Modular Arithmetic

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Set of Integers (z)

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Modulo Operator
⚫ Find the result of the following operations:

a) 27 mod 5
b) 36 mod 12
c) −18 mod 14
d) −7 mod 10

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Modulo Operator
a) 27 mod 5 27/5 gives remainder =2

b) 36 mod 12 36/12 gives remainder =0

c) −18 mod 14 -18/14 gives remainder = -4 ,

Ans= (-4+14)=10

d) −7 mod 10 => remainder is -7, Ans= -7+10=3

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 Set of Residues
⚫ The modulo operation creates a set, which in
modular arithmetic is referred to as the set of least
residues modulo n, or Zn.

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 Congruence (≡ operator)
⚫ To show that two integers are congruent, we use
the congruence operator ( ≡ ).
⚫ It indicates equality in modulus.

⚫ 2 mod 10= 2
⚫ 12 mod 10=2

⚫ 3 mod 5=3
⚫ 8 mod 5=3

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 Residue Classes
⚫ A residue class [a] or [a]n is the set of integers
congruent modulo n.
⚫ For example n=5
⚫ Z5={0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
⚫ Then we have 5 residue classes.

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Comparison of Z and Zn using graphs

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Operation in Zn

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 Operation in Zn
Perform the following operations (the inputs
come from Zn):
1. Add 7 to 14 in Z15.
2. Subtract 11 from 7 in Z13.
3. Multiply 11 by 7 in Z20.

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Zn Operation properties

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 Zn Operation properties

⚫ The following shows the application of the above

properties:

1. (1,723,345 + 2,124,945) mod 11 = (8 + 9) mod 11 =

6

2. (1,723,345 − 2,124,945) mod 11 = (8 − 9) mod 11 =

10

3. (1,723,345 × 2,124,945) mod 11 = (8 × 9) mod 11 = 6

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 Inverses
⚫ In modular arithmetic, we often need to find the
inverse of a number.
⚫ Additive Inverse
⚫ Multiplicative Inverse

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Additive Inverse
⚫ In Zn, two numbers a and b are additive
inverses of each other if

⚫ The sum of an integer and its additive

inverse is congruent to 0 modulo n.
⚫ In modular arithmetic, each integer has
an additive inverse.

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Additive Inverse
⚫ Find all additive inverse pairs in Z10.

⚫ The six pairs of additive inverses are

(0, 0), (1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7), (4, 6), and (5,
5).

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 Multiplicative Inverse
⚫ In Zn, two numbers a and b are the multiplicative
inverse of each other if

⚫ When it does, the product of the integer and its

multiplicative inverse is congruent to 1 modulo n.
⚫ The number ‘a’ has multiplicative inverse in Zn if and
only if
gcd (n, a) = 1.
⚫ In modular arithmetic, an integer may or may not have
a multiplicative inverse.
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 Multiplicative Inverse
⚫ Find the multiplicative inverse of 8 in Z10.

⚫ As gcd (10, 8) = 2 ≠ 1 , number 8 has no

multiplicative inverse in Z10.

⚫ Find all multiplicative inverses in Z10.

⚫ There are only three pairs: (1, 1), (3, 7) and (9, 9).
⚫ The numbers 0, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 do not have a
multiplicative inverse. As gcd with 10 is not equal
to 1.
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 Euclidean Algorithm to find GCD
⚫ Fact 1: gcd (a, 0) = a
⚫ Fact 2: gcd (a, b) = gcd (b, r), where r is
the remainder of dividing a by b

⚫ Fact 1: if second number is 0 then gcd is first

number.
⚫ Fact 2: change values of a and b until b becomes 0.

⚫ gcd(36,10)=gcd(10,6)=gcd(6,4)=gcd(4,2)=gcd(2,0)=2
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 Euclidean Algorithm to find GCD

When gcd (a, b) = 1, we say that a and b are relatively prime.

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 Extended Euclidean Algorithm
⚫ Given two integers a and b, we often need to find other
two integers, s and t, such that

⚫ The extended Euclidean algorithm can calculate the gcd

(a, b) and at the same time calculate the value of s and t.

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Extended Euclidean Algorithm

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Extended Euclidean Algorithm

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 Extended Euclidean Algorithm
⚫ Example 1:
⚫ Given a = 161 and b = 28, find gcd (a, b) and the
values of s and t.

⚫ gcd (161, 28) = 7, s = −1 and t = 6.

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 Extended Euclidean Algorithm

⚫ Example 2:
⚫ Given a = 17 and b = 0, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s
and t.

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 Extended Euclidean Algorithm

⚫ Example 2:
⚫ Given a = 17 and b = 0, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s
and t.

⚫ gcd (17, 0) = 17, s = 1, and t = 0.

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 Multiplicative Inverse using Extended
Euclidean Algorithm
⚫ The extended Euclidean algorithm finds the
multiplicative inverses of ‘b’ in Zn when n and a are
given and gcd (n, b) = 1.
⚫ The multiplicative inverse of ‘b’ is the value of t after

being mapped to Zn.

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Multiplicative Inverse using Extended
Euclidean Algorithm

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 Multiplicative Inverse using Extended
Euclidean Algorithm
⚫ Find the multiplicative inverse of 11 in Z26.
⚫ n=r1=26
⚫ B=r2=11

⚫ The gcd (26, 11) is 1; the inverse of 11 is −7 or 19.

