3 Applications of Computers in Pharmacy

3.1 Introduction
Q. 1 Define the following terms:
a. Information technology b. Computer
c. Database d. Network and telecommunication
e.Hardware
Ans :
a. Information technology: Information technology is the study design development
implementation support or management of computer-based information systems particularly
software applications and computer hardware.
Information technology can also be defined as collection of computer hardware software
database, networking and telecommunication devices that help the organization to manage the
business process more effectively and efficiency.
It deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store protects,
process transmit and security retrieve information.
Information technology consists of various components like computers database, hardware,
software, network and telecommunication.
b. Computer: A computer is defined as device which accepts data as input stores and processes
the data, and interprets the results as output.
The activity of processing the data using computer is called as data processing. It consists of
three sub activities.
I) Capturing input data
II) Manipulating data
III) Managing output results
C. Database: A database is defined as organized collection of data so that a computer program
can easily and quickly access the required data. Database can be used to store and retrieve the
data, along with that it also supports addition deletion and updating of data.
It is collection of data, typically describing the activities of one or more related organizations
such that the data is available to all the users and the redundant data can be eliminated or
minimized.
A database can handle accounting information business inventory or can even prepare
summaries, estimates and reports for the same.
d. Network and telecommunication: A network is an interconnection of two or more
autonomous computers such that they can share resources and information.
Telecommunication is the assisted transmission of signals over distance for the purpose of
communication
The basic telecommunication system consists of three elements
I) Transmitter: used to take information and convert into signal
II) Transmission medium: used to carry the signal
III) Receiver: used to receive the signal and convert it back into usable information.
e. Hardware: the term hardware refers to physical components of computer. The hardware of
the computer is not changed frequently. In contrast with software and data.
In includes:
I) Input devices
II) Output devices
III) Memory devices: includes primary and secondary storage devices
IV) Central processing unit
V) Communication technologies telecommunication networking
f. Software: Software refers to the program that makes the computer to do something
meaningful. It is planned step by step instructions required to turn data info information.
The process for development of software is quite slow complex and costly.
Q.2 Enlist application of computers in pharmacy
Ans : Applications of computer in pharmacy
1. Prescription processing filling and refilling or e-prescribing
2. Accounts receivable and stock movement reports
3. Electronic order entry
4. Maintenance of patient profile and patient counseling
5. Maintenance of nursing home reports
6. Calculation of daily and monthly log
7. Management of reports
8. Patient communication
9. Scheduling
 10. Error prevention
11. Medical education
12. Use of computers in retail pharmacy shop : MEDLARS (Medical Literature Analysis and
Retrieval System) mostly use computerized biomedical bibliographic retrieval system.
Q.3 Write about application of computers in healthcare system Add a note on its advantages.
• Ans: Computers in pharmacy are used for the storage of information drug data records
and files drug management (Creating modifying adding and deleting data in patient files
to generate reports) business details etc.
• The field of pharmacy is benefied by use of computers in new drug discovery drug
design analysis manufacturing of durgs and in hospital pharmacy
• The drug discovery designing manufacturing and analysis have become virtually possible
only through the development of upcoming various hardware and software.
• Receiving the details storing and processing and dissemination the information is one of
the improvement role of computers and this continuous flow of information shows
effective functioning of any system.
Applications of computers in healthcare system :
Computers now-a-days are commonly used in healthcare fields like hospital and clinical
pharmacy, clinical and pathological laboratories etc, however the use of such is assisted with
the help of various software and applications.
Various software and database are used in pharmacy with the view to provide easy accessibility
of the data and retrieval of the same. The data can be stored processed modified manipulated
viewed and printed by the user whenever required.
1. Hospital management: The application of computer is hospitals are generally
established with a view to manage patient care and assist effective management of
resource planning and control.
The computers are used in hospital to maintain records relating to patient profile
patient medication patient history discharge billing etc.
2. Clinical pharmacy : Various databases are used in clinical pharmacy to determine the
availability of medicines management of stock and to understand the re-order level
For example: A patient arriving with prescription, which says to dispense amoxicillin to the
patient. The pharmacist will search for the above drug in the pharmacy database, which
provides the entire detail of the medicine
The details include brand name of drug, strengths of drug combinations used (if any) cost of
drug batch number manufacturing and expiry date etc,
3.Pathological laboratory: Computers have wide applications in pathological laboratories too.
The management of patient samples are now made easy with the aid of computers. Thus the
use of computers helps in making effective management of blood urine biopsy samples of
patients this helps in avoiding errors and cross sampling of the same.
4. Radiology Department : the use of computers in radiology department is useful for storing of
information manipulation and retrieval of the same.
The application is extended to preparation of the report in digital format.
5. Nursing department: The use of computers in nursing department by nurses has assisted in
maintaining and managing record in timely and orderly manner, thereby improving patient
care.
The nurses use computers to prepare nursing notes and to design care plan of patients.
They also find application in designing their staff schedules, clinical data integration, decision
support system etc.
6. Research and development departments: R & D department being the heart of healthcare
system is concerned with the development and discovery of new drug molecules.
a. For an effective discovery and drug development, the department must be supplied with
management information system and resources such that it meets various needs and
requirements of the same
b. Similarly, in order to carry out analytical study of the drug various chromatographic
techniques like HPLC, HPTLC, et are used such chromatographic techniques are aided with
chromatographic data systems various spectrophotometric techniques are used which include
UV, IR, NMR etc
c. Various formulations are tested and evaluated for their QC and IPQC tests like particle size
analysis dissolution test analysis etc. these studies are carried out with the help of computers.
Hence, computes have wide application in new drug development and discovery, formulation
and analysis of drug.
Advantages of computers in healthcare system:
 • Computers allow storage of information through various storage devices it also assists in
retrieve of the same
• It also allows sharing of information through various servers networks topologiesetc, at
relatively very high speed.
• Computers also provide various database facilities software application etc which assist
in record keeping and generating of the related information.

