “whale's home" for the sea The Anglo-Saxon poetry that

has been preserved illustrates these techniques.

On the following pages is an Anglo-Saxon poem, “The Sea-

tarer.” The notes in the side column point out features of the poem
that show the historical context or the literary techniques of the
period
Literary Movement:
The Seafarer Pru pre

tragdion. difteran! versions

translated by Burton Raffel of it guigt

This tale is true. and mine. It tells Historical Background:
How the sea took me, swept me back f=" ThEpsets atwct 0 Ve
And forth in sorrow and fear and pain. J sibbet because the =
Showed me suffering in a hundred ships, British are an island
In a thousand ports, and in me. It tells pecpie
Of smashing surf when | sweated in the cold
Of an anxious watch, perched in the bow
As it dashed under cliffs. My feet were cast
In icy bands, bound with frost,
With frozen chains, and hardship groaned Writer's Technique:
Around my heart, Hunger tore Angio-Saxon poetry
At my sea-weary soul. No man sheltered ago OES hese
On the quiet fairness of earth can feel i Aseria
How wretched | was. drifting through winter “een
On an ice-cold sea, whirled in sorrow, I important word in the first
Alone in a world blown clear of love, part of the line has the
Hung with icicles. The hailstorms flew. EA ENO La
The only sound was the roaring sea, site nh ecgtnth argh 3
The freezing waves. The song of the swan Jd af tha line i
Might serve for pleasure, the cry of the sea-fowl,
The death-noise of birds instead of laughter,
The mewing of gulls instead of mead.
Storms beat on the rocky cliffs and were echoed
By icy-feathered terns and the eagle's screams:
No kinsman could offer comfort there,
To a soul left drowning in desolation.

And who could believe, knowing but

The passion of cities. swelled proud with wine
And no taste of misfortune, how often, how wearily,
I put myself back on the paths of the sea.
Night would blacken: it would snow from the north;
Frost bound the earth and hail would fall,
The coldest seeds. And how my heart 1 Writer's Technique:
Would begin to beat, knowing once more | “coldest seeds” is a
The salt waves tossing and the towering sea! J sombody Ther Vide ia

The time for journeys would come and my soul

Called me eagerly out, sent me over

The horizon, seeking foreigners’ homes.
But there isn't a man on earth so proud,

40 So born to greatness, so bold with his youth,

Historical Context: The
Anglo-Saxons saw Fate as Grown so brave, or so graced by God,
gnm and overpowering That he feels no fear as the sails unfurl,

Wondering what Fate has willed and will do.

No harps ring in his heart, no rewards,

45 No passion for women, no worldly pleasures,

Nothing, only the ocean's heave;
But longing wraps itself around him.
Orchards blossom, the towns bloom,

Fields grow lovely as the world springs fresh,

50 And all these admonish that willing mind
Leaping to journeys, always set
In thoughts traveling on a quickening tide.
| So summer's sentinel, the cuckoo, sings
In his murmuring voice, and our hearts mourn
55 As he urges. Who could understand,
In ignorant ease, what we others suffer
As the paths of exile stretch endlessly on?
And vet my heart wanders away,
My soul roams with the sea, the whales’
~ 80 Home. wandering to the widest corners
Of the world, returning ravenous with desire,
Flying solitary, screaming, exciting me
To the open ocean, breaking oaths
On the curve of a wave.
Thus the joys of God ee

8 Are fervent with life, where life itself frome rly ibd
Fades quickly into the earth. The wealth
Of the world neither reaches to Heaven nor remains.
No man has ever faced the dawn
Certain which of Fate's three threats
70 Would fall: illness, or age, or an enemy's
Sword, snatching the life from his soul.
The praise the living pour on the dead
Flowers from reputation: plant
An earthly life of profit reaped
75 Even from hatred and rancor, of bravery
Flung in the devil's face, and death
Can only bring you earthly praise
And a song to celebrate a place

With the angels, life eternally blessed

80 In the hosts of Heaven.

The days are gone

When the kingdoms of earth flourished in glory:
Now there are no rulers, no emperors,
No givers of gold, as once there were,
When wonderful things were worked among them
85 And they lived in lordly magnificence.
Those powers have vanished, those pleasures are dead.
The weakest survives and the world continues,
Kept spinning by toil. All glory is tarnished.
The world’s honor ages and shrinks,
80 Bent like the men who mold it. Their faces
Blanch as time advances, their beards
Wither and they mourn the memory of friends.
The sons of princes, sown in the dust.
100

105

110

115

120

The soul stripped of its flesh knows nothing

Of sweetness or sour, feels no pain,

Bends neither its hand nor its brain. A brother

Opens his palms and pours down gold

On his kinsman's grave, strewing his coffin

With treasures intended for Heaven, but nothing

Golden shakes the wrath of God

For a soul overflowing with sin. and nothing

Hidden on earth rises to Heaven,

We all fear God. He turns the earth,

He set it swinging firmly in space,
Gave life to the world and light to the sky.
Death leaps at the fools who forget their God.
He who lives humbly has angels from Heaven
To carry him courage and strength and beliel.
A man must conquer pride, not kill it,
Be firm with his fellows, chaste for himself,
Treat all the world as the world deserves,
With love or with hate but never with harm,
Though an enemy seek to scorch him in hell,
Or set the flames of a funeral pyre
Under his lord. Fate is stronger

And God mightier than any man’s mind.

Our thoughts should turn to where our home is,

Consider the ways of coming there,

Then strive for sure permission for us

To rise to that eternal joy,

That life born in the love of God

And the hope of Heaven. Praise the Holy

Grace of Him who honored us,

Eternal, unchanging creator of earth. Amen.

ABOUT THE SELECTION

1. What are three images the poet uses in the

first stanza to convey his sense of isolation?

2 The poet names "Fate's three threats.” What

are they?

3 (a) What happens to “fools who forget their

God"? (b) What happens to those who "live
humbly"?

Interpreting

4 How might you explain the mixed feelings

about the sea that the poet seems 10 feel?

5. Pagans in Anglo-Saxon England—that Is,

non-Christians —felt themselves at the mercy

| of forces utterly beyond their control, while

Christians put their trust in salvation and
heaven. In what way do lines 39 through 43
show the influence of both beliefs?
~ 6 Explain lines 66 and 67: “The wealth / Of the
~~ world neither reaches to Heaven nor re-
© mains”
7. "The Seafarer” is a poem of contrasts. What
| contrast is implied in lines 80 through 1027
B. What does the poet mean by the word home
in line 117?

Applying

9 Explain how a person can dislike something

as much as the sailor dislikes life at sea and

yet keep going back to it.

ANALYZING LITERATURE
Understanding Anglo-Saxon Poetry

A lyric poem is one that expresses intense

personal emotions. “The Seafarer” mixes pagan
with Christian beliefs and expresses sorrow for
something lost or past. At times the poet's feel
Ings seem to border on despair
1. What deep personal feelings does the poet

express in the first part of "The Seafarer” that

show this to be a lyric poem?
~ 2. "The Seafarer” has two distinct parts, the
second of which begins at line 64. What are
some of the strong emotions expressed in the
second part of the poem?

CRITICAL THINKING AND READING

Comparing and Contrasting Attitudes
To compare two ideas or attitudes is to point
out similanties. To contrast them is 10 point out
differences. Most people have mixed feelings on
certain subjects.