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Multiplicative Inverse using Extended
Euclidean Algorithm
⚫ Find the multiplicative inverse of 23 in Z100.
⚫ n=r1=100
⚫ b=r2=23

⚫ The gcd (100, 23) is 1; the inverse of 23 is −13 or 87.

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 Multiplicative Inverse using Extended
Euclidean Algorithm
⚫ Find the inverse of 12 in Z26.

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 Multiplicative Inverse using Extended
Euclidean Algorithm
⚫ Find the inverse of 12 in Z26.

⚫ The gcd (26, 12) is 2; the inverse does not exist.

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 Addition and Multiplication Tables
⚫ Addition table for Z10

⚫ Check row and column of element 0, they are additive inverse

to each other in Z10.
⚫ (0,0) , (1,9) , (2,8) , (3, 7) , (4, 6) , (5, 5) , (6, 4) , (7, 3) , (8, 2) , (9, 1)

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 Addition and Multiplication Tables
⚫ Multiplication table for Z10

⚫ Check row and column of element 1, they are

multiplicative inverse to each other in Z10.
⚫ (1,1) , (3, 7) , (7, 3) , (9, 9)

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 Different Sets : Zn and Zn* sets

⚫ Zn= set of additive inverse numbers.

⚫ Zn*= set of multiplicative inverse numbers.

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Different Sets : Zn and Zn* sets

⚫ Find Z6 and Z6* sets

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 Different Sets : Zn and Zn* sets
⚫ Find Z6 and Z6* sets

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

2 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 0 2 4 0 2 4

3 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 0 3 0 3 0 3

4 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 2 0 4 2

5 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 4 3 2 1
Addition table for Z6 Multiplication table for Z6

⚫ Z6 ={0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
⚫ Z6* ={1, 5}
Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22
Two More Sets

⚫ Cryptography often uses two more sets: Zp and

Zp*.
⚫ The modulus in these two sets is a prime number.

⚫ Zp ={0, 1, ………, p-1}

⚫ Zp* ={1, 2, ………, p-1}

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 MATRICES
⚫ A matrix of size l × m

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Examples of matrices

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Matrix Addition and Subtraction

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Matrix Multiplication
⚫ Product of a 2 × 3 matrix by a 3 × 4 matrix.

⚫ The result is a 2 × 4 matrix.

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Scalar multiplication of Matrix

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Determinant of Matrix

⚫ The determinant is defined only for a square

matrix.
⚫ The determinant of a square matrix A of size m ×
m denoted as det (A) is a scalar calculated
recursively as shown below:

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Determinant of Matrix

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Inverse of Matrix
⚫ Matrices have both additive and multiplicative
inverses.

⚫ Additive inverse
⚫ Additive inverse of matrix A is defined -A .
⚫ Additive inverse of matrix A is matrix B, such that
A+B=0

⚫ Multiplicative Inverse
⚫ Multiplicative inverses are only defined for square
matrices.
⚫ Multiplicative of matrix A is matrix B, such that, 21-Jan-22
A×B = B×A =I
 Residue Matrices
⚫ Cryptography uses residue matrices: matrices where all
elements are in Zn.
⚫ Operations on matrix are done in modular arithmetic.
⚫ A residue matrix has a multiplicative inverse if gcd (det(A),
n) = 1

A residue matrix in Z26 and its multiplicative inverse

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 LINEAR CONGRUENCE

⚫ Cryptography often involves solving an

equation or a set of equations of one or more
variables with coefficient in Zn.

⚫ Single-Variable Linear Equations

⚫ Set of Linear Equations

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Single-Variable Linear Equations

⚫ Equations of the form ax ≡ b (mod n ) might

have no solution or a limited number of
solutions.

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Single-Variable Linear Equations
Steps to find Solution:
⚫ Reduce equation by dividing both sides of
equation(including modulus) by ‘d’.
⚫ Multiply both sides of equation by
multiplicative inverse of ‘a’ to find
particular solution ‘x0’.
⚫ The general solutions are
x = x0 +k (n/d) for k=0, 1, ……, (d-1)

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 Single-Variable Linear Equations
Example 1
Solve the equation 10 x ≡ 2(mod 15).
Solution
First we find the gcd (10 and 15) = 5.
Since 5 does not divide 2, we have no solution.

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 Single-Variable Linear Equations
Example 2
Solve the equation 14 x ≡ 12 (mod 18).
Solution: d= gcd(a,n) = gcd(14, 18) = 2

Steps to find Solution:

• Reduce equation by dividing both sides of equation(including
modulus) by ‘d’.
• Multiply both sides of equation by multiplicative inverse of ‘a’ to
find particular solution ‘x0’.
• The general solutions are
• x = x0 +k (n/d) for k=1, ……, (d-1)
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Set of Linear Equations
 Example 2.38

Solve the set of following three equations:

Solution

The result is x ≡ 15 (mod 16), y ≡ 4 (mod 16), and z ≡ 14 (mod

16). We can check the answer by inserting these values into
the equations.

2.53
Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22
 Without
Fermat’s
theorem

With
Fermat’s
theorem

Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22

 Without Fermat’s theorem

Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22

Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22
Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22
Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22
Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22
Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22
Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22
Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22
Compiled By Rohini Temkar 21-Jan-22