3.2Drug Information Storage and Retrieval

Q.4 Write a short note on information storage and retrieval Add various types of information
storage and information retrieval.
Ans : Information storage and retrieval
• The systems which are used to store information gathered from different sources in
such a way that it can be retrieved easily and effectively upon request are referred to as
information storage and retrieval systems.
• It is a systematic process of collecting and cataloging data so that they can be located
and displayed on request.
• Computers and data processing techniques have made possible to access large amount
of information for government commercial and academic purpose.
I) Information storage
Collecting information from different resources and storing it in either storage room
(Maintaining paper records) or the storage devices such as hard disk, DVD, CD is called as
information storage. This information may be in any of the form that is audio video or text.
Types of information storage media: Various types of devices or storage media are used for
storing information.
The most commonly used storage mediums are:
i) Hard Drive
ii) Floppy Disk
iii) CD & DVD
iv) USB Flash Drive
a) Hard drive: it is an electromechanical data storage devices that uses magnetic storage to
store and retrieve digital information using one or more rigid rapidly rotating disks (Platters)
Coated with magnetic material.
b) Floppy Disk : A floppy disk also known as a floppy diskette or simply disk is a type of disk
storage composed of a disk of thin and flexible magnetic storage medium sealed in a
rectangular plastic enclosure lined with fabric that removes dust particles floppy disks are read
and written by a floppy disk drive (FDD)
c) CD &DVD: Compact Disc (CD) is a digital optical disc data storage format. The format was
originally developed to store and paly only sound recordings (CD-DA) but was later adapted for
storage of data (CD-ROM)
DVD is a digital optical disc storage format. The medium can store any kind of digital data and is
widely used for software and other computer.
d) USB Flash Drive: It is a plug and play portable storage device that uses flash memory and is
lightweight enough to attach to a keychain.
A USB flash drive can be used in place of a compact disc. When a user plugs the flash memory
device into the USB port, the computer’s operating system (OS) recognizes the device as a
removable drive and assigns it a drive letter.
II) Information Retrieval System :
• Information retrieval (IR) System mainly focuses on electronic searching and retrieving
of old documents.
• The process of searching fetching and serving of information to the required users is
information retrieval
• Information retrieval is an activity of obtaining relevant documents based on user needs
from collection of retrieved documents.
• Many universities corporate and public libraries use IR systems to provide access to
books journals and other documents dictionary and encyclopedia database are now
widely available for PC’s
• IR has been found useful in office automation and software engineering
• An information retrieval system is capable of performing operations like adding
documents to the database modifying or deleting them from the database searching
and serving appropriate document to the users
• Information retrieval (IR) is devoted to find relevant documents and not simple matches
to patterns
 • Automated information Retrieval IR systems are developed t manage huge scientific
literature that has developed since the 1940s
• Commercial IR systems offer database containing millions of documents in many subject
areas.
Types of information retrieval
1. CD ROM Information Retrieval: the information is retrieved from the CD rom which is
stored previously. The data is available in the form of read only
2. Online information Retrieval: the information is retrieved by searching and analyzing data
through various systems which are connected to each other.
3. Online public Assess Catalogs: it is the data meant be to used by wide range of people or
users. As the name suggests, it is open to all users and available at free of cost.
4. Web information Retrieval: as the name suggests the information can be accessed by any
user throughout the world. The only condition is that the information Retrieval system should
be facilitated with internet.
Example: Google Search
Q.5 what do you understand by the term drug information storage and retrieval? Enlist
various software’s used in drug information storage and retrieval
Ans : Drug information storage and retrieval system is a computerized system and refers to
storage retrieval of information related to any drug and its uses.
The systems provide knowledge related to drugs which include the dose usage pattern of drug
mode of action drug effects adverse drug reactions indications contraindications etc
Drug information storage and retrieval system is easy to access and understand. Such systems
are helpful in management of patient care
Software’s used in drug information storage and retrieval:
A. MEDLARS (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval system) : the software is created by
National Library of Medicine in 1964 and include information relating to about 2,00,000 articles
books journals thesis etc
B. MEDLINE (MEDLARS ON-LINE): it is developed by National Library of Medicine in 1971.
C. DIALOG: It is international data bank used for retrieval of medical information
D. BITNET: It is an international network of universities and research institutions
BIOSIS (Bioscience information service) it consists of biological abstracts
F. Excerpta Medica
G. MALIMET
H. EMCLAS