Explain what accounts for the poet's state of

mind at the beginning of the poem and at the
end

UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE

Appreciating Old English

Oid English is the English language as it

existed from about S00 to about 1150. Qur
language has changed so much since then that
Anglo-Saxon poems like “The Seafarer” must be
translated, just as if they came from a foreign
language, if modern readers are to appreciate
them. Here are lines 42 and 43 from "The Sea-
tarer” in Old English:

past he a his saefore sorge naebbe.

to hwon hine Dryhten gedon wille

A few Old English words still appear in dictiona-

ries but are seldom used any more. Find the
meanings of the following words.

1. churl 4. yare

2. thane 5. yclept

3. tor

THINKING AND WRITING

Writing About Anglo-Saxon Beliefs

“The Seafarer” is not an easy poem to under-

stand. One critic has said that almost any theory
can be made to explain its meaning. What is your
theory? What main idea do you think the poet
intends to convey? In your prewriting. list the
vanous thoughts and feelings the poet express-
es In the poem. Use these notes as the basis for
a thesis staternent in which you summarnze whal
you think the main idea of the poem is. In writing
a first draft, support your thesis statement with
evidence from the poem. When you revise, be
sure you have made clear the reasons for your
conclusion
from Beowulf

Anglo-Saxon Epic Poetry. An epic is a long narrative poem,

sometimes developed orally, thal celebrates the deeds of a legen-

dary or heroic figure. A few epics predate the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf

Well-known epics from earlier times include the Greek liad and
Odyssey by Homer and the Roman Aeneid by Virgil. Typically, an
epic, featuring a hero who 1s larger than life, concerns eternal
human problems such as the struggle between good and evil. An
epic is presented in a senous way, often through the use of elevated
language. The hero of an epic represents widespread national,
cultural, or religious values.

Beowull is one of the oldest European epics. Its hero, Beowult,

embodies the highest ideals ol his time and place: loyalty, valor,
unselfishness, and a sense of justice. He represents good, while
Grendel represents evil. Throughout Beowulf there is a prevailing
yet somewhat uneasy blend of Chnstian ethics and pagan morality.
Against a backdrop of gloom that reflects the Anglo-Saxons’ stoic
acceptance ol fate, the story applauds the highest virtues of human
nature—courage, generosity, faithfulness. Despite its blood and
horror, Beowulf is a deeply idealistic narrative

Anglo-Saxon epic poetry, of which Beowulf is the great exam-

ple. has certain distinctive features. One is the two-part line. Each
ine 1s separated by a pause, known as a caesura, and there are
generally two strong beats per part. Another feature is the kenning,
a colorful, indirect way of naming something. The sea is a
whalepath, a batlle is spear play, the suns the candle of the skies.

Beowull belongs to the present as well as the past. Perhaps the

most popular contemporary works it inspired are a series of epics
about the fantasy world of Middle Earth. Beginning in 1937 with The
Hobbit, Oxiord don J. R. R. Tolkein wove imaginative tales about
good and evil. The enthusiastic response 10 his trilogy The Lord of
the Rings (1954-1955-—-The Feliowship of the Ring, The Two
Towers, The Return of the King) prompted him to continue the saga
in The Silmanilion (1977), an account of the ongins of Middle Earth
Tolkien, however, was onginally far more famous for completely
changing the way we read Beowull In his 1936 article "Beowulf:
The Mansters and the Critics,” he saw Beowul! as poetry rather than
history, and modern Beowulf scholarship began

Al the ime Beowull was composed, the ideals of the Anglo-Saxons

included loyalty, valor, unselfishness, and a sense ol justice. Those
are shill wghly regarged ideals, bul they are not the only ones. Lis!
four other (deals that are important to Amencans today
10

15

from Beowulf

translated by Burton Raffel

The selection opens during an evening of celebration at

Herot, the banquet hall of the Danish king Hrothgar (hroth’
gar). Outside in the darkness, however, lurks the monster

Grendel, a murderous creature who poses a great danger to

the people inside the banquet hall.

The Wrath of Grendel

A powerful monster, living down

In the darkness, growled in pain. impatient

As day after day the music rang

Loud in that hall.’ the harp’s rejoicing

Call and the poet's clear songs, sung

Of the ancient beginnings of us all, recalling

The Almighty making the earth, shaping
These beautiful plains marked off by oceans,
Then proudly setting the sun and moon

To glow across the land and light it;

The corners of the earth were made lovely with trees

And leaves, made quick with life, with each

Of the nations who now move on its face. And then

As now warriors sang of their pleasure:
So Hrothgar's men lived happy in his hall

Till the monster stirred, that demon, that fiend,

Grendel, who haunted the moors, the wild

Marshes, and made his home in a hell

Not hell but earth. He was spawned in that slime,

Conceived by a pair of those monsters born

Of Cain.’ murderous creatures banished

By God. punished forever for the crime

Of Abel's death. The Almighty drove

Those demons out, and their exile was bitter,

Shut away from men: they split
Into a thousand forms of evil—spirits

And fiends, goblins, monsters, giants,

A brood forever opposing the Lord's
Will, and again and again defeated.

Then, when darkness had dropped, Grendel

Went up to Herot, wondering what the warriors
Would do in that hall when their drinking was done.

1. hall: Herot

2. Cain: The oldest son of

Adam and Eve. who
murdered his brother Abel
75

He found them sprawled In sleep, suspecting

Nothing, their dreams undisturbed. The monster's
Thoughts were as quick as his greed or his claws:
He slipped through the door and there in the silence
Snatched up thirty men, smashed them

Unknowing in their beds and ran out with their bodies,

The blood dripping behind him, back

To his lair, delighted with his night's slaughter.

At daybreak, with the sun's first light, they saw

How well he had worked, and in that gray morning

Broke their long feast with tears and laments

For the dead. Hrothgar, their lord, sat joyless

In Herot, a mighty prince mourning

The fate of his lost friends and companions,

Knowing by its tracks that some demon had torn

His followers apart. He wept, fearing

The beginning might not be the end. And that night

Grendel came again, so set

On murder that no crime could ever be enough,

No savage assault quench his lust

For evil. Then each warrior tried

To escape him, searched for rest in different

Beds, as far from Herot as they could find,

Seeing how Grendel hunted when they slept.

Distance was safety; the only survivors

Were those who fled him. Hate had triumphed.

So Grendel ruled, fought with the righteous,

One against many, and won; so Herot

Stood empty, and stayed deserted for years,

Twelve winters of grief for Hrothgar, king

Of the Danes, sorrow heaped at his door

By hell-forged hands. His misery leaped

The seas, was told and sung in all

Men's ears: how Grendel's hatred began,

How the monster relished his savage war

On the Danes, keeping the bloody feud

Alive, seeking no peace, offering

No truce, accepting no settlement, no price

In gold or land, and paying the living

For one crime only with another. No one
Waited for reparation from his plundering claws:
That shadow of death hunted in the darkness,
Stalked Hrothgar's warriors, old
And young, lying in waiting, hidden
In mist, invisibly following them from the edge
Of the marsh, always there, unseen.

So mankind's enemy continued his crimes,

110

120

Killing as often as he could, coming

Alone, bloodthirsty and horrible. Though he lived

In Herot, when the night hid him, he never

Dared to touch king Hrothgar’s glorious

Throne, protected by God—Gaod,

Whose love Grendel could not know. But Hrothgar's

Heart was bent. The best and most noble

Of his council debated remedies, sat

In secret sessions, talking of terror

And wondering what the bravest of warriors could do.

