AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

(Near All India Radio)

80, Karneeshwarar Koil Street
Mylapore, Chennai - 600 004.
Ph.: 2466 1909, 94440 81904
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and
 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
III Year B.Tech. B.E. I-Sem

DESIGN OF MACHINE MEMBERS - I

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION
General considerations in the design of Engineering Materials and their properties - selection
- Manufacturing consideration in design. Tolerances and fits - BIS codes of steels.
STRESSES IN MACHINE MEMBERS
Simple stresses - Combined stresses - Torsional and bending stresses - impact stresses - stress
strain relation - Various theories of failure - factor of safety - Design for strength and rigidity -
preferred numbers. The concept of stiffness in tension, bending, torsion and combined situations -
Static strength design based on fracture toughness.
UNIT II - STRENGTH OF MACHINE ELEMENTS
Stress concentration - Theoretical stress concentration factor - Fatigue stress concentration
factor notch sensitivity - Design for fluctuating stresses - Endurance limit - Estimation of Endurance
strength - Goodman’s line - Soderberg’s line - Modified goodman’s line.
UNIT III
Riveted and welded joints - Design of joints with initial stress -eccentric loading
UNIT IV
Bolted joints - Design of bolts with pre-stresses - Design of joints under eccentric loading -
locking devices - both of uniform strength, different seals.
UNIT V - KEYS, COTTERS AND KNUCKLE JOINTS
Design of Keys - stresses in keys-cotter joints-spigot and socket, sleeve and cotter, jib and
cotter joints-Knuckle joints.
UNIT VI - SHAFTS
Design of solid and hollow shafts for strength and rigidity - Design of shafts for combined
bending and axial loads - Shaft sizes - BIS code. Use of internal and external circlips, Gaskets and
seals (stationary and rotary).
UNIT VII - SHAFT COUPLING
Rigid couplings - Muff, Split muff and Flange couplings. Flexible couplings - Flange coupling
(Modified).
UNIT VIII - MECHANICAL SPRINGS
Stresses and deflections of helical springs - Extension-compression springs - Springs for fatigue
loading - natural frequency of helical springs - Energy storage capacity - helical torsion springs -
Co-axial springs, leaf springs.
 CONTENTS

CHAPTER - 1

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members

1.0 Definition of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.1 Introduction to Design Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1
1.2 Classification of Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
1.3 Factors Influencing Machine Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3
(i) Factors related to customer requirement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
(ii) Factors related to manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4
1.3 Classification of Engineering Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
1.3.1 Mechanical properties of materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5
1.3.2 Selection of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7
1.3.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
(a) Cast Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
(b) Steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.8
(c) Cast steel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9
(d) Alloy steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.10
(e) Aluminium and its alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.12
(f) Non-metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.4 Preferred Numbers, Fits and Tolerance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.4.1 Preferred Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.13
1.4.2 Limit system and interchangeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.15
1.4.3 Terminology in limit system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.16
1.4.4 Fits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.18
1.4.5 Types of limit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.19
1.4.6 Fundamental tolerance and IT grade of Indian standard (IS) system . . . 1.20
1.4.6 Designation of a fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.22
 1.4.7 Calculation of fundamental deviation of shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.22
1.4.8 Calculation of fundamental deviation for holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.24
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.24 to 1.34
1.5 Simple Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.34
1.5.1 Types of the Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.34
Stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.34
1.5.2 Direct, Bending and Torsional stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.35
I. Stresses due to Axial loading (or) Direct loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.35
(iv) Contact stress, Bearing stress (or) Crushing stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.35
ii. Stresses due to Bending load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.36
(iii) Torsional stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.37
(iv) Shear Stresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.38
(v) Stress-strain diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.39
1.5.3 Factor of safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.40
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.41 to 1.44
1.6 Impact Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.44
1.7 Principal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.46
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.47 to 1.72
1.8 Combined Stresses due to Eccentric Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.72
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.73 to 1.76

DESIGN OF CURVED BEAMS

1.9 Design of Curved Beams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.77
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.78 to 1.90
1.10 Design Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.90
1.10.1 Common modes of failure: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.90
1.10.2 Factor of Safety (FOS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91
Static Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91
1.10.4 Failure Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.91
1. Max. Principal stress theory (or) Rankine’s theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.92
 2. Max. shear stress theory (or) Guest’s theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.92
3. Max. Strain theory (or) St. Venant’s theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.93
4. Max. Strain energy theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.93
5. Distortion energy theory (Octahedral theory): . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.93
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.93 to 1.118
1.10.5 Fatigue Failure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.119
1.11 Stress Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.119
1.11.1 Definition of Stress Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.120
1.11.2 Nominal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.121
1.11.3 Stress Concentration Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.122
1.11.4 Reduction of Stress Concentration Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.122
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.123 to 1.133

FLUCTUATING STRESSES: Variable stresses

1.12 Design for Variable Loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.134
1.12.1 Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.134
1.12.2 Endurance Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.136
1.12.3 Soderberg and Goodman Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.137
1.12.4 Goodman Method for Combination of Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.139
1.12.5 Soderberg Method for Combination of Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.141
1.12.6 Modified Goodman’s Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.142
1.12.7 Design Equations for Variable Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.144
1.12.8 Design for Finite Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.146
1.12.9 Cumulative Fatigue Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.146
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.147 to 1.193

CHAPTER 2

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
2.2 Types of Shaft. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1
2.3 Standard Shaft Diameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2
2.4 Stress in Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2

2.5 Design of Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2

2.6 Design of Shaft Based on Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
(a) Shaft subjected to torsion only (according torsion equation) . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
(b) Shaft subjected to bending only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3
(c) Shaft Subjected to Combined Bending and Twisting Moment . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4
(d) Hollow shaft subjected to bending, torsion and axial load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5

2.7 Design of Shaft Based on Torsional Rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7

2.7.1 Comparison of Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
2.7.2 Percentage Saving of Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8
2.7.3 Calculation of Twisting Moment Mt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9
2.8 Design Based on Critical Speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10
Critical Speed Formulae. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.11
Dunkerley Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12

2.9 Torque Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 to 2.78

DESIGN OF KEYS

2.10 Introduciton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.79

2.10.2 Types of keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.79
(A) Saddle Key. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.79
(B) Sunk Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.80
(C) Gib Head Tapered Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.80
(D) Feather Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.81
(E) Woodruff Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.82
(F) Round Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.82
(G) Splined Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.82
Forces Acting on a Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.83
Assumptions Made in the Design of Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.83
 Failure Modes of Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.83

2.10.3 Design procedure of key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.86

2.10.4 Effects of Keyways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.86

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.86 to 2.89

DESIGN OF COUPLINGS

2.11 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90

1. Rigid Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90

2. Flexible Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90

2.11.2 Features of shaft coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.90

2.11.3 Box (or) Sleeve (or) Muff Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.91

Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.91

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.95 to 2.100

2.11.4 Clamp (or) Compression (or) Split Sleeve Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.100

Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.101

2.11.5 Flange Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.103

Design of flange coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.104

2.11.6 Marine Type Flange Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.107

2.11.7 Flexible Couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108

Types of flexible couplings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108

2.11.8 Bushed pin flexible coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108

Design of Bushed - Pin Flexible Coupling: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.108

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.111 to 2.130

2.11.9 Oldham’s Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.130

Universal or Hooke’s Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.131

Design of Universal coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.131

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.132 to 2.133

 DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT

2.12.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.134

2.12.2 Design Procedure of a Overhung Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.134
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.138 to 2.144
2.12.3 Design of Centre Crankshaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.144
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.149 to 2.158

CHAPTER 3

Design of Temporary and Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners

3.1 Threaded Fasteners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1

3.1.1 Advantages of threaded joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1.2 Disadvantages of threaded joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1.3 Nomenclature of screw threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1
3.1.4 Common types of screw fastening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3
3.1.5 Bolt of uniform strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5
3.1.6 Designation of screw threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6
3.1.7 Design of bolts for cylinder cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 to 3.11
3.1.8 Stress due to combined forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.11
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.12 to 3.15
3.1.9 Design of bolted joints under eccentric loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16
3.1.9.1 Eccentric load acting parallel to the axis of bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.16
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.18 to 3.19
3.1.9.2 Eccentric load acting perpendicular to the axis of bolt . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.19
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.20 to 3.22
3.1.9.3 Eccentric load acting in the plane containing the bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.22

Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23 to 3.26

 Design of Knuckle and Cotter Joints
3.2 Knuckle Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27
3.2.1 Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27
3.2.2 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.27
5. Stresses in the eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30
6. Stresses in the fork: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.32

3.3 Cotter Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.33

3.3.1 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.34
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.37 to 3.47
3.3.2 Sleeve and Cotter Joint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.47
3.3.2.1 Design of Sleeve and Cotter Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.48
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.51 to 3.53
3.3.3 Design of Gib and Cotter Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.53
3.3.3.1 Design procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.54
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.56 to 3.58

DESIGN OF RIVETED JOINTS

3.4 Riveted Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59
3.4.1 Types of Riveted Joints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59
1. Lap Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59
2. Butt Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60
3.4.2 Terms used in riveted joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60
3.4.3 Caulking and Fullering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.61
3.4.4 Failures of a Riveted Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.61
3.4.5 Standard diameter of rivet and rivet hole diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.64
3.4.6 Design Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.65
3.4.7 Strength of a Riveted Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.65
3.4.8 Efficiency of a Riveted Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.65
Solved Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.66 to 3.69
3.4.9 Design of Boiler Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.69
 3.4.9.1 Design of Longitudinal Butt Joint for a Boiler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.69
3.4.9.2 Design of Circumferential Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.72
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.74 to 3.78

DESIGN OF WELDED JOINTS

3.5 Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.79
3.5.1 Classification of Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.79
3.5.2 Types of Welded Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.80
3.5.3 Strength of Fillet Weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.80
3.5.4 Parallel fillet weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.81
3.5.5 Method of indication of Weld Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.82
3.5.6 Combination of transverse and parallel fillet welds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.83
3.5.7 Eccentric load on welded joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.93
3.5.8 Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.94
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.96 to 3.104

CHAPTER 4

Design of Energy Storing Elements – Springs and Flywheels

4.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1

4.1 Material of Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1
4.2 Applications of the springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
4.3 Important types of Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
1. Helical Compression (or) Extension Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
2. Helical torsion springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
3. Spiral springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2
4. Leaf spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
5. Disc or bellevile springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3
6. Special purpose springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3

4.4 Helical Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4

4.4.1 Terminology used for Helical springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4
 4.4.2 Close-Coiled Helical Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
4.4.3 Open-Coiled Helical Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
4.4.4 Helical Compression Springs Subjected to Axial Loading: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5
Curvature effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8
End connections for helical springs: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9
4.5 Eccentric Loading of Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10
4.6 Buckling of Compression Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.10
Helical Tension springs (Extension springs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11
4.7.1 Types of Ends for Extension Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.11
4.8 Advantages of Compression Springs over Extension Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.9 Spring Surge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.12
4.10 Energy Stored in Helical Springs of Circular Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.13
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15 to 4.54
4.11 Fatigue Loading of Helical Springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.55
4.12 Springs in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.56
4.13 Springs in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.57
4.14 Helical Torsion Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.58
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.59 to 4.61
4.15 Flat Spiral Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.61
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.63
4.16 Disc Springs or Belleville Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.64
Design procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.64
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.65 to 4.84
4.17 Concentric Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.84
4.17.1 Design procedure of concentric springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.85
4.17.2 Coaxial springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.86
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.86 to 4.92
4.17.3 Advantages of concentric springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93
Other Types of Springs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93
 Conical and Volute Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93

4.18 Leaf Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.93

4.18.1 Constructional Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.94
4.18.2 Nipping of Leaf Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.99
Notations used in the analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.100
4.18.3 Initial gap (c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.100
4.18.4 Initial Pre-load: Pi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.102
4.18.6 Design Formulae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.103
5. Central deflection / Camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.104
4.18.6 Leaf spring material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.104
4.18.7 Permissible stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.105
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.105 to 4.117

DESIGN OF FLYWHEEL

4.19 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.118

4.19.1 Differences between Flywheel and Governor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.118
4.19.2 Coefficient of Fluctuation of speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.119
4.19.3 Fluctuation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.119
4.19.4 Maximum flunctutation of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.120
4.19.5 Coefficient of fluctuation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.121
4.19.6 Energy stored in a flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.122
4.19.7 Design of Flywheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.123
I. Calculation of mass moment of inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.123
II. Calculation of mass of the flywheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.124
III. Calculation of Rim Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.124
IV. Calculation of Flywheel Shaft Diameter (d) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.125
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.127 to 4.146
Design of key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.133
4.19.8 Stresses in a Flywheel Rim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.146
1. Tensile stress due to the centrifugal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.147
 2. Tensile bending stress caused by restraint of the arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.148
4.19.9 Stress in Flywheel Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.149
1. Tensile stress due to the centrifugal force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.150
2. Bending stress due to the torque transmitted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.150
4.19.10 Design of Flywheel Arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.151
4.19.11 Design of Shaft, Hub and Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.152
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.153 to 4.166

CHAPTER 5

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1.1 Classification of Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1
5.1.2 Common Types of Sliding Contact Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.1.2.1 Slider Bearing (or) Slipper (or) Guide Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.1.2.2 Journal Bearing (or) Sleeve Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2
5.1.2.3 Thrust Bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3
Comparison of Hydrodynamic & Hydrostatic bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3
5.1.2.4 Non-Metallic bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
5.1.3 Properties required for Bearing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
5.1.4 Materials used for sliding contact bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4
5.1.5 Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
5.1.6 Properties of Lubricants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
5.1.6.1 Viscosity: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5
Effect of Temperature on Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
5.1.7 Hydrostatic Lubrication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
5.1.8 Principle of Hydrodynamic Lubrication in Journal bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
5.2 Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6
5.2.1 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 to 5.39
5.3 Design of Ball and Roller Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.40
 5.3.1 Advantages of Ball and roller bearing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.40
5.3.2 Disadvantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.41
5.3.3 Radial Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.41
5.3.3.1 Design of Ball and roller bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.41
5.3.3.2 Dynamic Capacity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.42
5.3.3.3 Dynamic load rating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.42
5.3.3.4 Bearing Life Expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.45 to 5.60
5.4 Gaskets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.60
5.4.1 Gasketed Joint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.61
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.65 to 5.66
5.5 Design of Connecting Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.67
5.5.1 Design Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.67
Solved Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.72 to 5.85
2 Marks Q&A
Solved Anna University Problems
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.1

CHAPTER - 1

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine

Members

1.0 DEFINITION OF DESIGN

Design is an innovative and highly iterative process of formulating a plan for
the realisation of a specified need or to solve a specific problem resulting in creation
of a product that is functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable and
marketable. A designer’s personal resources, communicative ability and problem
solving skills are interlinked with the knowledge of technology and engineering tools
to produce the product.
Machine design is creation of new machines and improving the existing machines
which are more economical in overall cost of production and operation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN PROCESS

Designing of a machine component or solving a design problem involves the
various steps as shown in the Fig. 1.1.
Identification of N eed / D efin ition of problem

Synth esis of M echa nism s

A n alysis and O ptim isation

Iterations Iterations
M a terial selection

D esign of elem en ts (size & stress)

E va luation and M odification

D eta iled D esign a nd D raw in gs

P rodu ction / P roduct

Fig. 1.1 Design Process
1.2 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

There is no general rigid rule but design can be made in several methods and
procedure is as follows.

(i) Identification of need/design problem

The first step in design process involves identifying the need or defining of a
design problem for which a machine needs to be designed. Definition of a problem is
more specific and must include all the specifications for the object that is to be
designed.

(ii) Synthesis
Synthesis is the scheme of connecting possible elements or mechanisms or group
of mechanism which gives the desired motion. Synthesis is sometimes called the
invention of the concept or concept design.

(iii) Analysis and optimisation

It is the process of calculating the various forces acting on each machine element
and the energy transmitted by each member. Each element has to survive the analysis
and elements which have the higher margins are optimised to determine the best
performance and this process is an iterative with subsequent process.

(iv) Material selection

Based on the different material physical and functional properties suitable
material is selected for each machine element being designed.

(v) Design of size and stresses of elements

Sizes of each machine element member is defined based on the analysis of
various forces acting on each member causing stresses which are within limits of the
permissible stresses of material used. It is ensured that no element deflects or deforms
within the permissible limit.

(vi) Evaluation and modification

Evaluation is the final proof of successful design and usually involves testing of
a prototype in the laboratory. Any deficiency noticed, the process gets iterated with
the synthesis or analysis.

(vii) Detailed design and drawings

Once the design has satisfactorily completed the evaluation and modification
process, the detailed design and drawings of each machine component, assemblies are
made with complete specification of manufacturing to reduce the overall cost.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.3

(viii) Production and product

The component as per the drawing is manufactured, assembled and the product
is launched.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF DESIGN

Machine design is classified as follows

(a) Adaptive design

Adaptive design is one in which designer’s work is concerned with the adaptation
of the existing design requiring no special skills and knowledge. Examples are bicycles
and IC engines where development has practically ceased except for certain minor
modification and alterations.

(b) Developed design

In developed design, a high standard of scientific training is essential when the
proven existing designs are to be modified to their method of manufacture, material,
appearance etc. In this case, designer starts with an existing design and the final
product outcome is remarkably different from the original product.

(c) New design

New design requires a lot of research, technical capability and creativity. A few
designers bring out new machines by making use of basic scientific principles.
Designers with high personal capabilities of higher order can only take up new design.

1.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING MACHINE DESIGN

Machine design is greatly influenced by the factors arising from the customer’s
requirement and factors concerned with the manufacture. Machine component design
should meet the following important requirements.

1. Functional

2. Operational

3. Maintenance

4. Material used

5. Manufacturing methods used

1.4 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(i) Factors related to customer requirement

(a) Material cost, production cost, operating cost.

(b) Mechanical and chemical environmental influence.

(c) Ease of maintenance.

(d) Economy of energy consumption.

(e) Handling, shipping and transportation.

(f) Size, weight and form.

(g) Appearance and Aesthetics

(h) Quantity and delivery schedules

(i) Spare part availability.

(ii) Factors related to manufacturing

(a) Loading and stress limits.

(b) Working principle and design.

(c) Strength, wear resistance and corrosion resistance.

(d) Material selection, its condition and availability.

(e) Manufacturing method and assembly method.

(f) Limits, fits and tolerance.

(g) Type and quality of surface finish.

(h) Protective coating requirements.

(i) Type of standards required.

(j) Jigs, fixtures and tools required.

(k) Gauges and inspection method.

(l) Design for manufacture.

(m) Type of scrap generated and utilisation.

(n) Interchangeability.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.5

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Engineering materials are broadly classified as
(i) Metal and its alloys.
Eg: Iron, steel, copper, aluminium
(a) Ferrous metals containing iron as major constituent.
(b) Non-ferrous metal containing other than iron like Cu, Al, etc.
(ii) Non metals like plastic, fibre, rubber, glass, composite, etc.

1.3.1 Mechanical properties of materials

(a) Strength is the ability of the material to resist the externally applied loads
without failure (fracture or yielding). Measure of strength is ultimate strength for
brittle materials and yield point stress for ductile materials.
(b) Elasticity is a property of the material to regain the original shape after
deformation on removal of load.
(c) Plasticity enables the material to permanently retain the deformation produced
by the externally applied loads.
(d) Stiffness (Rigidity) enables the material to resist deformation under loads.
(e) Ductility enables the
material to be drawn into for brittle for brittle
wire when tensile force is m aterial m aterial
S tress, 

S tress, 

applied. Steel, aluminium

and copper are ductile
materials. Ductile material
has large plastic deformation
Strain ,  Strain , 
before rupture while brittle (a) Fig.1.2. (b)
material has a small plastic
deformation (Fig. 1.2 (a) & (b)).
Ductility helps the material to absorb large overloads. Operations like bending,
drawing, heading, etc., require ductility in the materials.
(f) Brittleness means lack of ductility. Cast iron is a brittle material.
(g) Malleability is ability of material to be drawn into thin sheets under
compressive force. Eg: Gold, Aluminium
1.6 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(h) Resilience of a C
material is its capacity to A B
absorb energy with in the  
elastic range. Resilience
enables material to resist A D
shock and impact and hence O B  O 
it is desired in springs. The M odulus of resilience M odulus of Toughness
Fig. 1.3.(a) Fig. 1.3.(b)
shaded area (Fig. 1.3 (a))
represents modulus of
resilience, i.e., strain energy stored per unit volume when the stress is at the
proportional limit.
(i) Toughness enables the material to absorb energy in the plastic range (Fig. 1.3
(b)), it enables the material to be twisted or bent under a sudden load before rupture.
Shaded area in Fig. 1.3 (b) represents the modulus of toughness.

(j) Hardness enables the material to resist indentation, wear or plastic deformation.

(k) Creep: At elevated temperatures, materials yield and undergo permanent

deformation at a stress lower than the yield point stress. In addition to the loss of
strength, there is a continuous gradual elongation of the members at high temperature
over a long period of time, known as creep. Steam and gas turbine castings, turbine
blades, rocket engines, missile nose cones and nuclear reactor components are
subjected to creep.

(l) Strain hardening: When drawing ductile materials like mild steel, copper, brass
and aluminium through dies or when rolling them between rollers, plastic deformation
takes place and this increases the yield point stress and ultimate strength. This is
known as strain hardening.

(m) Damping capacity is the ability of a material to damp vibrations by absorbing

the kinetic energy of vibration. Cast iron has greater damping capacity than steel.
Hence C.I is used in machine tools to decrease vibrations.

(n) Hardenability is the ability of steel to through harden. Hardenability can be

improved by using alloying elements like boron, vanadium, manganese, chromium and
molybdenum.

(o) Machinability is the ease with which the metal can be removed in machining
operations like turning, drilling, etc. When selecting materials for mass production of
components, machinability is a deciding factor. Good machinability results in less tool
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.7

wear, good surface finish and less power consumption. Good machinability is obtained
by adding sulphur and lead in steel. However, there is a reduction in tensile strength.

1.3.2 Selection of Materials

Selection of a proper material for the machine component is one of the most
important steps in the process of machine design. The selection process may involve
trial and error method.

The following factors should be considered while selecting the material.

1. Availability: The material should be readily available in large enough quantities

to meet the requirement.

2. Cost: When the limiting cost of the component exceeds, the designer has to
consider other alternative materials. In cost analysis, there are two factors

(a) Cost of Material.

(b) Cost of Processing the material into finished goods.
3. Mechanical Properties: The important mechanical properties from the
consideration of design are strength, rigidity, ductility, hardness, toughness. Depending
upon the service conditions and the functional requirements, different mechanical
properties are considered and a suitable material is selected.

 For example, the material for the connecting rod of an internal combustion
engine should be capable to withstand the fluctuating stresses induced due
to combustion of fuel. In this case, the endurance strength becomes the
criterion of design.

 The piston rings should have hard surface to resist the wear. In this case,
surface hardness is the design criterion.

 In case of bearing materials, low coefficient of friction is desirable.

 In case of clutch or brake lining, high coefficient of friction is required.

4. Manufacturing Considerations: Some times, an expensive material is more

economical than a low priced material, which is difficult to machine.

When the product is of a complex shape, casting properties are important.

The manufacturing processes, such as casting, rolling, forging, extrusion, welding

and machining govern the selection of the material.
1.8 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1.3.3 Materials

CAST IRON
Cast iron is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon with carbon content around
3%. The type of cast irons are grey iron, white iron, chilled cast iron, malleable iron,
spheroidal or modular graphite iron, alloy cast iron.

Advantages
1. It is available in large quantities and is produced on a mass scale. The tooling
required for the casting process is relatively simple and inexpensive. This
reduces the cost of Cast iron products.
2. Cast iron components can be given any complex shape without involving costly
machining operations.
3. Cast iron has a higher compressive strength compared to steel.
4. Cast iron has an excellent ability to damp vibrations, which makes it an ideal
choice for machine tool guides and frames.
5. Cast iron has more resistance to wear even under the conditions of boundary
lubrication.
6. Mechanical properties of cast iron parts do not change between room
temperature and 350 C.

Disadvantages
1. It has a poor tensile strength compared to steel.
2. Cast iron does not offer any plastic deformation before failure, and exhibit no
yield point. The failure of cast-iron parts is sudden and total.
3. Cast iron is brittle and has poor impact resistance.
4. The machinability of cast iron parts is poor compared to parts made of steel.

Applications
1. Machine tool-beds, Frames and Guideways, Hydraulic cylinders, Pulleys, Gears,
Anvils etc.
2. I.C. engine-cylinder block, cylinder head, Flywheel, Brake drums etc.

(b) Steel
Steel consists of iron, carbon and manganese. Carbon content is less than 1.7%.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.9

Effects of various elements in steel

Carbon: Increase in carbon content from 0% to 0.83% increases the ultimate
strength. If the carbon content is going to be more than 0.83%, the increase in carbon
content reduces the strength. Hardness increases with carbon content but ductility
and weldability decrease as carbon content increases.

Manganese: As manganese content increases, ultimate strength and hardness

increase and weldability decreases.

Sulphur: Sulphur lowers toughness and makes the steel soft (adds to free cutting).

Silicon: Silicon is added to steel as a deoxidiser to minimize the last traces of oxygen.

Classifications
Low carbon steels/mild steels Carbon content 0.05 to 0.25%.

Medium carbon steels Carbon content 0.3 to 0.83%.

High carbon steels Carbon content 0.9 to 1.3%.

Applications
Carbon 0.1 to 0.2% Tubing, forgings, pressed steel parts, rivets, screws and for case
hardened parts.

Carbon 0.2 to 0.3% General purpose grade. Forged and machined parts, structural
members, boiler plates.

Carbon 0.3 to 0.55% Forged and machined parts, automotive bolts, shafts. Heat
treated to a hardness of 200 - 450 BHN.

Carbon 0.55 to 0.75% Rails, hammers.

Carbon 0.65 to 0.85% Coil and flat springs.

Carbon 0.6 to 0.95% Tools, punches, dies, saws. Heat treated to a hardness of 375
- 500 BHN.

(c) Cast steel

Cast steel has higher strength, higher endurance limit, much higher ductility
and greater toughness than cast iron. Cast steel weighs less than cast iron for the
same strength and stiffness. Steel castings are used for heavy machinery bases,
machine frames, gears, wheels, etc.
1.10 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Designation
Example: CS 130 Unalloyed steel castings with minimum tensile strength
2
1300 N/mm .

(d) Alloy steels

In alloy steels alloying elements are added to impart special effects like higher
tensile strength, increased toughness and hardness, greater resistance to corrosion etc.

Most common alloying elements and their effects

1. Chromium improves hardenability, corrosion resistance and increases wear
resistance and hardness. If the chromium content is more than 11%, the steel is called
stainless steel. Stainless steels offer high resistance to corrosion.

2. Nickel increases strength (ultimate strength) without decreasing ductility. Nickel

steels have good impact properties.

Nickel and chromium are mostly used together to obtain the toughness and
ductility provided by nickel and hardness and wear resistance provided by chromium.

3. Molybdenum improves hardenability and creep strength.

4. Vanadium improves hardenability, imparts toughness, retains strength and

hardness at elevated temperature, improves shock and fatigue resistance (increases
resilience) and retards softening during tempering.

5. Tungsten retains hardness even at elevated temperature, improves wear

resistance and imparts toughness and hardness.

System of designation for steels

Carbon steel
Example: C 30

Prefix C stands for carbon, 30 for the average percentage of 0.30%.

Steels specified by tensile properties

Example: St 40 - Steel having a minimum tensile strength of 400 N/mm 2

Alloy steel
Prefix C is not used.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.11

Chemical symbols of significant elements are arranged in the descending order

of their average percentages.

Underlining by a bar indicates percentage is in the decimal value.

Example: 15 Ni 13 Cr 1 Mo 12

Carbon 0.15% average

Nickel 1.3% average
Chromium 1% average
Molybdenum 0.12% average

Carbon tool steel

Example: T 80 - Letter T for tool steels. Carbon 0.8% average.

Designation of Steels
A large number of varieties of steel are used for machine components. Steels
are designated by a group of letters or numbers indicating any of the following three
properties:

1. Tensile strength
2. Carbon content
3. Composition of alloying element.
Steels which are standardised on the basis of their tensile strength without
detailed chemical composition.

Ex: Fe 360 indicates a steel with a minimum tensile strength of 360 N/mm 2.

(or) Fe E250 indicates a steel with a minimum yield strength of 250 N/mm 2.

Designation of Plain carbon steels

(a) A number indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.
(b) A letter C.
(c) A number indicating 10 times the average % of Mn.
Example: 55C4.

Indicates plain carbon steel with 0.55% of Carbon and 0.4% of Manganese.

Ex: A steel with 0.35 - 0.45% C and 0.7 to 0.9% Mn is designated as 40C8.
1.12 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

In case of cast alloy steels, chemical symbol of significant alloying elements are
arranged in descending order of percentage content. The average percentage of each
alloying element is indicated by the number following its chemical symbol. When the
alloying element is less than one percent, it is written upto two decimal places
underlined by a bar.

Ex Carbon 0.12 to 0.81% 15 Cr 65 Silicon and Manganese are not

Silicon 0.10 to 0.35% important alloying elements
Manganese 0.4 to 0.6% and they are deleted
Chromium 0.5 to 0.8%
Ex Carbon 0.15 to 0.25% Average Carbon content - 0.2% or 20
Silicon 0.1 to 0.5% hundredth of a percent.
Manganese 0.3 to 0.5% 20 Cr 18 Ni 2
Nickel 1.5% to 2.5%
Chromium 16 to 20%
Ex 40 Cr 14 Carbon 0.4%
Chromium 0.14%
(c) Non-ferrous metals are used to meet the following requirements:

(a) Resistance to corrosion

(b) Ease of casting and cold working

Copper base alloys: Copper is alloyed with zinc to produce brass. If alloyed with
tin, aluminium, manganese, silicon or phosphorous, it is called bronze.

Brass is used in application where moderate strength and ductility, resistance

to corrosion and resistance to wear are required. Bronze is superior to brass in the
above qualities but it is more costly.

Materials for bearing linings

Tin babbit 87.75% tin, 4% copper, 8% antimony and 0.25% bismuth

Lead babbit 80% lead, 20% antimony

(d) Aluminium and its alloys

Pure aluminium is highly ductile and has good forming properties, but it has
poor casting and machining properties.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.13

When alloyed with copper, ultimate strength and endurance strength increased
and there is an improvement in machinability and casting characteristics.
Aluminium-Copper alloys are used in crank cases, transmission housing, etc.
Aluminium-Silicon alloys have better mechanical properties and corrosion
resistance than Aluminium-Copper alloy, but they have poorer machinability. These
alloys are used in marine castings, water jacket housings and castings where
machining is minimum.

Duralumin
Duralumin is an Al-Cu-Mg-Mn alloy and it has good corrosion resistance and
strength.

(e) Non-metallic materials

Non-metallic materials used are
(a) Plastics (light weight housings, panels, flexible hoses)
(b) Fibre Reinforced Plastics (car bodies, boat hulls)
(c) Rubber (insulators, belts, piping, tyres)
(d) Leather (belts)
(e) Asbestos (friction lining for clutches and brakes).

1.4 PREFERRED NUMBERS, FITS AND TOLERANCE

1.4.1 Preferred Numbers

When a machine is to be made in several sizes with different powers or
capacities, it is necessary to decide what capacities will cover a certain range
efficiently with minimum number of sizes. It has been shown by experience that a
certain range can be covered efficiently when it follows a geometrical progression with
a constant ratio. The preferred numbers are the conventionally rounded off values
derived from geometric series including the integral powers of 10 and having as
common ratio of the following factors:
Ratio’s Serie’s
10

5
  1.58 (R5)
10

 10  1.26 (R10)
20

 10  1.12 (R20)
40

 10  1.06 (R40)
1.14 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

These four series are called basic series. The other series called derived series
may be obtained by simply multiplying or dividing the basic sizes by 10, 100, etc.
The preferred numbers in the above four series shown in Table 1.1 as per standard
IS: 1076 (Part I).

Notes
1. The standard sizes (in mm) for wrought metal products are shown in Table
1.2 according to IS: 1136 - 1990. The standard G.P. series used correspond to
R10, R20 and R40.
2. The hoisting capacities (in tonnes) of cranes are in R10 series, while the
hydraulic cylinder diameter are in R40 series and hydraulic cylinder capacities
are in R5 series.
3. The basic thickness of sheet metals and diameter of wires are based on R10,
R20 and R40 series. Wire diameter of helical springs are in R20 series.
4. Standard spindle speeds for machine tools are given in Table 1.3.
5. Also preferred basic and design sizes are given in PSG design data book Pg.No.
3.12.

Table 1.1 Preferred numbers of the basic series. IS: 1076-1990

Basic series Preferred numbers

R5 1.00, 1.60, 2.50, 4.00, 6.30, 10.00

R10 1.00, 1.25, 1.60, 2.00, 2.50, 3.15, 4.00, 5.00, 6.30, 8.00, 10.00

R20 1.00, 1.12, 1.25, 1.40, 1.60, 1.80, 2.00, 2.24, 2.50, 2.80, 3.15, 3.55,
4.00, 4.50, 5.00, 5.60, 6.30, 7.10, 8.00, 9.00, 10.00

R40 1.00, 1.06, 1.12, 1.18, 1.25, 1.32, 1.40, 1.50, 1.60, 1.70, 1.80, 1.90,
2.00, 2.12, 2.24, 2.36, 2.50, 2.65, 2.80, 3.00, 3.15, 3.35, 3.55, 3.75,
4.00, 4.25, 4.50, 4.75, 5.00, 5.30, 5.60, 6.00, 6.30, 6.70, 7.10, 7.50,
8.00, 8.50, 9.00, 9.50, 10.00
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.15

Table 1.2 Preferred sizes for wrought metal products. IS: 1136-1990

Size range Preferred sizes (mm)

0.01 - 0.10 mm 0.02, 0.025, 0.030, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.08 and 0.10
0.10 - 1 mm 0.10, 0.11, 0.12, 0.14, 0.16, 0.18, 0.20, 0.22, 0.25, 0.28, 0.30, 0.32,
0.35, 0.36, 0.40, 0.45, 0.50, 0.55, 0.60, 0.63, 0.70, 0.80, 0.90 and 1
1-10 mm 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.22, 2.5, 2.8, 3, 3.2, 3.5, 3.6, 4, 4.5,
5, 5.5, 5.6, 6, 6.3, 7.8, 9 and 10
10 - 100 mm 10 to 25 (in steps of 1 mm), 28, 30, 32, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42,
44, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52, 53, 55, 56, 58, 60, 62, 63, 65, 67, 68, 70,
71, 72, 75, 78, 80, 82, 85, 88, 90, 92, 95, 98 and 100
100 - 1000 mm 100 to 200 (in steps of 5 mm), 200 to 310 (in steps of 10 mm),
315, 320, 330, 340, 350, 355, 360, 370, 375, 380 to 500 (in steps
of 10 mm), 520, 530, 550, 560, 580, 600, 630, 650, 670, 700, 710
and 750 - 1000 (in steps of 50 mm)
1000 - 10000 mm 1000, 1100, 1200, 1250, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1800, 2000, 2200, 2500,
2800, 3000, 3200, 3500, 3600, 4000, 4500, 5000, 5600, 6000, 6300,
7000, 7100, 8000, 9000 and 10000

Table 1.3 Standard spindle speeds for machine tools

Basic series Preferred numbers

R20   1.12 100, 112, 125, 140, 160, 180, 200, 224, 250, 280, 315, 355, 400,
450, 500, 560, 630, 710, 800, 900, 1000
R20/2   1.25 112, 140, 180, 224, 280, 355, 450, 560, 710, 900
R20/3   1.4 11.2, 16, 22.4, 31.5, 45, 63, 90, 125, 180, 250, 355, 500, 710, 1000,
1400, 2000, 2800, 4000, 5600, 8000
R20/4   1.6 112, 140, 180, 224, 280, 355, 450, 560, 710, 900
R20/6   2 11.2, 22.4, 45, 90, 180, 355, 710, 1400, 2800, 5600

1.4.2 Limit system and interchangeability

Certain recognised and calculated variations are allowed in the sizes of the
mating parts to give the required fitting, facilitating the selection at random from a
large number of parts for an assembly, this is called interchangeability. This results
in saving of production costs.
1.16 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

The system of controlling the size of finished parts, with due allowance for error
for interchangeable parts is called limit system.