3.3 Pharmacokinetics
Q.6 What do you understand by pharmacokinetic? Add a note on various soft ware’s used in
pharmacokinetics
Ans : Pharmacokinetics : Pharmacokinetics is the quantitative study of drug movement in,
through and out of the body, Pharmacokinetics is the study of what happens to drug in the
body.
To produce its characteristic effects, a drug must be present in appropriate concentrating at its
site of action.
Pharmacokinetics is concerned with absorption destruction metabolism and excretion drug
thus it is important to know the concepts of absorption disruption metabolism and excretion of
a drug.
1. Absorption (Oral or parenteral): Absorption can be defined as movement of drug from its
site of administration into systemic circulation.
A drug must be well-absorbed to achieve adequate concentration at its site of action, in order
to produce its biological efforts.
Absorption determines the time for its maximal concentration in plasma and at the receptor to
produce its peak effect.
2. Distribution: Distribution is defined as movement of drug to other issues that initially had no
drug via systemic circulation.
The blood total body water extracellular lymphatic and cerebrospinal fluids are involved in
drug movement throughout the body.
3. Biotransformation: Biotransformation can be defined as chemical alteration of the drug in
the body. The drug undergoes biotransformation via hydrolysis, conjugation oxidation
reduction reactions etc
This explains how certain drugs are handled by the body in preparation for their elevation and
includes the fare of drugs.
4. Excretion: Excretion is defined as passing out of systemically absorbed drug.
The kidney is the most important organ for drug excretion but the liver, ling and skin are also
involved in drug elevation. The physical and chemical properties especially the degree of
ionization of the drug is important in the rate of excretion.
Various software’s used in pharmacokinetics:
a. NONLIN : It is used to predict pharmacokinetic parameters like volume of distribution
bioavailability rate of clearance etc.
It is also to maintain record of dosage schedule of drugs
b. MEDIPHOR (Monitoring and Evaluation of Drug Interactions by a Pharmacy-Oriented
Reporting) : it is used to provide non pharmacokinetic information in relation to various
Drug interactions allergic reactions adverse drug reactions etc.
c. KINPAK :It is used to obtain (AUC) Area Under Curve, peak plasma time and peak plasma
concentration.
d. ESTRIP and STRIPACT : It is for mathematical analysis of poly exponential curve by
exponential stripping
e. SAS, SAAM BMDP is used for regression analysis
3.4 Mathematical Models for Drug Design
Q.7 Write a note on mathematical model for drug design. Add a note on limitations of QSAR
model and methods to overcome them.
Ans : Also called as model based drug development
• It is one of the research technique used to analyze the pharmacological data and its
response. It is used to study the effectiveness and safety of a particular drug
quantitatively with the help of such techniques the safety of the drug can be monitored
or estimated during drug development.
• It can also be used during the experiential process which saves lot of time and cost of
the experiment
• The model study includes design or development of drug by means of using computer
software thereby making the research process less time consuming and economic. This
can be achieved by means of using Quantitative structural Activity Relationship for
drug designing.
• QSAR transforms the chemical nature of the compound into a set of numerical
descriptors. These descriptors are quantitatively related to biological activity. The
 Physicochemical properties of the drug are taken into consideration and are used to
perform regression analysis and other statistical methods.
• One of the most widely used QSAR technique is linear free energy or extra
thermodynamic method of Hansch. In this method the study in carried out to determine
the non covalent interaction of a drug and receptors and how they are affected by the
additive or combined effect of various substituents in electrostatic stearic hydrophobic
and dispersion data.
The relationship is established by Hansch equation.

Log 1/C=
Where log 1/C = Relative potency of the analogue.
C = Concentration required to produce same standard biological response
in the procedure
= Hansch value for lipophilicity indicating the effect of substituent on
logarithm of octanol- water partition coefficient
= Hammet value indicating lipophilicity

Es = Taft value indicating steric parameter

Mr= Molar refractivity indicating dispersion interaction

Computers have wide application to calculate the regression coefficient ( ). The values
of can be determined by using QSAR database.