And sometimes they sacrificed to the old stone gods,
Made heathen vows, hoping for Hell's

Support. the Devil's guidance in driving

Their affliction off. That was their way,

And the heathen's only hope, Hell

Always in their hearts, knowing neither God

Nor His passing as He walks through our world, the Lord

Of Heaven and earth; their ears could not hear

His praise nor know His glory. Let them

Beware, those who are thrust into danger,

Clutched at by trouble, yet can carry no solace

In their hearts, cannot hope to be better! Hail

To those who will rise to God, drop off

Their dead bodies and seek our Father's peace!

The Coming of Beowulf

So the living sorrow of Healfdane's son’

Simmered, bitter and fresh, and no wisdom

Or strength could break it: that agony hung

On king and people alike, harsh

And unending, violent and cruel, and evil.

In his far-off home Beowulf, Higlac's®

Follower and the strongest of the Geals—grealer
And stronger than anyone anywhere in this world—
Heard how Grendel filled nights with horror
And quickly commanded a boat fitted out,
Proclaiming that he'd go to that famous king,
Would sail across the sea to Hrothgar,
Now when help was needed. None
Of the wise ones regretted his going. much
As he was loved by the Geats: the omens were good,
And they urged the adventure on. So Beowulf
Chose the mightiest men he could find,
The bravest and best of the Geats, fourteen

In all, and led them down to their boat;

He knew the sea, would point the prow
Straight to that distant Danish shore.

3. Healfdane's ha all
den’ naz) sea: Hrothgar.

4. Higlac's (hig laks)

Higlac was the king ol the
Greats (ga ats) and
Beowull's feudal lord and
uncle
- Then they sailed, set their ship
Out on the waves, under the cliffs.
Ready for what came they wound through the currents,
| The seas beating at the sand, and were borne
In the lap of their shining ship, lined
130 With gleaming armor, going safely
In that oak-hard boat to where their hearts took them.
The wind hurried them over the waves,
The ship foamed through the sea like a bird
Until, in the time they had known it would take,

135 Standing in the round-curled prow they could see

Sparkling hills, high and green,
Jutting up over the shore, and rejoicing
In those rock-steep cliffs they quietly ended
Their voyage. Jumping to the ground, the Geats
140 Pushed their boat to the sand and tied it
In place, mail shirts and armor rattling
As they swiftly moored their ship. And then
They gave thanks to God for their easy crossing.
High on a wall a Danish watcher
145 Patrolling along the cliffs saw
The travelers crossing to the shore, their shields
Raised and shining: he came riding down,
Hrothgar's lieutenant, spurring his horse,
Needing to know why they'd landed, these men
150 In armor. Shaking his heavy spear
In their faces he spoke:

“Whose soldiers are you,

You who've been carried in your deep-keeled ship
Across the sea-road to this country of mine?
Listen! I've stood on these cliffs longer
155 Than you know, keeping our coast free
Of pirates, raiders sneaking ashore
From their ships, seeking our lives and our gold.
None have ever come more openly—
And yet you've offered no password, no sign
180 From my prince, no permission from my people for your
landing
Here. Nor have | ever seen,
Out of all the men on earth, one greater
Than has come with you: no commoner carries
Such weapons, unless his appearance, and his beauty,
165 Are both lies. You! Tell me your name,
And your father's; no spies go further onto Danish
Soil than you've come already. Strangers,
From wherever it was you sailed, tell it,
And tell it quickly, the quicker the better,
170 | say, for us all. Speak, say
Exactly who vou are, and from where, and why."
Their leader answered him, Beowulf unlocking
Words from deep In his breast:
“We are Geats,
Men who follow Higlac. My father
175 Was a famous soldier, known far and wide
As a leader of men. His name was Edgetho.
His life lasted many winters;
Wise men all over the earth surely
Remember him still. And we have come seeking
180 Your prince, Healfdane's son, protector
Of this people, only in [riendship: Instruct us,
Watchman, help us with your words! Our errand
Is a great one, our business with the glorious king
Of the Danes no secret; there's nothing dark
185 Or hidden In our coming. You know (if we've heard
The truth, and been told honestly) that your country
Is cursed with some strange, vicious creature
That hunts only at night and that no one
Has seen. It's said, watchman, that he has slaughtered
190 Your people, brought terror to the darkness. Perhaps
Hrothgar can hunt, here in my heart,
For some way to drive this devil out—
If anything will ever end the evils
Afflicting your wise and famous lord.
195 Here he can cool his burning sorrow.
Or else he may see his suffering go on
Forever, for as long as Herot towers
High on your hills.”
The mounted officer
Answered him bluntly, the brave watchman:
200 “A soldier should know the difference between words
And deeds, and keep that knowledge clear
In his brain. | believe your words, | trust in
Your friendship. Go forward, weapons and armor
And all, on Into Denmark. I'll guide you
205 Myself—and my men will guard your ship,
Keep it safe here on our shores,
Your fresh-tarred boat, watch it well,
Until that curving prow carries
Across the sea to Geatland a chosen
210 Warrior who bravely does battle with the creature
Haunting our people, who survives that horror
Unhurt, and goes home bearing our love.”
Then they moved on. Their boat lay moored,
Tied tight to its anchor. Glittering at the top
215 Of their golden helmets wild boar heads gleamed,
Shining decorations, swinging as they marched,
Erect like guards, like sentinels, as though ready
410

Had been granted new glory: Grendel escaped,

But wounded as he was could flee to his den.
His miserable hole at the bottom of the marsh,

Only to die, to wait for the end

Of all his days. And after that bloody

Combat the Danes laughed with delight.

He who had come to them from across the sea,

Bold and strong-minded, had driven aflliction

Off. purged Herot clean. He was happy.

Now, with that night's fierce work: the Danes

Had been served as he'd boasted he'd serve them; Beowulf,

A prince of the Geats, had killed Grendel,

Ended the grief, the sorrow, the suffering

Forced on Hrothgar’'s helpless people

By a bloodthirsty fiend. No Dane doubted

The victory, for the proof, hanging high

From the rafters where Beowulf had hung it, was the
monster's

Arm, claw and shoulder and all.

From every side, trying to open

A path for his evil soul, but thelr points

Could not hurt him, the sharpest and hardest iron

Could not scratch at his skin, for that sin-stainied demon

Had bewitched all men’s weapons, laid spells

That blunted every mortal man’s blade.