1.4.3 Terminology in limit system

 Nominal size - It is the size of a part specified in the drawing.
 Basic size - It is the size of a part to which limits of variation (i.e.
tolerances) are applied to arrive at final dimensioning of the mating parts.
The nominal or basic size of a part is often same.
 Actual size It is the actual measured dimension of the part. The difference
between the basic size and the actual size should not exceed a certain limit,
otherwise it will interfere with the interchangeability of the mating parts.
 Upper limit and lower limit T oleran ce
There are two extreme permissible A llow ance
sizes for a dimension of the part. T oleran ce
The largest permissible size for a
dimension of the part is called
upper limit, where as the H ole Sh aft
smallest size of the part is known
L ow er lim it
as lower limit.
L ow er lim it U pper lim it
 Allowance - It is the difference U pper lim it
between the basic dimensions of Fig.1.4. Lim it an d Toleran ce
the mating parts. When the shaft
size is less than the hole size, then the allowance positive and when the
shaft size is greater than the hole size, then the allowance is negative.
 Tolerance - It is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of
a dimension. In other words, it is the maximum permissible variation in a
dimension. The tolerance may be unilateral or bilateral. When all the
tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal size, e.g. 40  0.000
0.004 , then it
is said to be unilateral system of tolerance.
When the tolerance is allowed on both sides of the nominal size, e.g.
40  0.002
0.002 , then it is said to be bilateral system of tolerance. In this case
 0.002 is the upper limit and  0.002 is the lower limit.
 Tolerance zone It is the zone between the maximum and minimum limit
size, as shown Fig. 1.5.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.17

T oleran ce
U pp er deviation L ow er
T oleran ce L ow er deviation
deviation
T oleran ce U pp er
zone deviation

M ax.size
Zero
lin e
H ole
M in .size B asic
M a x.size size
Fig.1.5.Toleranc e Zon e, D eviation of B asic H o le System

 Zero line It is a straight line corresponding to the basic size. The deviations
are measured from this line. The positive and negative deviations are shown
above and below the zero line respectively.

 Upper deviation It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit

and the basic size. The upper deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol
ES and of a shift is represented by es .

 Lower deviation It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit

and the basic size. The lower deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol
EJ and of a shaft is represented by ei.

 Actual deviation It is the algebraic difference between an actual size and

the corresponding basic size.

 Mean deviation It is the arithmetical mean between the upper and lower
deviations.

 Fundamental deviation It is one of the two deviations which is

conventionally chosen to define the position of the tolerance zone in relation
to zero line.

 International tolerance grade number (IT) Designate groups of

tolerances such that the tolerances for a particular IT number have the same
relative level of accuracy but vary depending on the basic size.

 Hole basis Represents a system of fits corresponding to a basic hole size.

The fundamental deviation is H .

 Shaft basis Represents a system of fits corresponding to a basic shaft size.

The fundamental deviation is h.
1.18 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1.4.4 Fits
Fits of two mating parts is defined as the degree of tightness or looseness
between them. The type of fit between the two mating parts depends upon the size
of clearance and interference.

Clearance is the amount by which the actual size of shaft is less than the actual
size of the hole in an assembly. Mathematically

Maximum clearance = Upper limit of hole - lower limit of shaft

Minimum clearance = Lower limit of hole - upper limit of shaft

The difference is always positive.

Interference is the amount by which the actual size of the shaft is larger than the
actual size of the mating hole in an assembly. Mathematically,

Maximum Interference  Lower limit of hole  upper limit of shaft

Minimum Interference  Upper limit of hole  lower limit of shaft.

The difference is always negative.

Types of fits
According to the type of clearance and interference as per Indian standards fits
are classified as clearance fit, interference fit and transition fit.

(a) Clearance fit

Clearance fit is the type of fit between two mating parts such that there is
always clearance occurring between them. In clearance fit the tolerance zone of hole
M a x.
M in .clearance M in .Interference
Interference

M a x.
clea ran ce

H ole

Shaft
(a) C learance fit. (b) Interference fit. (c) Transition fit.
Fig.1.6.Types of fits.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.19

is entirely above the tolerance zone of shaft as shown in Fig. 1.6 (a). Further clearance
fits may be of loose fit, slide fit, running fit and slack running fit.

(b) Interference fit

Interference fit is the type of fit between two mating parts such that there is
always interference existing between them. In interference fit, the tolerance zone of
hole is entirely below the tolerance zone of the shaft as shown in Fig. 1.6 (b). Further
interference fits may be shrink fit, heavy drive fit and light drive fit.

(c) Transition fit

Transition fit is the type of fit between two mating parts such that the tolerance
zones of hole and shaft overlaps. In transition fit, either clearance or interference may
occur depending upon the actual size of the mating parts.

1.4.5 Types of limit system

There are two basis of limit system

(i) Hole basis system

Hole basis system represents a system of fits corresponding to a basic hole size.
The fundamental deviation is H . In other words, in hole basis system, the size of the
hole is kept constant (lower deviation of hole is zero) and different fits are obtained
by varying the size of the shaft. [Fig. 1.7 (a)]

(ii) Shaft basis system

Shaft basis system represents a system of fits corresponding to a basic shaft
size. The fundamental deviation is h. In other words, shaft size is kept constant (upper
H ole H ole Sh aft

1 2 3
Sh aft
1 2 3
1. Clearance fit. 2. Transition fit. 3. Interference fit.
(a) Hole basis system . (b) Shaft basis system .
Fig.1.7. B asis of lim it System
1.20 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

deviation of shaft is zero) and different fits are obtained by varying the sizes of the
holes. [Fig. 1.7 (b)]
From manufacturing point of view, the hole basis system is preferred as the
hole size is produced and finished by standard tools like drill, reamers, etc.

1.4.6 Fundamental tolerance and IT grade of Indian standard (IS) system

According to IS system of limits and fits, there are 18 grades of fundamental
tolerances and 25 types of fundamental deviations indicated by letter symbols of both
holes and shafts in diameter steps ranging from 1 to 500 mm.

For holes  A to ZC (capital letter)

For shafts  a to zc (small letter)

The magnitude of the tolerance zone is the variation in part size and is same
for both the internal and external dimensions. The tolerance zones are specified in
international tolerance grade numbers called IT numbers. The smaller grade number
specify a smaller tolerance zone.

The 18 tolerance grades are designated as IT01, IT0, IT1,  IT16 - these are
called standard tolerance.

The standard tolerance for grade 5 to 16 is obtained by standard tolerance unit

i in microns and is given by

i (microns)  0.45 3D  0.001 D [PSG Tech Data book Pg No. 3.6]

where D  size or mean diameter in mm

Table 1.4 shows the standard tolerance unit (i) magnitude for IT grade 5 to 16

Table 1.4 Magnitude (i) for IT5 to 16 [PSG Tech. Pg No. 3.6]

Tolerance IT5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
grade (Tg)
Magnitude 7i 10i 16i 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000i

The standard tolerance unit (i) for IT01 , IT0 and IT1 are

For IT01, i  0.3  0.008 D In microns

IT0, i  0.5  0.12D In microns

IT1, i  0.8  0.020D In microns

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.21

IT2 to IT4 ~
 IT1 and IT5 (Between)

The alphabetical representation of fundamental deviations for basic shaft and

basic hole system is shown in Fig. 1.8

+35 0
+30 0 A
H oles
+20 0
B
+10 0 C
D B asic size
EF MN
0 GH J K PR
S
TU
-100 VX
JS YZ
Fu ndam ental T oleran ce in M icron s.

-200 ZA
ZB
-300 ZC

+30 0
zc
+20 0 zb
js za
+10 0 xyz
uw
s
0 gh j mnp r t
e f k
B asic size
d
-100 c
b
-200 Sh afts

-300 a
-350
Fig.1.8. Fundam ental Deviations for Shafts and H oles
( P SG Tech D .B .P g no 3.3 )

Note:
1. The fundamental tolerances of grade IT01, IT0, IT1  IT6 for shaft diameters
from 1 to 500 mm are given in the table in PSG Tech Data book Pg No. 3.3.
2. The manufacturing processes capable of producing the particular IT grades of
work are shown in table in PSG Tech Data book Pg No. 3.6.
1.22 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3. The standard uses tolerance position letters, with capital letters for internal
dimensions (holes) and cover case letters for external dimensions (shafts).
For hole, H stands for a dimension whose lever deviation refers to the basic
size. The hole H for which the lower deviation is zero is called basic hole.

For shaft, h stands for a dimension whose upper deviation refers to the basic
size. The shaft h for which upper deviation is zero is called basic shaft.

1.4.6 Designation of a fit

A fit is designated by its basic size followed by symbols representing the limits
of each of its two mating components. The hole is designated first and shaft is
designated second.

For example: 50 H7/6 fit means

Basic size  50 mm

Tolerance grade (hole) 7

Tolerance grade (shaft)  6

Note
1. Some commonly used fits used for running and sliding fits (clearance fit) with
typical uses are given in the table in PSG Tech Data book pg no 3.4.
2. The transition and interference fit with typical uses are given in PSG Tech
Data book pg no 3.5.

1.4.7 Calculation of fundamental deviation of shaft

 For holes upper deviation is represented by ES and lower deviation is
represented by EI.
 For shafts upper deviation is denoted by es [shaft a to h] and lower
deviation is denoted by ei [shafts j to zc].

The fundamental deviations of shafts with letter code a to h

Upper deviation es  fundam ental deviation F

Lower deviation ei  upper deviation es  tolerance grade IT

i.e es  F

ei  es  IT
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.23

The fundamental deviation of shafts with letter code j to zc

Lower deviation ei  fundamental deviation f

Upper deviation es  lower deviation ei  tolerance grade IT

ie ei  f

es  ei  IT

U pper deviation,u M ax.size,d m ax

Lower deviation,l M in.size,d m in

Fundam ental deviation,

F (letter)

B asic size,D(d)
Lower deviation,l
U pper deviation,u

Fundam ental
deviation, /F (letter)
International tolerance
grade, D (IT num ber) M in.size,D m in
M ax.size,D m ax
Fig. 1.9. Definition of Cylinderical Fit.

From the Fig 1.9 we have

D - Basic size of hole

d - Basic size of shaft

es - Upper deviation

ei - Lower deviation

F - Fundamental deviation
1.24 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

IT H - Tolerance grade for hole

IT S - Tolerance grade for shaft

Then for the hole we have D max  D  IT H ; D min  D

For the shaft with clearance fits (shafts a to h)

dmax  d  f; dmin  d  f  ITs

For the shaft with interference fits (shafts j to zc)

dmin  d  f; dmax  d  f  ITs

1.4.8 Calculation of fundamental deviation for holes

Hole limits are identical with the shaft limits of same symbol (letter and grade)
but disposed on the other side of the zero line.

For size less than 3 mm

EI  upper deviation es of the shaft of same letter symbol but of opposite sign.

For size above 3 mm

ES  0 for N and 9, coarser grade

ES  Lower deviation ei of shaft of same letter symbol but one grade finer
and of opposite sign increased by the difference between the tolerance of the two
grades in question.
J K M, N - up to 8 grade inclusive
P to ZC - upto grade 7 inclusive
Problem 1.1 A journal bearing and bushing need to be designed. The nominal size is
25 mm. What dimensions are needed for a 25 mm basic size with a close running fit
which is a lightly loaded journal and bushing assembly.

Given
Basic size D  25 mm, close running fit, lightly loaded assembly

Solution

(i) Selection of fit

From PSG Data book Pg. No. 3.4 for close running and sliding fit we select
H8/f8 coarse fit.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.25

(ii) Determination of IT grades

Diameter 25 mm lies between steps of 24 and 30 mm, therefore the geometric
mean diameter [PSG pg no. 3.7 to 3.10)

Mean diameter D  

24  30  26.83

i  0.45 3D  0.001 D (PSG pg no 3.6)

 0.45 3  0.001  26.83  1.37

26.83

i  1.37 microns o r 1.37  0.001  0.00137 mm

IT grade from PSG pg no. 3.6

For hole of grade 8 IT8  25 i  25  0.00137  0.034 mm

For shaft of grade 8 IT8  25i  25  0.00137  0.034 mm

Note:
For shaft the tolerance grade is also calculated in the following method.

Fundamental deviation of for hole EI  0

For shaft of fit f8 (lies between a to h)

 upper deviation es  fundamental deviation f

From PSG pg no 3.7 for f8, diameter range 24 to 30 mm

Upper deviation es   20  0.001   0.020 mm  f

Lower deviation ei   53  0.001   0.053 mm  es  ITs

  0.053   0.020  IT s

 IT s   0.020  0.053  0.033 mm

(iii) Hole & shaft dimensions

Hole
Min-hole dimension D min  D  25 mm

Max hole dimension D max  D  IT H  25  0.034  25.034 mm

For shaft
Shaft fit is f8 (lies a to h)
1.26 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 Max. dimension of shaft dmax  d  f

 25    0.020 

 dmax  24.98 mm

Min. dimension of shaft dmin  d  f  IT s

 25  0.020  0.033 

dmin  24.947 mm

Problem 1.2 Find the hole and shaft limits for a medium drive fit using a basic hole
size of 60 mm. Also calculate tolerances and fundamental deviations.

Given
Basic hole size D   60 mm, Medium drive fit

Solution

(i) Selection of fit

From PSG Data book pg no 3.6 for medium drive fit we select H7/r6 fit.

(ii) Tolerance on hole & shaft

From PSG DB pg no 3.3 from IT grade table
For shaft of grade 6 (IT6) and shaft size between 50 and 80 mm we have

shaft IT6  IT s  19 micron  19  0.001  0.019 mm

For hole of grade 7 IT 7 we have

Hole IT 7  ITH  30 micron  30  0.001  0.030 mm

(iii) Fundamental deviations

For Hole EI  0

For shaft r6 (lies between j to zc)

Lower deviation ei  fundamental deviation f

For r6 and between diameter (50 and 65) we have

ei  41 microns, es  60 microns

 Lower deviation ei  f  41  0.001  0.041 mm  f

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.27

Now upper deviation es  ei  IT s

60  41  IT s

 IT s  19 microns as selected earlier

(iv) Limits

For Hole
Minimum diameter D min  D  60 mm

Maximum diameter D max  D f  IT H  60  0.030  60.030 mm

For shaft
For r6 shaft (lies between j to zc)

Minimum diameter dmin  d  f

dm in  60  0.041  60.041 mm

Maximum diameterdmax  d  f  ITs

 60  0.041  0.019

dmax  60.060 mm

Problem 1.3 The dimensions of two mating parts (shaft and hole) according to a basic
hole system are given as follows
Hole: 50.00 mm, 50.04 mm, Shaft: 49.96 mm, 49.94 mm
Calculate the hole tolerance, shaft tolerance and allowance.

Given
Lower limit of hole D m in  50.00 mm

Upper limit of hole D m ax  50.04 mm

Lower limit of shaft dm in  49.94 mm

Upper limit of shaft dm ax  49.96 mm

Solution
(i) Hole tolerance  D max  D m in  50.04  50.00  0.04 mm
1.28 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(ii) Shaft tolerance  D max  dm in  49.96  49.94  0.02 mm

(iii) Allowance  Lower limit of H ole  U pper limit of shaft

Allo w anc e  50.00  49.96  0.04 mm

Problem 1.4 Calculate the tolerance, fundamental deviations, limits of sizes for the shaft
designated by 40 H7/f6.

Given
Basic size is 40 mm, fit is H7/f6.

Solution

(i) Tolerance grade of hole & shaft

Hole with H7 grade IT H  25 microns  25  0.001  0.025 mm

Shaft with f6 grade IT S  16 microns  16  0.001  0.016 mm

(From PSG Data book pg no. 3.3 IT tolerance table)

(ii) Fundamental deviations

For hole basis system

For hole
EI  0

For shaft
Shaft of fit r6 (lies between j to zc)

Lower deviation ei  fundamental deviation f

For r6 from PSG Data book page no 3.8 and diameter 40 mm

We have tolerance  50 and  34 microns.

Lower deviation ei  34 microns  34  0.001  0.034 mm  f

Upper deviation es  ei  IT s

50  34  IT s

 IT s  16 microns  0.016 mm as selected in i

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.29

(iii) Limits of shaft and hole

For hole
Lower limit or minimum hole size D min  D  40 mm

Upper limit or maximum hole size D max  D  IT H

 40  0.025

D max  40.025 mm

For shaft
For shaft r6 (lies between j to zc)

Lower limit or minimum shaft size dm in  d  f

dmin  40  0.034

dmin  40.034 mm

Upper limit or maximum shaft size dm ax  d  f  ITs

 40  0.034  0.016

dmax  40.050 mm

Problem 1.5 Calculate the dimensions of the following

(a) A 20 mm large electric motor sleeve bearing
(b) A 240 mm medium force fit shaft
(c) A 100 mm sleeve bearing for a elevating mechanism

Solution

A 20 mm large electric motor sleeve bearing

(i) Selection of fit

From PSG DB pg no 3.4 for large electric motor bearing with normal running
we select H8/e8 fit

(ii) Calculation of tolerances

From PSG data book pg no 3.3 tolerance table we have
1.30 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

For hole H8 fit tolerance grade IT H  33 microns

 33  0.001  0.033 mm
(For 20 mm dia & HS fit)

For shaft e8 fit tolerance grade IT s  33 microns

 33  0.001  0.033 mm
(For 20 mm dia & H8 fit)

(iii) Fundamental tolerances

For hole basis system

For hole EI  0

For shaft with e8 fit (lies between a & h shaft)

Upper deviation es  fundamental deviation f

From PSG DB pg no 3.7 for e8 and 20 mm diameter the tolerances are  40

and  73 microns.

 Upper deviation es   40  0.001   0.04 mm  f

Now lower deviationei  es  IT S

 73   40  IT S

 IT S   40  73  33 microns as selected

(iv) Dimensions of shaft & hole

For hole
Lower limit or minimum diameter of hole D min  D

 D min  20 mm

Upper limit or maximum diameter of hole D max  D  IT H

D max  20  0.033

 20.033 mm

Dimension of hole  20  0.033

0 mm
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.31

For shaft with fit e8 (lies between a to h)

Upper limit or maximum size of shaft dmax  d  f

dmax  20  0.04

dmax  19.94 mm

Lower limit or minimum size of shaft dmin  d  f  IT S

dmin  20  0.04  0.033

dmin  19.927 mm

Dimension of shaft d  20  0.040

0.073 mm

Maximum clearance
Maximum clearance  upper limit of hole  lower limit of shaft

 20.033  19.927

Maximum clearance  0.106 mm

Minimum clearance  L ow er limit of hole  Upper limit of shaft

 20  19.94  0.060 mm

Minimum clearance  0.060 mm

(b) A 240 mm medium force fit shaft

(i) Selection of fit

For medium force fit refer PSG data book pg no 3.6 we select H7/r6 fit.

(ii) Tolerances
(Ref PSG pg no 3.3 tolerance table)

For hole with H7 fit and 240 diameter IT H  46 microns  0.046 mm

For shaft with r6 fit and 240 diameter IT S  29 microns  0.029 mm

(iii) Fundamental deviations

For hole basis system F

For hole EI  0
1.32 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

For shaft (shaft with r6 fit lies between j and zc)

Lower deviation ei  fundamental deviation f

From PSG data book pg no 3.8 for 240 mm dia and r6 tolerances are  113
and  84

ei  84 microns = 0.084 mm  f

Upper deviation es  low er deviation ei  IT S

113  84  IT S

IT S  29 microns  0.029 mm as selected earlier

(iv) Dimensions of hole and shaft

For hole
Minimum diameter or lower limit of hole D min  D  240 mm

Maximum diameter or upper limit of hole D max  D  IT H

 240  0.046

D max  240.046 mm

 Dimension of hole  240 0 0.046 mm

For shaft (r6 lies between j and zc)

Lower limit or minimum diameter of shaft dmin  d  f

dmin  240  0.084  240.084 mm

Upper limit or maximum diameter of shaft dmax  d  f  ITS

dmax  240  0.084  0.029

dmax  240.113 mm

Dimensions of shaft 240  0.113

0.084 mm
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.33

(c) A 100 mm sleeve bearing for an elevating machine

(i) Selection of fit

For elevating machine loose running fit will be suitable and hence from PSG
DB 3.4 we select H8/d9 normal fit

(ii) Selection of tolerance

From PSG DB pg no 3.3 for 100 mm and H8 fit

For H8 hole IT H  54 microns  0.054 mm

For d9 shaft IT S  87 microns  0.087 mm

(iii) Fundamental deviations

For hole basis system for hole EI  0

For shaft with d9 fit (lies between a to h shaft)

Lower deviation ei  fundamental deviation f

From PSG DB pg no 3.7 for 100 mm diameter and d9 tolerances are  120 and
 207 microns.

 Lower deviation ei   207 microns   0.207 mm  f

Upper deviation es  ei  IT S

 120   207  ITS

IT S   207  120   87 microns as selected

(iv) Dimension of hole & shaft

For hole
Lower limit or minimum diameter of hole D min  D  100 mm

Upper limit or maximum diameter of hole D max  D  IT H

 100  0.054

D max  100.054 mm

 Dimensions of hole 100 0 0.054 mm

1.34 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

For shaft (for d9 lies between a to z)

Upper limit or maximum diameter of shaft dmax  d  f

 100    0.207

dmax  99.793 mm

Lower limit or minimum diameter of shaft dmin  d  f  ITS

 100    0.207  0.087 

dmin  99.706

 0.207
Dimensions of shaft 100  0.294 mm

(v) Maximum and minimum clearance

Maximum clearance  upper limit of hole  lower limit of shaft

 100.054  99.706

 0.348 mm

Minimum clearance  0.207 mm

1.5 SIMPLE STRESSES

LOAD: It is an external force acting on machine member.

1.5.1 Types of the Load

1. Static load (or) Steady load
2. Variable load (or) Dynamic load (Load varying with time)
3. Suddenly applied load (or) Shock load (When load is suddenly applied or
removed)
4. Impact load (When load is applied with some initial velocity)

STRESS
The internal resistance force per unit area at any section of the body is known
stress.

Mathematically,

lo ad
Stress  in N /mm2
unit area
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.35

1.5.2 Direct, Bending and Torsional stresses

I. Stresses due to Axial loading (or) Direct loading

(i) Tensile stress ( t)
i) Ten sile stress = t
P
Tensile Stress  t 
A
P - Tensile load in N
P P
A - cross-sectional area in mm 2
l
(ii) Compressive stress (c)
Fig.1.10. Ten sile Stress
P 
Compressive stress c    
A ii) C om pressive stress = c
P - Compressive load in N

A - Cross-sectional area in mm 2
P P
If,
l
l Length of specimen in m F ig .1.11. Com pressive Load
E Modulus of elasticity in N/m 2

G Modulus of rigidity in N/m 2

 Poisson’s ratio
e Elongation in m

We have
P.l
(iii) Elongation e 
A .E

E
(iv) Poisson’s ratio  
2G

(Refer PSG D.B page no 7.1)

* In general, for tensile load, consider  ve sign.

for compressive load, consider  ve sign.

(iv) Contact stress, Bearing stress (or) Crushing stress.

It is a localised compressive stress at the surface of contact between two
members.
1.36 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

P
Bearing stress  P b 
ld B earing

where P - Radial load acting on the journal.; l - length Journa l

of the contact between journal & bearing; d - Dia. of
the journal; l  d - represents the projected area. (It d
is not cross-sectional area).
Radial load
Bearing stres s or Crushing stress 
Projected area
P
 l
ld F ig .1.12. Crushing Stress.
II. Stresses due to Bending load
(i.e., Due to transverse load)
According to theory of simple bending.
b M E
 
y I R (PSG Databook Pg.No.7.1)
My
b 
I

where b - Bending stress; y - Distance between

A
Neutral axis and Extreme outer fibre; M - Bending
moment; I - Movement of Inertia, R - Radius of N eutral axis
curvature. M M

In Fig 1.13 (a) at (A),  b Bending stress is B (a)

My A
compressive  b  
I
N eutral axis
at (B),  b Bending stress is tensile M
M
My
b   B
I (b)

In Fig 1.13 (b) at (A), Bending stress is tensile Fig.1.13. Bending Stress
My
 b  
I
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.37

My
at (B) Bending stress is compressive  b  
I

* In general, Tensile bending stress, consider  ve sign.

Compressive bending stress, consider  ve sign.

* For Circular Cross-Section

My d
b  bending stress   y
I 2
d
M
2 32M  4
  3
I d
 4 d 64
d
64
32M
b  
d3

(iii) Torsional stress

Consider a shaft of radius r and diameter d subjected to a twisting movement
or torque T as shown in Fig. 1.14.

If
T Torque or twisting moment in Nm
T d T
r Radius of shaft in m
J Polar moment of inertia in m 4
l Length of shaft in m Fig.1.14. Torsional Stress
2
G Modulus of rigidity in N/m
N Speed of shaft in RPM
 Shear stress in kgf / cm 2 in MKS and in N/m 2 in SI)

 Angle of twist in radians

We have Torsional equation

T GQ 
  (Refer PSG DB pg no 7.1)
J l r
1.38 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Tr
 Shear stress  
J
Tl
Angle of twist  
GJ
Polar moment of Inertia J

d4
For solid shaft J 
32

 d40  d4i 
Hollow shaft J
32
do outer diameter

di inner diameter R ivet

(iv) Shear Stresses

(i) Direct Shear Stress

Ex: Shearing of Rivet. P late
Let d - Dia. of the rivet.
P - shear load.
P
Direct Shear Stress  d 
 2
d
4

(ii) Torsional Shear: s

When a body is subjected to twisting moment or torque T

T s
According to torsion equation 
J r

T s where T - Twisting moment.; J - Polar moment of inertia.;


 4 d d
d r - Radius of the shaft  ,
32 2 2
 4 
JS  d (Solid shaft); JH  d4  d4i  Hollow shaft
32 32 o

16T
s  Torsional shear stress 
d3
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.39

(v) Stress-strain diagram

In designing various
E A - Proportional limit
parts of a machine, it is
F B - Elastic limit
necessary to know the C
mechanical properties of the B

Stress ( 8)
A C - Upper yield point
D
material. These properties
D - Lower yield point
are commonly determined by
conducting a standard tensile E - Ultimate (or)
test, on UNIVERSAL Maximum stress
TESTING MACHINE (UTM). F - Breaking point.
This test consists of
gradually loading a standard O Strain (e)
specimen of a material and Fig.1.16. Stress strain plot.
recording the corresponding
values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures. The load is applied
gradually and measured by a testing machine. The stress is determined by dividing
the load value by the original cross-sectional area of the standard specimen.
The elongation is measured by determining the distance between the two
reference points on the specimen which are moved apart by the application of gradual
load. The original length between two reference points is known as Gauge length.

The strain is determined by dividing the elongation value by the gauge length.

The values of the stress and strain are used to draw the stress-strain diagram
of the material used.

The stress-strain diagram for a mild steel under tensile test is shown in the
Fig. 1.16.

Proportional limit: From point O to A is a straight line, which represents that the
stress is proportional to strain. The Hook’s law holds good upto point A, and it is
known as proportional limit.

Elastic limit: It may be noted that even if the load is increased beyond point A
upto the B, the material will regain its shape and size, when the load is removed.
The material has elastic properties upto the point B. This point is known as elastic
limit. It is defined as the stress developed in the material without any permanent
deformation.
1.40 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Yield point: If the material is stressed beyond point B, the plastic stage will reach,
i.e., on removal of the load, the material will not be able to recover its original size and
shape. Beyond point B, the strain increases at a faster rate with any increase in the
stress until the point C is reached. At this point, the material yields before the load and
there is an appreciable strain without any increase in stress. The stress corresponds to
yield point is known as yield point stress.
C - Upper yield stress,

D - Lower yield stress,

E - Ultimate stress,

F - Breaking stress.

1.5.3 Factor of safety

While designing a component, it is necessary to ensure sufficient reserve strength
in case of an accident. It is ensured by taking a suitable factor of safety. (FOS)

Failure stress F ailure load

Factor of s afety  
Allow able stress Allowab le load

The allowable stress is the stress value which is used in design to determine
the dimensions of the component.

For Ductile materials,

Yield stress
FOS 
A llow able stress o r Permissible stress

For Brittle materials,

Ultimate stre ss
FOS 
Allowable s tress

There are number of factors which are difficult to evaluate accurately in design
analysis.

Some factors are as follows:

1. Uncertainty in the magnitude of external force acting on the component.

2. Variations in the properties of materials like yield strength or ultimate
strengths.
3. Variables in the dimensions of the component due to imperfect workmanship.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.41

In addition to these factors, the no. of assumptions made in analysis, in order

to simplify the calculations, may not be exactly valid in working conditions. The factor
of safety ensures against these uncertainties and unknown conditions.

Problem 1.6 A steam engine cylinder of diameter 200 mm, the maximum pressure across
the piston is 50 kN/m2. Design the diameter of piston rod if the maximum tensile or
compressive stress on piston rod is limited to 42 N/mm2.

Given

max  42 N/mm 2  42  10  6 N/m 2; dc  200 mm  0.2 m,

P max  50 kN/m 2  50  10 3 N/m 2

Solution

(i) Load on piston rod

Load P   P max  Area of cylinder

 d2c 50  103    0.2 2

 P max    1.57081  10 3 N
4 4

Lo ad P   1571 N

(ii) Find diameter of piston rod

L oad P
max 
Area of piston rod

1571
42  10 6 
 d2p
4

1571  4
d2p  6
 4.762  10  5
42  10  

dp  6.9  10  3 m

or dp  6.9 mm

From nearest standard diameter R20 series we get dp  7.10 mm

1.42 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 1.7 A link as shown in figure is subjected to a steady tensile force of 50 kN.
Find the tensile stress induced in link.

Given
Load P  50 kN  50  103 N

A A
B
P P 50 75
50

10
A B A 30
Fig.1.17. Section A -A

Tensile stress at section B  B

Area at section B  B A B   l  b  10  50  500 mm2

Load P 50  10 3
Tensile stress tB    100 N/mm2  50 MPa
A rea A B  500

Tensile stress induced at section A  A

Area at section A  A A A  30 75  50   750 mm 2

Load P 50  10 3
Tensile stress t    66.67 N/mm 2  66.67 MPa
A Area A A 750

Problem 1.8 Two rectangular plates are fastened by two bolts of 25 mm diameter and
nut. There is a washer whose ID  27 mm and OD  55 mm placed between the plates
and there is an another washer placed between the nut and upper plate of dimensions
ID  27 mm and OD  49 mm. The base plate carries a load of 100 kN. Calculate the
stress on both washers before nut is tightened. When nut is tightened so as to produce a
tension of 10 kN an each bolt, what are the stresses in each washer.

Given
Bolt dia (d) = 25 mm, washer 1: d01  55 mm, di1  27 mm;

washer 2 d02  49 mm, di2  27 mm; load P   100 kN  100  10 3 N

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.43

(i) Stresses without nut tightening

 2 
Area of washer 1 A 1  [d  d2i1]  [55 2  27 2]  1803.27 mm 2
4 o1 4

 
Area of washer 2 A 2  [do2  d2i2]  [49 2  27 2]  1313.18 mm 2
4 4

(ii) Load acting and stress before tightening of nut

Load P  is acting on two bolts, so load on each washer

100  10 3
P1   50  10 3 N
2

Upper washer (2) load  0

Lower washer (1) load  P 1  50  10 3 N

P1 50  10 3
Stress on washer between plates  1    27.73 N/mm 2
A1 1803.27

(iii) Nuts are tightened

Load on upper washer 2  P 2  10 kN  10  10 3 N

P2 10  10 3
Stress on upper washer  2    7.615 N/mm 2
A2 1313.18

Load on lower washer 1  P 3  P 1  10 kN

P 3  100  10  110 kN

P3 110  10 3
Stress on washer between plates  3    61 N/mm 2
A1 1803.27

Problem 1.9: A simply supported beam of rectangular cross section having depth three
times width is subjected to a point load of 20 kN at 300 mm from the left support. The
span of beam is 700 mm. Determine the dimensions of section if the allowable strength of
material is 200 MPa. (JNTU, Dec 2011)

Given
Simply supported beam, L  700 mm , a  300 mm , b  700  300  400 mm

P  20 kN  20  10 3 N , []  200 N/mm 2 , d  3b

1.44 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Solution
From PSG DB pg no 6.5 for SSB with a, b and point load we have maximum
bending moment d=3b 20k N
P ab 20  10 3  300  400 CS
M max  
L 700 a=3 00 b=4 00

M max  3.428  10 6 Nmm b

700
Mb b
Bending stress equation 
I y [PSG D.B pg 7.1]

bd 3 b  3b
3
27b4
I   mm 4
12 12 12

d 3b
y 
2 2

3.428  10 6  3.48  10 6  3b  12
  or b   200
27b4 36/ 2 27b 4  2
12

3.428  10 6  3  12
b3   11426.66
27  2  200

b  22.52 mm say 23 mm

 width b  23 mm

depth d  23  3  69 ~
 70 mm

1.6 IMPACT STRESS

When machine members are subjected to the load with impact, then the stress
produced in the member due to the falling load is known as ‘impact stress’.

Consider a load ‘W’ falling on a body from a height ‘h’.

The load is suddenly applied and the type of loading is called impact loading.

Let A  area of cross-section of the member.

W
The stress on the member for gradually applied load is   .
A
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.45

But due to the application of sudden load, the

stress induced in the member will be greater than the
W
value .
A

Let   Deflection due to the impact. Load

W
P Equivalent load which will produce the
deflection ‘’.
l
Energy gained by the system in the form of strain h
energy  Area of triangle OAB Body

1
 P
2 ...(1)

Potential energy lost by weight

 Wh   ...(2)
But, the energy gained by the system in the form
Fig. 1.18. Im pact L oad ing.
of strain energy is equal to the potential energy lost
by the weight.
Equal equations (1) and (2)
1
P  W  h
2 ... (3)

Let   stress induced in the member due to the application of impact load.

P
where E  young’s modulus 
A

or P    A

 P l  l
Deflection     E
 A E 
l
Replace P    A and     in the equation (3)
E

1  l   l 
   A      W     h  expand and simplify the equation.
2  E  E 
1.46 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Al 2 W l
    Wh  0 (is a Quadratic equation.)
2E E

Solving the equation,

  1 .


W 2hAE  = OB . AB
 1 1 2
A  Wl  1 .
=  .P
2
P A
 



2hAE 
(or)   A  W  1  1 Strain
 Wl 
E n ergy
 



2hAE 
PW1 1
 Wl  O B

Fig. 1.19.
1.7 PRINCIPAL STRESSES
Machine components are subjected to several external loads of different nature.
Therefore, it is necessary to find the equivalent single stress by using principal
stresses.
At any point in a strained material, there are three mutually perpendicular
planes on which only direct stresses are acting, and there are no shear stresses. These
planes are principal planes and the direct stresses are called Principal stresses or
Normal stresses. Out of three Principal stresses  1, 2, and 3 one is maximum, one
is minimum and the other one is intermediate.

Two-dimensional
Max. principal stress



2
x   y   x  y  x   y 1
 1 
2
 
2
2
  xy 
2

2

  x  y2  42xy
 

Min. principal stress



2
x   y   x  y  x   y 1
 2 
2
 
2
2
  xy 
2

2

  x  y2  4 2xy
 

1   2
M ax. shear stress  ma x  [Refer PSG D.B Pg No.7.2]
2
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.47

N orm al y
Stress xy

xy


x
x

tan gential
stress

yx

yx y
Fig.1.20. Principal Stress.

2xy
tan 2  where   angle between  1 and x  axis
 x  y

Note: If  1 and  2 both are  ve. Consider  3 into account.