Limitations and recent advances to overcome them:

1. The regression analysis in QSAR is limited for optimization of known family of compounds
only. This is not suitable for analysis of compounds which are apart or from other family of
compounds.
This is overcome by computerized molecule modeling technique this method involves use of
theoretical calculations for analyzing the possible conformations of molecule on the basis of
molecular orbital calculations and molecular mechanics simulations
Examples of such molecular modeling software include, PICLO MM2 CAMSEQ etc
2. QSAR is not suitable for the study of unknown molecules
This can be overcome by use of molecular modeling software or systems which are based on
molecular graphics this helps to manipulate and visualize the isolated or interacting 3D dynamic
structure it also helps in calculations of molecular structural examples include AMBER SCRIPT
MMMS etc.

3.5 Hospital and Clinical Pharmacy

Q.8 Write short note on : Role of computers in Hospital and Clinical Pharmacy.
Ans : Hospital Pharmacy : Every hospital has a pharmacy section for dispensing drugs and
medicines. The medicines are dispensed for inpatients and outpatients.
However, some medicines are compounded or mixed before use, these include parenteral
products. For such purpose hospitals have manufacturing unit.
The pharmacy section of hospital or hospital pharmacist uses computer to carry out variety of
functions. The role of computers in hospital pharmacy is explained below.
a) Dispensing of medicines: When the patient arrives with a prescription the hospital
pharmacist check for the medicines. The computer database provides detail information related
to medicine and also suggest for the suitable alternatives. The database provides information
with respect to its drug content and combinations (if any) concentration for the same
manufacturing and expiry date batch number maximum retail price etc
b. Inventory management: The hospital pharmacist makes use of computers for purchase and
inventory control. The inventory control system of drug is used to avoid shortage of drugs.
Inventory management id achieved by:
• Detecting the items with last order level
• Preparing the list of items with respect to their quantity for purchase.
• It also gives an idea about the inventory control statistics
c. Billing: Computers are used for billing of patient prescriptions
The bill for the patient is calculated by using computers the major advantage of computerized
billing is that it is free from manual errors and maintain a record and history for the same.
Clinical
Clinical pharmacy: Clinical pharmacy is concerned with the patient care, thereby ensuring safe
and appropriate use of drugs. It is concerned with rational selection and use of drugs.
They also play an important role in correction of prescription.
In clinical pharmacy the pharmacist instructs the patient about how to use the drug it also
inform the patient about the indication and contraindication of drugs the possible adverse drug
reaction in cases of improper doses they are corrected in case of unavailability of drug suitable
alternatives are suggested and dispensed.
Computerized does programs are practiced to manage the doses of adults with renal
impairment pediatric and geriatric patients.
Q.9 What do you understand by hospital management system? Add a note on Hospital
information system (HIS)
Or explain the role of computers in Hospital management
Ans : Hospital management system:
Hospital management system includes management of various department like OPD IPD
patient accommodation information medical store information staff and personnel information
accounting and finance information of pharmacy and other departments like nursing radiology,
pathology etc all such departments of hospital are linked and connected with the help of
Hospital Information System (HIS)
Hospital Information System is a computer system that is designed to manage all the hospital’s
medical and administrative information in order enable health professionals to perform their
job effectively and efficiently
Hospital information systems focus on the integration of all clinical financial and administrative
applications and hence also known as Integrated Hospital Information processing system
(IHIPS)
Functions of HIS
Computers play an important role in managing various functions of hospital. The functions of
hospital are carried out with the help of hospital information system.
Management of patient information: Various information systems are used for management
of patent information. The management of patient information includes record keeping of IPD
OPD patient accommodation information consulting doctor etc. the information should be
updated from time to time
• The information for registration of patient appointment consulting doctor diagnosis
history etc in case of OPD should be maintained.
• In case of IPD the patients are admitted to hospitals hence the HIS should maintain a
record for date of patient admitted accommodation details consulting doctor the actual
 status of patient discharge of patient medication history of patient pathological or
radiological tests to be carried out if any, etc
• The HIS should generate a computerized report for inpatient and outpatients
b. Management of pharmacy and other healthcare departments:
• The management of pharmacy drug store is another important function of HIS. For a
hospital pharmacy, the hospital information system of pharmacy should maintain an
appropriate record about the expiry stock and re-order level of drugs.
• The management of information for other healthcare department is also an important
component of HIS. This includes maintain record for pathological and other diagnostic
tests. It also includes radiological examination of patients and generation or reports in
digital format the pathological tests are carried out daily to monitor the current status
of the patient
Hence, the reports for such tests should e maintained and updated daily.
C. Clinical Information System is computer based system designed for collecting, storing,
manipulating and making available clinical information to the health care delivery process.
CIS provide a clinical data repository that stores patients’ clinical data. The data includes
storage of information relating to the patients illness, medication pathological and test reports
etc.
d. Accounting and financial information system: For smooth and efficient functioning of
hospital, it is necessary to manage the financial information system of hospital.
The financial information system of a hospital includes maintaining of patient accounting and
billing information, accounts payable, accounts receivable, management of fixed assets,
contracts and claims
e. Staff and personal information: This is one of the important functions of HIS and it is used
for maintaining records for working employees, staff and personal.
This includes maintaining employee’s information and their pay role
The employees of hospital includes accountants, HR manager, manager, pharmacists physicians
Surgeon, Nurses, ward boys, receptionists, data operators and other non-technical staff.