And vet his time had come, his days

Were over, his death near; down

To hell he would go, swept groaning and helpless

To the waiting hands of still worse fiends.
Now he discovered —once the afflictor

Of men, tormentor of their days—what it meant

To feud with Almighty God: Grendel

Saw that his strength was deserting him. his claws

Bound fast, Higlac's brave follower tearing at

His hands. The monster's hatred rose higher,

But his power had gone. He twisted in pain,

And the bleeding sinews deep in his shoulder

Snapped, muscle and bone split
And broke. The battle was over, Beowulf
370

Hrothgar's wise men had fashioned Herot

To stand forever; only fire,
They had planned, could shatter what such skill had put
Together, swallow in hot flames such splendor
Of Ivory and iron and wood. Suddenly
The sounds changed, the Danes started
In new terror, cowering in their beds as the terrible
Screams of the Almighty's enemy sang
In the darkness, the horrible shrieks of pain
And defeat, the tears torn out of Grendel's
Taut throat, hell's captive caught in the arms
Of him who of all the men on earth
Was the strongest.
That mighty protector of men
Meant to hold the monster till its life
Leaped out, knowing the fiend was no use
To anyone in Denmark. All of Beowulf's
Band had jumped from their beds, ancestral

Swords raised and ready, determined

To protect their prince if they could. Their courage

Was great but all wasted: they could hack at Grendel

no

And his heart laughed, he relished the sight,

Intended to tear the life from those bodies
By morning; the monster's mind was hot
With the thought of food and the feasting his belly
Would soon know. But fate, that night, intended
Grendel to gnaw the broken bones
Of his last human supper. Human
Eyes were walching his evil steps,
Waiting to see his swift hard claws.
Grendel snatched at the first Geat
He came to, ripped him apart, cut
His body to bits with powerful jaws,
Drank the blood from his veins and bolted
Him down, hands and feet; death
And Grendel's great teeth came together,
Snapping life shut. Then he stepped to another
Still body, clutched at Beowulf with his claws,
Grasped at a strong-hearted wakeful sleeper
— And was instantly seized himself, claws
Bent back as Beowulf leaned up on one arm.
That shepherd of evil, guardian of crime,
Knew at once that nowhere on earth
Had he met a man whose hands were harder;
His mind was flooded with fear— but nothing
Could take his talons and himself from that tight
Hard grip. Grendel's one thought was to run
From Beowulf, flee back to his marsh and hide there:
This was a different Herotl than the hall he had emptied.
But Higlac's follower remembered his final
Boast and, standing erect, stopped
The monster's flight, fastened those claws

In his fists till they cracked, clutched Grendel

Closer. The infamous killer fought

For his freedom. wanting no flesh but retreat,

Desiring nothing but escape: his claws

Had been caught, he was trapped. That trip to Herot

Was a miserable journey for the writhing monster!

The high hall rang, its roof boards swayed,

And Danes shook with terror. Down

The aisles the battle swept, angry

And wild. Herot trembled, wonderfully

Built to withstand the blows. the struggling

Great bodies beating at its beautiful walls;

Shaped and fastened with iron, inside

And out, artfully worked, the building

Stood firm. Its benches rattled, fell

To the floor. gold-covered boards grating

As Grendel and Beowulf battled across them.

Is so greal that he needs no weapons and fears none.
Nor will I. My lord Higlac

Might think less of me If | let my sword

Go where my feet were afraid to, if I hid

Behind some broad linden” shield: my hands

Alone shall fight for me, struggle for life

Against the monster. God must decide

Who will be given to death's cold grip.

Grendel's plan, | think, will be

What it has been before, to invade this hall

And gorge his belly with our bodies. If he can,

If he can. And | think, if my time will have come,

There'll be nothing to mourn over, no corpse to prepare
For its grave: Grendel will carry our bloody
Flesh to the moors, crunch on our bones

And smear torn scraps of our skin on the walls

Of his den. No, | expect no Danes

Will fret about sewing our shrouds, if he wins.

And if death does take me, send the hammered
Mail of my armor to Higlac, return

The inheritance | had from Hrethel, and he

From Wayland.” Fate will unwind as It must!”

The Battle with Grendel

That night Beowulf and his men take the places of

Hrothgar and the Danes inside Herot. While his men sleep,

Beowulf lies awake, eager to meet with Grendel.

Out from the marsh, from the foot of misty

Hills and bogs, bearing God's hatred,
Grendel came, hoping to kill
Anyone he could trap on this trip to high Herot.
He moved quickly through the cloudy night,
Up from his swampland, sliding silently

Toward that gold-shining hall. He had visited Hrothgar's

Home before, knew the way —

But never, before nor after that night,

Found Herot defended so firmly, his reception

So harsh. He journeyed, forever joyless,

Straight to the door, then snapped it open,
Tore its iron fasteners with a touch
And rushed angrily over the threshold.

He strode quickly across the inlaid

Floor, snarling and fierce: his eyes

Gleamed in the darkness, burned with a gruesome

Light. Then he stopped, seeing the hall

Crowded with sleeping warriors, stuffed

With rows ol young soldiers resting together.

8. laden: A very sturdy

type of wood

7. Wayland: From
Germanic folklore, an
invisible blacksmith.
To fight. They marched, Beowulf and his men

And their guide, until they could see the gables

Of Herot, covered with hammered gold

And glowing in the sun—that most famous of all dwellings,

Towering majestic, its glittering roofs

Visible far across the land.

Their guide reined in his horse, pointing

225 To that hall, built by Hrothgar for the best

And bravest of his men: the path was plain,

They could see their way . | .

Beowulf and his men arrive at Herot and are about to be

escorted in to see King Hrothgar.

Beowull arose, with his men

2%0 Around him, ordering a few to remain
With their weapons, leading the others quickly
Along under Herot's steep roof into Hrothgar's
Presence. Standing on that prince's own hearth,
Helmeted, the silvery metal of his mail shirt
235 Gleaming with a smith’s high art. he greeted
The Danes’ great lord:
“Hall, Hrothgar!
Higlac is my cousin” and my king: the days 5. cousin: Here, used as a
Of my youth have been filled with glory. Now Grendel's general term lor relative.
Name has echoed in our land: sailors
240 Have brought us stories of Herot, the best
Of all mead-halls, deserted and useless when the moon
Hangs in skies the sun had lit,
Light and life fleeing together.
My people have said, the wisest, most knowing
245 And best of them, that my duty was to go to the Danes’
Great king. They have seen my strength for themselves,
Have watched me rise from the darkness of war,
Dripping with my enemies’ blood. I drove
Five great giants into chains, chased
250 All of that race from the earth. 1 swam
In the blackness of night, hunting monsters
Out of the ocean, and killing them one
By one; death was my errand and the fate
They had earned. Now Grendel and | are called
255 Together, and I've come. Grant me, then,
Lord and protector of this noble place,
A single request! | have come so far,
Oh shelterer of warriors and vour people’s loved friend,
That this one favor you should not refuse me—
280 That I, alone and with the help of my men,
May purge all evil from this hall. | have heard,
Too, that the monster's scorn of men
THE MEDIEVAL
PERIOD

1066-1485

A Knyght ther was, and that a worthy man

That fro the tyme that he first bigan

To riden out, he loved chivalrie,

Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie

Geoffrey Chaucer
The famous description on the preceding page comes from an
English literary masterpiece, The Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey
Chaucer (13407-1400). The passage reflects many of the ideas and
attitudes held by Europeans dunng the fourteenth century. In these
years knights lived by the code of chivalry, which stressed truth,
honor, and courtesy off the battlefield and valor on it. The Roman
Catholic Church had become the only force uniting most of Western
Europe Religion pervaded daily life, and to be a devout Christian
—a worthy man—was important not only to knights but to all
members of English society
During these years the English language changed from ils
Anglo-Saxon form to one called Middle English, far more familiar to
modern readers. Looking at Chaucer's words above, we can readily
recognize their modem English counterparts—"knyght” is krught,
“ther” is there, “fro” 1s from, "riden” is ride, “chivalrie” is chivalry,
and so on Dm a
place gradually. Yet this change can be traced to
event—the Norman invasion of 1066.