Let  z be stress in z-direction. If z  0, then 3  0

 1  3 1  0
Then max  
2 2

1
max 
2

Problem 1.10:
50m m T =1K N -m
A F =3K N

P = 15K N

B
250m m
Fig. 1.21.
Calculate normal stresses at (A) and (B).
Also calculate max. shear stresses at (A) and (B). (JNTU, Dec 2011)
1.48 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Solution

Given:

d  50 mm , T  1 kNm  1  10 3 Nm, F  3 kN  3000 N

P  15 kN  15  10 3N, l  250 mm

(i) Consider axial load

Axial load induces direct stress. P  Axial load  Te nsile  15 kN
3
P 15  10   15  10 3 N
t  Direct stress   tensile
A 1963.49

 7.639 N/mm 2  2 
[Area A  d  502  1963
4 4
 2 
A  d  50 2  1963.49 mm 2]
4 4

(ii) Consider transverse (or) Bending load

Bending load  F  3 kN  3  10 3 N

Bending moment  F  l  3  10 3  250  750  10 3 Nm m

Bending lo ad induc esbending stress,

My [PSG D.B Pg.No.7.1] d 50

b   y   25 mm
I 2 2

 d4
I
64


I 50 4  306.79  10 3 mm 4
64

at (A) 750  10 3  25
btensile  
306.79  10 3

  61.115 N/mm 2 tensile

at (B) bcomp.   61.115 N/mm 2 comp

Total stress  x   t   b
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.49

at (A)  x  t  bt

  7.639  61.115   68.75 N/mm 2

at (B)  x  t  bc

  7.693   61.115   53.422 N/mm 2

(iii) Consider torsion

Twisting moment T  1 kN  m  1000  1000 Nmm

T  50
 [PSG D.B Pg.No.7.1] r  25 mm
J r 2
Tr  4
xy    J d
J 32

10 6  25 
 J  50 4
3 32
613.59  10
xy  40.74 N/mm 2 J  613.59  103 m m4

At (A) At (B)
x   68.75 N/mm 2  x   53.476 N/mm 2

y  0 y  0

xy   40.74 N /m m2 xy   40.74 N /m m2

At (A)



2
x   y   x  y  2
1  Max. normal stress      xy
2  2 
[PSG D.B. Pg.No.7.2]



2
68.75  68.75  2
   2   40.74 
2  

 34.375  53.30

  87.675 N/mm 2
1.50 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements



2
x   y   x  y  2
 2  Min. norma l stress      xy
2  2 

 34.375  53.30

  18.925 N/mm 2

 1  2
Max. Shear stress  maxat A 
2

87.675   18.925 

2

[ max ]at A   53.3 N/mm 2

At (B)



2
x   y   x  y  2
1  Max. normal stress      xy
2  2 



2
 53.476   53.476  2
     40.74    26.738  48.730
2  2 

  21.992 N/m m2 te nsile

2  M in. normal stress   26.738  48.73

  75.468 N/m m2 comp. 

1   2
Max. Shear stress  m axat B 
2

21.992   75.468 

2

[ max ]at B   48.73 N/m m2

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.51

Problem 1.11: For the stress state given, find the principal normal and shear stresses and
determine the angle from the x-axis to 1. Draw the stress element and label all details.

x  16 MPa  16 N /m m2

y  9 MPa  9 N/mm 2

xy  5 MPa  5 N/mm 2

where 1  Angle from  1 to x  axis

2  Angle from  2 to x  axis

y =9M P a 2xy
tan 21 
y x =5M P a x  y

25 10
   1.428
x y =5M P a 16  9 7

2 1  tan  11.428
x x =16 M P a
55
1   27.5
2

 2  90  27.5  117.5 

Fig. 1.22. Max. principal stress (or) Max. normal

y stress



2
 x  y   x  y  2
 1      xy [Refer PSG D.B Pg.No.7.2]
2  2 



2
16  9  16  9  2 2

2
 
2
  5  12.5  6.1032  18.60 N/mm
 



2
 x  y  x   y  2
Min. principal stress (or) Min. normal stress  2      xy
2  2 

 12.5  6.1032  6.3968 N/mm 2

1.52 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Since  1 and  2 are  ve,  Consider 3 into account.

3  0

1   3 18.6  0
Max. shear stress  max  
2 2

max  9.3 N/mm 2

Problem 1.12: Determine the required thickness of the steel bracket at section A-A. When
loaded as shown in Fig. 1.23 in order to limit the tensile stress to 60 MN/m2.
(Oct-96-MU, Apr 2007-AU)

Solution
At section A-A imagine two forces F 1 and F 2 equal to F

i.e., F 1  F 2  F  4500 N.
e= 50 45 00 N
t
The force F and F 1 constitute couple F  e. The
50
effect of couple produces bending, which induces
bending stress.
10 0
My M  F  e  4500  50 N.mm A A
b  50
I
4500  50  25 50
 y  25 mm
1 2 t
 t  50 3
25 50 e F = 45 00 N
540 1
 N  mm 2 I  t  50 3
t 12

The force F 2 produces a direct tensile load which

induces direct tensile stress. A C F1 A
F2
P F2 4500 90
t     [A  50  t] Fe
A A 50  t t C=

540 90 630
Total stress  total   b  t   
t t t

630 A
ie x  A
t F2
Fig. 1.23.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.53

y  0; xy  0;  1  60 N/mm 2 (given) (since it is tensile)



2
 x  y  x   y 
1      2xy
2  2 

(Refer PSG D.B Pg No.7.2)



2
630  630 
   2t   60
2t  

630 630
  60
2t 2t

630
t  10.5 mm.
60

Thickness of steel bracket  t  10.5 m m

Problem 1.13: Determine the maximum shear stress in the menber loaded shown in Fig.
1.24. (Madras University, Apr - May 2005 - AU)

Assume point (C) and image F 1 and F 2 two equal and opposite force i.e.,
F 1  F 2  F  500 N.

The force F and F 1 produces couple, the effect of couple produces twisting, which
induces torsional shear stress.

Tr
s 
J
5000 500  50
s  T  5000  500 Nmm

 100 4
32
 xy r  50 mm
 4 
s  xy  12.73 N  mm 2 J d   100 4
32 32
1.54 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

The force F 2 produces bending, which induces bendings stress

My M  F 2  250 500m m

b  5000 N
I
5000  250  50  5000  250 Nm m 100m m


100 4 250
64
 12.73 N/mm 2 y
d 100
  50 mm
2 2
 4 
I d  100 4 mm 4
64 64 e
C F1 F = 500 0 N
x  b  12.73 N/m m2; y  0
F2
2
xy  12.73 N/m m

 1  Max. principal stress (Refer PSG DB Pg.No.7.2)



2
x   y   x  y  2 C C=F.e
     xy
2  2 
F2 250



2
12.73  12.73  2
   2   12.73 
2  

Fig. 1.24.
 6.365  14.23   20.595 N /mm 2



2
x   y   x  y  2
2  Min. principal stress      xy
2  2 

 6.365  14.23   7.865 N/mm 2

 1  2
Max. Shear stress  max 
2

20.595   7.865 
  14.23 N /mm 2.
2
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.55

Problem 1.14: Stresses in a wheel hub are found to be 40 N/mm2 and 50 N/mm2 tension
at a point as shown in the Fig 1.25. Calculate the max. shear stress at the point.

Given data:

x  40 N/mm 2;  y  50 N/mm 2; z  0 since  3  0; xy  0

Max. principal stress

y
x



2
x   y   x  y  2
1      xy
2  2 



2
40  50  40  50 
     45  5  50 N/mm 2 Fig. 1.25.
2  2 

Min. principal stress

 2  45  5  40 N/mm 2

Since 1 and 2 are  ve, Consider 3 into account.  3  0

1   3 50  0
 Max. shear stress  max    25 N/mm 2
2 2

Problem 1.15: A 50 mm diameter rod is subjected to a 10 kN force and a torsional

moment of 100 N-m as shown in the Fig. 1.26(a). Determine the maximum tensile and
maximum shear stress at point (A).

Solution
Assume point ‘C’ and imagine two equal and
opposite forces

F 1 and F 2 i.e., F 1  F 2  F  10,000 N

The force F and F 1 constitute a couple. The

couple produces bending, which induces bending stress.

 At (A) the bending stress is tensile.

1.56 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

y
b  M  M  10,000  25 N  mm A
I 5 0
10,000  25  25 50
b  y  25 mm T
 2
 50 4 1 0 0N -m
64
 20.37 N/mm 2 
I 50 4
64
The remaining force F 2 produces a direct
tensile stress.
F2 10,000
t    5.0929 N/mm 2
A 
50 2
4

total stress  x   b  t  20.37  5.09 B

25
(a) F
 25.46 N/mm 2 1 0 ,0 0 0 N

The torsional moment induces torsional

shear stress.
Tr T  100 Nm A
xy 
J T = 100 N -m
100  1000 25  100  1000 Nmm 3
= 100 x 10 N -m m

613592.3
 4.07 N /mm 2  4
J d
32

  50 4  6135923 mm 4
32

50
r  25 mm F2
2
C B
e = 25



2
 x  y  x   y  (b) F1 F
2 1 0,00 0 N
1      xy  y  0
2  2 
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.57



2
25.46  25.46  2
   2   4.07
2  

 12.73  13.36  26.09 N/mm 2

 2  12.73  13.36

  0.63 N/mm 2

1   2 Fxe
Max. shear stress  max  F2
2 C
B
26.09   0.63 (c) 25

2 Fig. 1.26.

max  13.36 N/mm2

Problem 1.16: Determine the maximum principal stress, min. principal stress and max.
shear stress at the centre of the crank shaft bearing for the load as shown in the Fig. 1.27.

The force 10 kN is acting perpendicular to the crank pin and this force induces
bending stress and torsional shear stress at the axis of the crank shaft.

P  10 kN  10  10 3N

Bending moment M  10  10 3  100 Nmm

Twisting moment T  10  10 3  120  10 4 Nmm

My  4
Bending stress  b  I d
I 64
10 6  30 
 x  b    60 4  636.17  10 3 mm4
64
636.17  10 3
 47.15 N/mm 2 y
60
 30 mm
2
Tr
Shear stress  xy 
J
120  10 4  30 d 60
 r   30 mm
2 2
1.27  10 6
1.58 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

10K N
C rank pin 40

120

C rank
S haft
100 Fig. 1.27.
A

 28.34 N/mm 2  4 
J d   60 4
32 32
y  0  1.27  10 6mm 4



2
 x  y  x   y  2
Max. principal stress  1      xy
2  2 



2
47.15  47.15  2
   2   28.34 
2  

 23.575  36.863

 60.4 N/mm 2



2
x   y   x  y 
Minimum principal stress   2      xy 2
2  2 

 2  23.575  36.863

  13.25 N/mm 2
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.59

 1  2 60.4   13.25 
Max. shear stress  max  
2 2

max  36.825 N/mm2

Problem 1.17: Determine the maximum normal and max. shear stresses at section A-A
as shown in the Fig. 1.28.

30 FV
F = 10K N 30
o
30
FH

150 150

A
80 80 A
65 25 Fig.1.28. 65 25

The load F is resolved into vertical and horizontal components. F V and F H .

F  10 kN  10  10 3N

F V  Vertical load  F  sin   10,000  sin 30

 5,000 N

F H  Horizontal load  F  cos   10,000  cos 30  8660.25 N

Both vertical and horizontal loads produces bending moments (i.e., vertical
bending moment and horizontal bending moment.)
Therefore, it is necessary to find resultant bending moment.

Vertical bending moment  BM V  F V30  25  65  5000 120  600  10 3Nmm

Horizontal bending moment

 BM H  F H 30  25  65  8660.25  120  1.039  10 6Nmm

Resulting bending moment  BM R  

 2H
BM v2  BM

BMR  
600  10 32  1.039  10 62  1.199  10 6Nmm
1.60 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

This resultant bending moment induces bending stress b

BMR y 80
Bending stress  b  y  40 mm
I 2

1.199  10 6  40 
b   x  I  80 4
64
2.01  10 6
b  x  23.85 N/mm2  2.01  10 6m m4

And also, the horizontal load induces torsional shear stress.

Tr T  Twisting moment due to horizontal load.

 Torsional shear stress  xy 
J  F H  150

1.29  10 6  40  8660.25  150  1.29  10 6 Nmm

xy 
4.02  10 6 80
r  40 mm
2
xy  12.83 N/mm2 y  0  4 
J d   80 4  4.02  10 6 mm 4
32 32



2
 x  y  x   y  2
Max. principal stress  1      xy
2  2 



2
23.85  23.85  2
   2   12.83   11.925  17.517
2  

1  29.442 N/mm2



2
x   y   x  y  2
Min. principal stress   2      xy  11.925  17.517
2  2 

 2   5.592 N/mm 2

 1  2 29.442   5.592 
Max. shear stress at A-A  [ max ]AA  
2 2

[ max ]AA  17.517 N/mm2

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.61

Problem 1.18 : A wall bracket is loaded as shown in the Fig. 29 (a) The cross-section
of the bracket is rectangular having b  3t. Determine the dimensions of the cross-section
of the bracket if the permissible stress is limited to 28 N/mm2.
(Apr 99 - Madras University, Oct - 2006 - AU)

Mark the angle with respect to x-axis. i.e., 30 with x-axis.

Resolve the force F  5 kN into horizontal and vertical components

Horizontal component of F  F H  F  cos 30  5  10 3  cos 30  4330.12 N

Vertical component of F  F V  F  sin 30  50  10 3  sin 30  2500 N.

Consider a point ‘C’.

At ‘C’ imagine two forces F H & F H equal and opposite forces with magnitude
1 2

of F H ; i.e., F H  F H  F H  4330.12 N
1 2

1. The force F V induces bending stress.

My M  F V  120
b 
I
 2500  120  300  10 3Nm m
1

300  10 3  3t  12 b 3t
 y  But b  3t
4 2 2
27 t  2
200  103 1 1
b  N/mm2 I t b3  t 3t3
3 12 12
1
t
2. The force F H and F H constitute a couple the effect of couple produces bending.
2

The couple induces bending stress.

My
b  M  F H  cos 30  60
2 I

259.8  10 3 
3t  5  10 3cos 30   60  259.8  10 3Nmm
2 b 3t
 y  But b  3t
1
 27  t4 2 2
12
1 1
I t b3  t 3t3
173.2  103 12 12
b  N/mm2
2
t3
1.62 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3. The force F H (tensile) induces direct tensile stress.

1

FH 5  10 3cos 30 4330.12 1443.37

1
t    
A bt 3t t t2

120

o
60 F
60 5K N

C b
b

t
t (a)
FH
o
o
(5.cos30 )
30
F
120 5K N
o 60
F V (5Sin30 )
A
FH1 b
C F H2

B t
(b)

120 C =F H 1 x60

o
F V (5sin 30 )
A
FH2
FH1
(c) Fig.1.29.
B
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.63

At - A
Total stress  x   b  b   t
1 2

200  10 3 173.2  10 3 1443.37

 3
 3

t t t2

373.2  10 3 1443.37
 3

t t2

y  0; xy  0;

x   1  28 N/mm 2 Given

373.2  10 3 1443.37
 3
  28.
t t2

Calculate ‘t’ by trail and error method

Let t  10

L.H.S. 373.2  14.43  387.63

L.H.S.  R.H.S.

t  15

L.H.S. 110.57  6.41  116.98

L.H.S.  R.H.S.

t  20

L.H.S. 46.65  3.60  50.25

L.H.S.  R.H.S.

t  25

L.H.S. 23.88  2.309  26.18

L.H.S.  R.H.S.

Therefore, take thickness t  25 mm

and b  3  t  3  25  75 mm.
1.64 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 1.19: Determine the

maximum shear stress and the m
principal stress for the member shown l 2= 5 m F  50m m
1 2 V1

in Fig. 1.30 (a). FH1

Introduce equal and opposite
FH2
vertical forces F v1 and
F v2 F v1  F v2  F v perpendicular to F V2

the axis of the circular bar and equal l1=

and opposite horizontal forces F H1 500 m m
and F H2 F H1  F H2  F H , along the F H= F V=
Fig.1.30(a) 100 0N 200 0N
axis. This does not disturb the
equilibrium.

Effects of various loads (Fig. 1.30 (b))

F v and F v2 constitute a couple F v l1
and twist the circular bar. F v1 bends the BM H
circular bar in the vertical plane. F H and 1
FH
F H2 constitute a couple F H l1 and bends F V1
the circular bar in the horizontal plane.
T
F H1 gives tensile load to the circular bar.

Twisting moment,

T  F v l1  2000  500  10  10 5 Nmm

Fig.1.30(b)
Shear stress,

16T 16  10  10 5
   40.7 N/mm 2
 d3   50 3

Bending moment (vertical)  BM v  F v1 l2

 2000  125  25  10 4 Nmm

Bending moment (horizontal)  BM H  F H l1

 1000  500  50  10 4 Nmm

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.65

Bending moment (resultant)  

 BM 2V  BM 2H

BM R  
 25  10 42  50  10 42  55.9  10 4 Nmm

32BM R 32  55.9  10 4
Bending stress b  3
 3
 45.6 N/mm 2
d   50

F H1
Tensile stress due to F H1 
 d2/4

1000
t  2
 0.509 N/mm 2
  50 /4

T  b   t  45.6  0.509  46.1 N/mm 2



 T  2
Maximum shear stress  max    
 2 



2
 46.1  2 2
  2   40.7   46.8 N/mm
 



T  T  2
Maximum normal stress  1     
2  2 



2
46.1  46.1  2 2
   2   40.7   69.8 N/mm
2  

Problem 1.20: An unknown weight falls through 10 mm on to a collar rigidly attached

to the lower end of a vertical bar 3 m long and 600 mm2 cross section. The maximum
instantaneous extension is 2 mm. What is the corresponding stress and the value of the
weight. Take E  200 kN/mm2. (M.U. Nov.93)

Refer Fig. 1.31

1. Equate the energy of impact to the strain energy of the bar and determine W .
1.66 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1
W h    P
2 ...(1)

  instantaneous extension  2 mm

 AE W
P  equivalent static load 
L L = 3000m m 2
A =6 00m m
E  2  10 5 N/mm 2 h= 10m m

2  600  2  10 5
P  80,000 N
3000

Now, using (1) solve for W . Fig.1.31.

1
W 10  2   80,000  2
2

W  6666.7 N

P 80,000
2. Instantaneous stress  inst    133.3 N/mm 2
A 600

Problem 1.21: An unknown weight falls through 10 mm on to a collar rigidly attached

to the lower end of a vertical bar 3 m long and 600 mm2 cross-section. The maximum
instantaneous extension is 2 mm. What is the corresponding stress and the value of the
weight; Take E  200 kN/mm2. (Nov-93, MU, Apr 2004- AU)

Given data:

h  10 mm ; l  3 m  3000 mm ; A  600 mm 2;   2 mm l;

E  200 kN/mm 2  200  10 3  2  10 5 N/mm 2

Solution
 stress
Young’s modulus  E  
e strain

  l  2
Strain     6.66  10  4
l  l  3000

Instantaneous stress   E  e  2  10 5  6.66  10  4  133.33 N/mm 2

P
But 
A
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.67

Instantaneous static load P    A  133.33  600  80  10 3N

1
P  Wh  
2

1
 80  10 3  2  W10  2
2

80  10 3
W  6666.66 N
12

W  6.666 kN.

Problem 1.22: An I-section beam of depth 250 mm is supported at two points 4 m apart.
It is loaded by a weight 4 kN falling through a height h and striking the beam at mid
span. Moment of inertia of the section is 8  107mm4. Modulus of Elasticity is
210 kN/mm2. Determine the permissible value of h if the stress is limited to
120 N/mm2. (Nov 94-MU, Apr 2008-AU)

Solution
d 250
depth  d  250, mm ; y    125 mm ; l  4 m  4,000 mm
2 2

W  4 kN  4  10 3 N ; I  8  10 7mm 4 ; E  210 kN/mm 2  210  10 3N/mm 2

Instantaneous stress    120 N/mm 2

W
h

d epth =
2 5 0m m

l Fig. 1.32.

My  M I 
Instantaneous stress     Z where Z  (From PSG D.B Pg.No.7.1)
I  y 

Pl
But Max. BM  M  (for a simply supported beam load acting at centre)
4
1.68 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

P l
y
4
 (From PSG D.B Pg. No.6.5)
I

  I  4 120  8  10 7  4
Instantaneous static load P    76.8  10 3N
ly 4000  125

Instantaneous deflection,  for a simply supported beam with a concentrated centre

load.

P  l3
 [From PSG DB P.No. 6.5.]
48EI

76.8  10 3  4000 3

48  210  10 3  8  10 7

Instantaneous deflection   6.095 mm

We know that

1
P  Wh  
2

1
 76.8  10 3  6.095  4  10 3h  6.095 
2

h  58.514  6.095 mm

h  52.419 mm.

Problem 1.23: A weight of 6000 N falls through a distance ‘h’ at the middle of a beam
of span 4.5 m. The end connections of the beam may be considered as simply supported.
Determine the value of h, such that the maximum induced stress in the beam does not
exceed 160 N/mm2. The modulus of section of the beam  2  10 4m3, second moment of
area  1  10 5m4. (Oct-98 - MU, Nov 2007 - AU)

Given data:

W  6000 N ; l  4.5 m  4500 mm; Z  2  10  4m 3  2  10  4  1000 3  200  10 3mm 3

I  1  10  5m 4  1  10  5  1000 4  10 7 mm 4.

Let M  Max. BM for a simply supported beam, concentrated load acting at the centre.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.69

P  l P  4500
Max. BM  M   (From PSG D.B Pg.No.6.5)
4 4

P  4500
4 M
160  3
bending stress  
200  10 z

P  28444.44 N

Pl3 28.44  10 3  4500 3

Instantaneous deflection,   
48EI 48  210  10 3  10 7

 25.71 mm E is not given Assume

E  120  10 2N/mm 2

(From PSG D.B Pg. No.6.5)

1
P  Wh  
2

1
 28.44  10 3  25.71  6000 h  25.71 
2

h  60.93  25.71  35.22 mm

h  35.22 mm

Problem 1.24: A cantilever shaft of 60 mm diameter and 0.3 m length in subjected to

following load (a) point load of 5 kN at free end (b) Axial load of 20 kN and (c) Torque
of 1 kN-m as shown in Fig. 1.33. Determine the stresses at A and B. (April 2005 - A.U)

F 20,000  4
1. Axial stress due to 20 kN a    7.07 N/mm 2
A   60 2

Bending stress due to the tip load 5 kN,

32  M 32  5000  300
bt  bc  3
  70.7 N/mm 2
d   60 3

Sheat stress due to torque 1 kN-m.

16T 16  1,000,000
 3
  23.6 N/mm 2
d   60 3
1.70 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2. At A state of stress is depicted in Fig. 4.26 (c)

Total normal stress  T   bt   a  70.7  7.07  77.8 N/mm 2

  23.6 N/mm 2



2
 x  y  x   y  2
1, 2      xy
2  2 


 

2 2
T  T  2 77.8  77.8  2
        2   23.6  38.9  45.5
2  2  2  

5kN
A

50m m 20kN

1kN -m
B
0.3m
(a)

A a T ensile b t  Shear S tress

T ensile
bending stress

B b c C om pressive
bending stress
(b)

y =0 y =0
9xy 9xy

x x = T = b t + a x = T x = T = b t + a
y =0 y =0
z =0 At A z =0 At B
(c) Fig.1.33. (d)
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.71

1  84.4 N/mm 2 2   6.6 N/mm 2

 1  2 84.4    6.6
max    45.5 N/mm 2
2 2
3. At B state of stress is depicted in Fig. 4.26 (d)

T   bc   a   70.7  7.07   63.6 N/mm 2

  23.6 N/mm 2


 

2 2
T  T  2  63.6   63.6  2
1.2           23.6
2  2  2  2 

 1  7.8 N/mm 2 ; 2   71.4 N/mm 2

1   2 7.8    71.4
max    39.6 N/mm 2
2 2

Problem 1.25: Calculate the strain energy stored per unit volume, i.e., resilience is
increased for the same maximum stress by turning down the shank of the bolt to the core
diameter of the thread. Take E  2.1  105 N/mm2.

1. Calculation of stresses in the shank and in the threaded portion

 d2c
  16.6 2
A t  Area of the core section    216.4 mm 2
4 4
ls lt
Load
Stress in the threaded portion  80m m 40m m
Area
16.6
mm
mm
20

20000
1   92.42 N/mm 2
216.4 F ig.1.34.
  d2   20 2
A s  Area of the shank section    314.2 mm 2
4 4

20000
s  Stress in the shank section   63.65 N/mm 2
314.2

2. Strain energy calculation

2
U  volume
2E
1.72 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2t A t lt 2s A s ls 92.42 2  216.4  40 63.65 2  314.2  80

U   
2E 2E 2  2.1  10 5 2  2.1  10 5
 176.05  242.46  418.5 Nmm

3. Strain energy after the shank is turned to the core diameter

   t  92.42 N/mm 2

 2t 92.42 2  216.4  40  80

U  A t lt  ls   528.11 Nmm
2E 2  2.1  10 5

1.8 COMBINED STRESSES DUE TO ECCENTRIC LOADING

Frames of punching
machines, hydraulic riveter,
 
clamps etc. are subjected to
eccentric loading. Ct Cc
e e
In Fig. 1.35, the loading is
F F F1 F F
eccentric. In Fig. 1.35, equal and
opposite forces F 1  F 2  F are
m F2 n C
introduced along the axis of the
member. This result in a direct
force F and a couple C  Fe, acting
on the member as shown in Fig. (a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig.1.35. A xial and Eccentric Loading.
1.35. The stress distribution are
shown in Fig. 1.36. F
C
Stresses on section m  n
m n
At m, tensile stress
FeC t F (d)
m  
I A
c = C om pressive Stress
At n, compressive stress
FeC c F Bending stress bt
n   bc = Bending stress
I A ten sile
Fig. 1.36. Com pressive
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.73

Problem 1.26: Determine the required thickness of the steel bracket at section X  X when
loaded as shown in Fig. 1.37. The permissible tensile stress is 100 MN/m2.

F =500 0N F =500 0N
50m m
e A

T hickness,t

b F =500 0N
50m m
x B x
x x

(a) (b) F =500 0N

C om pressive
stress
bt = Ten sile
due to
2 stress due to
bending 1 bending
bc
C =F e F
x x
B t = Ten sile
stress
(c) due to direct
loadin g
Fig.1.37. (d)

Solution
This is a problem in eccentric loading.
Along the axis, two equal and opposite forces F are introduced (Fig. 1.37). The
upward F at A and downward F at B constitute a couple C  Fe . Therefore, at B, we
have the upward F and a couple C . This equivalent loading is depicted in Fig. 1.37c.

Induced bending stress due to the couple

Fe
b 
Z

Fe  5000  50  250,000 Nmm

1.74 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1 2 1
Z tb   t  50 2  416.7 t
6 6

250,000 600
  N/mm 2
416.7 t t

Direct tensile stress due to F

F 5000 100
t    N/mm 2
bt 50  t t

The stress distribution is shown in Fig. 1.37 (d)

Maximum stress is on side 1
T1  bt  t (both are tensile)

600 100 700

  
t t t

700
 | t|  100 N/mm 2
t

t  7 mm, take t  8 mm

Note: Stress on side 2

 600 100
12    bc (compressive stress)   t     62.5 N/mm 2
8 8

Problem 1.27: A wall bracket shown in Fig. 1.38 is subjected to a pull of 5 kN at 60
to the vertical. The cross section of the bracket is rectangular having b  3t. Determine the
dimensions of the cross section of the bracket if the permissible stress is limited to
28 N/mm2. (M.U Apr 92)

120 o
F H =5sin6 0
F o
5k N F V =5cos60
60
t A
b
F H1 F H2
B
(a) (b)
Fig.1.38.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.75

1. Refer to Fig. 1.38 (b)

F is resolved into F H and F V

F V bends the bracket and bending stresses are induced across AB .

Introduce equal and opposite forces F H1 and F H2 F H1  F H2  F H  along the axis.

F H and F H2 constitute a couple inducing bending stresses. F H1 induces uniform tensile
stress across the section.

2. Direct tensile stress

FH 4330 1443.3 F H  5000 sin 60   4330 N
1   
bt 3t 2
t 2
F V  5000 cos 60   2500 N
b  3t

3. Bending stress due to F V (at (A & B )

M 300,000 200,000 M  F V  120  250  120

2   
1
tb 2 1
t 3t 2 t3  300,000 Nmm
6 6

4. Bending stress due to couple FH  60

Couple  C  4330  60  259,800 Nmm

C 259,800 173,200
2   
1
t b2
1
t 3t2 t3
6 6

5. Total normal stress at A - Tensile stress

1443.2 200000 173200
   1  2   3  2
 3

t t t3
373200 1443.3
 3

t t2

6. Now   []
373200 1443.3
i.e 3
  []  28 N/mm 2
t t2
t is evaluated by trial and error method

trail 1: If t  20 mm, we get   50.25 N/mm 2  28 N/mm 2

1.76 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

N  N 
trail 2: If t  25 mm , we get   26.18  []   28
2 
mm  mm 2 

Hence, it is safer to take

t  25 mm and

b  3  25  75 mm
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.77

DESIGN OF CURVED BEAMS

1.9 DESIGN OF CURVED BEAMS

In case of curved beam, the neutral axis is curved during the unloading
condition. The stress distribution in a curved beam is determined by the following
assumptions.
1. The material is homogeneous.
2. Plane sections perpendicular to the axis of the beam must be plane after
bending.
3. The modulus of elasticity is same in both tension and compression.
In curved beams, the neutral axis and centroidal axis are not coinciding, but
the neutral axis is shifted towards the centre of curvature. The distribution of stress
in curved beams is hyperbolic. The various notations used in the diagram are,

ho

R Mb
C e hi
A
rn
N A
Mb +
ro ri

Fig.1.39. C urved beam s.

C urved bea m

ro  Radius of outer fiber

ri  Radius of inner fiber
h Depth of cross-section
1.78 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

ho  Distance from neutral axis to outer fibre

hi  Distance from neutral axis to inner fiber
rn  Radius of neutral axis
R Radius of centroidal
e Distance from centroidal axis to neutral axis  R  rn
Let M b  bending moment

Refer PSG Design databook page No. 6.2

Mb  y
The bending stress  b  kg f/cm 2
a  e rn  y

where, a  area of cross-section cm 2

y  distance of fibre from neutral axis, cm.

Note: y is positive when measured towards centre of curvature, y is negative when
measured from Neutral axis away from the centre of curvature.
The bending stress at outer fibre

M b  ho
b 
max a e ro

The bending stress at inner fibre

M b hi
b 
max a e ri

For different cross-sections of curved beams, the equations to find rn (radius of

neutral axis) and R (radius of centroidal axis) from centre of curvature, are given in
PSG design databook page No. 6.3.

The general cross-section of curved beams are circular, rectangular, I-section,

T-section, Trapezoidal and hollow rectangular.

Problem 1.28: A crane hook shown in the diagram having trapezoidal cross-section is
made of plain carbon steel. Take yield strength of the material as 350 N/mm2 and factor
of safety as 3.5. Determine the load carrying capacity of the crane hook.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.79

150

40 80
R 50
P1
A A S ection at A .A
P a nd P 2 indu ce s ben ding stress,
P2 P 1 induces d irect tensile stress.

P Fig.1.40.

P and P 2 induces bending stress

P 1 induces direct tensile stress

Given Data:

(i) Design Stress

y  350 N/mm 2 ; FOS  3.5

350
Design stress   100 N/mm 2
3.5

(ii) Find rn and R

Refer PSG Design Databook, Page No. 6.3

For a trapezoidal cross-section, find rn and R values

1
b  b0 h
2 i
rn 
 b i ro  b0 ri   r0 
  ln    bi  b0
 h  r
 i 

From the given diagram,

b0  40 mm ; b i  80 mm ; h  150 mm

ri  50 mm ; r0  h  ri  150  50  200 mm
1.80 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1
80  40 150
2
Radius of neutral axis  rn 
 80  200  40  50   200 

150
 ln    80  40
   50 
9000
  100.7 mm
93.33  1.3862   40

h bi  2 b 0
Radius of centroidal axis  R  ri 
3 bi  b0

150 80  2  40

 50   116.66 mm
3 80  40

hi  rn  ri  100.7  50  50.7 mm

1
Area of cross-section  a   h  b i  b 0
2

1
  150 80  40  9000 mm 2
2

e  R  rn  116.66  100.7  15.96 mm

Bending moment due to Load P M b  P  R

 116.66  R N  mm

Where P is load carrying capacity of crane hook.

M b hi
Bending stress at inner fiber b 
inner a  e  ri

116.66 P  50.7


9000  15.96  50

 8.235  10  4  P N/mm 2 (1)

In addition to bending stress, direct tensile stress is also acting at section

AA

P P
t  
A 9000 (2)
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.81

P
Total resultant stress   b  t  8.235  10  4 P 
inner 9000 (3)

But, the total resultant must be equal to design stress

P
 8.235  10  4 P   100
9000

8.235  10  4 P  1.11  10  4 P  100

 P  Load  107 kN

Problem 1.29 A C  frame subjected to a force of 12 kN is shown in the Fig 1.41. It is

made of grey cast iron with an ultimate stress of 300 N/mm2 and a factor of safety as 2.5;
Determine the dimensions of the Cross-section of the frame.

Given data:

Load P  12 kN  12  10 3 N ; b  5t

where t  thickness

Solution

Cross-sectional area  a  b  t  5t  t  5t2

e  8t

Direct tensile stress at

3
P 12  10
X  X  t  
a 5t2 (1)

Bending moment at point on X  X axis

 M  P  e  12  10 3  8t

3
M 12  10  8t
Bending stress   b  
Z 1
t b2
6

12  10 3  8t . . I 1 2 
  . Z  y  6 tb PSG D.B Pg. No  6.1 
1 
 t  5t2 
6
1.82 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

23040

t2 (2)

12  10 3 23040
Total stress  t  b  2

5t t2

25440
 N/mm 2
t2 (3)
300
But the design stress   120 N/mm 2
2.5 (4)
Equate (3) and (4) equations
25440
 120
t2

 t  14.56 mm

Problem 1.30: A crane hook carries a load of 20 kN as shown in the Fig 1.42(a). The
section at X  X is rectangular whose horizontal side is 100 mm and depth 20 mm. Find
the stress in the inner and outer fibres at given section.

Given:
W  20 kN  20  10 3 N

ri  50 mm

r0  150 mm

b  20 mm ; h  100 mm

a  b  h  20  100

 2000 mm 2 R

Solution X X 50
CA  Central Axis
150
NA  Neutral Axis

Refer data book, P. No. 6.3 Fig.1.42 (a) 20 K N

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.83

h 100
rn  20
 r0 
ln   ho S ection at X X
r hi
 i  C entre
of
100 C N curvature
  91.07 mm
150
ln
50
A A ri
h 100
R  ri   50   50  50  100 mm e rn
2 2

e  Distance between centroidal axis and

R
neutral axis  R  rn
ro
 100  91.07 Fig .1.42 (b)

e  8.93 mm

Distance between the load and the centroidal axis R  100 mm

Therefore the bending moment about centroidal axis  M b  20  10 3  100

 2  10 6 N  mm
At section X  X, the beam is subjected to bending moment, and direct tensile
stress.
3
P 20  10
t    10 N/mm 2
a 100  20
Maximum stress at outer fibre h 0  r0  r n
M b  h0  150  91.07
b 
max a  e  r0  58.93 mm

2  10 6  58.93
b   42 N/mm 2 compression 
max 2000  8.93  150
h i  r n  ri
Maximum stress at inner fibre  91.07  50
m b hi  41.07 mm
b 
max a e ri

2  10 6  41.07

2000  8.93  50

 92 N/mm 2 tensile
1.84 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Resultant stress at the inside fibre

  t   b  inside
max

 10  92  102 N/mm 2 tensile

Resultant stress at the outside fibre

  t   b  outside
max

 10  42   32 N/mm 2 Compression 

Problem 1.31: A C clamp is subjected to a maximum load of W, as shown in the Fig

1.43 If the maximum tensile stress in the clamp is limited to 140 N/mm2, find the value
of W (Anna University Dec’ 2012 - ME504)

Give:
t  140 N/mm 2
max
ro
ri  25 mm X X h ri

r0  25  22  3 t1
C
P O N
W
 50 mm
50
b 1  19 mm 25 t

t1  3 mm ho
A
A
t  3 mm e
hi
ri  25 mm 3 19 rn
22
r0  25  25  50 mm 3 R
Section at X-X Fig.1.43.
h  25

Solution
Cross sectional area at XX  a  19  3  22  3

 123 mm 2

Refer data book, P. No. 6.3

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.85

b1  t t1  t  h
Radius of curvature of the NA  rn 
 ri  t1   r0 
b 1  t ln    t  ln  
ri r
   i 

19  3 3  3  25

 25  3   50 
19  3 ln    3 ln  
 25   25 

 31.64 mm

1 2 1
h t  t21 b1  t
2 2
Radius of curvature of the centroidal axis  R  ri 
ht  b1  t t

1 1
252 3  3 2 19  3
2 2
 25 
25  3  19  3 3

 33.2 mm

e  R  rn  33.2  31.64  1.56 mm

Distance between load and the centroidal axis.

x  50  R  50  33.2  83.2 mm

 B  M  about centroidal axis  M b  W  x

 W  83.2 N mm

At section X  X, the beam is subjected to BM and direct tensile stress.