3.6 Electronic Prescribing and Discharge System

Q.10 What do you understand by electronic prescribing system? Explain the role of
computers in EPS. Also add a note on its advantages.
Ans : Also called as e-prescribing
• Electronic prescribing system is a technology used by physicians or doctors to write and
send electronic prescriptions instead of conventional or handwritten prescriptions to a
pharmacy department or drug store.
The Electronic prescribing software works in following way:
• It works by printing of prescription on a paper by electronic means, in a prescribes office
followed by
• Transmission of the same by electronic means from prescriber’s computer to the
pharmacy department.
Why computers?
• The use of computers in electronic prescribing system helps to prescribe supply and
administer the medicines within a hospital
• The prescription is written and transferred or shared via computers with use of internet,
e-mail network servers etc., this helps to reduce the time and errors in prescription.
• Computers are used to store the prescription history of a patient.
The previous prescription history of the patient is stored and can be retrieved whenever
required.
• It helps to maintain the history of patient profile. This patient profile history can be used
by doctors or physicians before prescribing of drugs
E.g. the doctors can prescribe some other derivatives of antibiotics if the patient profile
history says that the patient is allergic to penicillin.
Advantages of EPS
• It helps in providing fully electronic prescribing history.
• It helps to improve the completeness of prescription
• Helps to improve the efficiency of the hospital and pharmacy process
• It also helps in effective management of the hospital and pharmacy
Q.11 What do you understand by electronic discharge system? Also add a note on its
advantages
Ans : Electronic discharge systems include all those aspects which help to reduce errors and
their sources, occurred during faxing discharge papers.
• The EPS helps to correct the limitations of paper based discharge systems. The paper
based discharged systems has various limitations that thy are unreadable, incomplete
and may be received late which leas to late implementation of information.
• The system helps to maintain continuous care, communication and data accuracy in
discharge summaries.
• The system tracks the patient til the time they are in the hospital.
The system also helps to discharge the patient along with proper discharge papers and
medications.
Advantages of DPS :
• Helps in maintaining electronic patient record and medication history.
• It gives an exact status of the patients till the time they are in the hospital.
• It helps in maintaining the accuracy of data.
• It improves the efficiency of hospitals.

3.7 Barcode Machine Identification and Automated Dispensing of Drugs

Q.12What is barcodes and what do you understand by barcode identification? Explain its
application in pharmacy.
Ans : Barcodes are widely series of characters which may be identified in the form of numbers,
letters symbols or special characters.
• These characters are used in represent the data in the electronic system
• Barcode identification is widely used technique which involves interpretation of
information from the two dimensional vertical lines. These vertical lines which are of
black and white color are placed alternatively one after the other.
• The figure is scanned with the help of device called as barcode scanner, and the data is
decoded in well-defined form which is easily understood by the user.
• The barcode identification technique is widely practiced in non-pharmaceutical areas,
malls shops etc
• Barcode identification techniques have pharmaceutical applications too. They are widely
used in hospital as well as clinical pharmacy by healthcare professionals to track the
stock of medicines and management of inventory.
 • The technique is used in hospitals to maintain the safety of patients by identification of
medicines and by tracking of patient medication history.
• The method is used to track the in-patients. The admitted patients in the hospital are
provided with barcode bands which are worn in the form of bracelet. This is used
generally to understand the medication history of the patient.
Applications of barcode identification in pharmacy:
1. Identification of medicine: The technique is used to identify wide range of medicines. This is
done by providing unique barcode to every medicine. The medicine is identified by scanning of
barcodes via barcode scanner and the required information is displayed on the computer. This
information gives each and every required aspect about the product.
2. Patient Identification: Every patient of the hospital is provided by wrist bands containing the
barcode. The scanning of this barcode gives detail information of the patient. The current status
of the patient and patient’s medication history is updated from time to time.
3. Maintenance of Patient safety: The respective barcodes of the patient’s wrist band are
scanned by the professionals. This helps in recording of the information in patient’s medical
record. This helps to reduce the chances of adverse drug reactions in patients.
4. Management of Inventory: Not only in pharmacy drug store, but also in malls barcodes are
used to determine the stock of various products. They also have significance in tracking of
products and ordering process. The scanning of barcode gives an idea about when to order the
product.
Other application of barcodes includes:
i) In Blood Banks: The blood serum plasma and the other components of blood are stored in
blood banks. However it is difficult to maintain records for the blood source, donor and
acceptors information blood groups data of blood collected type of blood etc hence the blood
products are provided and stored with a suitable barcode number so that the resultant
information can be identified in order to avoid blood transfusion errors.
ii) Pathology Laboratories: The method is practically applied in pathology labs too. The
information for the samples are stored and provided with the help of barcode labels. The
barcode labels are available in various sizes and shapes and remain unchanged even on getting
wet, chemical attack and other environment factors.
Advantages of barcode identifications:
The barcode identification is widely used technique and has following advantages.
 • Simple and easy to use: Simple scanning of barcode sticker gives detail information
about a particular product.
• Specific and accurate: all barcodes have unique identity and hence are highly specific
towards a particular product.
Q.13 What do you understand by automated dispensing of drugs? add a note on its types and
advantages.
Ans: The method is also called as Automated Dispensing Cabinets (ADC) or Automated
Dispensing Systems (ADS).
• Automated dispensing of drugs is carried out by automated dispensing machine which
are computerized drug storage and dispensing devices. The method is assisted with
storage capacity and stock control.
• The method is widely practiced and has greater application in reduction of errors.
Types of ADS:
i) Pharmacy based:
• The pharmacy based ADS is used in pharmacy drug store. The mechanism of dispensing
of medicine is carried out by the robotic arm or picking device.
• Once the dispensing order is placed, the picking device selects the medicine from the
designed shelves and the same is dispensed yo the user.
• The process further is checked b the responsible person or staff and appropriately
labeled.
ii) Ward based:
• The ward based ADS are used in hospitals.
• The method involves accessing of medication by nurses by entering appropriate patient
details, user name and passwords. The medication can also be accessed by using room
Number or code which is given to the patient at the time of admission.
• The details are verified.
• After successful verification, the drawer containing selected medication opens, and the
medication is collected by the nurse.
• The method is widely used to track the person who has accessed the cabinet and for
whom the medication was selected.
iii) Automated unit dose:
The medications are stored in calibrated canisters.
After placement of dispensing order, the ADS eject the medication from the canister. The
method is followed by packaging and labeling the medication.
Advantages of ADS: ADS have following advantages:
• Increased safety and improved efficacy due to reduced dispensing errors.
• Improved stock control and storage capacity.
• Appropriate allocation of personnel to task.