THE NORMAN CONQUEST

The Normans, or "north men.” were descendants of Vikings

who had invaded the coast of France in the ninth century. Over the
years, these people had adopted many French ways. They had
become devout Christians. They had accustomed themselves to
speaking a dialect of the French language. They had also organized
themselves according to the French political and economic system
of the times—feudalism.

Wilham, Duke of Normandy, had family ties lo Edward the

Confessor, the English king. When Edward died in 1066, the Saxon
witan—the council of elders—chose Harold Il as king. William of
Normandy, meanwhile, claimed that Edward had promised him the
throne William thereupon led a few thousand Norman and French
troops across the English Channel to assert his claim by force.

He met King Harold at the Battle of Hastings near a seaside

village in southern England. Harold was killed, and William emerged
victorious. He then headed for London, brutally crushing all resist-
ance At Westminster Abbey on Christmas Day, William “the Con-
queror” took the throne of England as King William |

Over the next five years, William consolidated his victory, He

suppressed the Anglo-Saxon nobility and confiscated their lands.
He saw 10 it that Normans controlled government at all levels. The
Normans conducted their business in Norman French or Latin. They
gradually remade England along feudal lines

The Rise of Feudalism

Feudalism had taken root on the European continent at a ime

when no central government was strong enough to keep order.
THE MEDIEVAL
PERIOD

1066-1485

A Knyght ther was, and that a worthy man

That fro the tyme that he first bigan

To riden out, he loved chivalrie,

Trouthe and honour, fredom and curteisie

Geoffrey Chaucer
§ Ha orcuratances. nobles had to rely on their own warnors
p. The system they created was an exchange of property for
gh The person who granted the property was the lord
: 1. The person who received it was the vassal The vassal
aes ec Bi 1s. lords. a cormmony called the act of
At the same time, the vassal usually pledged his faithful-
8 by taking the Christian vow of fealty.
In theory, all the land belonged to the ruler. The king kept some
Rios his personal use, granted some to the church, and parceled
3 rest among his powerful supporters. He gave these support-
s noble litles—usually baron—and the special privileges that
with them. The parcels of land granted to the barons were
| oh as fiefs.
As a vassal of his overlord, each baron was obliged to pay
certain fees or taxes. He was also expected to supply a specified
‘number of knights, or professional soldiers, should the king require
the " in return for their services, knights usually received smaller
of land, called manors. The peasants who worked these
manors were the lowest class in the feudal system, the serfs
‘Manors became the basic community of the feudal system. Most
seh self-sufficient, using their own craftsmen to provide nearly all
In the eleventh century, Europe had no nation-states with firm
political boundaries. William and the Norman kings who followed
_him—William |, Henry |. and Stephen of Blois—held feudal do-
“mains in both England and France. Since they had two realms,
"Norman kings had far wider responsibilities than Saxon kings had
faced. The situation also meant that English barons dissatisfied with
their overlord could cross the English Channel and stir up trouble on

A Shifting Language

Like a great many of history's conquerors, the Normans thought

themselves vastly superior to the people they had conquered, The
invaders treated the Saxons and Danes as not quite human and
- sniffed at their language as unworthy of respect. The Normans
~ substituted their dialect of French in the law courts as well as in the
conduct of business in general To this day, French words such as
ball and sergeant remain embedded in the language of English law.
Traces of Norman discrimination against the Saxons have
lingered for centuries. In his nineteenth-century novel ivanhoe, Sir
Walter Scott noted one aspect of Norman superiority. In the field, he
‘wrote, a domestic animal is often referred to by its Saxon name
. —Swine, sheep, or ox. When the same animal appears on a dinner
table, however, it takes a French name—pork, mutton, or beef In
other words, the raising of farm animals was considered a Saxon
activity, whereas the more elegant pursuit, dining, befitted the
Normans.

gl
Reign ol the Plantagenets

Although Norman influence continued for centuries. Norman

rule ended in 1154 when Henry Plantagenet, Count of Anjou, came
to the throne as Henry Il. Henry founded the royal house of
Plantagenet. otherwise known as the Angevin (from Anjou) line of
English monarchs. A strongly committed ruler, Henry established a
record as one of England's ablest kings. He had an avid interest in
government and a keen understanding of the law.

Henry II and the Church

Henry's concern with legal matters led him into direct conflict
with the Church. By the twelfth century, the Church had grown ever

more powerful, obtaining the authority to put clergymen on trial in

Church-run courts. Henry sought to curb some abuses connected

with this privilege. When the archbishop's seat at Canterbury fell

vacant, he appointed his friend Thomas Becket to the position,
expecting Becket 10 go along with royal policy Instead Becket
defied the king and appealed to the Pope in Rome. The Pope sided
with Becket, provoking Henry to rage.

Some of Henry's knights misunderstood the royal wrath, In

1170, four of them went to Canterbury and murdered Becket in his
cathedral Henry quickly condemned the crime and tried to atone
for it by making a holy journey, or pilgrimage, to Becket's tomb.
Thereafter a pilgrimage to Becket's shrine at Canterbury became a
common English means of showing religious devotion, The charac-
ters in Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales, for example, make just such

a pilgrimage
Origins of Constitutional Government

The next king, Richard |, spent most of his reign staging military
expedibions overseas His activities proved costly, and his succes-
sor, King John, inherited the debts John tried to raise money by
ordenng new taxes on the barons and saved money by curtailing
services such as the sending of judges to local districts to settie
quarrels The barons resisted these measures, bringing England to
the edge of civil war, To avert further trouble, King John at [asl
agreed 10 certain of the barons’ conditions by putting his seal to the
Magna Carta (Latin for “Great Charter”)

In this document, the king promised not to tax land without first
meeting with the barons He also said he would choose as his
officers only those “who know the law of the realm and mean to
cbserve it well * The Magna Carta produced no radical changes in
government. Yet many historians believe thal the documents re-
strictions on royal power marked the beginning of constitutional
government in England

Constitutional government continued to develop under subse-

quent kings. During the reign of Henry lll, the Great Council of
barons who advised the king came to be called Parliament. Henry's
. Edward |, became the first king to summon a Parliament
y lected by “es men '——a term that included some ordinary
5 2 as well as barons. By the end of the thirteenth century,
} Paiarmont had already been established as a comerstone oi
ment in the Brntish Isles

Growth of Towns

It was no accident that some members of Parliament now

represented townspeople In the thirteenth century, towns were

" becoming increasingly important in English life ,The Crusades, a

series of religious wars in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, had

stimulated trade between Europe and the Middle East. As trade

axpanded, so did Europe's trading centers. The largest of these
centers | in England was London, originally built by the Romans. Four
times more populous than any other English community, London
had already achieved status as a city
in London and elsewhere, townspeople organized themselves
into guilds, or associations, of various sorts. The two most signifi-
cant types were merchant guilds and craft guilds. Merchant guilds
were formed in an effort to promote business within a town, often at
the expense of other towns nearby As these guilds became more
powerful, some of them virtually took over town governments. Craft
Quiids, like our modern labor unions, sought to protect the interests
of workers such as weavers. carpenters. and tanners. They also
ined to assure the quality of the work these craftspeople produced
Such organizations operated in a world in which advancement was
lightly controlled. A young person typically entered a craft as an
apprentice, or beginner, and worked his way up the ladder,
sometimes reaching the highest rung as master craftsman
The growth of towns meant that wealth was no longer restricted
10 land ownership, which remained a privilege of the nobility

Ls

re
wr

ac
r=

a
Unfortunately, it also meant that people lived much closer together,
often under conditions that were far from sanitary. When infectious
diseases came to England, they spread havoc in the towns. The
worst epidemic, a great plague called the Black Death, swept the
island in 1348 and 1349, killing a third of the population.