W
Therefore direct tensile stress  t 
a

W

123

 0.008 W N/mm 2

hi  rn  ri  31.64  25  6.64 mm
1.86 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

M b  hi
Maximum stress inside  b 
a  e  ri

W  83.2  6.64
 b   0.115 W N/mm 2
123  1.56  25

Resultant stress at the inside fibre

  t  b

 0.008 W  0.115 W

 0.123 W N/mm 2

Equate to maximum tensile stress 140 N/mm 2

  [t]   [ t]

140  0.123 W

140
W  1138 N
0.123

M b  h0
Maximum stress at outer fibre   b 
max a  e r0

h0  r0  rn  50  31.64  18.36 mm

18.36
 b   83.2 W 
 max
outer 123  1.56  50

 0.16 W N/mm 2

Resultant stress  t  b
max

 0.008 W  0.16 W

  0.152 W N/mm 2

 0.152 W N/mm 2 compressive

The stress at the outer fibre is larger than the inner fibre, but this stress is
compressive. Therefore consider maximum tensile stress at inner fibre and
W  1138 N
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.87

Problem 1.32: Determine the cross section of the C - frame shown in Fig. 1.44 (a) to
withstand a maximum load of 50 kN. Permissible stress in tension is 125 N/mm2. Find
also the stresses at X  X. Assume h  2b.

50 50
x x

x x
F1
h
A 50kN A F=50kN
b
F2

75 75
(a) Fig.1.44. (b)

1. Refer to Fig. 1.44 b. Equal and opposite forces F 1 and F 2 F 1  F 2  F are

introduced along the centre line of the vertical section. F and F 1 introduce a couple
which induces bending stress in the section. F 2 induces uniformly distributed tensile
stress across the section.

On X  X, F induces bending stress.

2. Bending stress due to couple, F  75

F  150 50,000  75 5,625,000

b  2
 2
 3
N/mm 2 [h  2b]
1/6 bh 1/6 b 2b b

Point A is subjected to maximum tensile bending stress.

3. Tensile stress due to F2

F2 50,000 25,000
t    N/mm 2
bh b  2b b2

4. Determination of sectional dimensions

5,65,000 25,000
Total stress at A  A  b   t  3

b b2
1.88 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

5,625,000 25,000
3
  [] [ 125 N/mm 2], for safety.
b b2

The above equation is solved by trial and error method.

For b  30 mm,  A  236 N/mm 2

For b  38 mm,  A  119.8 N/mm 2  125 N/mm 2. So

this is satisfactory,

b  38 mm, h  2  38  76 mm

5. Stress at X  X
BM 50000  50
b  2
 2
 68.34 N/mm 2
1/6 b h 1/6  38  76

Problem 1.33: A. C-clamp as shown in Fig 1.45 carries a load 50 kN. The cross section
of the clamp at X-X is rectangular having width equal to twice thickness. Clamp is made
up of steel with allowable stress of 150 MPa. Find the dimensions. Also determine the
stresses at section Y-Y and Z-Z.

Given:
P  50 kN  50  10 3 N Y Z
o
[] 150 MPa  150 N/mm 2 45

Thickness at XX  t
Y
Width at XX  b  2t

Solution: P
X X 40
Z P
(i) Cross Section at X  X b
Area of cross section A  b  t  2t  t t

A  2t2

Dirert tensile stress at X-X

Fig.1.45. 140 m m
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.89

3
P 50  10 25  10 3
t    N/mm 2
A 2t 2
t 2

Bending moment at X-X due to Load P .

M  P  e  50  10 3  140  7  10 6 Nmm
2
1 2 t 2t 4t3
Section Modulus Z  tb    b  2t
6 6 6
6
M 7  10 10.5  10 6
Bending stress at XX  b    N/mm 2
Z 4t36 t 3

25  10 3 10.5  10 6
Maximum Stress    t   b    []
t2 t3

25  10 3 10.5  10 6
  . 150

t2 t3

On solving we get t  42.5 mm

So width b  2t  2  42.5  85 mm

(ii) Stresses at Y-Y

Average A  b sec 45  t  85  sec 45  42.5  85  1.414  42.5  5108 mm 2

Load Component perpendicular to section  P cos 45

 50  10 3  cos 45

 35.355 kN

Load component parallel to section  P sin 45  50  10 3  0.707  35.355 kN

35.355  10 3
Tensile stress over section  t   6.92 MPa
5108

35.355  10 3
Uniform Shear stress   6.92 MPa
5108

t b sec 452 42.5  85  1.414 2

Section Modulus at Y  Y    1.023  10 5 mm 3
6 6

Bending Moment due to load (P)

1.90 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

M  50  10 3  140  7  10 6 Nmm

M 7  10 6
Bending Stress  b    68.42 MPa
Z 1.023  10 5

Maximum Tensile stress at inner corner

 max t  b   t  68.42  6.92  75.35 MPa

Maximum compressive stress at outer corner

c   b    68.42  6.92  61.5 MPa

Stress at Section Z-Z

Bending Moment at Z-Z  M b  50  10 3  40  2  10 6 Nmm

2
tb 2 42.5  85
Section Modulus Z   5.117  10 4 mm 2
6 6

M 2  10 6
Bending Stress b    39.08 MPa
Z 5.117  10 4

Maximum Shear Stress (transverse)

max  1.5  Average Shear Stress

P 50  10 3
 1.5   1.5   20.76 MPa
bt 85  42.5

1.10 DESIGN PRINCIPLES (Data Book Page No. 1.9, 1.10 & 7.3)
After calculating the maximum induced stresses in the machine component by
using design principles, calculate the final dimensions of the component.

The design principles are based on the failure modes of the component.

1.10.1 Common modes of failure:

(a) Components made of ductile materials fail by - yielding.
 Therefore, the design criteria of component is based on yield stress.
(b) Components made of brittle materials fail by - fracture.
Fracture may be due to (1) Ultimate strength (2) Fatigue load (3) Impact load.

 Therefore, the design criteria of the component is based on ultimate stress.

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.91

1.10.2 Factor of Safety (FOS)

To avoid failure of machine components, the induced maximum stress must be
less than the permissible value of stress. (Allowable stress)

Static Loading
Yield stress
Permissible stress or design stress  (For Ductile material)
FOS

Yield stress y

(or) FOS 
Permissible stress or design stress

Ultimate stress
Permissible stress (or) Design stress  For Brittle material
FOS

u
FOS 
Design stress

1.10.3 In General (the Factor of Safety)

Ductile Brittle Brittle

1. Static load  1.5 - 2 3 to 4 4.5 - 6

2. Variable load

(a) Repeated  3 6 9

(b) Reversed  4 8 12

3. Heavy shock  5 10 15

1.10.4 Failure Theories: (D.B. P.No.7.3)

A machine member is subjected to combined loading, i.e., bending and torsion.
It is not possible to decide which combination of normal stress (bending stress due
to bending or shear stress due to torsion) causes the failure of the member.

In order to predict the failure under combined loads, failure theories are used.
1.92 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1. Max. principal (or) Normal stress theory (or) Max. stress theory (or)
RANKINE’S THEORY:
According to this theory, the failure occurs whenever the maximum principal
stress induced in the machine component becomes equal to the strength.

1 o r  2 or 3 (which ever is max.)  y. for design,,

y
1 or  2 or 3 
n
where n  Factor of safety.
This theory is best suited for brittle u
material. 1 or  2 or 3  (for Brittle material)
n

2. Max. shear stress theory (or) Max. shear theory (or) GUEST’S THEORY
According to this theory, failure occurs whenever max. shear stress induced in
the component becomes equal to the max. shear stress in a tension of test specimen.
When the specimen begins to yield,

1   2 or 2  3 or 3   1  y For Design

whichever is max. y
1   2 or 2  3 or 3   1 
n
(Whichever is max.)
 1  2 For Design,,
But max 
2 y
2 y
y  
FOS 2  FOS 
Failure occurs when: max  y
1   2 y

2 2
1   2 y 1 y
  i.e., 1  2 
2 FO S 2 FOS
Note: If 1 and 2 are both  ve, For Design
then  1   3  y y
1   3 
FOS
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.93

3. Max. Strain theory: (ST. VENANT’S THEORY)

According to this theory, failure occurs whenever the max. strain in the
component becomes equals to the strain in the tension test specimen when yielding
begins.
 1   2  3 or 2    3  1 or  3    1  2   y

whichever is max.

  Poisson’s ratio
For Design,
1  2   3 or 2   3  1  y
whichever is max  
or 3   1   2 FOS

4. Max. Strain energy theory.
According to this theory, failure occurs when strain energy stored per unit
volume of the stressed element becomes equal to the strain energy stored per unit
volume in the tension test specimen at the yield point.
21   22  23  2  12   23   31   2y
2
 y 
For Design,   21  22 23
 2  12   23   31   
 n 
5. Distortion energy theory: (OCTAHEDRAL THEORY)
According to this theory, failure occurs when the strain energy of distortion per
unit volume of the component becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion per
unit volume of the tension test specimen.
21   22  23   12   23   31   2y

For Design,
2
 y 
21
  22 23
  12   23   31   
 n 
Problem 1.34: The force action on a bolt consists of two components - an axial pull of
12 kN and a transverse shear force of 5 kN. The bolt is made of C 30 steel and factor of
safety = 2. Determine the required diameter of the bolt using various theories of failure.
(Take   Poisson’s ratio  0.25) (Apr.’97 MU)

Given:
Axial pull  P  12 kN  12  10 3N
1.94 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Shear force  F  5 kN  5  10 3N

Solution:
P Where A cross section
(a) The axial pull induces direct tensile stress   t 
A  2
3 area of the bolt  d
12  10 15278.87 4 c
t  
 2
dc d2c Where dc  core dia. of the
4 bolt.
(b) The shear force induces direct shear stress
shear force
xy 
shear area

5  10 3 6366.19
xy  
 2 d2c
dc
4
15278.87 6366.19
x   t  ; y  0; xy 
d2c d2c



2
x   y   x  y  2
1,  2      xy [PSG DB Pg No.72]
2  2 



2 2
15278.87  15278.87   6366.19 
     
2d 2c 2
2d c d2c
   
7639.435 9944.31
 
d2c d2c
17583.74
1  N/mm 2
d2c

2304.87
2   N/mm 2
d2c
From databook, page No. 1.9 for C 30 steel.
Yield stress   y  30 kgf/mm 2

yield  300 N/mm 2

FOS  2 Given
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.95

1. Max. stress theory (or) Rankine’s theory

whichever is  y
1 or  2 or 3  Where d  Nominal diameter of the bolt (or)
max. n
bolt diameter

y
1 
n

17583.74 300

d2c 2

dc  10.82 mm

dc
Bolt dia  d   12.88 mm
0.84

Refer Data book, page No.5.42 select M14 bolt

2. Max. shear theory (or) Max. shear stress theory

Since both  1 and  2 are +ve

Since  z  0,   3  0

y
1   3 
n

17583.74 300 dc 10.82

 d 
d2c 2 0.84 0.84

 dc  10.82 mm  12.88 mm

Refer Data Book, Page No.5.42, select M14

3. Max. strain theory

  0.25

1   2   3 or 2   3  1 or 3   1   2   y


Whichever is max.  n

17583.74 0.25  2304.87  300

 
d2c d2c 2
1.96 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

dc 11.00
dc  11.00 mm ; d    13.09 mm Refer Data Book P.No.5.42 Select
0.84 0.84
M14 bolt

4. Max. strain energy theory

2
 y 
21   22  23  2  12   23   31   
 n 

2 2 2
 17583.74    2304.87   17583.74    2304.87   300 
 2   2   2  0.25  2  2  2 
dc d d d   
   c   c  c

dc 11.04
dc  11.04 mm ; d  ;d  13.148 mm Refer Data Book, P.No.5.42 select
0.84 0.84
M14 bolt;

Problem 1.35: The stresses induced at a critical point in a machine component made of
C45 steel are as follows : x  120 N/mm2, y  50 N/mm2
Calculate the factor of safety by (a) maximum normal stress theory (b) maximum shear
stress theory (c) distortion energy theory. (Oct. 1997, MU, Nov/Dec - 2009 AU)

Solution

Given data:

x  120 N/mm 2

y  50 N/mm 2

Material C 45 steel

From PSG Databook, refer page No. 1.9 for C45 steel,

yield stress   y  36 kg f/mm 2

y  360 N/mm 2 ; xy  0

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.97



2
x   y   x  y  2
Maximum principal stress   1      xy
2  2 



2
120  50  120  50 
    0
2  2 

 85  35

 120 N/mm 2



2
 x  y  x   y  2
Minimum principal stress  2      xy
2  2 

 85  35

 50 N/mm 2

Let ‘n’ is the factor of safety.

Refer PSG databook, Page No. 7.3 - Failure Theories.

(a) Maximum normal stress (or) Maximum stress theory

1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max)  y

For design,

y
1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is maximum) 
n

Since  1 is max.,

y
1 
n

360
120 
n

360
Factor of safety n  3
120
1.98 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(b) Maximum shear stress theory

1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum  y

For design,
y
1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 whichever is max. 
n

Since  1 and  2 values are positive.

y
  1  3  ( 3  0 )
n

y
1 
n

360
120 
n
360
Factor of safety  n  3
120

(c) Distortion energy theory

21   22  23   13   23   31   2y

For design,
2
 y 
21   22  23   12   23   31   
 n 
2
2 2  360 
120  50  120  50   
 n 
2
 360 
10900   
 n 
360 1
 10900  2  104.403
n
360
 n  Factor of safety   3.448
104.403
Therefore select factor of safety as 3.448, according to Distortion energy theory.

Factor of safety  n  3.448

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.99

Problem 1.36: A steel member is subjected to 3-dimensional stress system and the
resulting principal stresses are 120 N/mm2 tension, 80 N/mm2 and 40 N/mm2 compression.
If the proportional limit of the material in simple tension is 280 N/mm2 and its poisson’s
ratio is 0.3; Determine factor of safety according to (a) maximum principal stress theory;
(b) maximum principal strain theory; (c) maximum shear stress theory.
(Apr. 1998- Madras University, Oct 2006 - AU)

Solution

Given data

Maximum principal stress   1  120 N /mm 2

Minimum principal stress   2   80 N/mm 2

Intermediate principal stress   3   40 N/mm 2

Proportional limit in simple tension   y  280 N/mm 2

Poisson ratio  0.3

Let ‘n’ is the factor of safety.

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.3 - Failure theories.

(a) Maximum principal stress theory (or) Maximum stress theory

1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max.)  y

For design,

y y 280
1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max.)  ;  1  ; 120 
n n n

280
n  factor of safety 
120

n  2.333

(b) Maximum principal strain theory (or) Maximum strain theory

1   2   3 or 2   3   1 or 3   1   2 whichever is max.   y

For design,
y
1   2   3 or 2   3   1 or 3   1   2 whichever is max. 
n
1.100 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1   2   3  120  0.3 80   40  120  12  132

2   3   1   80  0.3 40  120   80  48   32

3   1   2   40  0.3120   80   40  60   100

  1    2  3 is maximum

y 280
  1    2  3  ; 132 
n n

 n  factor of safety  2.1212

(c) Maximum shear stress theory (or) Maximum shear theory

1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum  y

For design,

y
1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum 
n

1  2 is maximum

y
  1  2 
n

280 280
120   80   200 
n n

280
n  factor of safety   1.4
200

Therefore, select factor of safety as 2.333, according to maximum principal stress

theory.
Problem 1.37 : A bolt is subjected to a tensile load of 25 kN and to a shear load of 10
kN. Determine the diameter of the bolt according to
(a) maximum principal stress theory
(b) maximum principal strain theory
(c) maximum shear stress theory
Factor of safety  2.5
Yield point stress in simple tension  300 N/mm2
Poisson ratio  0.25 (Apr. 2006 - AU, Oct - 98- Madras)
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.101

Solution

Given data:

Tensile load  P  25 kN  25  10 3N

Shear load  F  10 kN  10  10 3N

Factor of safety  n  2.5

Yield stress  y  300 N/mm 2

Poisson ratio    0.25

Let dc  core diameter of the bolt in mm.

Consider the tensile load P

The tensile load induces direct stress t

P  2
t  [Area of bolt  Abolt  d ]
Ab 4 c

25  103

/4 d2c

31.8  10 3
Direct stress  t   x  ; y  0
d2c

Consider the shear load F

The shear load induces shear stress 

Shear loa d

Ab

10  10 3

 2
d
4 c

12.73  10 3
Shear stress   xy 
d2c

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.2

1.102 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 
 
1
Maximum principal stress  1    x  y 
2 
 2 2 
 x  y  4 xy 

(PSG DB Pg.No.72)

 



 3  31.8  10 3 2  12.73  10 3 2 
1  31.8  10 
     4  
2 d2c d2c d2c 
     
3
1  31.8  10 40.73  10 3 
  
2 d2c d2c
 

36.265  10 3
1  2
N/mm 2
dc

1
Minimum principal stress  2     y     x  y2  4 2xy 

2 x 

3
1  31.8  10 40.73  10 3 
 
2 d2c d2c

 

4.465  10 3
 N/mm 2
d2c

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.3 - Failure theories.

(a) Maximum principal stress theory (or) Maximum stress theory

1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is maximum)   y

For design,

y
1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is maximum) 
n
y dc
1  Bolt diameter  d 
n 0.84
36.265  10 3 300 17.38
   20.69 mm
0.84
d2c 2.5

Core dia. of bolt  dc  17.38 m m

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.103

From PSG Databook, Page No. 5.42

Select standard bolt size, Select M24 bolt

(b) Maximum principal strain theory (or) Maximum strain theory

1   2   3 o r 2   3  1 or 3   1   2 whichever is max.   y

For design, 1   2   3

 y 
2   3   1 (whichever is max.)   
 n 
3   1   2

36.265  10 3   4.465  10 3   37.3812  10 3 

1   2   3   0.25    is max.
d2c  d2c   d2c 

37.3812  10 3 300 dc
  Bolt diameter  d 
d2c 2.5 0.84

Core dia. of bolt dc  17.64 mm 17.64

  21.01 mm
0.84
From PSG Databook, Page No. 5.42,

Select standard bolt size Select M24 bolt

(c) Maximum shear stress theory

1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum  y

For design,

y
1   2 or 2   3 or 3   1 (whichever is maximum) 
n

1   2 is maximum
dc
36.265  10 3 4.465  10 3 300 Bolt diameter  d 
  0.84
d2c d2c 2.5
18.42
40.73  10 3  2.5 
d2c  0.84
300
 21.932 mm
dc  18.42 mm
1.104 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

From PSG Databook, Page No. 5.42

Select standard bolt size, Select M24 bolt

Problem 1.38: A 50 mm diameter shaft is loaded statically in pure torque at a shear

stress of 70 N/mm2. If the yield point is 435 N/mm2. Find the factor of safety using
maximum shear stress theory. (Apr - May -2002 - AU)

Given:
d  diameter of shaft  50 mm

xy she ar stress  70 N/mm 2

 y  yield point stress  435 N/m m2

Refer Page No. 7.2

x  0 ; y  0

Solution
1
Maximum principal stress  1     y   x   y2  4 2xy 

2 x 

 1   70 N/mm 2

1
Minimum principal stress 2    y   x  y2  4 2xy 

2 x 

2   70 N/mm 2

Refer Page No. 7.3 - Failure theories.

Let n is the factor of safety.

Maximum shear stress theory

y
1   2 or 2  3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum 
n

For design,

y
1   2 or 2  3 or 3   1 whichever is maximum 
n
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.105

y
 1   2 
n

435
70   70 
n

435
n  factor of safety  ; n  3.107
140

Problem 1.39: The resulting principal stresses on a C15 steel member when subjected to
a 3-dimensional stress system are 100 N/mm2 in tension, 60 N/mm2 and 20 N/mm2 in
compression. Determine the factor of safety according to
(a) Maximum principal stress theory
(b) Maximum shear stress theory
Assume proportional stress limit of the material in tension and poisson’s ratio.
(Apr.1999 - MU)

Given data
Material given C15 steel

From PSG Databook, Page No. 1.9

The yield stress for C15 steel  y  24 kg f/mm 2

 240 N/mm 2

From PSG Databook, Page No. 1.1,

Take, Poisson ratio for steel    0.3

Maximum principal stress   1  100 N /mm 2

Minimum principal stress   2   60 N/mm2

Intermediate principal stress   3   20 N/mm2

Let n  Factor of safety

Solution
From PSG Databook, Page No. 7.3 - Failure theories.

(a) Maximum principal stress theory (or) Max. stress theory

1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max.)  y
 1.106 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

For design,

y
1 or  2 or 3 (whichever is max.) 
n

y
1 is max.  
n

240
100 
n
240
 F actor of safety  n   2.4
100

(b) Maximum shear stress theory (or) Max. shear theory

1   2 or 2   3 o r 3   1 (whichever is max.)   y

For design,

y
1   2 or 2   3 o r 3   1 (whichever is max.) 
n

y
1   2 is max. 
n

y
 1  2  100   60  160 
n

240
 n  Factor of safety   1.5
160

Select factor of safety  n  2.4 , according to maximum principal stress theory.

Problem 1.40: A cantilever of span 500 mm carries a vertical downward load of 6 kN
at free end. Assume yield value of 350 MPa. and factor of safety of 3. Find the economical
section for the cantilever among
(a) Circular cross-section of diameter ‘d’
h
(b) Rectangular section of depth ‘n’ and width ‘t’ with 2
t
(c) I-section of depth 7t and flange width 5t where t is thickness. Specify the dimension
and cross-sectional area. (Apr. 2001 MU)

Given data:
Length of the span  l  500 mm
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.107

Vertical downward load acting at free end P  6 kN  6  10 3 N

Yield stress   y  350 MPa  350 N/mm 2

Factor of safety  n  3

The load P induces bending stress  b.

Yield stress 350

The max. bending stress   b  
Factor of safety 3
3
 b  116.6666 N /mm 2 6x10 N

Solution
d
(a) Circular cross-section of diameter ‘d’
According to theory of simply bending
500
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.1,
Fig. 1.46(a)
Mb b
 where M b  bending moment  P  l
I y
Let d  diameter of the bar  6  10 3  500 Nmm
6  10 3  500 116.6666 I  area moment of inertia.

 4 d  4
d  d mm 4
64 2 64
64  6  10 3  500 y  distance from neutral axis to the
d3 
  116.6666  2 extreme outer layer.
d  63.98 mm d
 mm
2
3
6x10
Take d  diameter of shaft = 64 mm.

(b) Rectangular section of depth ‘h’

and width ‘t’ h

h
Given  2 or h  2t
t

From PSG Databook, Page No. 7.1. 500 t

Fig. 1.46(b)
1.108 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Mb b where M b  bending moment  P  l


I y
Let h  depth  6  10 3  500 Nmm
t  thickness I  area moment of inertia.
3 1
6  10  500 116.6666   t  h3
 12
0.6666 t4 t

6  10 3  500 
1
 t  2t3
t3  12
0.6666  116.6666
t  33.78 mm  0.6666 t4mm 4
h
y mm
2
2t
 t
2

Take t  thickness of beam = 34 mm

and h  depth o f beam  2  t  2  34  68 mm

3
6x10 N
t  34 mm

h  68 mm
t 7t

(c) I-section of depth 7t and flange

width 5t, where ‘ t ’ is thickness.
From PSG Databook, Page No. 7.1, 500 b = 5t
Fig. 1.46(c)

Mb b where M b  bending moment  P  l


I y
[depth  7t  6  10 3  500 Nmm
Flange width  5t I  Area moment of inertia
(refer P. No. 6.1)
t  thickness] 3 3 3
bh3 b 1h1 bh  b 1 h1
  
12 12 12
6  10 3  500 116.6666 (Consider as a hollow rectangle)

101.25 t4 3.5 t
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.109

6  10 3  500  3.5 h  7t; h1  5t, b  5t; b 1  4t;

t3 
101.25  116.6666
t  9.6149 mm 5 t7t3  4t5 t3
I
12
Take t  thickness  10 mm 1715t4  500t4 1215 4
  t
12 12
depth  7t  7  10  70 mm  101.25t4 mm 4
width  5t  5  10 h 7t
y   3.5t
2 2
 50 mm

To find, most economical cross-section.

(a) Circular cross-section

d  diameter  64 m m

 2 
Cross-sectional area  d  64 2  3216.99 m m2
4 4

(b) Rectangular cross-section

h  68 mm; t  34 mm

Cross-sectional area  h  t  68  34  2312 mm 2

(c) I-section
t  10 m m; h  depth  70 mm ; b  width  50 mm

Consider I-section as a hollow rectangular

with b, h are the dimensions of outer rectangular.

t  10 m m ; b1, h1 are the dimensions of inner rectangle.

b  50 m m ; b1  b  t  40 mm
h  70 mm ; h1  h  2t  50 mm

Cross-sectional area of I-section  bh  b 1h1

 50  70  40  50

 3500  2000   1500 mm2

1.110 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Therefore, the economical cross-section is I-section with dimensions of

Width  50 mm

Depth  70 mm

Thickness  10 mm
Problem 1.41: A cantilever of span 750 mm carries an uniformly distributed load of 10
kN/m. The yield value of material of cantilever is 375 MPa. Factor of safety is 3. Find
economical section of cantilever among
(a) Circular cross-section of diameter ‘d’
h
(b) Rectangular cross-section of depth ‘n’ and width ‘t’ with 2
t
(c) I-section of total depth 7t and width 5t where ‘t’ is thickness.
Find the dimension and cross sectional area of the economic section.
(Oct. - 2001 -MU, Nov - 2010 - AU)

Given data:
Length of the span  l  750 mm

Uniformly distributed load  w  10 kN /m  10 N/mm

Yield stress  y  375 MPa  375 N/mm 2

Factor of safety n3

The uniformly distributed load induces bending stress  b

Yie ld stress 375

The maximum bending stress  [ b ]  
F actor of safety 3

[ b ]  125 N/mm 2

Solution
10N /m m
(a) Circular cross-section of diameter ‘d’
According to theory of simple bending.
Refer Databook, Page No. 7.1 d

750
Fig. 1.47(a)
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.111

Mb b where M b  bending moment in N-mm


I y Refer databook, Page No. 6.4. Cantilever
carrying UDL
2.8125  10 6 125 w  L2
 M max    Mb
 4 d 2
d
64 2  ve sign indicates,  ve B.M.
64  2.8125  10 6 wL 2
d3   Mb 
  125  2 2
d  61.19 mm 10  750 2

2
Take d  diameter of shaft = 62 mm  2.8125  10 6Nm
 4
I  area moment of inertia.  d mm4
64
y  distance from Neutral axis to the extreme
outer layer.
d 10 N /m m
mm
2

(b) Rectangular section of depth ‘h’ and

width ‘t’
h
h
Given  2 or h  2t
t

From Databook, Page No. 7.1 750 t

Fig. 1.47(b)
Mb b

I y where M b  Max. bending moment.

Let h  depth  2.8125  10 6Nmm

t  thickness (similar to previous step.)

2.8125  10 6 125 I  area moment of inertia 

1
t  h3
4
 12
0.6666 t t

2.8125  10 6 
1
t  2t3  0.6666 t4 mm 4
t3  12
125  0.6666

t  32.3175 mm  0.6666t4 mm 4
1.112 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Take t  thickness of beam = 34 mm h 2t

y   t mm
2 2
and h  depth of beam
10 N /m m
 2  t 2  34  68 mm

h  68 mm

t  34 mm 7t

(c) I-section of total depth 7t and width

5t
5t where ‘t’ is thickness.
750
From Databook, Page No. 7.1 Fig. 1.47(c)

Mb b where M b  bending moment


I y  2.8125  10 6Nmm

2.8125  10 6 125 (similar to previous step)

4

101.25 t 3.5t

2.8125  10 6  3.5 I  area moment of inertia

t3 
101.25  125 (refer Page No. 6.1)
t  9.196 mm bh3  b 1h31

12
Take t  thickness  10 mm b  5t; h  7t
depth  h  7t  7  10  70 m m b1  4t; h1  5t

width  b  5t  5  10  50 m m 5t7t3  4t5t3 1215 4

I  t
12 12
h 7t
y   3.5 t
2 2

To find, most economical cross-section

(a) Circular cross-section

d  diameter  62 mm

 2 
 Crosssectional area  d  62 2
4 4

 3019.07 mm 2
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.113

(b) Rectangular cross-section

h  68 mm and t  34 mm

 Crosss ectio nal area  h  t  68  34

 2312 mm 2

(c) I-section

t  10 mm b1  4  t  4  10  40 mm

h  depth  70 mm h1  5t  5  10  50 mm

b  width  50 mm

Cross-sectional area  bh  b1h1

 50  70   40  50  1500 m m2

Therefore, the economical cross-section is I-section with dimensions of

Width  50 mm; depth  70 mm; thickness  10 mm

Problem 1.42: Determine the wall thickness of a cylindrical vessel closed at both ends
from the following data:
Internal pressure  20 N/mm2
Internal diameter  300 mm
Allowable tensile stress  120 N/mm2
Use the (a) max. shear stress theory
(b) max. distortion theory and
(c) max. strain theory. (Apr. 2000, MU)

Given data:
Internal pressure  p  20 N/mm 2

Internal diameter  D  300 mm

Allowable tensile stress or Design stress

 [  y ]  120 N/mm 2

Solution
The wall of the closed cylinder is subjected to the following stresses
1.114 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1. Circumfrential stress (along xaxis)

2. Longitudinal stress (along yaxis)
Let t  wall thickness of cylinder

p  D 20  300 3000
Circumfrential stress   
2t 2t t
3000
 x  ... (1)
t
p  D 20  300 1500
Longitudinal stress   
4t 4t t
1500
  y  ... (2)
t

3000 1500
x  ; y  ; z  0; xy  0
t t



2
x  y   x  y  2
Maximum principal stress   1      xy
2  2 



2
3000 1500  3000 1500 
   
t t  t t 
    0
2

2 
2250 750
 
t t
3000
 1 
t



2
x   y  x   y 
Minimum principal stress  2      xy2
2  2 

2250 750 1500

  
t t t
1500
 2 
t

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.3

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.115

(a) According to maximum shear stress theory

1   2 or 2   3 o r 3  1 (whichever is maximum)  y

Since  1 and  2 values are positive,

 Max. stress  1  120 ;  1  3  [ y] But 3  0

 3000 
Consider  3 into account,   0   120
 t 
3000
t  25 m m
120

Thickness of wall  t  25 mm

(b) Maximum distortion theory

21   22  23   12   23   31  [  y ]2 3  0

2 2
 3000   1500   3000   1500  2
 t    t    t   t   120
      
9  10 6 2.25  10 6 4.5  10 6
2
 2
 2
 14.4  10 3
t t t

1.6875  10 6
2
 14.4  10 3
t

6.75  10 6
 t2 
14.4  10 3

t  21.65 mm

Take thickness of wall  22 mm

(c) Maximum strain theory

21   22  23  2  12   23   31  [  y ]2

  Poisson’s ratio (Refer PSG Data book Page No. 1); Take   0.3

3  0

2 2
 3000   1500   3000 1500  2
 t    t   2  0.3  t  t   120
     
1.116 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

9  10 6 2.25  10 3 2.7  10 6
2
 2
 2
 14.4  10 3
t t t

8.55  10 6
 14.4  10 3
t2

8.55  10 6
t2 
14.4  10 3

t  24.36 mm  25 mm

Consider the wall thickness  t  25 mm , according to maximum shear stress

theory and maximum strain theory

Problem 1.43: A flat bar 32 mm wide and 12 mm thick is loaded by a steady tensile
load of 85 kN. The material is mild steel with yield point stress of 315 N/mm2. Find the
factor of safety based on the yield point. (Oct. 2000, MU)

Given data
Width of the flat bar  W  32 mm ; Thickness of flat bar  t  12 mm

Steady tensile load  P  85 kN  85  10 3N ; Yield stress   y  315 N/mm 2

Let ‘n’ is the factor of safety.

y 315  Load

Design stress (or) Permissible stress   
n  n  Area

315  384
n  Factor of safety   1.423 Cross Sectional Area  32  12
85  10 3

 n  1.423  384 mm 2

Problem 1.44: A shaft is subjected to a twisting moment of 5 kNm and a bending moment
of 2 kNm. If the material has yield strength of 300 MPa and safety factor of 2.5, find the
diameter of shaft using
(a) Maximum Normal Stress theory
(b) Maximum Shear Stress theory
(c) Distortion energy theory. (JNTU Dec 2011, Set 3))
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.117

Given:

T  5 kNm  5  10 3 Nm ; M  2 kNm  2  10 3 Nm ; y  300 MPa  300  10 6 N /m2,

FOS  2.5

Solution



2
 
Principal Stress 1, 2      2
2 2

32 M 16  16  5  10 3 80000
Bending Stress   ,    
 d3  d3  d3  d3

32  2  10 3 64000
 3

d  d3

(i) Maximum Normal stress theory

y
According to this theory  1 
FOS

2 2



64000  64000   80000  300  10 6
   3 
 3 

 d3  d   d 
2.5

64000 102450 300  10 6

 
 d3  d3 2.5

d  0.0762 m or 76 mm say 80 mm

(ii) Maximum Shear stress theory

y
According to this theory,  1  2 
FOS

   


 

2 2
   
  2     2  300  10 6
2         
 2  2 2   2.5



2
 2 300  10 6
2     
2  2.5
1.118 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2  102450 300  10 6

 d3 2.5

d  0.0816 m or 81.6 mm say 82 mm

(iii) Distortion Energy Theory

2
 y 
According to this theory  21  22   1 2   
 FOS 



2
  2
Let  A,  2     B.
2  

2
2 2
 y 
 [A  B]  [A  B]  [A  B A  B ]   
 FOS 
2
2
 y 
2
We get A  3B   
 FOS 
2 2 2
 64000   102450   300  10 6 
 3 
 3  3 
  
2.5
 d   d   

Solving above we get d  0.0681 m or 68 mm, say 70 mm.

 Maximum diameter of shaft d  82 mm

Problem 1.45: A rod made of aluminium alloy E  72 GPa has length of 500 mm and
diameter 10 mm. What are its tensile stiffness and flexibility. (JNTU, Dec 2011, Set 2)

Given:
E  72 GPa  72  103 N/mm 2, d  10 mm , l  500 mm
Solution:

 d2   10 2
Area (A)    78.54 mm 2
4 4
3
AE 78.54  72  10
Stiffness (k)    11309.76 N/mm
l 500
1 1
Flexibility    8.84  10  5 mm/N .
k 11309.76
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.119

1.10.5 FATIGUE FAILURE

It has been observed that the materials fail under fluctuating stresses, at a
stress magnitude which is lower than the ultimate strength of the material.

Sometimes, the magnitude is even smaller than the yield strength.

1.10.6 DEFINITION OF FATIGUE

The decreased resistance of the material to fluctuating stresses is called
‘FATIGUE’.

The fatigue failure begins with a crack at some point in the materials. The
crack is more likely to occur in the following regions:

1. Regions of discontinuity (such as oil holes, key ways, screw threads, etc.)
2. Regions of irregularities in machining operations. (such as scratches on the
surface)
3. Internal cracks due to defects in materials. (such as blow holes in the castings)
These regions are subjected to stress concentration due to the crack. The crack
spreads due to the fluctuating stresses, until the cross-section of the component is so
reduced that the remaining portion is subjected to sudden fracture.

1.11 STRESS CONCENTRATION

Elementary equations for stresses,

P
Tensile stress  t 
A

My
Bending stress b 
I

Tr
Shear stress 
J

The above equations are based on assumptions, that there are no dis-continuities
in the cross-section of the component.

A plate, with a small circular hole subjected to tensile stress is shown in Fig.
1.48.

It is observed from the nature of stress distribution at the section passing

through the hole, that there is a sudden rise in the magnitude of stresses in the
neighbourhood of the hole.
1.120 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

t =P/A
t =P/A
P = tensile force
A =A rea of plate

t

Fig. 1.48. Stress C oncentration.

The localised stresses in the neighbourhood of the hole are far greater than the
stresses obtained by the elementary equations.