3.8 Mobile Technology and Adherence monitoring

Q.14 Give short note on mobile technology and adherence monitoring. Add a note on its
advantages.
Ans: Mobile technology is a technique used by health care professionals to improvepatient
health by maintainingmedication adherence. Improved
• The use of mobiletechnology has helped doctors to improve medication adherence in
patients.
• This medication adherence in patients is achieved by providingtimelynotification or
reminders regarding medication information, generating reports on mobile,
onlinerefilling of prescriptions, providing additional information with respect to
particular disease, therebyclearing the doubts of the same, etc.
• The pharmacies are also benefited by mobile technology andadherence monitoring. This
has helped pharmacist to manage stock keeping and inventory. Since mobile technology
involves direct communication of the patients with the pharmacist, It has helped to
establish stronger and better relationship between them.
• Pharmacists are now able to reduce medication errors by providing proper dose to the
patients with the help of dosage calculator.
• With the help of mobile technology, the pharmacy department has achieved
effectiveness, accuracy and improved financial performance.
Advantages:
Mobile technology and adherence monitoring has benefitted patient as swell as pharmacies as
follows:
• It has improved accuracy, efficiency and financial performance of the pharmacies.
 • It has helped patient to complete the medication by providing periodic medication
reminders by the pharmacists with the help of mobile application.
• It helps in generation of reports with the help of mobile application and sharing of the
same.
• It also helps the patient to refill the prescription by sending automatic messages to the
pharmacist.
• It acts as an informationguide to the patient and provides information regarding
particular disease or drug. It also helppatients to clear their doubts.
• It assist pharmacist by managing drug ordering. The automatic drug orderingby use of
mobile technology saves time and reduces inventory errors.
• With the help of mobile technology it helps to establish direct communication between
pharmacists and patients. This has improved the patient-pharmacist relation.
• The use of dosage calculator in mobile computing has reduced medication errors.