THE LATER MIDDLE AGES

By the time of the Black Death, England had already passed

into the period known as the Later Middle Ages. This penod lasted

from the beginning of the fourteenth century to the end of the

fifteenth. Dunng these years, the house of Lancaster replaced the
Plantagenets on the throne, only to be replaced in turn by the house
of York. The Lancastrian kings were Henry IV, Henry V, and Henry
Vi, all of whom later became central figures in the historical dramas
of Shakespeare

Dunng the Later Middle Ages, the feudal system went info a
steep decline As new towns appeared. feudal notions of land
tenure seemed more and more outdated. After the Black Death
swept across England, a massive labor shortage increased the
value of a peasant's work. More and more land owners began
paying their farmers in cash, giving these workers a greater sense of
freedom. Along with freedom went frustration, as peasants began
complaining about discriminatory laws and onerous taxation, Final-
ly, in 1381, peasants in southern England staged a revolt, demand-
ing. among other things, an end to serfdom. Although the revolt was
eventually crushed, many of its causes continued, and so did the
peasants discontent
| Attack on the Church
. about the time of the peasants’ revoll, other complaints were
pg directed at the church. They came from an outspoken
, John Wycliffe (c. 1320-84), who thought that religion had
d far from its roots. Wycliffe opposed all forms of wealth
ng the clergy. He showed only scorn for monks, calling them
“red and fat cheeks and great bellies." He believed that all
: - [gory sprang from the Bible, not from the Church
3 2 directed the translation of the Bible into English in the
of making more accessile 0 he people He also helped to
lr order of "poor priests’ known as Lollards. Eventually
bishop of Canterbury moved against the Lollards as here-
a who attack Church doctrine and undermine Church
Yet the Lollards continued to spread Wycliffe's teachings

a mbar of yeas ahr ne scholars dean

rs of the Roses

to ve English Middle Ages had opened with a struggle for

, they closed with a similar conflict. This one began in 1453,
en King Henry VI suffered the first of many bouts of madness
Ff arl ament appointed his cousin Richard of York as temporary head
of government When Henry recovered briefly, Richard was forced
rom office. and Henry returned to the throne. Richard would not
depart without a fight, however. The resulting civil war became
wn as the first War of the Roses, for it pitted the house of York,
whose symbol was a white rose, against the house of Lancaster,
se symbol was a red rose.
In 1461, a Yorkist victory put Richard's son, Edward, on the
‘throne. As Edward IV, he ruled England until his death in 1483, when
his eldest son, still a boy, became Edward V. Soon afterward
“Edward V and his brother died mysteriously in the Tower of London
while under the supposed protection of their uncle, Richard of
Gloucester. Richard, accused by many people of these “Tower
murders,” then proclaimed himself King Richard Ili
Two years later, Henry Tudor, a distant cousin and supporter of
~ the Lancastrian kings, led a rebellion against the unpopular King
Richard and killed him, Tudor, crowned Henry VII, later marmed
Richard's niece. By doing so, he united the houses of York and
Lancaster and ended the Wars of the Roses By the time Henry had
established a new royal line. the house of Tudor. the English Middle
Ages had ended

~~ CHIVALRY AND ROMANCE

| Most societies have lived by a well-established set of ideals,

and England of the Middle Ages was no exception One set of
‘Slandards by which people measured themselves during these
"years was the code of knightly behavior known as chivalry. The idea
of chivalry first arose on the European continent at the time of the

i! po

i
Sir Patrick Spens

This version of “Sir Patrick Spens’' is in modern English.

The king sits in Dumferling town,

Drinking the blood-red wine:

“0 where will | get a good sailor,

To sail this ship of mine?”

5 Up and spoke an ancient knight,

Sat at the king's right knee:
“Sir Patrick Spens is the best sailor,
That sails upon the sea."

The king has written a broad letter,

0 And signed it with his hand,

And sent it to Sir Patrick Spens,

Was walking on the sand.

The first line that Sir Patrick read,

A loud laugh laughed he;

5 The next line that Sir Patrick read,

The tear blinded his eye.

“O who is this has done this deed,

This ill deed done to me,
To send me out this time of the year,

0 To sail upon the sea!

“Make haste, make haste, my merry men all

Our good ship sails the morn:”

“0 say not so, my master dear,

For | fear a deadly storm.

5 “Late, late yesterday evening | saw the new moon,

With the old moon in her arm,

And | fear, | fear, my dear master,

That we will come to harm.”

O our Scots nobles were right loath

0 To wet their cork-heeled shoes,
But long before the play were played,
Their hats they swam above,
10

15

25

Sir Patrick Spens

This version of "Sir Patrick Spens’ Is in the original

Middle English.

The king sits in Dumferling' toune,

Drinking the blude-reid wine:
"O whar will | get guid sailor,
To sall this schip of mine?"

Up and spak an eldern knicht,

Sat at the kings richt kne:

“Sir Patrick Spens is the best sailor,

That sails upon the se.”

The king has written a braid letter,

And signd it wi his hand,

And sent it to Sir Patrick Spens,

Was walking on the sand.

The first line that Sir Patrick red,

A loud lauch lauched he;

The next line that Sir Patrick red,

The teir blinded his ee.

“OO wha is this has don this deid.

This ill deid don to me,

To send me out this time o’ the yeir,

To sail upon the se!

"Mak hast, mak hast, my mirry men all

Our guid schip sails the morne:™
“0 say na sae, my master deir,
For | feir a deadlie storme.

“Late, late yvestreen | saw the new moone,

Wi the auld moone in hir arme,

And | feir, | feir, my deir master,
That we will cum to harme.”

O our Scots nobles wer richt laith

To weet their cork-heild schoone,
Bol lang owre a the play wer playd,
Thair hats they swam aboone,

1. Dumferling: A town in Scotland nea:

Edinburgh
d=
) en

J. J I

MEDAIFVYAL BAI
ISTH CENTUR

"he Beef hmaeem A

May Day lestiviies. These folk celebrations honoring the coming of
spring took place each year on the first day of May.

DRAMA OF THE MIDDLE AGES

The theater of William Shakespeare had its rools in the dramas

of the Middle Ages. During early Norman times, the Church often
sponsored plays as part of religious services. In time, these plays
moved trom the church to the churchyard and then to the market-
place. The earliest dramas were miracle plays, in England some-
times also called mystery plays. They retold stories from the Bible or
dealt with some aspec! of the lives of saints.

Over the years the theater gained in popularity among English

townspeople Several communities became famous for performing
a particular series ol plays, or cycle, which presented a Biblical
history of humankind. York, the religious capital of northern England,
had one of the largest cycles Chester and Waketield also staged
multi-play productions. Clergymen usually wrote the plays, and
actors performed them on wagons or fixed scaffolds. Each of the
town's cralt guilds would take turns producing one play.

During the turbulent years of the fifteenth century, a new kind of

drama arose—the morality play. Morality plays depicted the life
of an ordinary person, sometimes from birth to death. Along the way
the hero meets characters who symbolize abstract qualities, such
as Vice or Virtue The purpose of these allegorical dramas was 10
teach a moral lesson

The most famous surviving morality play is Everyman, which

had its origin in the Netherlands and was not adapted for English
audiences until about 1500. By that time, Middle English was giving
way to modern English, the form of the language we speak today.
Even so, Everyman is usually studied as part of Middle English
iterature, for it is one of the most powerful examples of the kinds of
morality plays performed in the later Middle Ages.