1.11.1 DEFINITION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION

It is defined as the localisation of high stresses due to irregularities (or) abrupt
changes of the cross-section.
Theore tical stress
Hi ghest value of actual stress near discontinuity
concentration  K t 
Nominal stress obtained b y elementary
factor
equations for min. crosssection

 max Max
 or
o o

max  max. stress; max  Max. shear stress

o  N ominal stress; o  Nominal shear stres s

 o and o are the stresses calculated by the elementary equations for

minimum cross-section.
 The values of Kt depends upon the geometry of the component. (from
Databook P.No. 7.9 to 7.16)
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.121

1.11.2 NOMINAL STRESS o CROSS SECTION

P
o 
W  d t

P W d P

t
(a)

r
P
o 
dt
P D d P
t
(b)

(pla te s ub jec te d to tensile force)

r
P
o  P
 2 d
4d  P
  (c) (te n sile fo rce )

r
Mb  y
o 
I D d Mb
d Mb
y ( M b = b e n din g m om en t)
2
(d)
 4
I d
64

r
Mt
Mt
D d
Mt  r
o  (e) ( M t = tw istin g m om ent)
J
Fig. 1.49.
1.122 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1.11.3 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

The stress concentration factors are determined by two methods.

1. Mathematical analysis based on the theory of elasticity.

2. Experimental methods like photo-elasticity.
There are limitations for the techniques of the theory of elasticity. For more
complex shapes, the stress concentration factors are determined by photos-elasticity.

The chart represents stress concentration factors for different geometric shapes
and conditions of loading. PSG databook - 7.9 to 7.16.

Example: P.No. 7.10

Rectangular plate with a transverse hole loaded in tension or compression.

max o  Nominal stress; where t  Plate thickness

Kt  ... (1)
o
P
o  ... (2)
W  a t
(P.No.7.10)
Calculate a/W ratio; From chart, corresponding to the value of a/W ratio, take
the value of Kt (stress concentration factor). Substitute the value of Kt and  o in
equation (1) and find the maximum stress.

 The effect of stress concentration depends upon the material of the component.
 Under static loads, ductile materials are not affected by stress concentration.
 Therefore, stress concentration factors are not used for ductile materials under
static loading.
 The effect is more severe in case of brittle materials, due to their inability to
plastic deformation.
 Stress concentration factors are used for components made up of brittle
materials subjected to static loads.
 When the load is fluctuating, the endurance strength of the ductile material
is greatly reduced due to stress concentration.

1.11.4 REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION EFFECTS

In many cases, it is not possible to avoid the discontinuities or abrupt changes
of the cross-section. However, it is possible for the designer to reduce the severity of
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.123

(a ) O rigin al N otch (c) R em oval of u nd esired m a terial

(b) M ultiple N otch es (d ) D rilled h oles

Fig.1.50.
stress concentration by selecting the correct geometric shape. The original component
with a V-notch is shown in Fig. 1.50. It is obtained that a single notch results in a
high degree of stress concentration.
The severity of stress concentration is reduced by using the principle of
minimisation of the material.

There are three methods for achieving this effect:

(i) Use of multiple notches.

(ii) Removal of undesired material.
(iii) Drilling additional holes.
Problem 1.46 : Determine the maximum stress produced in a rectangular plate 50 mm
wide, 8 mm thick with a central hole of 10 mm diameter. It is loaded in an axial tension
of 1 kN. (Oct.2006 - AU, Oct 1999,
MU)
h
Given data:
Width  W  50 m m

P W
Thickness  h  8 mm a P

Dia. of centre hole  a  10 mm

Axial tension  P  1 kN  1  10 3N Fig. 1.51.

1.124 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 max
Stress concentration  K t  To find Kt
0

K t  Stress concentration Refer databook Page No. 7.1

max  Maximum stress  N/mm 2

0  Nominal stress a 10
  0.2
W 50
P a
 Corresponding to the value of  0.2, take the
W  a h W
value of K t which is equal to 2.5.

1  10 3
  3.125 N/mm 2
50  10 8

 max 2.5
 Kt  ,
0

2.5  3.125  max, Kt

0.2
The maximum stress  max  7.8125 N /mm 2 Fig. 1.51(a)
a/w

Problem 1.47: A flat plate is subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN as shown in the Fig
1.52. Take FOS  2.5; ultimate stress  200 N/mm2. Calculate the plate thickness.
(JNTU, Dec 2011, Set 1)

A
5R
1 5
B

5K N
5K N 45 30

B
5R
A Fig.1.52 (a)

Given:

Flat plate, tensile force P  5 kN  5  10 3 N, FOS  2.5 ; u  200 N/mm 2

The stresses are critical at two sections,

1. Section at the fillet A-A
2. Section at the hole B-B
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.125

1. SECTION - A-A (FILLET SECTION)

D  45 ; d  30
r= 5
Fillet radius r  5

D 45 5K N D = 45 d=30 5K N
  1.5
d 30
Fig.1.52 (b)
r 5
  0.167
d 30

max [From PSG databook, Pg No.7.9]

Kt 
o

max  Kt  o K t  1.8

1.8  5  10 3 o  Nominal stress


30  t P 5  10 3
o 
dt 30  t
 300  2

t  N/mm  1
 

2. SECTION - B-B: (Hole section) (From PSG DB Pg.No.7.10)

P W  30 mm
o 
W  a t
5  10 3 a  15 mm

30  15 t
t  thicknes s

a 15
  0.5
W 30

a
at  0.5 take K t value, K t  2.16
W

max  Kt   o

5000
 2.16 
15  t

720
max N/mm 2 ... (2)
t
1.126 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

From (1) and (2) it is seen that maximum stress is induced at the hole section.

Equating permissible stress to equation (2)

720 200  u 
i.e.,   
t FOS  FOS 

700 200

t 2.5

700  2.5
or t  8.75 mm
200

 t  8.75 mm Take t  9 mm

Problem 1.48: A stepped shaft has maximum dia = 45 mm, minimum dia. = 30 mm,
fillet radius = 6 mm. If the shaft is subjected to an axial load of 10 kN, find the maximum
stress induced.

Solution A
r
Given Stepped Shaft
D  45 mm ; d  30 mm P d P
D

r  6 mm ;

P  10 kN  10  10 3 N Fig .1.53. A

The maximum stress occurs at fillet cross-section at A-A

D 45
  1.5
d 30 (From PSG DB. Pg.No. 7.11)

r 6
  0.2
d 30

K t from Graph,
Kt
K t  1.45 D /d=1.5

3
P 10  10
Nominal stress  o   0.2
A 
302 r/d
4 Fig.1.53(a)

o  14.147 N  m m2
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.127

max
Kt 
o

K t  o  m ax

max  Max. stress  1.45  14.147  20.513 N/mm 2

max 20.513 N/mm 2

Problem 1.49: A stepped shaft has maximum dia = 50 mm, minimum dia. = 25 mm,
fillet radius 5 mm. If the shaft is subjected to a twisting moment of 1500 N-m, find the
maximum stress induced.
A
Given:
Stepped shaft: D  50 mm
Mt 50 =2 5 Mt
d  25 mm

Fillet radius r  5 mm

T  M t  1500 Nmm
A Fig.1.54.

Calculate Max. shear stress.

Mt  r
o  Kt
J
D /d=2
(Refer PSG DB Pg.No.7.1)
 4
J d
32 0.2
r/d
D 50
 2
d 25
r 5 1
   0.2
d 25 5

Kt  1.35 (From PSG DB Pg.No.7.14)

max
Kt 
o
where r  minimum shaft diameter
Mt  r d 25
o  Nominal shear stress    12.5 mm
J 2 2
1.128 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1500  12.5
  0.488 N  mm2
 4
 25
32

max
 Kt 
o

max  1.35  0.4889  0.66 N  mm2

Problem 1.50: A Non-rotating shaft supporting a load of 2.5 kN is shown in the Fig
1.55. The material of the shaft is brittle, with an ultimate tensile strength of
300 N/mm2. Calculate the dia. of the shaft. Take FOS  3.
2.5K N
The stresses are critical at 0.1d

1. fillet

2. at the centre of the span d 1.1d d

1. At fillet
r 0.1 d
  0.1 300
d d 350 350
[from databook P.No. 7.11.]
2.5K N
D 1.1d 1250 N 500 500 1250 N
  1.1 Fig.1.55.
d d

K t  1.47 from Graph

d
1250  350 
My 2 4.4563  10 6
o   
I  4 d3
d
64 (From PSC DB Pg.No.7.1)

1.47  4.4563  10 6 6.55  10 6

max  kt   0  3
 3
N  mm 2 ... (1)
d d

2. At centre:
The beam is subjected to max. bending moment at centre.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.129

d Simply supported beam, concentrated load acting at

625  10 3 
My 2 its centre, Max. B.M.
b  
I  4 3
d PL 2.5  10  1000
64 M   625  10 3 N  mm 2
4 4

(From PSG DB Pg.No.6.5)

6.366  10 6
b  N/mm 2  2
d3

From equations (1) and (2)

The stress is max. at the fillet section.

 Equating it with permissible stress,

u 300
Permissible stress    100 N/mm 2
FOS 3

6.5508  10 6
 100 
d3

dia. of shaft d  40.31 mm.

Take d  42 mm

D
Problem 1.51: Calculate the dimension of a stepped cylinder with  1.5 and the ratio
d
of fillet radius to the dia. ‘d’ as 0.25, when the cylinder is subjected to a BM of
 1500 Nmm; Material for the cylinder is C 15 steel. (Oct.-98 MU)

r D /d

D d Kt
M M

Fig.1.56.
r/d
1.130 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Given: Stepped cylinder

max D
Kt   1.5
o d

max  Kto r
 0.25
d
My From PSG D.B Pg. No. 7.14 , Kt  1.25
120  1.25 
I
d My
1500  bnominal 
2 I
 1.25 
 4
d
64
1.25  15 W  32 For C15 materials
d3 
  120 Take y  (value from databook) P.No.1.9
d  5.419 mm  240 N/m m2; Assume FOS  2
D  1.5d  1.5  5.419 y 240
max    120 N/mm 2
 8.128 mm . F OS 2

Problem 1.52: What maximum axial force can be applied on a plate of width 50 mm
and thickness 10 mm with a central hole of 10 mm diameter without exceeding the yield
point stress of 62.5 MPa across its width. [Oct - 2000 - MU, Nov - 2006

P w a P 2.5

Kt
Fig.1.57. h
0.2
a/w
AU]

Given data
Let P  Maximum axial force
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.131

Width  w  50 mm

Thickness  h  10 mm

Central hole diameter  a  10 mm

Stress  62.5 MPa

 62.5 N/mm 2

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.10. To find Kt

max
Stress concentration  Kt 
0

K t  stress concentration

max  maximum stress

 62.5 M Pa  62.5 N/mm 2

0  nominal stress in N/m m2

P P
 
w  a h 50  10 10

P
 N/mm 2
400

max a 10
Kt    0.2
0 w 50

62.5 a
2.5  Corresponding to the value of  0.2, take the value of
P w
400 K t. It’s value is 2.5.
Max. axial P  10000 N
Force  P  10 kN
Problem 1.53: Taking stress concentration into account, find the maximum stress induced
when a tensile load of 20 kN is applied to
(a) a rectangular plate of 80 mm wide and 12 mm thick with a transverse hole of 16 mm
diameter.
(b) a stepped shaft of diameter 60 mm and 30 mm with a fillet radius of 6 mm.
(Apr 2001-MU)
1.132 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Given data

Tensile load  P  20 kN  20  10 3N

(a) A rectangular plate of 80 mm wide and 12 mm thick with a transverse hole of

diameter 16 mm.
 max w  w idth  80 mm
Kt  ... (1) based on net section.
nom h  thickness  12 m m
a  hole diam eter  16 mm
Finite width-plate with a transverse hole.
Refer Graph P. No. 7.10
a 16  max  maximum stress
  0.2
w 80
K t  stress concentration
From Graph, P
But, nom 
w  a h
a Substitute the values in above
for  0.2, the value of K t  2.5
w eq. (1)
 max
Kt 
P
w  a h

max 2.5
2.5  3
20  10
80  16  12
Kt
Maximum stress  max  65.104 N/mm2 0.2 a/w

(b) a stepped shaft of diameter 60 mm and 30 mm with a fillet radius of

6 mm.
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.11.

D  60 mm

d  30 mm

r  6 mm
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.133

Shaft with a shoulder fillet in tension. D 60

 2
d 30

Refer Graph r 6 1
   0.2
d 30 5

From Graph,

r D
for  0.2 and 2
d d
D /d

1.5 the value of K t  1.5

P
nom  nominal stress 
A
Kt
 2
0.2 r/d A d (Consider smaller diameter)
4

 max 
Kt  302  706.858 mm2
 nom 4

 max 20  10 3
1.5  nom   28.294 N/m m2
28.294 706.858

Maximum stress   max  42.4413 N/mm2

1.134 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

FLUCTUATING STRESSES: Variable stresses

1.12 DESIGN FOR VARIABLE LOADING

In many applications, the components are subjected to forces, which are not static,
but vary in magnitude with respect to time. The stresses induced due to such forces are
called as ‘FLUCTUATING STRESSES’, 80% of the failures of mechanical components are
due to fatigue resulting from fluctuating stresses.
In order to design a member for variable loading, the stress variation with time
should be either known or approximated.

1.12.1 Classification
Variable stresses are classified as (a) completely reversed (b) repeated
(c) fluctuating and (d) alternating, as shown in Fig. 1.58.
max  min
Average (mean) stress m 
2

 max   min
Variable (amplitude) stress  a 
2

max and  min should be used with proper sign.

Examples of machine elements that are subjected to variable stresses

Type (a) Shafts carrying pulleys - completely reversed

(b) Gears, chain - Repeated
(c) Vehicle springs, Engine valve springs - Fluctuating
(d) IC Engine connecting rods - Alternating
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.135

(+ )
m  Mean stress

m a x = a max   min

2
0
tim e a  Amplitude of s tress

m in = a max   min
(a ) R eversed S tress 
(-) 2

min  0
(+ )
 m  a
m in = a
Mean stress
0  Am plitude stress
tim e
(b ) R ep eated S tress m in = O  max 
(-)
 
 2 
(+ )
a

a

m a x m e an
m in

0
(-) tim e
(c) Flu ctu atin g S tress

(+ )
0
m

(d ) A ltern atin g
(-)
F ig .1 .58 . F lu c tu a tin g S tress
1.136 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1.12.2 ENDURANCE LIMIT: (DB Page No.1.42)

 1  Endurance limit stress

 1  Endurance limit stress in shear

A Fatigue or Endurance limit for a material is defined as the maximum value

of completely reversing stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited
number of cycles without fatigue failure.

 It is considered as a criterion of failure under fluctuating stresses.

 In laboratory, the endurance limit is determined by means of a rotating beam
machine.
 The test specimen is of standard size and has a highly polished surface. It
is rotated by an electric motor and the number of revolutions before the
appearance of the first fatigue crack are recorded on a revolution counter.
Self-aligning ball bearings are used to ensure that only radial loads are applied
to the specimen. The test specimen is subjected to pure bending moment and the
magnitude of bending stress is adjusted by means of weights.

To determine the endurance limit stress of a material, a large number of tests

are carried out.

x failure points
x
x
x
x
x
log 1 0 f

S te el

Log 1 0 -1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Fig.1.59. Log 1 0 N
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.137

Each test consists of applying a constant bending load and the no. of revolutions
(or) stress cycles before the appearance of first fatigue crack are measured.

During first test, the bending stress is kept slightly less than the ultimate tensile
strength of material.

Then in the 2nd test, the stress is slightly reduced. The procedure is then
continued for a large no. of tests. The results of these tests are plotted by means of
S-N curve.

S-N curve is a graphical representation of maximum applied stress (f) versus

no. of stress cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on log-log paper as shown in Fig.
1.59.

Each test gives one failure point on the S-N curve. These points are scattered
on diagram, and an average curve is drawn through the points.

The magnitude of this stress is called the endurance strength.

The endurance strength is not exactly a property of the material, (like ultimate
and yield strengths). It is effected by the size and shape of a the component, surface
finish, temperature, etc.

When laboratory-data regarding the endurance strength of the material is not

available, the following procedure is adopted.

For steel, Approximate estimation

1  0.5fut fut  Ultimate strength

For cast iron and cast steels  1  0.4fut

Endurance Limit  1  1 KaKbK cKd

K a  surface finish factor where

K b  size factor K f  1  qK t  1
K c  reliability factor q  notch sensitivity
1 K t  stress concentration factor
K d  modifying factor 
Kf

1.12.3 SODERBERG AND GOODMAN DIAGRAMS

When a component is subjected to fluctuating stresses, the stresses are resolved into
two parts.
1.138 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 max  min
(a) Mean stress  m 
2

(b) Stress amplitude (or) Variable stress (or) Amplitude stress

 max  min
a 
2

In the Fig 1.60, the mean stress is plotted on abscissa, with tensile stresses to
the right of the origin and compressive stresses to its left.

a
ordinate
-1 failure
points
x
x
x x

x x Soderbe rg Line
x x
Go odm an
x x Lin e

m u y O y u t m
Com pression Fig.1.60. Tension (abscissa)

The stress amplitude is plotted on the ordinate

 When a  0; then load is purely static, the criteria of failure is ut or y
(plotted on abscissa).
 When  m  0; then the stress is completely reversing and the criteria of
failure is endurance strength   1 (plotted on ordinate).

 When component is subjected to both the types of stress m and  a the
actual failure occurs at different scattered points as shown in Fig. 1.60.
 A straight line joining   1 on the ordinate to  ut on the abscissa is called
the Goodman line.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.139

 A straight line joining  1 on the ordinate to  y on the abscissa is called

Soderberg line.
 The Goodman line is safe from design consideration.
 The Soderberg line is more conservative.
 Refer PSG D.B.Pg.No. 7.4 & 7.6
Experiments are
conducted to determine the + + ++ ++ + + -1
+ +
limiting value of variable + + + + + + + + + + Gerber parabola
+ + + + + +
stress  a for different + Goodm an Lin e
Alternating +
Stress  a
values of mean stress  m
+ Soderb erg Line
7
for a life of more than 10 +
+
cycles. The relation between
variable stress and mean
stress is shown in Fig. 1.61. O y u
C om pression T ension M ean stress m
Through the scatter of
test data, a parabola known Fig.1.61. Failure as a Function of M ean Stress m
as Gerber parabola is and Alternating Stress a
drawn.
2
 
  m  
a   1  1    

  u  

is the equation defining Gerber parabola.

Goodman and Soderberg lines are applicable to fluctuating torsional, axial and
bending stresses.

From Fig. 1.61, it has to be observed that failure is not influenced by

compressive mean stress but only by tensile mean stress.

1.12.4 GOODMAN METHOD FOR COMBINATION OF STRESSES

A Goodman line is used when the design is based on ultimate strength and may
be used for ductile or brittle materials. Consider triangle COD and triangle PQD from
Fig. 1.62

PQ QD O D  O Q
 
CO OD OD
1.140 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 u  a
a    m

e n ’s
e ss
 n  -1 A


li n t r e

li n m a
 1   u 

od
fe
    -1/n C

Sa

Go
 n   n 
Simplifying we get
1 m a P
 
n  u  1 R
-1/FO S
when Kf is considered, (fatigue a
stress concentration factor)
D B
1 m a O u /n u m
  Kf Q
n u  1 m

u /FO S Fig.1.62.

1 m a
o r   Kf
n u  1 ABC

A = load correction factor ; B = size factor ; C = surface finish factor.

Note: If values of A,, B,, C are not given take unity (ie. A  B  C  1

1  m a 
 Kt    for brittle materials (notch sensitivity negligible)
n
 u
  1 
 m a  [Note: Since many machine parts are
 Kt   
  1 subjected to fatigue loads,
 u 
Amplitude stress max  min 1 m a
    Kf (Refer PSG D.B Pg.No.7.6)]
or  a  n u  1
 2
V ariable stress 
Mean stre ss  max  min

or   m 
2
Average stress
1 m Kf   a
 
n y   1 A  B  C

A - load factor - depending on load  axial load  0.7

 bending load  1

 torsional load  0.6

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.141

B - Size factor - depending on  standard specimen

C - Surface finish factor - depending on  Mirror polished

 Polished

 Machined

Note: For solving problems, if the value of any of the above factors is not given, it
may be taken as unity.
a

-1 A

C So derb erg’ s line

m P S afe stre ss
-1 /n

a a

 y
O m Q D B m

y /n Fig.1.63.

1.12.5 SODERBERG METHOD FOR COMBINATION OF STRESSES:

(Ductile materials)
When the design is based on yield strength
Consider triangle COD and PQD

PQ QD OD  OQ
 
CO OD OD
1.142 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 y   1  m 
a    m a  1 
n  n  y 
  
  1   y  n
     
 n   n 
a y  n  m  1 m 
   1   
  1  n  y  n n y
   
Simplify
1 m a a m 1
   
n y  1  1 y n
For machine components subjected to fatigue loading, the fatigue stress
concentration factor K f should be applied to only amplitude (or) variable load a.

1 m a Kf  1  qKt  1 (Refer PSG D.B Pg.No.7.6)

   Kf
n y  1 when q  0 , Kf  1

when q  1.0 , Kf  Kt

When K t is given and q  1 , then Kf  Kt

1.12.6 MODIFIED GOODMAN’S DIAGRAM

The components which are subjected to fluctuating stresses are designed by
constructing the modified Goodman’s diagram.

The problems are classified into two groups.

1. Components subjected to axial (or) bending stresses due to fluctuating force

(or) bending moment.
2. Components subjected to fluctuating torsional shear stresses.
Separate diagrams are used in these two cases.

The modified Goodman diagram for axial or bending stresses is shown in

Fig. 1.64.

 The yt is plotted on both the axes (abscissa and ordinate) and a line is
constructed to join these points to define failure by yielding.

 A line is constructed to join  1 on ordinate with ut on the abscissa, which

is the Goodman line.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.143

a
y t E
Failure by yielding

a
-1 A

m
X
Go odm an line
fa

Fig.1.64.
B

 45 O

O fm y t C u t m

The point of intersection of these two lines is ‘B’.

The area OABC represents the region of safety for components subjected to
fluctuating loads.
While solving a problem a line OE with slope tan  is constructed.

a
tan  
m

a P a/ A Pa P a  amplitude of variable load.

 
m Pm/A Pm
P m  mean load.

fa fa, fm are the limiting values of stresses which are

Permissible stresses a 
FOS used to calculate the dimensions of the component.

fm
m 
FOS
1.144 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1.12.7 Design Equations for Variable Loading

(a) Endurance limit of the machine member

 1 ABC
 1m 
Kf ...(1)

Where   1 = endurance limit of the specimen

A = load correction factor

= 1 for reversed bending
= 0.7 for reversed axial loading
= 0.6 for reversed torsion
B = size factor
= 0.85 for parts of size 12.5 mm to 50 mm
C = surface finish factor
= 0.9 for ground or cold rolled surface
= 0.7 to 0.85 for machined surface
= 0.3 to 0.7 for hot rolled surface
K f = fatigue stress concentration factor

Note: Factor A is used to modify the flexural endurance limit usable for torsion or
axial loading problems.

(b) Using Fig. 1.63, the following equations are obtained.

1 m a
  for ductile materials.
n  y  1m ...(2)

1 m a
  for ductile materials subjected to torsional loading.
n y  1m ...(3)

Similarly,

1 m a
 Kt  for brittle materials.
n  u  1m ...(4)

n  factor of safety
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.145

K t  theoretical stress concentration factor

 1m  endurance limit in reversed torsion

 1 BC

Kf

If  1 is not known, A   1 is used.

(c) Equivalent Static Stresses-Bending / Axial Loading

Eqn. (2) is multiplied by y on both sides.

y a   y
 m 
n   1m ...(5)
The RH side can be considered as an equivalent static stress and the LH side
is the permissible stress for a static loading problem. We may write.

y  a
eq   m 
  1  m ...(6)

y
For safety, eq  or eq  []
n

Where []  permissible tensile stress

Torsional Loading

a y
eq  m 
  1  m ...(7)

Design equation, eq  []

y
Where []  permissible shear stress 
n

If y is not available, take y  0.6 y.

Combined Loading (Bending and Torsion)



2
 eq   eq  2
1      eq
2  2  ...(8)
1.146 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Design equation is,  1  [], based o n princ ipal stress theo ry.



2
  eq  2
max     eq  []
 2  ...(9)

Design equation is, max  [], based on shear stress theory,

0.5 y
Where [] 
n

1.12.8 Design for Finite Life

The fatigue strength for finite life is calculated by using the equation.

t  10 c Nb ...(10)
f  Fatigue strength for finite life

 0.8  2 
u
c  log  
  1 

1  0.8 u 
b lo g  
3  1
 
N  no. of cycles

1.12.9 Cumulative Fatigue Damage

Above Equations given are meant for designing components for infinite life. Some
missile and defence equipment parts are designed for finite life.
Refer to Fig. 1.65. The inclined portion of the S-N diagram is useful for
designing for finite life. If a component is subjected
to a stress 1, the life is N 1 cycles, a stress 2, the
life is N 2 cycles and so on. 1

If the component is subjected to intermittent 2

loads leading to stresses 1 for n1 cycles S

3

n1  N 1, 2 for n2 cycles n2  N 2, and so on, then

according to Miner’s rule, failure will occur if, 0
N 1N 2 N 3 N Fig.1.65.
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.147

n1 n2 n3 ni
   1
N1 N2 N3 Ni

Problem 1.54: A cantilever beam made of C 40 steel of circular cross-section as shown

in Fig 1.66, is subjected to a load which varies from  F to 3F; Determine the max. load,
that this member can withstand for indefinite. Take FOS  2; Kt  1.42; q  0.9.

u  550 N/mm 2; y  470 N /m m2;  1  275 N/mm 2

Size factor = 0.85; Surface finish factor = 0.89

By using

1. Goodman’s equation A
-F
2. Soderberg’s equation.

Given data
20 15
W min   F

W max   3F
B +F
Fac to r o f safety = 2;

K t  1.42 ,  u  550 N /mm2 Fig.1.66. 125 +3 F

q  0.9 ,  y  470 N/mm 2

  1  275 N/mm 2

Size factor = C = 0.85

Surface finish factor = B = 0.89

Assume load factor A = 1 (since it is not given)

The beam is subjected to reversed bending load.

Since at A, the cross-section changes, therefore find bending moment at A-B.

Max. bending moment  M max  W max  125  3F  125 Nmm

M max
max  Max. bending stress 
Z
1.148 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 3 
Z  Section modulus  d   153  331.33 mm 3
32 32

3F  125
max  [Max. bending moment  W max  125  3 F  125 ]
331.33

max  1.1316 F N/mm2

Min. bending moment  M min  W min  125   F  125 Nmm

M min
min  Min. bending stress 
Z

 F   125  F  125
 
331.33 331.33

 min   0.3772 F N/mm2

max  min
mean  Mean stress 
2 (Refer PSG D.B Pg.No.7.6)

1.1316 F  0.3772F

2

mean  0.3772 F N/mm 2

max  min
amp  Amplitude stre ss 
2

1.1316 F   0.3772 F

2

 amp  0.7544F N/mm2

K f  1  qK t  1 q  0.9

 1  0.9 1.42  1 K t  1.42

 1.378
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.149

According to Goodman equation,

1 m a
  Kf
n u  1 ABC (Refer PSG D.B Pg No.7.6)

1 0.3772F 1.378 0.7544  F

 
2 550 275  1  0.89  0.85

1
 6.858  10  4F  4.9969  10  3F
2

1
 5.6827  10  3  F 
2

F  87.98 N

According to Soderberg equation,

1 m a
  Kf
n y 1 AB C

1 0.3772 F 1.378 0.7544  F

 
2 470 275  1  0.89  0.85

 8.0255  10 4F  4.9960  10  3F

1
 5.799  10  3F
2

 F  86.22 N

Taking larger value,

According to Goodman’s equation

The Max. value of F  87.98N.

Problem 1.55: A spherical pressure vessel with 500 mm inner diameter is welded from
steel plates. Plates are made of cold drawn steel. u  440 N/mm2; y  242 N/mm2. The

vessel is subjected to internal pressure which varies from 0 to 6 N/mm2. Take factor of
safety = 3.5. Calculate the plate-thickness.

The internal pressure induces circumfrential stress on the plate

The pressure varies from 0 to 6 N/mm 2

1.150 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

PD
Circumfrential stress  C 
4t

Pmax  D
C max  Ma x. circumfre ntial stress 
4t

6  500 750
 
4t t

P min  D
C min  Min. circumfrential stress  0
4t

 y  yield stress
Since  C min  0 , the type of stress is repeated.  2
  242 N  mm

Let Kf  1 i.e., Kt  1

 C max 750 1  375 

mean  amp     N/ m m 2
2 t 2  t 

1 m a  1  0.5 u
  Kf
n y  1
1 375  375  (It is repeated compressive stress)
 
3.5 t  242  t  220 
1

1.549 1.704
  0.5  440  220 N  mm2
3.5 t t
1 3.2535

3.5 t
 t  3.2535  3.5

t  11.38 mm

To find endurance strength for finite life.

Refer PSG DB P.No. 1.42

0.09
 10 6 
f   1  
 N 

N - the required life in cycles.

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.151

Example: Calculate fatigue strength ‘f’ of the steel shaft for a life of 105 cycles.

 1  120 N/mm2

0.09
 10 6 
f   1  120  5 
 10 

 147.63 N/mm 2

In Soderberg’s equation, use  f instead of  1.

Problem 1.56: A circular cross section C 45 steel member is subjected to an axial load
that varies from  1000 N to  2500 N and to a torsional moment that varies from 0 to
 500 N - m. Assume a factor of safety of 1.5 and a stress concentration factor of 1.5;
Calculate the required diameter of the member for indefinite life.
(Apr. 96-MU, Apr.-May - 2008 - AU)

Given Data

axial load Torsional moment

Max. load   2500 N Max. twisting moment   500 Nm   500  10 3Nmm

Min. load   1000 N Min. twisting moment  0

Factor of safety  1.5 ; Stress concentration factor Kt  1.5 ; For C 45 material,

from P.No. 1.9

u  630  710 N/mm 2; y  360 N/mm 2;

Take u  650 N/mm 2

From P.No. 1.42; endurance limit   1  0.36 u (for axial load - Reversed)
 0.36  650  234 N/mm 2

Repeated - endurance limit in shear  o  0.3u for twisting moment Repeated

 195 N/mm 2

Consider axial load

P max  Max. lo ad   2500 N ; P min  Min. load   1000 N
1.152 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

P max 2500
Max. stress   where d  diameter of shaft.
A  2
d
4

3183.09
max  
d2

P min 1000
Min. stress 
4  2
d
4

1273.23
min  
d2

3183.09  1273.23 
2

max   min d d2 954.93
Mean stress  m   
2 2 d2

3183.09  1273.23 
2

 max  min d d2 2228.16
Stress amplitude   a   
2 2 d2

From databook, Page No. 7.6

Combined stresses
y  a  y
 eq   m  Kf
n  1

2228.16 Let  q  1
2
 360
954.93 d
 eq  2
 1.5
d 234

6096.83 K f  1  qK t  1
 eq  2
... (1)
d

 1  11.5  1  1.5

Consider twisting moment (Repeated load)

Max. twisting moment  T max   500  10 3N mm

Min. twisting moment  T min  0

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.153

Tr T  500  10 3Nmm

Max. shear stress  max 
J
d d
500  10 3  r
2 2
max 
 4
d
32
2.546  106  4
 J d
32
d3
Min. Shear stress  min  0

max  min
Mean shear stress  mean  m 
2

2.546  10 6 1.2732  10 6
 
2d3 d3

max  min 2.546  10 6

Amplitude of shear stress  a  
2 2 d3

1.2732  10 6

d3

. .
Note: For repeated load mean  amp   . Min. stress  0

from databook, P.No. 7.6

y a  y y
eq   m  K f  y 
n o 2

360
  180 N/mm 2
2

1.2732  10 6 1.2732  106  180

eq   1.5
d3 d3195

1.2732  10 6 1.1752  10 6
 
d3 d3

2.4484  10 6
 ... (2)
d3
1.154 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements



2 2
1  eq   eq 
    
n
 y   y 



2 2
1  6096.83   2.4484  10 6 
  2    3 
1.5
 d  360   d  180 

Squaring on both sides

2 2
 6096.83   2.4484  10 6 
0.444   2    3 
 d  360   d  180 

286.81 185.02  106

0.444  
d4 d6

The abo ve equatio n c an be so lved by trial & erro r metho d to find ‘d’

Trail 1: Put d  30 mm RHS  3.45  10  4  0.2537  0.25407

RHS < LHS
Trail 2: Put d  25 mm RHS  7.34  10  4  0.7578  0.2540
RHS > LHS
Trail 3: Put d  27 mm RHS  5.3968  10  4  0.4775  0.4781
RHS > LHS
Trail 4: Put d  27.5 mm RHS  5.014  10  4  0.4277  0.4282
RHS ~
 LHS (RHS is approximately equal to LHS)
 Take d  diameter of shaft  27.5 mm

Problem 1.57: A 30 mm diameter machined steel cantilever 250 mm. Long is loaded on
the end with a force that varies from 270 N down to 400 N up. Also there is an axial
force at the free end that varies from  500 N to  600 N. There is a 6 mm. fillet where
the member is connected to the support which causes a stress concentration factor of 1.32;
The notch sensitivity may be taken as 0.9; If the material has an ultimate strength of 550
MPa, an endurance limit of 240 KPa, and yield strength of 415 MPa. Calculate the design
factor N. (Oct-96 MU, Apr - May - 2007 - AU)
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.155

Given Data
dia. of bar  d  30 mm

K t  1.32

q  0.9

 u  550 MP a  550 N/mm 2

 y  415 MP a  415 N/mm 2

endurance limit   1  240 MPa  240 N/mm 2

Consider axial load: (Reversed load)

Max. load   600 N W max

Min. load   500 N W min

W max  W min 600  500

Mean load  W mean    50 N
2 2

W max  W min 600   500 

Amplitude of load  W amp    550 N
2 2

W mean  2
Mean stress  mean  A d
A 4
50 
   30 2
706.85 4

 0.0707 N/mm 2  706.85 mm 2

W amp
Amplitude of stress  amp   a 
A

550
  0.7781 N /m m2
706.85

From databook,

According to Soderberg’s equation Page No. (7.6).

1 m a
  Kf
n y 1
1.156 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

y y   a
 m  Kf
n 1

y K f  1  qK t  1
Let  eq  equivalent stress
n 1

y 1.288  415  0.7781  1  0.91.32  1

 0.0707 
n 240

eq  1.8036 N/mm 2 ... (1)  1.288

1

Consider bending load: (Reversed load)

W max  M ax. load   270 N  as  ve

W min  Min. load   400 N  as  ve

W max  W min 270   400 130

Mean load W mean      65 N
2 2 2

Mean bending moment  M mean   65  250   16250 Nmm

W max  Wmin 270   400

Amplitude load  W amp    335 N
2 2

Amplitude bending moment   335  250   83750 N m m

M amp  83750 Nmm

M mean
Mean bending stress  mean 
Z

 3 
Z d   30 3  2650.71 mm 3
32 32

16250
m ean     6.1304 N /mm 2
2650.71

M am p
Amplitude bending stress   amp 
Z

83750
a    31.595 N /mm 2
2650.71
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.157

According to Soderberg equation,

1 m a
  Kf
n y  1

y a   y
(or)   eq  m  Kf
n 2  1

1.288 415 31.595 

eq   6.1304    64.2370 N/mm 2
2 240

Total equivalent stress  eq  eq  eq

1 2

 1.8036  64.2376  64.0412 N/mm 2

y
but  eq 
n

y 415
 n  Facto r of safety  
eq 64.0412

 Factor of safety (or) Design factor  n  6.28

Problem 1.58: A transmission shaft made of C 45 steel is subjected to a fluctuating torque

which varies from  100 N-m to  500 N-m. Also a fluctuating bending moment acts on
the shaft that varies from  500 N-m to  500 N-m. Let the stress concentration factor be
2; The shaft is machined, for a factor of safety of 1.5; Determine the required shaft size.
(Apr-97-MU, Oct- Nov- 2005 - AU)

Material C 45.