3.9 Diagnostic System

Q.15 What do you understand by diagnostic systems? Add a note on applications of CAD.
Ans:
• The term “diagnosis” is associated with the process of determining the disease with
special reference to its signs and symptoms. The required information id collected from
the patient as signs and symptoms and may be assumed from previous medication
history of the patient.Various diagnostic procedures are carried out for such purpose.
• But in last few decades, computer based systems are designed with a view to support
clinical support decision making. Initially Ledley and Lusted defined the symbolic, logic
and theory of probability based diagnosis. But the computer based systems or
Computer Aided Diagnosis, was criticized and challenged by the complex reasoning of
the patients.
• However with the help of recent development in technologies, the system is modified
and various changes are made with the view to solve the serve complexity of the
system.
• During the 1980s, computer aided diagnosis was used extensively with a view to
diagnose the patient. In 1990s the development of information science and technology
has led CAD to provide commercial applications.
 • CAD being a computerized technique has various limitations. Therefore, it is considered
as second opinion only.
Application of Computer Aided Diagnosis:
Computer Aided Diagnosis or CAD is widely used technique by radiologist for perfect
interpretation of images. CAD cannot substitute radiologists and hence final diagnosis should
be done by radiologists. CAD has wide applications in abdominal, CVS, CNS, breast, musculo-
skeletal and chest imaging.
1. CAD plays an important role in assessment and dedication of pulmonary nodule.
2. Used for the detection of breast and colorectal cancer.
3. CAD is widely used technique in determination of musculo-skeletal disorders; to study
the development of arthritis, determination of fractures and scanning of bone images.
4. Used for interpretation of SPECT studies of myocardial perfusion, recognition and
evolution of cardiac CT plaques and detection of coronary artery stenosis.
5. CAD is widely practiced technique to detect various diseases in children like pneumonia,
leukaemia, etc.
6. It is a powerful technique in determination of Alzheimer’s disease. Used for detection
brain tumour with the help of MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) and acute intracranial
haemorrhages with the help of CT (Computed Tomography) scan.
3.10 Lab Diagnosis System
Q. 16 write a short note on Lab Diagnosis System.
Ans : Lab Diagnosis system is a system that records, manages and stores data related to clinical
lab test results for various patients.
• It is a laboratory where clinical pathology tests are carried out on clinical specimens to
obtain information about the health of a patient which aid in diagnosis, treatment, and
prevention of disease.
• A wide range of lab tests are available to diagnose a single problem and such tests are
conducted under specified conditions in which clinical values are comparedto standard
values and results are provided.
• The reported diagnosis systems used to diagnose diseases included symptom screening,
physical examination, X-ray, histology, histopathology, cytology, smear microscopy, skin
test and culture.
 • Lab diagnosis system help clinical pathologists and lab technicians to add value to the
care taking and hence, they ensure establishment of accurate and most appropriate
diagnosis as per condition of the patient.
• Lab diagnosis system is very important because it help in early detection of a medical
condition which if not diagnosed and treated properly can become a life- threatening
disease.
• People are advised to keep a track of their lab diagnostics after 35-40 years of age. This
assures them of keeping healthy eating habits and good health.
• Laboratories and laboratory networks tests are fundamental components of disease
control program; providing testing for diagnosis, surveillance and treatment monitoring
at every level of health care system. Such a diagnosis is used to assess clinical diagnosis
related to condition of the patient.
3.11 Patient Monitoring System
Q.17 Write a brief about patient monitoring system. Add a note on application of computers
in patient monitoring system.
Ans: patient monitoring
Patient monitoring system is a technique used for monitoring patients. It is widely used
technique in health care system for monitoring patients. Patient monitoring system is used to
track the viral signs, physical status, etc. of the patients.

Application of computers in patient monitoring

Computers and laptops are now widely used for patient monitoring. They also provide benefit
of maintaining records and charts.
The computerized patient monitoring system is developed with an aim to achieve following
objectives:
1. To increase the availability and accuracy of data.
2. To compute derived variable that could not be measured directly.
3. To improve patient – care and efficacy.
4. To allow display of the time trend of patient data.
5. To assist in computer – aided decision-making.
a. Information managementin intensive care unit
• Computerized patient monitoring play an important role in management of ICU
patients. They are used to monitor the intravenous feeding and drug flow, make fine
adjustments in electronic devices connected topatients and display variations in
patients.
• One of the goals of bedside patient monitoring is to detect life-threateningevents
promptlyso that they can be treated before they cause irreversible organ damage or
death. Care of the critically ill patient requires considerable skill and necessitates for
taking prompt and accurate treatment decisions.
• Healthcare professionals can now collect numerous data through frequent observations
and testing, and the same are recorder by continuous monitoring equipment.
Patient monitoring in intensive-care units: There are at least five categories of patients who
need physiological monitoring:
1. Patients with unstable physiological regulatory systems; for example, a patient whose
respiratory system is suppressed by a drug overdose anesthesia.
2. Patients with suspected life-threatening conditions; for example, a patient who has
findings an acute myocardial infarction (heart attack).

3. Patients at high risk of developing life-threatening conditions; forexample, patients

immediately after open-heart surgery or a premature infant whose heart and lungs are
not fully developed.
4. Patients in a critical physiological state; for example, patients with multiple trauma or
septic shock.
5. Mother and baby during the labor and delivery process.