Subsequent generations of writers owe a great debt to the

literature of the English Middle Ages. In Chaucer, the era produced
the first major writer in English to be known and respected for his
craft. With works such as Everyman, the period produced the
foundations of the great English dramatic tradition. In addition, the
romantic adventures of King Arthur and his knights became a
source to which future writers would turn again and again.
y 10 the tomb of Thomas Becket The pilgrims represent many
ks of life—a knight, a squire, a clerk, a friar, a nun, a miller, a
me and so on. In Chaucer's deft hands, each storyteller
en nerges as a vivid personality in his or her own right. Some of the
8s have religious themes; others are humorous or satiric. All in all,
RE peovicle 8 remarkable portrait of life in the later Middle Ages.

s and Ballads

pr "Europeans of ho Made Ages had a fonaness lo harplike

t called the lyre. In palaces and castles. poets often
-Strummed lyres as they recited their verse. From this custom English
lyr - poetry developed.

Lyric poems of this period fall into two main categories, secular
‘and religious. The usual topics of the secular poetry are love or
nature; many of them celebrate the renewal of spring or the joys of

i | ie a

Hamngni x
i
r

:
‘Sumer is icumen in,
Lhude® sing cuccu! “oudty
igious lyrics might consist of a hymn praising God or a prayer of
supplication. One of the most famous religious lyncs in Middle
lish celebrates the Virgin Mary:

That is makeles® ‘malchless

Kyng of alle kynges

To here son che ches. "she chose

/ includes the Latin line Timor mortis conturbat me ("The fear

: of death disturbs me") to teach the lesson that in the midst of life
there is death

in what state that ever | be,

Timor mortis conturbat me.

As | me walked in on® morning one

| hard a birde both wepe and synge.

This was the tenor of her talkynge:

- Timor mortis conturbat me.

3?

Another popular poetic form was the ballad. a folk song that told

a story. Experts find most surviving ballads impossible to date.

Those from the Scottish border probably arose long after the Middle
Ages, and those from before 1485 have most likely changed a good
deal over the centuries.
One surviving series of ballads concerns Robin Hood, a legen-
‘dary hero who may have existed around the turn of the thirteenth
century. Robin, an outlaw, lives in the woods with his band of
“merrye” men, robbing from the rich and helping the poor. He and
his lady friend, Maid Marian, eventually became part of traditional

|
:
[
1
Another important invention of the penod, printing from movable
type, also encouraged Iteracy In 1454 a German silversmith,
Johann Gutenberg. devised a printing process with individual metal
letters that could be used again and again. Printing spread rapidly
from Germany 10 other parts of Europe, and further improvements
were made In 1476 a London merchant, Wilham Caxton (c.
1422-91) set up the first movable-type press in England. This
mvention meant that English literature no longer needed to be hand
copied by church scribes. Now il could be produced far more
quickly and made available 10 a much wider circle of readers.

POETRY OF THE ENGLISH MIDDLE AGES

One of Caxton's first projects was the printing of The Canterbury

Tales. His enthusiasm for this verse showed the importance that he
and others placed on poetry in general Two key poets of the period,
Wiliam Langland and Geoffrey Chaucer, lived dunng the later
Middle Ages. Their writings reveal the changes that were taking
place in the English language and in society as a whole.

William Langland

Scholars know very little about the poet they usually call William

Langland. He appears to have come from western England and lo

have been a country boy. In his masterpiece, Piers Plowman, he

followed a tradition of the Middle Ages by writing in the form of an
allegory, a work in which most of the characters, settings, and
events are arranged in a symbolical pattern. He also took a typically
Anglo-Saxon delight in alliteration.

Like John Wycliffe, Langland was greatly concerned with the

ways the wealthy oppress the poor. He left little doubt that his
sympathies wen! out to those who had been treated harshly by the
world. His most vivid writing concemed events he may have
witnessed —tavern squabbles, for instance, or the misery of people
suffering from the plague. Some scholars judge Piers Plowman one
of the most deeply felt poems in all of English literature.

Geoffrey Chaucer

The towering figure of Middle English verse is Geoffrey Chau-

cer. In many estimates he ranks second only to Shakespeare as
England's greatest writer. Chaucer owed much of his early sophisti-
cation to hig training as an attendant to King Edward lll. The poet
also traveled widely and familiarized himsell with important italian
poets, including Dante and Petrarch

Chaucer's major works include a number of narrative poems,

such as the verse romance Troilus and Criseyde (1372-86) and
several shorter poems. Yet his finest achievement was The Canter-
bury Tales, a series of verse stories told by different pilgrims on their
Crusades. Although the Crusades often involved brutality and
bloodshed, they encouraged warnors lo search for higher rules ol
conduct

At first the code dealt mainly with loyalty and valor, both on and
off the battlefield. By the thirteenth century, however, chivalry had
grown considerably more complex. Every knight was supposed to
pledge his service 10 a lady. He might also be expected to joust for
his lady's favor or to rescue maidens in distress.

French poets known as troubadours popularized this tradition in

songs of gallant knights Originally these songs were written in
Romance, or Roman-influenced, languages rather than Latin, and
so they were called romances. At the French court, it became
important for knights to treat ladies with a respect that bordered on
reverence. Gradually the same ideal took root in the English court.

The Legend of King Arthur

One example illustrating the development of chivalry originated

with the Celts. For centunes after their defeat by the Anglo-Saxons,
the Celts had told stories of a great hero, King Arthur. Inasmuch as
historians cannot say for certain whether Arthur actually lived or not,
tales about vm are considered legends, a blend of fiction and fact.
When the Normans were battling the Anglo-Saxons, they became
interested in the old Celtic legends. In about 1136, a Welsh-born
scholar, Geoffrey of Monmouth (c. 1100-54), drew upon his knowl-
edge of Celtic legends and his readings of Bede 10 produce a
History of the Kings of Britain. This fanciful history, though written in
Latin, quickly popularized the early Celtic king.

Because of the Normans’ French ties, the tales of Arthur spread

not only in England but also in France. There they were influenced
by other romances, often involving the French hero Charlemagne

New versions of the Arthur legend, though usually set in the past,
‘began to depict Arthur as more modern in his practices. His Knights
of the Round Table became paragons of chivalry, as adept in courtly
love as they were in fighting battles. The legend also inspired Sir
‘Gawain and the Green Knight, a fourteenth-century narrative poem
‘by an anonymous author. In the poem an Arthurian knight, Sir
Gawain, displays all the virtues of chivalry in his battles with the
‘Green Knight, a supernatural figure.

Arthurian romance reached its height with La Morte d' Arthur

~ (The Death of Arthur), a fifteenth-century prose work by Sir Thomas
‘Malory (d. 1471). Translating from French sources, Malory created
the most complete Middle English compilation of the vanous

legends involving Arthur and his court. La Morte d' Arthur was
printed in twenty-one volumes.