From PSG databook; Page No. 1.9 y  360 N/mm 2

u  630  710 N/mm 2

Select u  700 N/m m2

FO S  1.5 given

Torque - (Reversed)   1  endurance limit in shear  0.22 u

 0.22  700

 1  154 N/mm 2
1.158 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Bending moment (Reversed)    1  endurance limit  0.46 u

 0.46  700

 322 N/mm 2

Let d  diameter of the shaft

 3  I   4
Z  section modulus  d  Z  y  ; I  64 d
32  
 4 d
J  polar moment of inertia  d y
32 2

Considering Twisting moment: (Reversed)

Max. torque  T max   500 Nm

Min. torque  T min   100 Nm

T max  Tmin 500  100

Mean torque  T mean    200 Nm  200  10 3 N  mm
2 2

d
T mean  r 200  103 
2
Mean shear stress  mean  
J  4
d
32

1018.59
m  3
 103 N/mm2
d

Tmax  Tmin 500   100

Amplitude torque  T amp    300 Nm  300  10 3 N  mm
2 2

d
Tamp  r 300  10 3 
2
Amplitude shear stress  amp  
J  4
d
32

1527.88
a  3
 10 3 N/mm2
d

From PSG Databook P.No. (7.6)

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.159

y a y K f  1  q K t  1
eq   m  K f
n  1
assume q  0.9
 1527.88  10 3  K t  2 given
   180
y 1018.59   10 3  d3 
eq    1.9 K f  1  0.9 2  1  1.9
n d3 154
y 360
4411.67  10 3 y    180 N /mm 2
eq  1 2 2
d3

Considering bending moment: (Reversed)

Max. bending moment  M max   500 Nm

Min. bending moment  M min   500 Nm

M max  M min
Mean bending moment  M mean 
2

500  500
 0
2

M mean 0
Mean bending stress  mean   0
2 2

M max  M min
Amplitude bending moment  M amp 
2

500   500 
  500 Nm  500  10 3 N  mm
2

M amp 500  10 3 5092.95  10 3

Amplitude bending stress   amp   
Z  3 d3
d
32

From PSG Databook, P.No. (7.6)

5092.95
 10 3  360
y a   y d 3
eq   m  K f  0  1.9
n  1 322
1.160 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

10818.56
eq   10 3 ... (II)
d3



2 2
1  eq   eq 
    
n
 y   y 

n  FOS  1.5

Substitute the values of  eq and eq in the above equation



2 2
1  10818.56  10 3   4411.67  10 3 
     
1.5
 d3  360   d3  180 



 

903.09  10 6
d6

600.70  106
d6

1503.79  10 6
d6

Squaring on both sides

1503.79  10 6
0.444 
d6

1503.79  10 6
d6   3.3869  10 9
0.444

 d  shaft diameter  38.752 mm

From R20 series, Page No. (7.20) Shaft diameter d  40 mm

 d  40 mm

Problem 1.59: A pulley is keyed to a shaft midway between two anti-friction bearings.
The bending moment at the pulley varies from  170 N-m to  510 N-m as the torsional
moment in the shaft varies from 55 N-m to 165 N-m. The frequency of the variation of
the loads is the same as the shaft speed. Determine the required diameter of the shaft for
an indefinite life. (Apr 98 - MU, Apr - May - 2009 - AU)
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.161

Given Data

To ‘FIND DIAMETER’
510
1. Variable bending moment. (Reversed)
O
Max. BM   510 Nm   510  10 3Nmm
170
(R eversed)
Min. BM   170 Nm   170  10 3Nmm

2. Variable twisting moment. (Fluctuating)

Max. twisting moment   165 Nm   165  10 3N mm

Min. twisting moment   55 Nm   55  10 3N mm

Since material of the shaft is not given,

Select any material C 40, C 45 or C 50 (From page No. 1.10)

Let, the material for the shaft as C 40

From Page No. 1.9  u  580  680 N/mm 2; y  330 N/mm 2

165
Take u  600 N/mm 2

Endurance limit: bending (Reversed) Refer Page No. 1.42 55

 1  0.46 u  0.46  600  276 N/mm 2

u 600
Endurance in shear (for fluctuating stress)  1    300 N/mm2
2 2

Consider reversed bending moment:

From Page No. 7.6

1 m a
d
  Kf  510  10 3 
n y  1 BM  y 2
max  
I  4
Let K f  1 d
6
 y  a   y 5.19  10 6
eq     m  Kf 
n   1 d4
 max   min
m  m ean stress 
2
1.162 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

d
 170  10 3 
B.M  y 2 1.7316  10 6
min   
I  4 d3
d
64

5.19  10 6 1.7316  10 6

2 d3 2d3 3.46  10 6
m   3
 1.7292  10 6
2 2d

 max   min
a  amp. stress 
2

5.19  10 6 1.73  10 6

2d3 2d3 6.92  10 6
  3
 3.46  10 6
2 2d

1.7292  10 6 3.46  10 6  330

eq  1
d3 d3  276

4.136  10 6
eq  1
d3

Consider fluctuating twisting moment

from Page No. 7.6

1 m u y u  y
  Kf eq   m  K f
n y  1 n  1

d
Tmaxr 165  10 3 
2
max   Tmax  165  10 3Nm m
J  4
d
32

840.33  10 3

d3
d
55  10 3 
Tm in  r 2 280.11  10 3
min    Tmin  55  10 3 Nmm
J  4 d3
d
32
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.163

max  min
m  me an shear stress 
2

840.33  10 3 280.11  10 3

d3 d3 560.22  10 3
 
2 d3

max  min
a  A mp. shear stress 
2

840.33  10 3 280.11  10 3

d3 d3

2

280.11  10 3

d3

a  y 600
 1   300 N/mm 2
eq  m  K f 2
 1
y 330
560.22  10 3 280.11  103  165 y  
 1 2 2
d3 d3 300
 165 N/mm 2

0.7142  106
eq  ... (2)
d3

for, Combined stresses, from Page No. 7.6



2 2
1   eq   eq 
    
n
 y   y 

Take n  Fa ctor of safety  2



2 2
1  4.136  10 6 1   0.7142  10 6 
      
2  d3 330

3
 d  165 

Squaring both sides,

1.164 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

6
1 157.08  10 18.735  106
 
4 d6 d6
6
1 175.8157  10

4 d6

d6  175.8157  10 6  4  703.428  10 6
1
d  703.42  10 6 6

diameter of the shaft d  29.82 mm

From R20 series, page no (7.20), shaft diameter = d = 30 mm

 d  30 mm

Problem 1.60: The bending stress in a machine part fluctuates between a tensile stress
of 280 N/mm2 and compressive stress of 140 N/mm2. What should be the min. ultimate
tensile strength to carry this fluctuation indefinitely according to (i) Goodman’s formula
and (ii) Soderberg’s formula. Take factor of safety = 1.75; Assume the yield point is never
likely to be less than 55% of the ultimate tensile strength or greater than 93% of it.
(Oct.’98 - MU)

Given data
Axial stress:

max  tensile stress   280 N/mm 2

max  compres sive stress   140 N/mm 2

Factor of safety  n  1.75

Assume y  0.55 u and y  0.93 u

The stress load given is reversed stress:

max  min 280  140
Mean stress    70 N/mm 2
2 2
 max  min 280   140
Amplitude stress   amp    210 N/mm 2
2 2
Assume y  0.55 u to 0.93 u

y  0.6 u
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.165

Let K f  (fatigue stress concentration factor)  1

1. Goodman’s equation

1  m a 
 Kt   
n   1
 u 
From databook, P.No. 1.42

 1  endurance limit from databook,

t

 0.36u

1  m u 
 Kt   
n   1
 u 
1  70 210 
1 
1.75 u 0.36 u 
 
1 70 583.33 653.33
  
1.75 u u u

u  Min. ultimate stress  653.33  1.75  1143.33 N/m m2

2. Soderberg’s equation

1 m u
  Kf
n y  1

1 70  210 
 1
1.75 0.6u 0.36 u 
 
1 116.66 583.33 699.99
  
1.75 u u u

  u  M in. ultim ate stress  699.99  1.75  1224.98 N/mm 2

usoderberg   ugoodman

Goodman’s equation gives the minimum ultimate tensile strength.

Problem 1.61: A steel cantilever beam 300 mm long is subjected to a load at free end
that varies from  50 kN (upwards) to 150 kN (downwards). The diameters from the free
end are ‘d’ for 200 mm and 1.5 d for the remaining length, with a fillet radius of 0.2 d;
1.166 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

The factor of safety is 2. Notch sensitivity factor at the fillet is 0.9; Surface finish factor
is 0.8; Size factor is 0.85; Ultimate strength is 600 N/mm2 and yield strength is
380 N/mm2. Calculate the diameter at fillet section. (Apr. 2001 - MU)

Given data
Let d  diameter of the shaft

F 1  downward load

F 2  upward load

Factor of safety n2

N otch sensitivity factor  q  0.9

Surface finish factor  0.8

Size factor  0.85

Ultimate strength  u  600 N/mm 2

Yield strength   y  380 N/mm 2

Consider the loads F 1 and F 2: (Reversed loading)

F 1 and F 2 induces bending stress.

F max  F 1  maximum load   150 kN downwa rd   150  10 3N

F min  F 2  minimum load   50 kN upwards  50  10 3N

F max  F min 150  10 3   50  10 3

Mean load  Fmean  
2 2

F mean  50  10 3N

Mean bending moment  M mean  F mean  200

 50  10 3  200  10 6Nmm
Amplitude load (or)
F max  F min 150  10 3   50  10 3
Variable load  F amp  
2 2

F amp  100  10 3N
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.167

Amplitude or variable bending moment  M amp  F amp  200

 100  10 3  200

M amp  20  10 6N

M mean Z  Section modulus

Mean bending stress  mean   m 
Z
10 6  3
  d mm 3
 3 32
d
32
10.185  10 6 where d  dia. of the shaft
m 
d3
M amp
Amplitude bending stress   amp  a 
Z

20  10 6 203.718  106
 
 3 d3
d
32

203.718  106
a 
d3

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.6

According to Soderberg equation:

1 m a n  factor of safety
  Kf 
n y  1
To find Kf stress concentration factor m  mean stress - N/mm 2
K f  1  qK t  1 y  yield stress - N/mm 2
where K t  stress concentration K f  stress concentration factor
q  notch sensitivity factor  0.9 a  amplitude stress - N/mm 2

 1  endurance limit - N/mm 2

To find Kt for shaft with a shoulder fillet in bending.

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.14,

1.168 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

D  1.5d; d  d; r  0.2d
D 1.5d r 0.2d
  1.5 ;   0.2
d d d d
r D
Corresponding to  0.2 and  1.5 read the value of K t.
d d

From Graph,
K t  Stress concentration = 1.32

Therefore, stress concentration factor  K f  1  qKt  1  1  0.91.32  1

K f  1.288

To find endurance limit  1

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 1.42, for bending load and reversed cycle

Approximate value of endurance limit where u  ultimate stress

   1  0.46 u
b

 0.46  600  600 N/mm 2

 276 N/mm 2

Endurance limit   1    1b  Surface finish factor  Size factor

 276  0.8  0.85

 1  187.68 N/mm 2

1 m a n2
  Kf
n y  1

10.185  10 6 203.718  10 6 10.185  10 6

3 3
m  3
N/mm 2
1 d d d
  1.288
2 380 187.68
3
1 26.8026  10 1.398  10 6  y  380 N/mm 2
 
2 d3 d3
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.169

d3  2.8496  10 6 K f  1.288

 d  141.77 m m 203.718  106

a  3
N/mm 2
d

 1  187.68 N/mm 2

Diameter at fillet section  d  142 mm

Problem 1.62: A machine component is subjected to varying bending stress ranging from
300 N/mm2 tension to 200 N/mm2 compression. Determine the ultimate strength required
for the material using Soderberg, Goodman and Gerber relations.

Solution
In order to make a true comparison of the three formulae, it is necessary to
discard Kf, A, B and C from Soderberg formulae and take n  1 in both Soderberg and
Goodman formulae. The modified formulae are:

(Refer PSG D.B Pg No.7.6)

m a
 1 Soderb erg
y  1
...(1)

m a
 1 Goodman
u  1
...(2)

Gerber formula is

2
 
  m  
a    1  1    
  u  
  ...(3)

We know that
max  min 300    200 
m    50 N/mm2
2 2

max  min 300   200

a    250 N/mm 2
2 2
1.170 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Using Eqn.1
50 200
 1
0.55  u 0.5 u

u  490.9 N/mm2
Assumptions y  0.55 u

 1  0.50  u

Using Eqn. 2
50 200
 1
 u 0.5 u

u  450 N /mm2

Using Eqn 3
2

 50 

200  0.5  u  1   
   
 u

i.e 2u  400 u  2500  0

400  
 
400 2  4  1  2500
u 
2

u  406.1 N/mm2

u Soderberg  u goodman  u Gerber.

Soderberg equation gives the safest design, because it demands the greatest
value for  u

Problem 1.63: A steel cantilever, shown in Fig. 1.68a is subjected to an axial load which
varies from 200 N compression to 500 N tension and also to a transverse load at its free
end which varies from 100 N upto 125 N down. Determine d assuming the following
values; n  2, y  330 N/mm2,  1  300 N/mm2, Kt bending  1.4, Kt axial  1.6, q  0.9,
B  0.85, C  0.9.

We need to evaluate the stresses for the section X-X.

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.171

125N
x
2d d 200N
500N
x
150m m 100N
200m m
(a)

125x150N m m

B en ding m om ent
500N
Axial force

F M
0
t 0 t
200N
100x150N m m
(b) Fig.1.68. (c)

1. Refer to Fig. 1.68b for the varying axial load

F max  F min 500   200
Fm    150 N
2 2

F max  F min 500   200

Fa    350 N
2 2

Fm 150  4 190.9
m  mean axial stress   
d  2
d 2
d2
 
 4 
Fa 350  4 445.6
a  variable axial stress  2
 2

d  d d2
 
 4 

y  a K fa
eq axial  m 
 1 ABC

K fa  fatigue stress concentration factor for axial loading.

 1  q K ta  1
q  no tc h sensitivity  0.9
K ta  theoretical stress concentration factor for axial loading  1.6
1.172 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 1  0.9 1.6  1 A  0.7 for axial loading

190.9 330  445.6  1.54 B  0.85

 2
 2
d 300  d  0.7  0.85  0.9
C  0.9
190.9 1409.7
 2
   1  300 N/mm 2
d d2

1600.6  y  330 N/mm 2


d2

2. Refer to Fig. 1.68C for the varying bending moment

M max  125  150  18,750 Nmm

M min   100  150   15,000 Nmm

M max  M min 18,750   15,000 

Mm    1875 Nmm
2 2

M max  M min 18,750   15,000 

Ma    16,875 Nmm
2 2

32  M m  a  variable bending stress

m  mean b ending stress 
 d3 32  M a 32  16875
 3

32  1875 19,098.6 d  d3
  N/mm 2
 d3 d3 171,887.3
 3
N/mm 2
d

 y a K fb
eq bending  m 
 1 ABC

K fb  fatigue stress concentration factor for bending.

 1  q K tb  1

K tb  theoretical stress concentration factor for bending  1.4

 1  0.9 1.4  1  1.36

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.173

19,098.6 330  171,887.3  1.36

eq bending  3

d 300  d3  1  0.85  0.9

A  1 for bending

19098.6 336135.16 355,233.76

 3
 3

d d d3

3. eq axial and eq bending are normal stresses and they can be
algebrically added.
Total  eq axial  eq bending

1600.6 355,233.8
 2

d d3

Total  [] for safety.

y 330
[]    165 N/mm 2
n 2

1600.6 355,233.8
2
 3
 165 N/mm 2
d d

Solving by trial and error method, we get

d  13.2 mm. Take d  14 mm

Problem 1.64: A simple tension test and rotating beam test on a ductile material (C 45
annealed) gave the following results for a specimen of diameter 15 mm.
2 2 2
y  300 N/mm , u  500 N/mm and  1  200 N/mm . Determine the design stresses (mean
and variable) for the following working condition. Bolts in a cylinder cover where the load
is fluctuating due to gas pressure. The maximum load on bolt is 65 kN and the minimum
load is 35 kN. The bolts are hot rolled. The factor of safety may be taken as 2.

The Loading diagram is shown in Fig. 1.69a.

F max  F min 65  35
Fm    50 kN
2 2

F max  F min 65  35
Fa    15 kN
2 2
1.174 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

( -1 )m

60kN ( -1 )m
n
F a F ailu re Line
[ a ]
30kN O peratin g point
D esign L in e

0 t ( m ) ( y ) y
n
m
( m ) = P erm issible m ean stress
(a) (b)
( a ) = P erm issible variable stress
Fig. 1.69.

50,000 15,000
m  ,  d  diameter of bolts
  d2  a   d2 
   
 4   4 
m
From the above relations, we find  3 or m  3 a
a

y  y  a K f
 m 
n  1 ABC

The RH side is the equivalent static stress induc ed and the LH side is the
permissible stress. Therefo re w hen RH side is equal to LH side, m and  a can be
taken as the permissible values of mean and variable stresses.

y  y [a ] K f
 [ m] 
n  1 ABC

 1  200 N/mm 2 y  300 N/mm2

A  0.7 for axial loading B  0.85 assumed

C  0.7 assumed for hot rolled surface n2

K f  1.2 assumed

300 300  [a ]  1.2

 3 [a ]   7.32 [ a]
2 200  0.7  0.85  0.7

[ a]  20.48 N/mm2
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.175

[ m]  3 [a ]  3  20.48  61.46 N/mm2

The above solution can also be obtained graphically (Fig. 1.69). On the design
line the operating point is located by using.

[a ] 1
tan   
[m ] 3

Horizontal and vertical lines are drawn from the operating point and
[ a] and [m ] are measured off.

Problem 1.65: A component is subjected to various reversed bending stresses in the

following manner; 550 N/mm2 for 20% of the time, 450 N/mm2 for 30% of time, and
350 N/mm2 for 50% of time. Determine life of the part in cycles. The fatigue life of the
material of the component for various stresses are as follows: 550 N/mm2 for 20,000 cycles,
450 N/mm2 for 50,000 cycles and 350 N/mm2 for 350,000 cycles.

Solution
Life under combined loading is obtained using the relation.

1 2 3 1
  
N1 N2 N3 Nc

Where N c  life under combined loading

n1 n2 n3
1   0.2 ,  2   0.3 ,  3   0.5
Nc Nc Nc

N 1  20,000 cycles, N 2  50,000 cycles, N3  350,000 cycles

0.2 0.3 0.5 1

  
20,000 50,000 350,000 N c

i.e., N c  57377 cycles.

Problem 1.66: Calculate the fatigue strength of the steel shaft for a life of 200,000 cycles.
The ultimate strength and the endurance limit of the shaft material are 500 MPa and 150
MPa respectively.

Solution

f  10 c Nb ; u  500 N/mm 2 ;  1  150 N/mm 2

1.176 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 0.8  2   0.8  5002 

u
c  log    lo g    3.028
  1   150 

1  0.8 u  1  0.8  500 

b lo g     log     0.142
3 3 150
  1   

N  200,000 cycles

f  103.028  200,000  0.142  188.48 N/mm 2

Problem 1.67: Calculate the life of a 18 mm diameter circular shaft subjected to a completely
reversed bending stress of magnitude 400 N/mm2. The material of the shaft is C 40.

Solution
1. If the induced stress is less than the endurance limit, the component will
have an infinite life. If the induced stress is greater than the endurance limit, the
component will have only a finite life.

2. Material Properties

For C 40, u  680 N/mm 2 from PSG DataBook 1.12 

 1  0.5  u  0.5  680  340 N/mm 2

3. The induced stress     1. Therefore, the shaft will have finite life.

4. To determine the number of cycles, the following equation is used.

 f  10 c Nb

1/b
 f 
The above equation is rewritten as N   c 
 10 

Put t  400 N/mm 2

 0.8  2   0.8  680 2 

u
c  log    lo g    2.94
  1   340 

1  0.8 u  1  0.8  680 

b lo g     lo g    0.068
3  1 3  340 
 
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.177

1
 400   0.068
N 2.94 
 93262.3 cycles
 10 
Problem 1.68: A circular cross section C 45 steel member is subjected to an axial load
that varies from  1000 N to  2500 N and to a torsional moment that varies from 0 to
 500 Nm. Assume a factor of safety of 1.5 and a stress concentration factor of 1.5.
Calculate the required diameter of the member for indefinite life.
(Apr 96 - MU, Oct - 2004 - AU)

1. For axial loading

F max  F min 2500   1000 
Fm    750 N
2 2

F max  F min 2500   1000 

Fa    1750 N
2 2

Fm 750  4 954.9
m    N/mm 2
 d /42
d 2
d2

Fa 1750  4 2228.2
a  2
 2
 2
N/mm 2
 d /4 d d
K t  1.5
2. Equivalent axial loading
 y a KF A  0.7 for axial loading
eq   m 
 1 ABC
B  0.85 assumed
954.9 360  2228.2  1.5 C  0.8 for machined surface
 2
 2
d 325  d  0.7  0.85  0.8
y  300 N/mm 2for C45 from DataB ook
873264

d2 u  650 N/mm 2

3. Torsional loading  1  0.5 u  0.5  650  325 N/mm 2

Tmax  Tmin 500  0
Tm    250 Nm  250,000 N/mm
2 2

Tmax  Tmin 500  0

Ta    250 Nm  250,000 N mm
2 2
1.178 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

16 Tm 16  250,000 1,273.239.5
m  3
 3
 3
N/mm 2
d d d

16 T a 16  250,000 1,273,239.5
a  3
 3
 N/mm 2
d d d3

4. Equivalent torsional loading

 y  a Kf
eq  m   K f  1.5 , y  0.6 y  0.6  360  216 N/mm2 , A  0.6
 1 ABC

1,273,239.5 216  1,273,239.5  1.5 4,384,322.4

 3
 3
 N /mm 2
d 325  d  0.6  0.85  0.8 d3

5. Maximum shear stress


 

2 2 2
 eq  2  8732.64   4.384.322.4 
max     eq   2 
 
 2   2d   d3 

6. Shaft diameter
0.5  y
For safety, max 
n n  1.5

2 2 2
 8732.64   4,384,322.4   0.5 y 
 2       
 2d   d3   n 

2
 0.5  360 
   14,400
 1.5 
This equatio n sho uld be so lved by trial and erro r metho d.

Fo r d  25 mm, LH side  78,783.3

For d  30 mm, LH side  26,391.5

For d  33 mm, LH side  14,900

For d  35 mm, LH side  10,469.4

Adopt d  35 mm
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.179

Problem 1.69: A circular bar of length 600 mm is supported at its ends. It is acted upon
by a concentrated cyclic load at its centre which varies from 20 kN to 50 kN. If the factor
of safety is 1.5, surface finish factor is 0.9 and the size effect is 0.85, find the diameter
of te bar. The ultimate strength of the bar is 650 N/mm2, yield strength is 500 N/mm2 and
endurance strength is 350 N/mm2 (April - 2005 - AU)

50kN
F
300 20 to 50kN
20kN

1=600m m 0
t
F ig.1.70

F max  F min 50  20
1. F m    35 kN
2 2

F max  F min 50  20
Fa    15 kN
2 2

Fml
2. Mean bending moment, M m  (for simply supported beam)
4

35,000  600
Mm   5.25  10 6 Nmm
4

Fal
Variable bending moment, M a 
4

15,000  600
Ma   2.25  10 6 Nmm
4

32  M m
3. Mean bending stress m 
 d3

32  5.25  106 53.48  106

m   N/mm2
 d3 d3

32  M a
Variable bending stress a 
 d3
1.180 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

32  2.25  106 22.92  106

a  3
 3
N/mm2
d d
4. Use Soderberg equation

 a Kt n  1.5
1 m
 
n  y  1 ABC A  1for bending

1 53.48  10 6 C  0.9

1.5 500  d3 B  0.85

22.92  10 6  1  u  650 N/mm 2


350  d3  1  0.85  0.9
 y  500 N/mm 2
3 3
1 107  10 85.6  10
 3
   1  350 N/mm 2
1.5 d d3

d  66.1 mm K f  1 ass umed

Take d  68 mm
Problem 1.70: Determine the thickness of a 120 mm wide plate for safe continuous
operation when it is subjected to a tensile load that has a maximum value of 250 kN and
a minimum value of 100 kN. Take  1  225 N/mm2, y  300 N/mm2, n  2, A  0.7,
B  0.85, C  0.8. Assume no notch (i.e, Kf  1

250kN

F
t
b
F F
100kN

(a)
0 t
Fig.1.71
(b)

1. Calculation of Fm , Fa
F max  250 kN, F min  100 kN

F max  F min 250  100

Fm    175 kN ;
2 2
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.181

F max  F min 250  100

Fa    75 kN
2 2

2. Calculation of m , a

Fm 175,000 1458.3
m   
bt 120  t t

Fa 75,000 625
a    b  120 mm
bt 120  t t
n2

3. Now, we use Soderberg relation Kf  1

1 m Kf a A  0.7
 
n  y  1 ABC
B  0.85
1 1458.3 1  625
  C  0.8
2 t  300 t  225  0.7  0.85  0.8
 y  300 N/mm 2
t  21.4 mm
  1  225 N/mm 2
Take t  22 mm

Problem 1.71: A steel bar is subjected to completely reversed stress cycles which vary
over a 20 second time period (Fig. 1.72a), in the following manner (a) Five cycles at
570 N/mm2 (b) Two cycles at 640 N/mm2 and (c) One at 750 N/mm2 There are eight stress
cycles with amplitude greater than the endurance limit in period of 20 seconds. The
corresponding lives for the above stress are 105, 3.8  104, and 1.6  104 cycles (Fig 1.72b).
Endurance limit of steel used is 430 N/mm2. Evaluate fatigue life.

Solution

1. If the completely reversed stress is 570 N/mm2, corresponding fatigue life is

105 cycles. Life consumed in a 20 second period  5 cycles.

n1  5 ; N1  10 5

Similarly n2  2 ; N 2  3.8  10 4

n3  1 ; N 3  1.6  10 4
1.182 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2. Now, use Miner’s rule

n1 n2 n3
   1 for safety
N1 N2 N3

n1 n2 n3 5 2 1
   5
 4
  0.0001651
N1 N2 N3 10 3.8  10 1.6  10 4

0.0001651 corresponds to 20 seconds.

20  1
1 corresponds to seconds.
0.0001651

20  1
Or, hours  33.65 hour
0.0001651  60  60

Fatigue life = 33.65 hours

2
640 N/m m
700
570
2
Stress N /m m

285
0
-285
-570
-700
Represen tative 20 -sec test
(a) Stress - Tim e P lot

100 0
Reversed stress

850
(N /m m (log))

700
2

570
430
5
10

285
3 4 5 6 7
10 10 10 10 10
N (C ycles (log) )
Fig.1.72
(b) S-N Curve
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.183

Problem 1.72: A shaft is subjected to a bending moment varying from - 200 N.m to
500 N. m and a twisting moment varying from 50 N. m to 175 N.m. The material used
has Su  600 MPa, Se  300 MPa, Ka  0.76 ; Kb  0.85 ; Kc  0.897 ; Kt  1.85 and q  0.95 ;
Find the diameter of the shaft by Von Mises Hencky theory. Factor of safety is 1.5;
(Nov/Dec - 2003 - AU)

Given data:

M max  500 N. m  500  10 3 N. mm

M min  200 N. m   200  10 3 N. mm

Tmin   50 N. m   50  10 3 N. mm

Tmax   175 N. m  175  103 N. mm

Ultimate stress  600 MPa  600 N/mm 2;

Yield stress  300 MPa  300 N/mm 2;

K a  0.76 ; K b  0.85 ; K c  0.897 ; K t  1.85 and q  0.95

From databook, P. No. 7.6; Kf  fatigue stress concentration factor

 1  q Kt  1  1  0.95 1.85  1

kf  1.8075

Refer PSG Design databook, Page No. 7.6

2 2 1/2
  eq 

1   eq  
    
n  y
   4  
 (1)

y a y
Where eq   m  Kf
n  1
(2)

y a y
and eq   m  K f
n  1
(3)
1.184 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Bending moment induces bending stress

M max 500  10 3 5092.95  10 3

max  b   
ma x Z  3 d2
d
32

M min  200  10 3  2037.18  103

min  b   
min Z  3 d3
d
32

 5092.95  10 3 2037.18  103 

  
max  min  d3 d3 
mean  m   
2  2 

1527.88  10 3
Mean stress  m  N/mm 2
d3

 5092.95  10 3 2037.18  10 3 
  
 max   min  d3 d3 
Amplitude streess  amp   a   
2  2 

3565.06  10 3
Amplitude stress   a  3
N /mm2
d

Refer PSG design databook, (Page No. 1.42)

  1  Endurance limit for bending reversed

 0.56  u  0.46  600  276 N/mm 2

(by considering Ka, Kb, Kc

 1  276  0.76  0.85  0.897  159.93 N/mm 2

Substitute all the values in equation (2)

 1527.88  3656.06  300   3

eq   3
 1.8075  3    10
 d  d  159.93 

13,615.37  10 3
eq  N /mm 2
d3
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.185

Similarly

Endurance limit stress in shear  1

Consider twisting moment as repeated cycle,

 1  0.3 u  0.3  600  180  K a  K b  K c

 180  0.76  0.85  0.897  104 N/mm 2

Twisting moment induces shear stress

d
50  10 3 
T min r 2 254.6  10 3
min    Where, r  radius of shaft
J  d3
 d4
32
Tmax  r d
max  
J 2
d
175  10 3 
2 891.26  10 3  4
  3
J d
 4 d 32
d
32

y 300
y    150 N /mm 2
2 2

max  min
m  mean 
2

891.26  10 3 254.6  10 3

d3 d3

2

572.93  10 3
Mean Torq ue  m 
d3

max  m in
Amplitude torque  a  m ax 
2

318.33  10 3

d3

substitute all the values in equation (3)

1.186 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

y a y
eq   m  K f
n  1

572.93  10 2  318.33  103  150 

eq   1.8075  
d2  d3  104 

1.402  10 6
eq  N/mm 2
d3

Substitute the value of eq and eq in equation (1)

2 2 1/2
  1.402  10 6  
1  13615  10 3  
    
1.5  d3  300 3
 d  150  
  
Solve the above equation, by trail and error method.

Trail (1)
Take d  20 mm

RHS  5.7744 and LHS  0.666

Since RHS  LHS , take next trail

Trail (2)
Take d  30 mm

RHS  1.78 and LHS  0.666

since RHS  LHS , take next trial

Trail (3)
Take d  40 mm

RHS  0.5241 and LHS  0.666

RHS  LHS , take another trail

Trail (4)
Take d  41 mm

RHS  0.67 and LHS  0.666

Since RHS is approximately equals to LHS ,

Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.187

Therefore take d  41 mm ;

But according to R 20 series, Design databook, Page No. 7.21

Diameter of shaft  d  45 mm

Problem 1.73: A pulley is keyed to a shaft midway between two anti-friction bearings.
The bending moment at the pulley varies from – 170 N.m to 510 N.m as the torsional
moment in the shaft varies from 55 N.m to 165 N.m. The frequency of the variation of
the loads is the same as the shaft speed. The shaft is made of cold drawn steel having
an ultimate strength of 538 MPa and yield strength of 400 MPa. Determine the required
diameter for an indefinite life. The stress concentration factor for the key way in bending
and torsion may be taken as 1.6 and 1.3 respectively. Correction factors A  1 (for bending),
A  0.6 (for torsion), B  0.85, C  0.88, use a design factor, n  1.5;
(Anna Univ. May 2012, MEJ04, Anna Univ Dec 2012, MEJ04, Anna Univ. Apr - May - 2004)

Given data

Minimum bending moment  M b   170 N.m   170  10 3 N. mm

min 

Maximum bending moment  M b   510 N. m  510  10 3 N mm

max 

Minimum torsional moment  Tmin  55 N. m  55  10 3 N mm

Maximum torsional moment  Tmax  165 N. m  165  10 3 N mm

Ultimate strength  u  538 MPa  538 N/mm 2

Yield strength  y  400 MPa  400 N/mm 2

K t (bending)  1.6

K t (torsion)  1.3

A  1 for bending; A  0.6 for torsion; B  0.65 ; C  0.88 ; Factor of safety

 n  1.5

Endurance limit  1

For bending (Reversed)  0.46 u  0.46  538  247.48 N/mm 2

1.188 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

The endurance limit (bending)  1  247.48  A  B  C

 247.48  1  0.85  0.88

 185 N/mm 2

for torsion (or) twisting

 1  0.3  u  0.3  538  161.4

 161.4  0.6  0.85  0.88

A B C

 72.5 N/mm 2

Bending moment induces bending stress

Let d  diameter of shaft

M max 510  10 3
max  maximum bending stres s 
Z  3
d
32

5194.81  10 3

d3

M min  170  10 3
min  be nding stress  
Z  3
d
32

 1731.6  10 3

d3

5194.81  10 3 1731.6  10 3

max  min d3 d3
mean  Mean stress  m  
2 2

1731.6  10 3
m 
d3

5194.81  10 3 1731.6  10 3

 max   min d3 d3
amp  amplitude stress   a  
2 2
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.189

3463.20  10 3
a 
d3

Refer PSG design databook, Page No. 7.6.

2 2 1/2
 
1   eq   eq  
     ...(1)
n  y
   y  

y a  y
where,  eq   m  Kf ...(2)
n  1

y a y
and eq   m  K f ...(3)
n  1

K f  1  q Kt  1  1  1 1.6  1  take q  1

Kf  2.6
bending

y 400
Similarly, Kf  1  1 1.3  1  2.3 ; y  
Torsion 2 2

 200 N/mm 2

Substitute all the values in equation (2)

y a y
 eq   m  Kf
n  1

1731.6  10 3  3463.2  10 3  400 

eq   2.6  
d3  d3  185 

21200  10 3
eq  3
N/mm2
d

The torsional moment induces shear stress d

where r 
2
r
Maximum shear stress  max  Tmax   4
J J d
32
165  10 3 d
 
 4 2
d
32
1.190 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

840.33  10 3
Maxim um shear stress  max 
d3
3 3
r 55  10 d 280.11  10
Minimum shear stress  min  T min    
J  4 2 d3
d
32

 840.33  10 3 280.11  10 3 
  
max  min  d3 d3 
Mean shear stress   
2  2 
560.22  10 3
mean  m  N/mm 2
d3

 840.33  10 3 280.11  10 3 
  
m ax  min  d3 d3 
Amplitude shear stress   
2  2 
280.11  10 3
eq  3
N/mm 2
d

Substitute all the values in Equation (3)

y a y
eq   m  K f
n  1

560.22  10 3  280.11  103 

eq   2.3  
d3 3
 d  72.5 

2337.46  10 3
eq  3
N/mm2
d

Substitute the values of  eq and eq in equation (1).