Bed-side monitoring:
• One of the objectives of bedside patient monitoring is to detect life – threatening events
promptly so that they can be treated before they cause irreversible organ damage or
death.
 • Care of the critically ill patient requires considerable skill and necessitates to take
prompt and accurate treatment decisions.
• Health care professionals collect numerous data through frequent observations and
testing, and more data is recorded by continues monitoring equipment.
• All virtually bedside monitors or ventilators marketed today use at least one micro
computer.
• The use of micro computers in bedside monitors has modernized the acquisition, display
and processing of physiological data.
Advantages of built-in microcomputers in bedside monitoring:
• Bedside monitors containing multiple micro computers, have more computing power ad
memory then that of available systems used by the computer monitoring pioneers.
• Bedside monitors with built-in microcomputers have benefits over their analogue
predecessors.
• Physiological signal such as the ECG are derived from sensors that convert biological
signals (such as pressure, flow, or mechanical movement) into electrical signals. In
modern computerized monitors, these signals are digitized as close to the patient as
possible.
Use of computers in bedside monitoring:
i) Arrhythmia monitoring:
• Electrocardiographic arrhythmia analysis is one of the most sophisticated and difficult of
the bedside monitoring tasks.
• Although general-purpose computer-based physiological monitoring systems are now
being more widely adopted, computer-based ECG arrhythmia-monitoring systems were
accepted quickly.
• Modern microcomputer-based bedside monitors use multiple ECG channels and pattern
recognition schemes to identify abnormal waveform patterns and then to classify ECG
arrhythmias. Signal quality from multiple ECG leads can now be monitored and
interference noise can be minimized.
• For example, the computer can watch for degradation of ECG skin-electrode contract
resistance. If the contact is poor, the monitor can alert the nurse to change the specified
problematic electrode.
II) laboratory testing: Over the past decade, laboratory chemical, hematological, and blood gas
testing processes have progressed from "wet" methods ( in which specific liquid reagents were
mixed with blood or serum to perform analysis) to a more or less "dry" phase (in which analysis
is performed by bringing a blood sample in contact with a reagent pack).
c) Calculation of derived variables
1. Increased sophistication of hemodynamic, renal and pulmonary monitoring has resulted in
the need to calculate derived parameters.
2. At first, pocket calculators were used. Then programmable calculators took over this task,
making the computation simpler, faster, and more accurate. Some of these systems also
provided graphical plots and interpretations.
d) Decision-making assistance
The ability to make sound clinical judgments is also important.
Medical decision-making traditionally has been considered an intuitive as well as a scientific
process.
The goals of automation:
1) To facilities the acquisition of clinical data,
2) To improve the content and legibility of medical documentation.
3) To increase the efficiency of the charting process so that nurses could devote more time to
direct patient care.

3.12 Pharma Information Systems

Q.18 What do you understand by pharma information systems? Add a note on application
and various software’s used in PIS.
Ans: Pharma information system is a planned system of collecting, processing, storing and
dissemination the date in the form of information, in order to carry out smooth and effective
functioning of the pharmacy health care sector.
1) Pharma Information System (PIS) refers to practice of integrating computer systems,
hardware and software to meet the strategic goals of pharmacy health care sector.
2) PIS are complex computer systems that are designed to meet the needs of pharmacy
department. The system helps the pharmacists to supervise and have inputs on how
medication is used in hospital. It is also used to plan and control several operations in pharmacy
sector.
This PIS is divided into three parts:
a) Pharma: it includes all those aspects related to pharmacy. However the functions of such are
extended to:
I) Hospital management
ii) Clinical pharmacy
iii) Nursing department
iv) Radiology department
v) Pathology department
vi) Research and development
b) Information: Information consists of data that can be used for storage, processing,
retrieving, manipulation and use of such data for informative process.
c) System: S system is a set of element joined together for a common purpose. A large system is
divided into sub-system, which makes use of computer hardware and software, manual
procedures, models for analysis, planning control and decision making.
Application of pharma information systems:
a) Patient drug profile: PIS is used to monitor the patient drug profile. It is used to maintain the
details of previous and current medication history of the patients, known drug allergies, and
physiological parameters. Thus the information plays an important role in clinical screening the
prescription ordered for the patient.
b) Generation of reports: Most of the PIS can generate reports, which indicates medication
usage patterns in the hospitals to the cost of drugs purchased and/or dispensed.
c) Management of inventory: PIS helps in management of inventory by maintaining internal
inventory of all pharmaceutical products, proving alerts or reminders when the stock is
insufficient.
It also in providing an electronic ordering system that recommends the ordering of the affected
item with respect to its appropriate quantity from approved suppliers.
d) Management of prescription: PIS helps in management of prescription for inpatients and
outpatients.
e) Clinical screening: The PIS assist in patient care by monitoring drug interactions, drug
allergies and other possible medication related complications.
f) Interactivity with other systems: The PIS should be able to interact with the other available
systems such as clinical information systems to receive prescription orders and financial
information for billing and charging.
Top PIS software products:
1) Marg ERP 9+ Pharmacy Software
2) Rx30 Pharmacy System
3) PDX Pharmacy System
4) ScriptPro
5) BestRx.
6) NewLeafRx.
7) VIP Pharmacy Management System
8) Liberty Pharmacy Management Software