~ LEARNING AND LITERATURE

Although the Normans and French eventually had great influ-

ence on English letters, that development did not begin in 1066. To
the contrary, the Norman invasion put a temporary halt to scholar-
ship and literature in the British Isles. After the turbulence of
conquest subsided, however, England experienced a "little renais-
sance,” a small rebirth of learning, in the twelfth century. Although
monasteries continued their scholastic traditions, new centers of
learning emerged. Scholars flocked to the religious community at
Oxdord to hear lectures by noted visitors, then colleges were built to
house the scholars, and the first English university was born, A
second university at Cambridge followed some years later.

Probably the most famous scholar that Oxford produced in the

Middle Ages was Roger Bacon (c. 1214-94), a scientist and
mathematician now considered the father of English philosophy. A
member of the Franciscan brotherhood, Bacon created his Opus
Majus (Major Work), a Latin study of science, grammar, mathemat-
ics, and philosophy, at the request of the Pope. Later, however, the
Church condemned Bacon as a heretic. The scholar died in
obscurity, probably at Oxford, but his ideas were taken up a century
later by another Franciscan, William Ockham (d. 1349). Like Bacon,
Ockham attempted to use a scientific approach in exploring the
universe, he, too, was accused of heresy.

While Latin remained the language of Church and university

scholarship, Norman French was frequently used in government
Both languages contributed to what came to be called Middle
English. Latin literature gradually gave way to literature written in the
vemacular, or the language of the people. The use of the vernacular
increased after 1372, when John Wycliffe began directing the
English translation of the Bible. Wycliffe's work proved a major

advance for literature, inasmuch as it encouraged more people 10

learn to read.
O lang, lang may their ladies sit,
Wi thair fans to their hand,

Or eir they se Sir Patrick Spens

Cum sailing to the land.

O lang, lang may the ladies stand,

Wi thair gold kems in their hair,
Waiting for thar ain deir lords,
For they'll se thame na mair.

Half owre, half owre to Aberdour,’

it's fiftie fadom deip,

And thair lies guid Sir Patrick Spens,

Wi the Scots lords at his felt.
i O long, long may their ladies sit,

| With their fans into their hand,

35 Or ever they see Sir Patrick Spens

Come sailing to the land.

O long, long may the ladies stand,

With their gold combs in their hair,

Waiting for their own dear lords,

40 For they'll see them no more.

Halfway over, halfway over to Aberdour,

It’s fifty fathoms deep

And there lies good Sir Patrick Spens,

With the Scots lords at his feet.
Get Up
and Bar the Door

It fell about the Martinmas' time,

And a gay time It was then,

When our goodwife got puddings to make,

She's bolld them in the pan.

5 The wind sae cauld blew south and north.

And blew into the floor;
Quoth our goodman to our goodwife,
“Gae out and bar the door.”

“My hand is in my hussyfskap.*

10 Goodman, as ye may see;

An it should nae be barrd this hundred year,

It's no be barrd for me."

They made a paction® tween them twa.

They made it firm and sure.
15 That the first word whaeer shoud speak,
Shoud rise and bar the door.

Then by there came two gentlemen,

Al twelve o'clock at night,
And they could neither see house nor hall,
20 Nor coal nor candlelight.

“Now whether Is this a rich man's house,

Or whether it is a poor?”

But neer a word wad ane o' them" speak,

For barring of the door.

25 And first they” ate the white puddings,

And then they ate the black:
Tho muckle’ thought the goodwife to hersel,
Yet neer a word she spake.

Then said the one unto the other,

30 "Here, man, take ye my knife;
Do ye tak aff the auld man’s beard,
And I'll kiss the goodwife."”

108 The Medieval Feriod

1. Martinmas time:

November 11]

2. hussyfakap: Household
duties

3. “tehould ... me": II

will not be barred In a
hundred years I it has to
be barred by me.’

4. paction: Agreement.

5. them: The man and

his wile

8. they: Thr strangers

7. muckle: Much

“But there's nae water in the house,

And what shall we do than?"

“What ails ye at the pudding broo,”

That boils into" the pan?"

O up then started our goodman,

An angry man was he:

“Will ye kiss my wife before my een,

And scad'’ me wi pudding bree?"

Then up and started our goodwife,

Gied three skips on the floor:

“Goodman, you've spoken the foremost word;

Get up and bar the door.”

8. “What . . . bree:

“What's the matter with

pudding water?
9. into: In

10. scad: Scald.

11. bree: Broth
| Barbara Allan

It was in and about the Martinmas time,’ 1. Martinmas time:

When the green leaves were a-fallin’; November 11

That Sir John Graeme in the West Country

Fell in love with Barbara Allan.

He sent his man down through the town

To the place where she was dwellin’:

"0 haste and come to my master dear,
Gin® ye be Barbara Allan.” 2. gin: li

O slowly, slowly rase® she up, 3. rase: Hose

| To the place where he was lyin’,
And when she drew the curtain by:

“Young man, | think you're dyin"."”

“0 it's I'm sick, and very, very sick,

And ‘tis a’ for Barbara Allan.”
"0 the better for me ye sal never be, 4. sal: Shall.
Though your heart's blood were a-spillin’.

“0 dinna ye mind,” young man," said she, 5. dinna ye mind: Don’

“When ye the cups were fillin’, JRL TETRERIDAT.
That ye made the healths gae round and round,
And slighted Barbara Allan?"

He turned his face unto the wall,

And death with him was dealin’:
“Adieu, adieu, my dear friends all,

And be kind of Barbara Allan.”

And slowly, slowly rase she up,

And slowly, slowly left him;

And sighing said she could not stay,

Since death of life had reft® him. 8. reft: Deprived

She had not gane a mile but twa,’ 7. not... twa: Gone but
i When she heard the dead-bell knellin’, (Wo miles
And every jow" that the dead-bell ga'ed” B. jow: Stroke
It cried, "Woe to Barbara Allan!" 9. ga'ed: Made

“0 mother, mother, make my bed,

O make it soft and narrow:
3 Since my love died for me today,
I'll die for him tomorrow."
Barbara Allan

It was in and about the Martinmas time,’

When the green leaves were a-fallin’;

‘That Sir John Graeme in the West Country

Fell in love with Barbara Allan.

He sent his man down through the town

To the place where she was dwellin’:

“0 haste and come to my master dear,

Gin’ ye be Barbara Allan.”

O slowly, slowly rase’ she up,

To the place where he was lyin’,
And when she drew the curtain by:

“Young man, | think you're dyin.”

“0 it’s I'm sick, and very, very sick.

And ‘tis a’ for Barbara Allan.”
“0 the better for me ye sal’ never be,
Though your heart's blood were a-spillin’.

“0 dinna ye mind,” young man,” said she,

“When ye the cups were fillin’,

That ye made the healths gae round and round,

And slighted Barbara Allan?"

He turned his face unto the wall,

And death with him was dealin’:

“Adieu, adieu, my dear friends all,

And be kind of Barbara Allan.”

And slowly, slowly rase she up,

And slowly, slowly left him:
And sighing said she could not stay,
Since death of life had reft® him.

She had not gane a mile but twa,’

When she heard the dead-bell knellin’,

And every jow" that the dead-bell ga'ed”

It cried, ""Woe to Barbara Allan!”

“O mother, mother, make my bed,

O make it soft and narrow:

Since my love died for me today,

I'll die for him tomorrow."

1. Martinmas time:
November 11

2. gin: lf
3. rase: Hose

4. sal: Shall.

5. dinna ye mind: Don't

you remember.

8. refi: Deprived

7. not... twa: Gone but

two miles

8. jow: Stroke
9. ga'ed: Made