2 2 1/2
 
1  21200  10 3   2337.46  10 3

    
1.5 
 d3  400   d3  200  
 
Solving both sides
2 2
 21200  10 3   2337.46  10 3 
0.44   3    
 d  400   d3  200 
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.191

2.809  10 9 0.1365  109

0.44  
d6 d6

d6  6.694  10 9

 d  43.41 mm

According to R 20 series, Refer Data book page no. 7.20,

The diameter of shaft  45 mm

Problem 1.74: A cantilever rod of circular section is subjected to a cyclic transverse load,
varying from – 100 N to  300 N as shown in Fig. Determine the diameter ‘d’ of the rod
by (a) Goodman method and (b) Soderberg, method using the following: size correction
factor = A = 0.85; Surface correction factor = B = 0.9 (Nov-Dec-2004 - AU)

Given data:
Factor of safety  2 ;

Theoretical stress concentration factor  1.4 ;

No tc h sensitivity fac to r  0.9 ;

Ultimate strength  550 MPa ; -100N

Yield strength ;
 320 MPa
1.5 d

Endurance strength  275 MPa ;

300 N
Size correction factor  0.85 ; 120
150
Surface correction factor  0.9 ;

Given data
Maximum load  W max   300 N 

Minimum load  W min   100 N 

K t  1.4 ; Factor of safety  n  2 ; Notch sensitivity factor  q  0.9 ;

Ultimate strength   u  550 MPa  550 N/mm 2 ;

Yield strength  y  320 MPa  320 N /mm 2 ;

Endurance strength   1  275 MPa  275 N/mm 2

1.192 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Size correction factor  A  0.85 ; Surface correction factor  B  0.9 ;

W max  W min 300  100

Mean load  W mean    200 N
2 2

W max  W min 300  100

Amplitude load  W amp    100 N
2 2

Mean bending moment  M mean  W mean  length  200  150  30  10 3 N  mm

Amplitude bending moment  M amp  W amp  length

The transverse load induces bending stress

 mean
Mean bending stress mean  b 
mean Z

30  10 3 305.57  10 3
m   3
N/mm 2
 3 d
d
32

M amp
Amplitude bending stress  amp  b 
amp Z

15  10 3 152.78  10 3
a   3
N/mm 2
 3 d
d
32

(a) Goodman method:

Refer PSG design databook, Page No. 7.6

1  m a 
 Kt   
n 
 u
 1
 (1)

By considering size correction factor  A  0.87 and surface correction factor

 B  0.9 ;

The endurance strength   1  275  0.85  0.9

 210.37 N/mm 2
Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members 1.193

Substitute the values in equation (1)

1  305.57  10 3 152.78  10 3 
 1.4  3
 3 
2 d 210.37 
 d 550 
d  diameter of shaft  15.31 mm

(b) Soderberg method

Refer PSG design databook, Page No. 7.6

1 m a
  Kf
n y  1 .(2)
K f  1  q Kt  1  1  0.9 1.4  1

 1.36

Substitute the values in equation (2)

1 305.57  10
3
152.78  10 3
   1.36
2 d3  320 d3 210.37 

d  diameter of shaft  15.72 mm

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.1

CHAPTER 2

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Shaft is a rotating machine element, which transmits power. Shafts are subjected
to tensile, bending or torsional stresses or to a combination of these stresses.
A transmitting shaft is circular in cross-section, which supports transmission
elements like pulleys, gears and sprockets.
The design of transmission shaft consists of determining the correct shaft
diameter based on
1. Strength
2. Rigidity and stiffness.
The material used are mild steel (C40, C45, C50) and alloy steels (Nickel,
Nickel-Chromium and Molybdenum steels).
Axle: It is a non rotating shaft, which supports the rotating components of the
machine. It does not transmit a useful torque. Axle is subjected to only bending.
Spindle: It is a short rotating shaft. In case of drilling machine, the spindle holds
the tool holder.
A line shaft or transmission shaft, is a comparatively long shaft which is
driven by a motor. The line shaft transmits motion to various machines through
counter shafts. The counter shaft is an intermediate shaft placed between the line
shaft and various driven machines.
Stub axles are short axles capable of small angular motion about the pivots.
Front wheels of rear wheel drive vehicles are supported on stub axles.

2.2 TYPES OF SHAFT (ACCORDING TO USE)

1. For prime movers:
(a) Engine shafts (b) Generator shafts (c) Turbine shafts
2. Machine Shafts
3. For Power Transmission:
(a) Line shafts (b) Counter shafts
2.2 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2.3 STANDARD SHAFT DIAMETERS

For Transmission Shaft (in mm)

Table 2.1

Shaft size Diameter in mm Size Increment (mm)

upto 25 mm 0.5
25 to 50 mm 1.0
50 to 100 mm 2.0
100 to 200 mm 5.0

For Machinery Shaft (in mm)

For shafts with bearings and coupling with standard bores R20 series.

Table 2.2

Shaft size Size Increment Included Size

diameter (mm) Available Not Available
10 to 50 mm 2 15,17,25,35,45 24,26,34,36,44
50 to 100 mm 5 – –
100 to 260 mm 10 125 –
260 to 500 mm 20 450 –

2.4 STRESS IN SHAFTS

1. Shear Stress due to torque (Torsional Load)

2. Bending Stress

3. Combined torsion and bending stress.

2.5 DESIGN OF SHAFTS

The design of shaft consists of determining the correct shaft diameter based on

(a) Strength and

(b) Torsional rigidity.
(c) Critical Speed.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.3

2.6 DESIGN OF SHAFT BASED ON STRENGTH

The transmitting shafts are generally supporting pulleys and gears, which are
subjected to a combined load of bending and torsional moments. Induced maximum
principal stresses and maximum shear stress are calculated. The induced stresses
should be less than the permissible stress.

Since the shaft materials are ductile, to find the shaft diameter, the principal
shear stress theory of failure is used.

Consider a hollow shaft, (Refer PSG databook, Page No. 7.21)

Let d0  Outside diameter and di  Inside diameter.

(a) Shaft subjected to torsion only (according torsion equation)

16 M tdo Torsion equation

maxhollow   1
d4o  d4i  M t max

J r
Let d  diameter of solid shaft Where M t  Twisting moment
Replace do  d and put di  0 in the above J  Polar moment of inertia
eq.
16 M t 
maxsolid   2  d4  d4i  ( For Hollow Shaft)
d3 32 o

do
r
2
max  Max. Shear Stress

(b) Shaft subjected to bending only

32 M b  do According to theory of simple

b hollow   3 bending.(PSG D.B Pg.No.7.1)
max
d4o  d4i 
b M b

y I

Let d  Diameter of solid shaft Where b  Max. bending stress

Put do  d and di  0 in the above d

y
equation. 2
2.4 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

32 M b M b  Maximum bending moment

b maxsolid  3
 4
d I  Area moment of inertia


 d4  d4i  (For Hollow Shaft)
64 o

(c) Shaft Subjected to Combined Bending and Twisting Moment

When a shaft is subjected to combined bending and twisting moment, then the
shaft is designed based on various theories of failures. The following two theories are
most important.
(i) Guests Theory (Maximum Shear Stress Theory) for ductile Material.
(ii) Rankine Theory (Maximum Normal Stress Theory) for Brittle Material.

If  Shear stress due to Twisting moment.

b  Bending stress due to Bending Moment

According to Guest’s Theory

1
max 
2

 2b  4 2
...(5)
We know that

32M 16T
b  3
and 
d  d3 ...(6)
Substitute (6) in (5) We get



2 2
1  32M   16T  16  
max   3 
4 3 
 
 M 2  T2
2
 d  d   d3  


 d3   M 2  T2

16 max

Let Te  
 M 2  T2 is called Equivale nt twisting Moment


So Te  
 M 2  T2 
16
   d3

Equivalent twisting moment is defined as that twisting moment, which when

acting alone will produce same shear stress () as the actual twisting moment.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.5

According to Rankine Theory

1 1
bmax      2b  4 2

2 b 2

32M 16T
Substituting b  3
, We get
d  d3

32  1  
bmax  3  2 
M M2  T2  

d  


 1
or   bmax  d3   M  M 2  T2 

32 2 

1 M
Let
2
M 
 M2  T 2
 e and is called Equivalent bending moment.

Equivalent bending moment is defined as the moment which when acting alone
produces the same tensile or compressive bending stress as the actual bending
moment.

For Hollow Shaft


Te  

M 2  T2     d30 1  K 4
16

1      d31  K 4
Me 
2
M 
 M2  T2
 32 b 0

di
K
do

Note:
Diameter should be obtained from both theories and larger diameter to be
chosen for design.

(d) Hollow shaft subjected to bending, torsion and axial load.

If a shaft is subjected to an axial load (P) in addition to torsion and bending
load, then the stress due to axial load is added to bending stress (b). Examples are
propeller shaft of ships and shaft of driving worm gears. The design diameter is given
by
2.6 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements



2
16 
K M 
  P  do  d2i  
  K M 2
d3o   b b 1 2  t t
  d i 4   8  do  
[]1      
d ...(7)
  o 
(PSG. DB.Pg.No. 7.21)

Put di  0 and do  d in the above equation for a solid shaft subjected to bending,
torsion and axial load.

Let d  Solid shaft diameter.



2
3 16  Pd  2
d   K bM b    KtM t
[]  8 
... (8)

where Kb  Combined shock and fatigue factor applied for M b

K t  Combined shock and fatigue factor applied for M t

P  Axial load

  Column action factor

 1 for tensile load

1 l
 for  115
 l  r
1  0.0044  
r
2
y
 l  l
 2   for  115
 nE  r r

where l  Length of shaft under axial load

n  End condition coefficient (Refer PSG Databook P.No.6.8)

r  Radius of Gyration

d
 for Solid shaft.
2


 d2o  d2i
  for Hollow shaft.
4
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.7

Note: Diameter of Hollow shaft subjected to bending and torsion only can also be
obtained from above equation by:
Put P  0 in the above equation (7)

16
d3o 
  di 4 

 K bM b2  K tM 2t 
[]1  
d ... (9)
  o 
For solid shaft subjected to bending and torsion only,

Put P  0 in the equation (8)

16
d3 
[]

 K bM b2  K tM
t
2
... (10)

Note: SHAFT SIZES TO BE ROUNDED OFF TO R20 Series.

(Refer Databook Page No. 7.20 for R20 Series)

2.7 DESIGN OF SHAFT BASED ON TORSIONAL RIGIDITY

In many cases, bending of shaft will lead to misalignment of mating parts (gears)
and non-uniform distribution of load. In machine tool spindles (lathe spindle),
deflection will affect the accuracy of parts machined. In these cases, strength as well
as bending stiffness and torsional stiffness are the criteria for design.

While designing as per standards, for line shafting, deflection should not exceed
0.2 mm per meter length of shaft. Twist should not exceed 0.25  per meter for machine
tools.

Bending deflection is inversely proportional to EI (flexural rigidity) and torsional

twist is inversely proportional to GI (torsional rigidity).

Hence in the machine tool spindles, it is necessary to design the shaft based on
torsional rigidity.

Mt G

J l ...(PSG D.B Pg No.7.1)

where M t  Max. twisting moment in N-mm

J  Polar moment of inertia

 4
 d in mm4
32
2.8 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

G  Modulus of rigidity in N/mm 2

  Total angle of twist in radians

l  Length of the shaft.

Stiffness k: It is the torque required per unit angular deflection per unit length.

Mt
 G .J
/l

Stiffness is directly proportional to G.J.

k  G.J

Let JS  Polar moment of inertia of solid shaft.

JH  Polar moment of inertia of hollow shaft.

If the material of the shaft is same, then G H  G S

kJ

2.7.1 Comparison of Stiffness


JH d4  d4i  d4  d4
32 o o i
  4
JS  4 d
d
32

JH d4o  d4i

JS d4

2.7.2 Percentage Saving of Material

 2 where
Area of solid shaft  AS  d
4 do  Outside diameter of hollow shaft
 2 di  Inside diameter of hollow shaft
Area of hollow shaft  AH  d  d2i 
4 o

AS  A H
Percentage saving of material 
AS
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.9

 2  2
d  do  d2i 
4 4

 2
d
4

d2  d2o  d2i 

d2

2.7.3 Calculation of Twisting Moment M t

2 N M t P  Power transmitted by the shaft - in watts

Power  P 
60 N  Speed of the shaft - r.p.m.
P  60 M t  Twisting moment in N-m
Mt  Nm
2N

(a) In case of Belt Drives

M t  T1  T 2 R in Nmm ... (1) where

T1  Tension on tightside in Newtons.
T1
 e ... (2) T2  Tension on slack side in Newtons.
T2
R  Pulley radius in mm
From equation (1) and (2), calculate the
  Coefficient of friction between belt and
values of T1 and T2 in Newtons.
pulley (0.2 to 0.3)
  Angle of contact in radians.

2.7.4 In case of Gear Drives

Let F C is the force acting on the gear tooth profile at an angle of .

where   Pressure angle 20

Resolve the force F C into two components.

(a) F t  Tangential force in Newtons (Horizontal component)

(b) F N  Normal force in Newtons (Vertical component)

2.10 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Mt PCR  Pitch circle radius of gear

Tangential force  F t 
PCR mZ

Normal force  F N  F t  tan  2
m  Module in mm
Z  No. of teeth
  Pressure angle 20

G E AR (D ) D R IV E N

P IN IO N (C )
driver (F t ) C driven

(F N ) C

P inion deliv erin g pow er

(F t ) D

(F N ) D

D R IV E R

Fig.2.1. Force in Gear D rive

(G ear R eceivin g pow er)

2.8 DESIGN BASED ON CRITICAL SPEED

The centre of gravity of the loaded shaft will be displaced from the axis of
rotation due to one or more of the following reasons, (a) Eccentric mounting of rotors
(b) Lack of straightness of the shaft (c) Bending under the action of gravity in the
case of a horizontal shaft (d) Unbalanced magnetic pull in the case of electrical
machinery. When the shaft begins to rotate, centrifugal force acts radially outward
and bends the shaft displacing the centre of gravity further. Equilibrium is reached
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.11

when the centrifugal force is balanced by the inward elastic pull (stiffness effect). The
shaft deflection is a function of shaft speed and it reaches maximum value at a
particular speed known as the critical speed.
The natural frequency of lateral vibrations of the shaft is same as the critical
speed.

The shaft should not be run at critical speed, because excessive deflection will
result in the failure of the shaft.

Due to damping (internal friction), friction in bearings and effect of environment

the shaft does not fail instantaneously. If the shaft passes quickly through the zone
of critical speed, no damage will be done. Usually n  (2 to 3) ncr where n is the
operating speed and ncr is the critical speed.

Thus resonance (the operating speed being equal to the critical speed) can be
eliminated by employing rigid shafts with a very high ncr far away from n or slender
shafts with very low ncr far below n.

Critical Speed Formulae

Refer Fig 2.2 for a single rotor system. (Refer PSG. DB Pg No.6.12)

W
ky  y  e 2
 w

y r2
 Z e G
1  r2 m ass G
e
Fig. 2.2. Sin gle Rotor
k System
m  
  e
g
c 

Where k: Stiffness of shaft

y: Dynamic deflection
: Static deflection due to mass
e: Eccentricity of CG from shaft axis

r Frequency ratio
n
: Angular speed of shaft
n : Critical or whirling speed
2.12 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

For Multirotor system, refer Fig 2.3 the

critical speed formula is given by y1 y2
y3
Dunkerley Equation ...(PSG D.B Pg.No.6.12)
m ass1 m ass3
m ass2
1 1 1 1 1 1 (w 1 ) (w 3 )
     (w 2)
 2c  21  22  23  2s  2n Fig. 2.3 M ulti Rotor System

The above equation is known as Dunkerley’s equation.

 1  critical speed if only mass No.1 is present

 2  critical speed if only mass No.2 is present

...........................................................................................

...........................................................................................

For a shaft of constant cross section with no rotor mass is involved.



gEI
s  2
Wl4

max  maximum static deflection due to UDL equal to the weight of the shaft.

W  Weight per unit length of shaft,

l  Length of shaft

2.9 TORQUE DIAGRAMS

(Refer Fig 2.4 (a)) Pulley A receives torque T A from a motor. This torque is
represented by CCW arrow viewing from LH end. Pulleys B, C & D deliver torques
T B , TC & T D to other machines. These torques are represented by CW arrows viewing
from LH end. The CCW arrow represents positive torque and the CW arrow, negative
torque.

Torque on the shaft between A and B  TA

Torque on the shaft between B and C  TA  TB

Torque on the shaft between C and D  TA  TB  TC  TD

For equilibrium, T A  T B  TC  T D
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.13

The pulley A that TA TB TC TD

receives torque from the
motor is located between C
A B C D
and D . (Refer Fig 2.4 (b))
In this case a different
convention has been followed; TB
input torque by CW and
TA TC
output torques by CCW
arrows, viewing from LH end. TD
By assuming CCW Fig.2.4.(a) Torqu e D iagram
arrow to represent negative
TB TC TA TD
torque and CW arrow to
represent positive torque
another set of conventions B C A D
are obtained. Viewing from
RH end yet another set of
conventions are obtained.
Since we are interested in TC T B +T C
the magnitude of the TA
TB
torques, any one of the
conventions can be used.
Fig. 2.4.(b) TD
Torque on the shaft
between B and C  TB

Torque on the shaft between C and A  TB  T C

Torque on the shaft between A and D  TB  T C  TA   TD

Note: In the arrangement of pulleys shown in Fig. 2.4 (b) the maximum torque
acting on the shaft, TB  T C or TD ), is considerably smaller than when the torque
receiving pulley is at one end (Fig. 2.4 (a)). Hence, there will be a reduction of the
shaft diameter and a saving in material

Problem 2.1 A 100 mm diameter solid circular shaft can carry a torque T without
exceeding a certain max. shear stress. What portion of this torque T can a hollow shaft
having a wall thickness of 10 mm and the same outer dia. carry. Both the shafts should
have the same maximum shear stress. (Apr 98 - MU, Apr 2009 - AU)
2.14 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Solution:
Solid shaft, subjected to torsion only,

16  M t d  100 mm
[  ]S  3
d

[  ]S   100 3
[ M t ]solid 
16
 196349.54 [  ]S Nmm 1

Hollow shaft subjected to torsion only

16M tdo wall thickness t  10 mm,
[  ]hollow 
d4o  d4i  di  100  20  80 mm
do  100 mm

[  ]hollow 100 4  80 4
[ M t ]hollow 
16  100

 115924.76 [  ]hollow Nmm

[ M t ]hollow 115924.76 [  ]hollow

 Since [  ]hollow  [  ]solid,
[ M t ]solid 196349.54 [  ]S

 0.59

[ M t ]hollow  0.59  M tsolid

Problem 2.2: In an axial flow compressor the shaft is subjected to a maximum torque of
1500  103Nmm and a maximum bending moment of 3000  103Nmm. The shear stress
is limited to 50 N/mm2. Assume a factor of safety of 1.5 in bending and shock factor in
twisting as 2. Design the diameter of the shaft. (Oct 98 - MU, Apr 2005 - AU)

Given:

Mtmax  1500  10 3Nm m

Mbmax  3000  10 3Nmm

[  ]  She ar stress  50 N/mm 2

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.15

K b  1.5; Kt  2

Let d  diameter of the shaft

16
d3  
 K bMb2  K tM
t
2
[]

16
d3 
 1.5  3000  10 32  2  1500  10 32
50  

d3 550887.65

d  shaft dia.  81.97 mm

The standard diameter of the shaft, from R20 series,

Shaft diameter  d  90 mm

Problem 2.3: An axial flow rotary compressor, the shaft is subjected to a max. torque of
a 1500 N-m; and max. bending moment of 3000 N-m; Neglect axial load on the compressor
shaft. Calculate the diameter of the shaft. The load applied is gradually. The shear stress
is 50 N/mm2.

 Also design the hollow shaft for the above compressor taking inner diameter as 0.4
times outer diameter.
 What is the percentage of material saving in hollow shaft.

 Compare the stiffness ratio.

 Find the shear stress for a solid shaft, if axial tensile load 10 kN is acting.

Given Data

M t  1500 Nm  1500  10 3Nmm ; M b  3000 Nm  3000  10 3Nmm

[  ]  50 N/mm 2 ; Assume, K b  K t  1.5

(i) Solid shaft

Neglect axial load  P  0

16
d3  K tM t2  K bM b2

[]
2.16 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

16
d3   1.5  1500  10 32  1.5  3000  10 32
  512469
50  

d  80.02 mm

Take R 20 series; Shaft diameter  d  80 mm

(ii) Design of Hollow shaft

Let do  Outer dia.; and di  Inner dia.

Neglect axial load; i.e., P  0

di
di  0.4do (given);  0.4
do
...(PSG. D.B.Pg.No.7.21)



2
16  Pdo  d2  
d3o  K M   1  i    K M 2
4  b b 8   t t
   d2o  
 di 
    
[] 1

 
 d 
 o
 

Put P  0

16
d3o  4 
 K bM b2  K tM
t
2

  di 

 
 []  1    
 d 
  o 

16
d3o  4 

1.5  1500  10 32  1.5  3000  10 32  525933
 50 [ 1  0.4 ]

do 80.719 mm

From R 20 series, d0  80 mm (Refer table 2.2)

do  80 mm  di  0.4  80  32 mm

di  32 mm and do  80 mm
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.17

(iii) To saving of material mass

density 
WS  WH volum e

WS mass  vol.  density

[AreaS  lS  eS]  [AreaH  lH  eH ] Vol.  Area  length

% of saving of material  ]
[AreaS  lS eS
W
= A.l.e
lS  lH , e S  eH g

 2  2
AreaS  AreaH d  do  d2i 
4 4
 
AreaS  2
d
4

d2  d2o  d2i 
(or) % saving of material 
d2

80 2  80 2  32 2
  0.16  100
80 2

 16%

(iv) Stiffness Ratio

T C T
 or CJ
J l l C  Modulus of rigidity is constant

T
where  Stiffness
l

Stiffness  J (stiffness is directly proportional to polar moment of inertia)

 4
d
JS 32 80 4
Stiffness ratio   
JH 
 d4  d4  80 4  32 4
32  o i 

 1.026

S tiffnessSolid
 1.026
StiffnessHollow
2.18 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(v) Find shear stress if P  10 kN  10  10 3 N



2
16  Pdo  d2  
d3o  K M   1  i    K M 2
 d i 4   b b 8   t t
  d2o  
   1       
d
  o 
Let   column factor  1



2
16  3
3
10  10  80  3
 3 2
   1.52  1500  10  1  0.4    1.5  3000  10 
803   {1  0.44}  8   

16
 3 4
 5.08  10 6  51.9 N /mm 2
80  1  0.4 

  51.9 N/mm 2

Shear stress  without axial load  50 N/m m2

Shear Stress  with 10 kN axial load  51.9 N/mm 2

 The effect of axial load on shaft is negligible.

Problem 2.4: A hollow shaft is used to transmit 15 kW at 250 r.p.m. The loading is such
that the max. BM  100 kNcm; max. torsional moment = 50 kN-cm, and the axial
compressive load is 20 kN. The shaft is supported on rigid bearings 150 cm apart and is
subjected to minor shock load.
The max. allowable shear stress  2 kN/cm2
The inside diameter is 0.75 times the outside diameter.
Calculate the diameter of the shaft.

Given Data

P  15 kW  15  10 3Watts ; N  250 rpm

M b  Max. B M  100 kN cm  100  10 3  10

M b  10 6Nmm

M t  Max. torque  50 kNcm

di
 50  10 3  10  0.75 given 
do
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.19

M t  5  10 5Nmm

Compressive load  P  20 kN  20  10 3 N

[  ]  2 kN/cm 2  20 N/mm 2

For minor shock load; K b  Kt  1.5 (PSG. D.B. Pg.No. 7.21)

Solution:
For Hollow shaft subjected to bending, torsion and axial load;
(PSG D.B Pg No.7.21)



16  P  do  d 2  2
d3o  K M   1  i    [ K M ]2
 di 4   b b   t t
  8  d2o  
[]1     

d
 o  ... (1)

Since the radius of Gyration r is dependent on do

Hence,  (column factor) cannot be determined.

 The equation can be solved only by hit and trail. To find approximate value
of do assume there is no axial load, then solve do

16
d3o  4 
 K bM b2  K tM
t
2
[][1K ]

16
 4  1.5  1062  1.5  5  10 52

 20  [ 1  0.75 ]

do  85.49 mm ; Assume do  86 mm;

Trial (I): Take do  86 di  0.75  86  64.5

l
Since  115 
 d20  d2i 

86 2  64.5 2
r r   26.875
4 4
1 l 1500
 l  150 cm  1500 mm;   55.8139
l r 26.875
1  0.0044
r  115
1
  1.3255
 1500 
1  0.0044  
 26.875 
2.20 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Now consider P  Axial compressive loa d  20  10 3N;   1.3255

Put d0  86 mm in the above equation (1),

 

2
 3 
3 16 6 1.3255  20  10  86 2 5 2
do   1.5  10   1  0.75     1.5  5  10 
20 1  0.754   8 

do  129.22 mm  130 mm

Trial (II): Take do  130 mm ; di  0.75  130  97.5


 d2o  d2i 
 130 2  97.5 2
r   40.625
4 4

l 1500
  36.92  115
r 40.625

1
   Co lumn factor 
 l 
1  0.0044  
r

1
  1.217
1  0.0044 40.625 

Assume P  20  10 3N; do  130;   1.217



  3 2
3 16  6 1.217  130  20  10
do   1.5  10   1  0.75 2   1.5  5  10 5 2 
20 1  0.754    8 

do  132.49 mm  132 mm

Therefore, the shaft diameter, may be taken as

do  132 mm;  di  0.75  132  99 mm

di  99 mm
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.21

Problem 2.5: A hoisting drum 0.5 m in diameter is keyed to a shaft which is supported
in two bearings and driven through a 12:1 reduction ratio by an electric motor. Determine
the power of driving motor, if the max. load of 8 kN is hoisted at a speed of 50 m/min.
and the efficiency of the drive is 80%; Also determine the torque on the drum shaft and
the speed of the motor in r.p.m. Determine also the diameter of the shaft. The drive gear
whose dia. is 450 mm is mounted at the end of the shaft such that it overhangs the nearest
bearing by 150 mm.

Given
on
Dia. of hoisting drum  0.5 m P in i
M otor
Radius of hoisting drum
 0.25 m

Max. load hoisted  W  8kN  8  10 3 N D rum

50 G ear
Speed of the drum  50 m/min  m/sec
60 W
150
Efficiency of the drive  80%

Powe r s upplied to the hoisting drum

Efficiency of the drive 
Power s upplied by the motor
or Power of the driving motor

Power supplied to the hoisting drum

Pow er of the driving motor 
 of the drive

Power supplied to the hoisting drum  W  v N  m/sec 

50
 8  10 3  Nm/sec  6666.6 watts
60

 6.66 kW

Power supplied to the hoisting drum

Power of the driving motor 
 of the drive

6.66
  8.325 kW
0.8

(i) Torque on the drum shaft  T  W  radius o f drum

 8000  0.25

 2000 Nm
2.22 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(ii) Motor speed

v   2R v  50 m/min
v 50 R  0.25
angular speed of hoisting drum  2  
R 0.25
 200 rad /min  2  2N2
Reduction ratio = 12:1 2N 2  200
1 12 1  12 2

2 1
Let 1 angular speed of motor 1  200  12
rad.
 2400
min
 1  2 N 1
2400
N1   381.97 r.p.m
2

Dia. of the shaft

T 2000 Pitch Circle diameter  PCD  450 mm

Ft  
PCR 0.225
 8888.88 N PCR  225 mm  0.225 m

F n  F t tan   8888.88  tan 20

 3235.29 N

Resultant BM  

BM2H  BM2v Horizontal BM  8888.88  0.15

 2013278.67
   1333.33 Nm
 1418.9 Nm
Vertical BM  3235.29  0.15
 489.2935 N  m

BMR  1418.9 Nm or 1418  10 3Nmm

16
d3 
[]

K bM b2  K tM
t
2

[Assume Kb  K t  1.5 ]
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.23

For C  40 , y  330 N  mm 2; FOS  2 (given)

y 330
Max. shear stress      82.5 N/mm 2
2. FOS 22
16
d3 
  82.5

 1.5  1418  10 32  1.5  2000  10 32  226809

d 61 mm

From R 20 series; (table 2.2) d  Dia. of the shaft  65 mm.

Problem 2.6: A hollow shaft of 600 mm outside diameter and 400 mm inside diameter
is used to drive propeller of a marine vessel. The shaft is supported on bearings 6 m apart
and transmits 5000 kW at 150 r.p.m. Max. axial propeller thrust is 500 kN. Shaft weight
is 75 kN. Determine the maximum shear stress developed and angular twist between
bearings.

Given Data
W
do  600 mm ; di  400 mm ; P  5000 k W  5  10 6 watts w  N/m
 l 
N  150 r.p.m ; W  Weight of shaft  75 kN  75  103 N ; l  6 m Wl

P  500 kN  500  103N; Assume simply supported beam,

The self weight of the shaft, induces bending moment on the shaft. Assume the
load as uniformly distributed load.

For simply supported beam, with UDL.

75  10 3
w N/m
6

Step 1.
Calculate M max  Mb

w  l2
Max. B.M occurs at centre  Mmax  D.B Pg No. 6.5 for SSB with UD L
8

75  10 3
 62
6
  56250 Nm
8
2.24 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

M max  56250  10 3 N  mm

Step 2.
 2NM t 
Calculate Tmax  M t P 
 60 

P  60 5000  10 3  60
Mt    318.309  10 3 Nm
2N 2    150

Mt  318.309  10 6 N  mm



2
16  Pdo  d2  
max  K M   1  i    K M 2
4  b b 8   t t
   d2o  
3
  di     
 do  1  
d 
(Refer PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.21)
  o 


 d2o  d2i 
 2
0.62  0.4
k   0.18
4 4

 A  0.18 m

I
k

l 6
  33.3 which is less than 115
k 0.18

l 1 1
when  115,     1.001
k  l  1  0.0049 33.3 
1  0.0044  
k [Let Kt  Kb  1.5 ]

P  Axial load  500 kN  500  10 3N

16
max  4

 400 

 6003  1    
  600  



2 2
 1  500  10 3  650   400    2
 1.5  56250  10 3  1    [1.5  318.3  10 3]
 8   600   

 max  14.612 N/mm2

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.25

Angle of twist ‘’ G  0.8  10 5N/mm 2  0.8  10 11 N/m 2

T G 
 J 0.6 4  0.4 4  0.0102 m 4
J l 32

Tl 3.183  10 5  6 T  318309.8  10 3N m

 
J  G 0.0102  0.8  10 11

180 l  6000 mm  6 m
 0.0023 rad. 


 0.13 

Problem 2.7: A solid shaft is subjected to a bending moment of 3.46 kN-m and a torsional
moment of 11.5 kN-m. The shaft is made of C45 steel and factor of safety is 6; find the
diameter of the shaft. (Oct 99 - MU, May 2008 - AU)

Given Data

Bending moment  M b  3.46 kNm  3.46  10 6Nmm

Torsional moment  M t  11.5 kNm  11.5  10 6Nmm

Material of the shaft  C45; Factor of safety n  6

Let d  diameter of the shaft.
From PSG Databook, Refer Page No. 1.9, For C45 material,

Yield stress   y  36 kgf/mm 2  360 N/mm 2

y 1 360 1
The maximum shear stress  max      30 N/mm 2
2 FOS 2 6

Refer Page No. 7.21,

Hollow shaft subjected to bending, torsion and axial load,



2
16   Pdo  di2  
d30  4
K M
 b b   1  2 
 [ K tM t ] 2
 8 do  
  
 di  
[] 1

 

 do 
 
 

For solid shaft, subjected to bending and torsion,

2.26 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Put di  0 , P  0, and do  d in the above equation

16
d3 
[]

 KbM b2  K tM
t
2

Refer Page No. 7.21

where Kb  Combined shock and fatigue factor applied to M b

K t  Combined shock and fatigue factor applied to M t

Let K b  Kt  1.5 (assume suddenly applied load)

16
 d3 
  30


1.5  3.46  1062  1.5  11.5  10 62

 3058125.252

Diameter of shaft  d  145.15 mm

From R20 series, Refer Table 2.2, (DB Pg No: 7.20)

The standard diameter of shaft = 150 mm

Problem 2.8: Compare the weight, strength and stiffness of a hollow shaft of the same
internal diameter as that of a solid shaft. The inside diameter of the hollow shaft is being
0.6 times the external diameter. Both the shafts have same materials and length.
(Apr 2000 - MU, JNTU, Dec 2011, Set-2)

Given Data
Inner dia. of hollow shaft = (0.6) External dia.

di  0.6do

Let d  Diameter of the solid shaft

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.21,

Consider Hollow Shaft

Hollow shaft subjected to torsion only

16M tHollow do do  outer diameter

max  ... (1)
 d4o  d4i  di  inner diameter
max  maximum shear stress
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.27

max [ d4o  0.6do4 ]

M tHollow 
16do

max [ 0.8704 d4o ]


16do

M tHollow  max0.1703  d3o ... (2)

Consider Solid Shaft

Substitute di  0 in the above eq. (1) d  Dia. of solid shaft
do  d max  maximum shear stress

But solid shaft diameter d  0.6 do (given)

16M tsolid0.6 do

max 
 [ 0.6do4  0 ]

max [ 0.6 do4 ]

M tsolid 
160.6 do

M tsolid  max0.0424 d3o ... (3)

Compare eq. (2) and eq. (3) i.e., divide eq. (2) by eq. (3)

M tHollow max0.1709  d3o


M tSolid max0.0424  d3o

Since both the shafts are made of same material,

 max is same.

M tHollow
 4.0306
M tSolid

M thollow shaft  4.0306  M tsolid shaft

(ii) Comparison of Weight

Weight  density  volume  density  area  length

WeVeAl
2.28 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

W hollow  weight of hollow shaft  eH  A H  lH where e  density of material - kg/m 3

 2 A  Cross-sectional area - m 2
 eH  d  d2i   lH
4 o
 l  length of shaft in m.
 eH  [ d2o  0.6 do2 ] lH
4

 eH  lH  0.5026  d2o ... (4)

W solid  Weight of s olid s haft  eS  A S  lS d  0.6 do (given)

 
 eS  d2  lS  eS  0.6 do2  lS
4 4
 eS  lS0.2827  d2o ... (5)

Compare equation (4) and equation (5). i.e., divide eq. (4) by eq. (5)

W Hollow eH  lH 0.5026 d2o


W Solid eS  lS0.2827  d2o

Since both the shafts are made of same material

eH  e S

and assume length of hollow shaft is equal to the length of the solid shaft.

lH  lS

W Hollow
 1.777
W Solid

W hollow shaft  1.777 W solid shaft

(iii) Comparison of Stiffness

Mt G where M t  twisting moment

J l
Mt J  polar moment of inertia
 stiffness
/l
 stiffness   J (Since G is constant) G  modulus of rigidity
G H  G S (same material)
l  length
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.29

 Mt  
   JHollow  d4o  di4
 /l hollow 32


 d4  0.6do4
32 o

 0.08545 d4o ... (6)

 Mt   4 
   Jsolid  d  0.6 do4
  /l solid 32 32

 0.01272 d4o ... (7)

Compare equation (6) and equation (7), i.e., divide eq. (6) by eq. (7)

S tiffnessHollow 0.08545 d4o

  6.715
StiffnessShaft 0.01272 d4o

Stiffness of Hollow shaft  6.715  stiffness of solid shaft

Problem 2.9 A factory line shaft is 4.5 m long and is to transmit 75 kW at 200
revolution/min. The allowable stress in shear is 49 MPa and the maximum allowable twist
is 1 deg. in a length of 20 diameter. Determine the required shaft diameter.
(Oct 2000 - MU, Apr 2005 - AU)

Given data

Length of the shaft  l  4.5 m  4.5  10 3mm

Power to be transmitted  P  75 kW  75  10 3watts

Speed of the shaft  N  200 r.p.m
Allowable shear stress (or)
Design shear stress  [  ]  49 MPa  49 N/mm 2

Maximum allowable twist    1  1   0.01745 radia ns
180
Twist for a length of 20  diameter ie 20d

Assume modulus of rigidity  G  0.8  10 5N/mm 2

(From PSG Databook, Page No. 1.1)
Let M t  Twisting moment required - N-mm
2.30 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(a) Calculation of diameter of shaft based on strength

2NM t 2  200  M t
Power  P   75  103 
60 60

M t  3580.986 Nm  3580.986  10 3Nmm

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.21.

Hollow shaft subjected to torsion only
16M tdo
max 
d4o  d4i 

for solid shaft, put di  0 and do  d

where d  diameter of solid shaft.

16M t  d 16M t
Max. shear stress  max  4

d d3

16  3580.986  10 3
49 
d 3
d  diameter of shaft  71.93 mm

From R20 series, Table 2.2

Select, Diameter of shaft d  80 mm

(b) Calculation of diameter of shaft based on Angle of twist

Mt G
 M t  3580.986  10 3Nmm
J l
3580.986  10 3 0.8  10 5  0.01745 J  Polar moment of inertia

 4 20d  4
d  d
32 32
3580.986  10 3  32  20
d3  5
 522573 G  modulus of rigidity  0.8  10 5N/mm 2
0.8  10    0.01745
d  Shaft diameter  80.546 mm   0.01745 radians for l  20d

From R20 series,

Select, Diameter of the shaft  80 mm

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.31

Problem 2.10: A shaft is to transmit 50 kW at 1200 r.p.m. It is also subjected to a

bending moment of 275 N-m. Allowable shear stress is 60 N/mm2. The shaft is not to twist
more than 2 degrees in a length of 2 meter. G  80  103N/mm2. Design the shaft.
(Apr 2001 - AU)

Given Data

Power  P  50 k W  50  10 3 watts; Speed  N  1200 r.p .m

Bending moment  M b  275 N m  275  10 3Nmm

Allowable shear stress  [  ]  60 N/m m2


Angle of twist    2  2   0.0349 radians
180
Length  L  2 meter

G  Modulus of rigidity  80  10 3N/mm 2

Let M t  Twisting moment required in N-mm

(a) Calculation of dia. of shaft based on strength

2NM t
Power  P 
60
2  1200  M t
50  10 3 
60

M t  397.887 Nm  397.887  10 3Nmm

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.21,

Hollow shaft subjected to bending, torsion and axial load.



 2 
Pdo 
d3o 
16 K M   1  di    K M 2
 b b 8   t t
  di 4   d2o  
[]1     
d
  o 
Put do  d; di  0 and P  0

(since it is solid shaft and there is no axial load.)

Let d  diameter of the shaft
2.32 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

16
d3 
[]

 K bM b2  K tM
t
2

For Kb and Kt values, Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.21

where Kb  Combined shock and fatigue factor applied to M b

K t  Combined shock and fatigue factor applied to M t.

Since type of load acting on the shaft is not given,

Assume Kb  K t  1

16
d3 
[]

M 2b  M 2t

16

60

 275  10 32  397.887  10 32

d3  41055.394

 Diameter of the shaft  d  34.49 mm

* Shaft sizes to be rounded off to R20 series. (Refer table 2.2)
According to R20 series, select the nearest highest value.
 Diameter of the shaft = 35 mm

(b) Calculation of diameter of shaft based on angle of twist

Mt G

J l

Let d  is the diameter of the shaft

where M t  Twisting moment  397.887  10 3Nm m

 4
J  Polar moment of inertia  d
32

G  Modulus of rigidity  80  10 3N/mm 2

  angle of twist  0.0349 radians

l  length  2 metres  2  10 3mm

397.887  10 3 80  10 3  0.0349


d 4 2  10 3
32
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.33

397.887  10 3  2  10 3  32
d4   2903183
80  10 3  0.0349  

d  diame ter of the shaft  41.27 mm

From R20 series,

Select nearest higher value. Diameter of shaft  d  45 mm

Based on strength, the diameter of shaft  35.5 mm

Based on angle of twist, the diameter of shaft  45 mm

 Select shaft diameter  d  45 mm

Problem 2.11: A shaft is to transmit 20 kW at 210 r.p.m. It is supported on two bearings

750 mm apart and has two gears keyed to it. The pinion having 24 teeth of 6 mm module
is located 100 mm to the left of the right hand bearing and delivers the power horizontally
to the right. The gear having 80 teeth, 6 mm module is located 150 mm to the right of
the left hand bearing, and receives power in a vertical directions from below.
Selecting the suitable material, determine the required shaft size for a factor of safety of 2.
(Apr 96 - Nov, Oct 2009 - AU)

Selection of material:
From databook, Page No. 1.10, Materials, for shaft - C 40, C 45, C 50

Select C 40 material
Take  y  yield stress for C 40 material: (from databook Page No. 1.9)

y  330 N /m m2

y 1
The permissible shear stress  [  ]  
2 FOS [FOS  2 given]

330 1
[]   82.5 N/m m2
2 2

Given data

P  20  10 3  20,000 watts; N  210 r.p.m; Pinion module  m p  6 mm

No. of teeth on pinion  Z p  24

Gear module  m g  6 mm ; no. of teeth on gear  Z g  80

2.34 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

P itch circle diamete r

Module 
No. of teeth

Solution:

Pinion: C
Pitch circle dia.  no. of teethpinion  modulepinion  24  6  144 mm

 24  6  144 mm

 Pitch circle radius of pinion  72 mm

Gear: D
Pitch circle dia.  no. of teethgear  modulegear  80  6  480 mm

 Pitch circle radius of gear  240 mm

2NT [M t]
Power P  Where [M t]  D esign torque
60

P  60 20,000  60
Torque [ Mt ]    909.4568 Nm
2N 2  210

Design torque [M t]  909.4568  10 3 N  mm

For Gear Drive

[ Mt ]
F t  Tangential tooth load  (Newton)
PCR

F N  Normal tooth load  F t  tan  (Newton) where   Pressure angle  20

Consider pinion: C

[ Mt ] 909.4568  10 3
F tc  tangential to oth load   12631.34 N
PCRp inion 72

F tc  12631.34 N

F Nc  Normal tooth load  F tc  tan 

Assume   pressure angle  20

 12631.34  tan 20

F NC  4597.43 Newtons.

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.35

GE AR (D ) DR IVE N
PIN ION (C)
driver (F t)c driven

(F N ) C

Pinion delivering pow er

(F t) D
(F N ) D DR IVE R

(Gear R eceiving power)

Consider Gear: D (Let torque is constant)

[ Mt ] 909.4568  10 3
F tD  Tangential tooth load  
PCRgear 240

FtD  3789.40 N

F ND  Normal tooth load  F tD  tan   3789.40  tan 20

FND  1379.23 Newtons.

Gear Forces F t & FN  Directions

Elements  Horizontal load Vertical load

Pinion C F N  4597.43 N   ve F t  12631.34 N 
C C

Gear D F t  3789.40 N   ve F N  1379.23 

D D

Consider vertical loading

R A  R B  1379.23  12631.34

R A  R B  12631.34  1379.23  11252.11 Newtons ... (1)

Taking moments about (A)

2.36 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

G ear (D ) 22 G ear (D )
(R eceiving)
Pinion (C ) Pinion (C )
(delivering)
(F t)c

D (F N )c
A C B

150 100 (F T )D
(F N )D
750

F N D =1379.23 F tc =12631.34N

A D C B
Vertical Loading
R A =580.79 N R B =10671.31N

6
87118.52N 1.067x10
N .m m Vertical Bend ing
M om ent D iagram
A D C B
F tD =3789.40N
F N C =4597.43
RA D C H orizontal Lo ading
RB
F tD = 3789.40N
R B = 3226.55 N
M odified H orizontal
R A =2418.5 2 N D C Loading
F N C =4597.43N

322778
N .m m
Horizontal Bending
322655 M om ent D iagram
N .m m

1.11x10
6
Fig. Resultant Ben ding Mom ent
334.32 N .m m N .m m Diagram .
A D C B
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.37

R B  750  1379.23  150  12631.34  650

R B  10671.31 N

R A  11252.11  10671.31  580.79 N

Bending moment
M R  0; M R  0 x
A B Sign con vention
for B .M
M D   580.79  150
+ve -ve
 87118.5 N mm

M C   10671.31  100
x
6 R ight side of section
  1.067  10 Nmm
X
Right side - Clockwise moment  ve
+ve
- Anticlockwise moment  ve

Left side - Clockwise moment  ve

- Anticlockwise moment  ve -ve

X
L eft side of section
Consider horizontal loading
R A  R B  4597.43  3789.40

R A  R B   808.03 N ... (1)

Taking moments about (A)

R B  750  4597.43  650  3789.40  150

R B   3226.55 N ... (2)

R A   808.03  3226.55  2418.52 N

Since R B is  ve value, change the direction of R B in the loading diagram. Draw

modified loading diagram.

Bending moment
MR  0; MR  0
A B
2.38 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

M C   3226.55  100

  322655 Nmm Right side Clockwise  ve

M D   2418.52  150

 362778 N mm Left side Clockwise  ve

TO FIND RESULTANT BENDING MOMENT

M A R  0; M B R  0

Resultant B.M. at C M C R  

M C 2  MC 2
V H

 
1.067  1062   3226552

 1.11  10 6Nm m

Resultant B.M. at D M D R  

M D 2  M D 2
V H

 87118.5 2  322778 2

 334.32  10 3Nmm
 The bending moment at ‘C’ is max.  M C R

M C R  M bmax  1.11  10 6Nmm

TO FIND SHAFT DIAMETER

16
d3 
[]


K bM b2  K tM
t
2

Take K b and K t values from databook (7.21)

Let load applied is gradual, K b  1.5; and K t  1

16
d3  1.5  1.11  10 62  1  909.45  1032

82.5

d  48.92 mm

Select shaft dia. from R 20 series: Select, d  50 mm

Problem 2.12: A shaft is supported on bearings P and Q, 800 mm between centers. A

20 spur gear having 600 mm pitch diameter is located 200 mm to the right of the left
hand bearing P and a 700 mm diameter pulley is mounted 250 mm towards the left of
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.39

the bearing Q. The gear is driven by a pinion with a downward tangential force while the
pulley drives a horizontal belt having 180 wrap angle. The pulley also serves as a flywheel
and weighs 2000 N. The max. belt tension is 3000 N; the tension ratio is 3:1; Selecting
the suitable material for the shaft, determine the shaft diameter for a factor of safety of
1.5. (Apr 97 - MU, Oct 2006 - AU)

Material selection (Refer P. No. 1.10)

Shaft materials - C 40, C 45, C 50 (Select any material)

Select C 40 steel, from P. No. 1.9 take the values of y

y  330 N/mm 2; FOS  1.5 given

y 1 330 1
The design shear stress  [  ]    
2 FOS 2 1.5

[  ]  110 N/mm 2
Take K b & Kt values from P. No. 7.21

Take K b  1.5 ; (assume minor shock load), Kt  1.5

Given data
The elements mounted on the shaft are Gear (A) and Pulley (B).

Gear A
Pitch diam eter  600 mm ; Pitch radius  300 mm

Pulley B:

Angle of contact    180    rad.
180
W  Weight of pulley  2000 N
Max. belt tension  T1  3000 N

T1 3000
Ratio of tension  3  T2   1000 N
T2 3

Pulley diameter  700 mm ; r  radius of pulley = 350 mm

Torque transmitted  T1  T2  r 3000  1000  350

 700  10 3Nm m
2.40 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Gear (A)
Assume torque transmitted by pulley is equal to the torque transmitted by the
gear.

Spur gear - Assume Pressure angle   20

Pitch diameter  600 mm ;  Pitch circle radius  PCR   300 mm

3
Torque 700  10
Tangential force  F t    2.33  10 3N
PCR 300

Normal force  F N  F ttan 

  Pressure angle  20

 2.33  10 3  tan 20  848 N

Forces acting on the elements

Gear (A) Pulley (B)

Horizontal forces FN  T 1  T2 
848 N  3000  1000  4000 N 
Vertical forces Ft  W
2330  2000 N 

Consider horizontal loading

R P  RQ  848  4000  4848 N
H H

Taking moments about (P

R Q  800  4000  550  848  200

H

R Q  2962 N
H

R P  4848  2962  1886 N

H

Calculation of horizontal bending moment

B.M at P  M P  0 ; BM at Q  M Q  0
H H

B.M. at A  M AH   1886  200  377.2  10 3Nmm

B.M at B  M B H   2962  250  740.5  10 3Nmm

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.41

P ulley
P ulley (B ) T1
G ear (A ) G ear

Ft
FN
P A B Q
P C D 600 m m D IA 600 m m

200 250 T2
W
800
848 .05 N
400 0N H orizon tal
A L oading
(R P ) H B
188 6N (R Q ) H
200 250 296 2 N
800

3 3 H orizon tal B endin g

377 .2x10 N -m m 740 .5x10 N -m m
B Q M om en t D iag ram
P A
233 0 N 200 0N
V ertica l L oadin g
(R P ) V A B
237 2.5 N 250 (R Q ) V
200
800 195 7.5 N
V ertica l B endin g
M om en t D iagram
3
474 .5x10 N -m m 489 .37 5x10 3 N -m m
P A B Q

R esu ltan t B en ding

M om en t D iagram
3 3
606 .16 x10 N -m m 887 .59 x10 N -m m
P A B Q
2.42 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Consider vertical loading

RPV  RQV  2330  2000  4330 N ... (1)

Taking moments about P

RQ V  800  2000  550  2330  200

RQ V  1957.5 N

RPV  4330  1957.5  2372.5 N

Calculation of vertical bending moment.

BM at P  M P  0 ; BM at Q  MQ  0
V V

B M at B M A V  2372.5  200  474.5  10 3Nmm

M B V  1957.5  250  489.375  10 3Nmm

TO FIND RESULTANT BENDING MOMENT

AT A:

M RA  
 M H 2A  M V2A  

377.2  10 32  474.5  10 32

Resultant BM at (A)  606.16  10 3Nmm

AT (B)

M RB  
 M H 2B  M V2B  

740.5  10 32  489.375  10 32

Resultant BM at B  887.59  10 3Nmm

Therefore, the max. bending moment occurs at B.
M max  887.59  103Nmm

Tmax  Max. torque  700  103Nmm

16
d3 
[]

 K bM max2  KtT max2

16

110  

 1.5  887.59  10 32  1.5  700  10 32  78505.99

d3  78505.99 mm
d  diameter of the shaft  42.81 mm
From R 20 series, Diameter of the shaft  45 mm
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.43

Problem 2.13: A machine shaft supported on bearings having their centers 750 mm apart,
transmits 200 kW at 600 r.p.m. A gear of 200 mm diameter and 20 tooth profile is located
250 mm to the right of left hand bearing and a 450 mm diameter pulley is mounted at
200 mm to the right of the right hand bearing. The gear is driven by a pinion with a
downward tangential force while the pulley drives a horizontal belt having 180 angle of
contact. The pulley weighs 1000 N and has tension ratio of 3. Selecting suitable material,
calculate the required shaft diameter for a factor of safety of 2.
(Oct 97 - MU, Apr 2008 - AU)

Given data
Centre distance between supports  750 mm; Power  P  200 kW  200  10 3w atts

Speed  N  600 r.p.m ; Angle of contact    180 ; Weight of pulley  W  1000 N

T1
Ratio of belt tensions   3; Factor of safety  n  2
T2

Selection of material, From Page No 1.10,

For design of shaft - C40, C45, C50, C50l (Select any one material)

Select C40 material,

Refer Page No. 1.9, For C40 material, take the value of yield stress y

y  Yield stress  33 kgf/mm 2  330 N/mm 2

y 1
Max. shear stress (or) Design shear stress  max  
2 FOS

330 1
 
2 2

max  82.5 N/mm 2

Gear C

Pitch circle diameter  D g  200 mm M t  Twisting moment in gear in N-mm

Pressure angle    20

Twisting moment  M t  3183.098 N m  3183.098  10 3N mm

gear

 3.183  10 6Nmm
2.44 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

For Gear Drive,

Mt Mt
F t  Tangential tooth load  
Pitch circle ra dius  Dg 
 
 2 
3183.098  10 3  2

200

F t  31.83  10 3N

F N  Normal tooth load  F t  tan 

 31.83  10 3  tan 20

F N  11.585  10 3N

Gear receiving power from a pinion with a downward tangential force.

Pulley D
Diameter of pulley  D pulley  450 mm ; Radius of pulley  R pulley  225 mm


Angle of contact    180   180    radians  3.1415 radians
180

T1
Ratio of tensions  3
T2

T1  3T2

Assume torque transmitted is same.

2 N M t
M tgear  M tpulley  3183.098  10 3Nmm Power P 
60
2 600 M t
For Pulley drive 200  10 3 
60
Torque  T1  T 2  Radius of pulley M t  3183.09  10 3

M tpulley  T 1  T2  R p

3183.098  10 3  T 1  T2  225

T 1  T2  14.147  10 3N
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.45

P ulley D T1
G ear C
FT

FN
A C B D

250
750 200 T2

WP
11.83 x 10 3 28.294 1 x 10 3
H orizon tal L oadin g
A C B D
(R A ) H (R B ) H =
3
0.3415 x 10 39.782 x 10 3

(+)

85.375 x 10 3 B
D H orizon tal B endin g
A C
-5.658x 10 6 M om en t D iag ram
(-)

31.83 x 10 3 100 0

D
A C B
V ertica l L oadin g
(R B ) V =
(R A ) V 11.876 x10 3
3
20.935 x 10
(+)

5.237x 10 6 B V ertica l B en ding

D
A C -0.02x1 0 6 M om en t D iag ram

(-)

5.662 x1 0 6 R esu ltan t B endin g

5.238x 10 6
M om en t D iag ram
A C B D
2.46 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Put T1  3T2, in the above equation

3T 2  T2  14.147  10 3

T2  7.0735  10 3Newtons

and T1  21.2206  10 3Newton

Total tension  T 1  T2  7.0735  10 3  21.2206  10 3

 28.2941  10 3N Horizontal

Weight of pulley  W  1000 N Downwards

Gear C Pulley D

Horizontal F N  11.83  10 3  T1  T 2  28.2941  10 3 

Vertical F t  31.83  10 3  W p  1000 N 

Horizontal Loading
R A H  R B H  11.83  10 3  28.2941  10 3  40.1241  10 3N

Taking moments about (A)

R B H  750  28.2941  10 3  950  11.83  10 3  250

R B H  39.782  10 3N

and R A H  0.3415  10 3N

Horizontal Bending moment

BM at B  M A  M D  0

BM at C  MB H   28.2941  10 3  200 Right side Clock wise  ve

Left side Clock wise  ve
  5.658  10 6Nmm
Right side Anti clock wise  ve
M C H   0.3415  10 3  250
Left side Anti clock wise  ve
  85.375  10 3Nmm

Vertical Loading

R A V  RBV  31.83  10 3  1000  32.83  10 3N

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.47

Taking moments about (A),

R B V  750  1000  950  31.83  10 3  250

R B V  11.876  10 3N

and R AV  20.953  10 3N

Bending Moment
MA  MD  0

BM at B  M B V   1000  200   0.2  10 6 N mm

BM at C  M C V   20.953  10 3  250   5.2375  106 Nmm

Resultant bending moment

At B

M B R  
 M B 2H  M B2V    5.658  10 62   0.2  10 62

 5.6615  10 6Nmm

At C

M C R  

M C 2H  M C2V  
 85.375  10 32  5.2375  10 62

 5.2381  10 6N mm

The maximum bending moment occurs at B and its value is

Max. bending moment M max  M b  5.6615  10 6Nmm

Max. twisting moment  M t  3.183  10 6Nmm

Therefore, solid shaft subjected to twisting moment and bending moment

Refer PSG databook, Page No. 7.21

Hollow shaft subjected to bending, twisting and axial load.



2
 Pd0  di2   2
16  KbM b   1  2    KtM t
d30  8 do  
  di 4   
[]1  
  do  
Put P  0; di  0 and do  d.
2.48 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Solid shaft subjected to bending and twisting,

16
d3 
[]

K bM b2  KtM
t
2

where Kb  Combined shock and fatigue factor applied to M b

K t  Combined shock and fatigue factor applied to M t

Assume Kb  K t  1.5

16
d3   1.5  5.6615  10 62  1.5  3.183  10 62

82.5 

d3  0.6014  10 6

Shaft diameter  d  84.40 mm

From R20 series, Table 2.2, the diameter of shaft  d  85 mm

Problem 2.14: Determine the required standard diameter of an uniform circular shaft
carrying 2 pulleys of weight 2 kN each. The shaft is 750 mm long, simply supported at
the ends and carries 2 pulleys at 250 mm and 500 mm from the left end. Belt pull is 10
kN horizontal on the left pulley and pull on the right pulley is 10 kN vertically downwards.
The shaft transmits a torque of 3 kN-m between the pulleys. Assume Kb  Kt  1.5 and

allowable shear stress of 70 N/mm2. (Apr 98 - MU, Apr 2010 - AU)

Given Data

Weight of each pulley  2 kN  2  10 3N

Transmitting torque  M t  3 k Nm  3  10 6Nmm

K b  K t  1.5

Allowable shear stress or Maximum shear stress  [  ]  70 N /mm 2

Let ‘d’ is the diameter of the shaft.

Let the shaft consists of two pulleys C and D.

The pulley C is 250 mm from the left support and pulley D is 500 mm from the
left support.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.49

Pulley C T 1 +T 2 =10K N
Pulley D

A C D B

250 T2
500
750 T3 WC
T 3 +T 4 =10K N WD T4
W C =W D =2KN
A B Horizontal Loading
C D
(R A ) H (R B ) H

6
1.6675x10
0.8325x10 6 Horizontal Bending
M om ent Diagram

A C D B

2 x 10 3
3
12 x 10 N B Vertical Loading
A C D
(R A ) V (R B ) V

6
1.335x10
6 2.165x 10
Vertical Bending
M om ent Diagram
A C D B

6
2.136x10 6 2.3195x10
Resultant Bending
M om ent Diagram
A C D B
2.50 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Pulley C Pulley D

Horizontal load  10  10 3N –

Vertical load  2  10 3N  10  10 3  2  10 3
 12  10 3N

T1 and T2 are the belt tensions on pulley C, i.e., T1  T 2  10 kN (Horizontal)

T3 and T4 are the belt tensions on pulley D, i.e., T3  T 4  10 kN (Vertical)

Consider Horizontal Loading

Let R AH and RB H are the support reactions at A and B respectively.

R AH  R B H  10  10 3 ... (1)

Taking moments about ‘A’

R B H  750  10  10 3  250

R B H  3.33  10 3N ... (2)

Substitute the value of RB H in equation (1)

R A H  10  10 3  3.33  10 3

R A H  6.67  10 3N

Calculation of bending moment

MR  0 ; MR  0
AH B H

M C  Bending moment at C
H

  R A H  250   6.67  10 3  250

M C   1.6675  10 6Nmm
H

M D  Bending moment at D
H

  R B H  250   3.38  10 3  250

M D   0.845  10 6Nmm
H
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.51

Consider Vertical Loading

Let R AV and R B V are the support reactions at A and B respectively.

R A V  R B V  12  10 3  2  103  14  10 3 ... (3)

Taking moments about ‘B’

R B V  750  12  10 3  500  2  10 3  250

 6.6  10 6

6.5  10 6
R B V   8.66  10 3N ... (4)
750

Substitute the value of RB V in eq. (3)

R A V  14  10 3  8.66  10 3

R A V  5.34  10 3N

Calculation of bending moment

MR  0; MR 0
AV BV

M C  Bending moment at C  R AV  250   5.34  10 3  250

V

  1.335  10 6Nmm

M D  Bending moment at D   R B V  250   8.66  10 3 250

V

  2.165  10 6Nmm

Resultant Bending moment

At C

M R esultantat C   M C 2  M C2

H V

 
 1.6675  10 62  1.335  10 62

 2.1360  10 6 Nmm
2.52 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

At D

M Resultantat D   M D 2  M D2

H V

  0.8325  10 62  2.165  10 62


 2.3195  10 6Nm m

Therefore, at D, the bending moment is maximum.

Maximum bending moment  M max  M b  2.3195  10 6Nmm

Maximum twisting moment  M t  3  10 6N mm

To find shaft diameter ‘d’

16
d3 
[]


K bM b2  K tM
t
2

16

  70

 1.5  2.3195  10 62  1.5  3  10 62

d3  0.4138  10 6

Shaft dia. d  74.518 mm

According to R20 series, the diameter of the shaft  d  80 mm

Problem 2.15: Design a spindle for a milling machine. Maximum power transmitted is
10 kW at 1000 rpm. Angle of twist per metre length of spindle should not exceed 0.3.
Material used is 20 Mn 2. Take G  0.8  105 N/mm2
Also calculate the shear stress induced in the spindle and check against the permissible
value. Ignore the bending effect.

1. Machine tool spindles are designed from rigidity considerations

  T
L 
 permissible GJ

 angle of twist in radians/metre  0.3 / metre
L

Power  60 10000  60
T   95.5 Nm
2   rpm 2   1000
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.53

0.3   95.5  10 3

180  1000 0.8  10 5   d4/32
rad/mm

i.e., d  39.03 mm  40 mm (standard)

2. Shear Stresses

Permissible Stress
y  440 N/mm2 for 20 Mn 2 (Data Book Pg.No.1.13)

y 440
Assume FS  3; []    146.7 N /mm2 [FS = FOS]
FS 3

[]  0.5 []  0.5  146.7  73.3 N/mm 2

Induced Stress

16T 16  95.5  10 3
   7.59 N/mm2  73.3 N/mm 2
 d3   40 3

   [] so safe design.

Problem 2.16 Design a shaft to transmit 2 kW at 150 rpm from an electric motor to a
lathe headstock through a pulley using a flat belt drive. The pulley is located at 140 mm
from the centre of the bearing. Diameter of the pulley is 200 mm. The pulley weights 250
N. Angle of lap of the belt is 180 and the coefficient of friction between belt and pulley
is 0.3. Shock factor in bending is 1.5 and in twisting 1. Take allowable shear stress for
the shaft material as 44 N/mm2 (Anna Univ, Dec 2011, ME2303)

Given: P  2 kW;  2  10 3 W ; N  150 RPM ; L  140 mm  200 mm; W  250 N

  180   radians;   0.3; K t  1.5, K b  1; []  44 N/mm 2

Solution:

1. Belt Tensions
T1
 e  e0.3    2.565
T2 ...(1)

T 1 and T2  Tight and Slack side tensions respectively

2.54 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

  lap angle   radians;   0.3

Transmitted power  T 1  T2 v v  linear velocity of the belt

2N D
2  10 3  T 1  T2 1.571  
60 2

T1  T2  1273 N ...(2)

2   150 0.2
   1.571 m/s
60 2

Solving (1) & (2), we get

T2  813.5 N

T1  2086.5 N

2. Bending moment
Bending moment is due to three loads, T1, T 1 and W (weight of the pulley), all
acting vertically downward.

M  T 1  T2  W   overhang

 2086.5  813.5  250  140  441000 N/mm

3. Twisting moment (Torque)

0.2
T  T 1  T2 D /2  2086.5  813.5  127.3 Nm  127300 Nmm
2

4. Equivalent Torque

Te  
 K bM2  K tT2 [K b  1.5; Kt  1]

 1.5  441000 2  2  1273002

  708804 N/mm

5. Diameter
16 Te
 []  44  0.75  33 (0.75 is used to account for keyway effect)
 d3

16  708804
3
 33 N/mm2
d

d  47.83 mm  50 mm (standard)
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.55

Problem 2.17: A V grooved pulley 200 mm pitch circle diameter is receiving 5 kW from
a motor and rotates a shaft at 300 rpm. A crowned pulley 500 mm in diameter supplies
power to a machine in a workshop. The angle of wrap for both pulleys is x and the
coefficient of friction between belt and pulley is 0.3. The semi groove angle for smaller
pulley is 20. For the material of the shaft E  205 kN/mm2 is G  84 kN/mm2. Allowable
shear stress  60 N/mm2, Kb  1.5, Kt  2.0. Neglect centrifugal tension in the belt. Check
that   0.5. Slope, ic  0.5 and  at any point is  0.1 mm.
(Anna Univ, ME2303, May 2011)

Solution

Step 1: Determine velocity

2  300
  31.416 rad/s
60

r  100 mm

Smaller pulley V  31.416  0.1  3.1416 m/s

Bigger pulley R  250 mm

V   31.416  0.25  7.854 m/s

Step 2: Belt tension in smaller pulley

Power 5000
T1  T 2    1591.5 N
V 3.1416

T1
 e  cosec   e0.3    cosec 20 
T2

T1
 15.73
T2 ...(1)

T1  T 2  1591.5 ...(2)

Solving (1) & (2)

T1  1699.5 kN; T 2  108.04 kN

Bigger pulley
Power 5000
T1  T2    636.6 N
V 78.54
2.56 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

T1
 e   e0.30 x  2.566
T2

2.566  1 T 2  636.6 N

T 2  406.5 N

T 1  1043.1 N

Pow er 5000
Torque on the shaft T    159.16 N  m
 31.416

Loading diagram for the shaft

Vertical load acting on shafts 144 9.6N 180 7.5N
due to belt tensions

T1  T 2  1699.8  108  1807.5 N

A B C D
T1  T2  1043.1  406.5  1449.6 N

at point B : T1  T2  1449.6 N 0.08

0.15m 0.3m
D : T1  T 2  1807.5 N

1449.6  0.15  1807.5  0.53

Reaction at C : RC 
0.45

R C  2612 N

R A  1449.6  1807.5  2612  6415.1 N

R A  645.1 N

BM diagram B
MA  0
0.08
M B  645.1  0.15  96.76 N  m
A C D
MD  0

M C   2162  0.8  208.96 N  m 0.15m 0.3m

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.57

Step 3


16
d3  2
K M  KL  T
b t
2
at C
  Zo

16

  60

 2
1.5  208.96 2  2  159.16  10 3

d  33.6 mm

Step 4 Checking for angular fault between B and D

T  159.16  10 3 N  mm

l  0.3  0.08  0.38 m  380 mm

 d4   33.64
J   12.513  10 4 mm2
32 32

Tl 159.16  10 3  380
 
TI 84  1000  12.513  104

  57.4  10  4 rad  0.33  0.5

Step 5 Deflection at loads and slope in bearings

1.45 kN 1.8 kN

A B C D

0.15m 0.3m 0.08

0.64 kN 2.61 kN

Taking a reaction at a distance of x from the end A, in the portion CD of shaft

d2 y
E .I  0.64x  1.45 x  0.15  2.61 x  0.45 
dx2
dy
E .I  0.32x 2  0.725 x  6.152  1.305 x  0.452  C 1
dx

E .I y  0.107 x3  0.242 x  0.153  0.435 x  0.453  C 1 x  C 2

2.58 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

when x  0, y  0; C2  0

x  0.45 y  0, in the bearing

C 1  7.146  10  3

Slope at A
C1  7.146  10  3
iA  
E .I E.I E  205  10 9 N/m 2

 d4   33.6 4
I   10  12 m 4
64 64

I  62.564  10  9 m 4

E.I  12,825.7 Nm 2

 7.146  10  3
iA   5.57  10  7 radian
12,825.7

iA  0.33  10  4 degree   0.05

Deflection at B
B, x  x  0.15 m

E.I B  0.0107  0.15 3  C 1  0.15

Substituting the values

B   0.55  10  7 m

B   0.55  10  4 mm   0.1 mm

Slope in the bearing at ‘C ’ will also be much less than the permissible limit

Deflection at D

E.I D  0.107  0.53 3  0.242 0.383  0.435 0.083  7.146  10 3  0.53

D   0.96  10  7 m  0.96  10  4 mm   0.1 mm

This increases the flexural and torsional rigidity of the shaft.

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.59

Problem 2.18: A transmission shaft is supported on two bearings which are 1 m apart.
Power is supplied to the shaft by means of a flexible coupling, which is located to the left
of left hand bearing. Power is transmitted from the shaft by means of a belt pulley, 250
mm diameter, which is located at a distance of 300 mm from the left hand bearing. The
mass of the pulley is 20 kg and the ratio of belt tension on tight and slack sides is 2:1.
The belt tensions act vertically downward. The shaft is made of steel with yield stress
300 N/mm2 and the factor of safety is 3. Determine the shaft diameter, if it transmits 10
kW power at 360 rpm from the coupling to the pulley.

Given data
T1
D  250 mm ; l  300 mm ;  2 ; y  300 N/mm 2
T2

y 1 300 1
[]      50 N /mm 2
2 FS 2 3

FOS  3

P  10 kW ; N  360 rpm
D

m  20 kg; W  20  9.81 N

d
2 NT P  60
P T 1m
60 2 N

10  10 3  60

2  360 T 1 +T 2 +W
T  265.26 Nm

 265.26  10 3 Nmm
Torque transmitted
T  T1  T2 R D
250
265.26  10 3  T 1  T2 
2

T 1  T2  2.122  10 3 N ...(1)

T1
 2 give n
T2 ...(2)

T1  2 T2 ...(3)
2.60 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

substitute (3) in (1)

T1  T 2  2.122  10 3

2 T 2  T2  2.122  10 3

T2  2.122  103  2122 N

sub T2 in (3)

T1  2  2122  4244

Total vertical load acting on the pulley

W T  T 1  T2  W  4244  2122  20  9.81   6562.2

B.M acting on the shaft

M  W T  L  6562.2  1000  6562.2  10 3 N mm

Equivalent Twisting moment

Te   K m  M 2  K t  T2

 1.5  6562.2  10 32  2  265.26  10 32

Te  9857.6  10 3 Nmm

 
Te     d3 (or) 9857.6  10 3   50  d3
16 16

d3  1004086.9

d  100.13 mm

From R20 standard, diameter of shaft d  105 mm

Problem 2.19: A machine shaft running at 600 rpm is supported on bearings 750 mm
apart as shown in Fig. (a). 20 kW is supplied to the shaft through a 450 mm diameter
pulley located 250 mm to the right of the RH bearing. The power is transmitted from the
shaft through a spur gear of 200 mm pitch circle diameter. The gear is located 250 mm
to the right of the LH bearing. The belt drive is at an angle of 60 above the horizontal.
The pulley is heavy weighing 750 N, to serve also as a flywheel. The ratio of belt tensions
is 2.5. The gear has 20 full depth teeth and meshes with another gear located directly
above the shaft. Shaft material is C 50. Take Kb  1.5 and Kt  1 and design shaft.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.61

D river gear
250 T2
50
m D 4 +
250 m m
0 0m
C 2 Fr
A B Ft
Fr Ft
+ T1
(a) 750 C
0
60
D
W
115 8.5 N 210 8.6 N
V ertica l loadin g
(b) R AV =147 5.2 N R BV =242 5.3 N

115 8.5 N 242 5.3 N

V ertica l loadin g
(m odified)
(c) R AV =147 5.2 N
210 8.6 N

V ertica l B M dia gra m

368 .N m 527 .2N m
(d)

318 3N 160 5.4 N

H orizon tal loading
(e) R A H =15 71.9N R BH = 3261.5N

393 N m H orizon tal B M diagram

(f)
412 .6N m

(g) 318 .N m T orqu e dia gra m

2.62 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1. Belt tensions

 DN
T 1  T2 v  Power v  linear velocity of the belt  m/s
60  1000
 DN
T 1  T2  20,000 N  rpm of the pulley  600 rpm
60  1000
T 1  T2    450  600
 20,000 D  diameter of the pulley  450 mm
60  1000

T1  T 2  1414.7 ...(1)

T1
 2.5 given
T2 ...(2)

Solving the above two equations, we get

2.5 T2  T2  1414.7

T 2  943 N, T1  2357.8 N

T D  pull on the pulley  T1  T 2  2357.8  943  3300.8 N

TDV  vertical component  3300.8 sin 60  2858.6 N

T DH  horizontal component  3300.8 cos 60  1650.4 N

2. Gear forces
In the gear pair, C is the driver. Driver rotates clockwise and F 1 acts right to
left to aid CW rotation. On C , F t acts left to right and F r downward.

F t  tangential force on the gear

 Torque/radius of the gear

 20,000  60  10 3  1
 
 2  600  200/2
 3183 N

F r  ra dia l force on the gear

 F t tan   3183 tan 20  1158.5 N

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.63

3. Vertical loading (Fig. b)

Load at gear C  F r  1158.5 N dow nward

Load at pulley D  T DV  W  2858.6  750

 2108.6 N upward

Bearing reactions
R AV  R BV  2108.6  1158.5

 MA  0; 1158.5  0.25  R BV  0.75  2108.6  1  0

Solving the above equations we get.

R BV   2425.3 N

R AV  1475.2 N

Note: Direction of RBV is reversed in the modified loading diagram shown in Fig.(c).

Bending moments (Fig. (d))

B.M at C  1475.2  0.25  368.8 Nm

B.M. at B  2108.6  0.25  527.2 Nm

4. Horizontal loading (Fig. (e))

Load at C  3183 N left to right

Load at D  T DH  1650.4 N left to right

Bearing reactions
R AH  R BH  3183  1650.4  4833.4 N

 MA  0 ; 3183  0.25  R BH  0.75  1650.4  1  0

Solving the above equations we get,

R BH  3261.5 N, R AH  1571.9 N

Bending moments (Fig. (f))

B.M. at C  1571.9  0.25  393 Nm

B.M. at B  1650.4  0.25   412.6 Nm

2.64 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

5. Resultant bending moments

BM RC  
 2
368.8 2  393  538.9 Nm

BM RB  
 527.2 2  412.6 2  669.5 Nm

6. Torque

Power  60 20  10 3  60
T   318.3 Nm
2  rpm 2  600

7. Equivalent torques

TEC  

K b BM RC 2  K t T
c
2
K b  1.5, K t  1

 
 1.5  538.9 2  1  318.32  868.8 Nm

Similarly,

TEB  

1.5  669.5 2  1  318.3 2  1053.5 Nm

TEB  T EC

8. Diameter calculation

Permissible shear stress

 y  380 N/mm 2 for C 50 Data Book

380 380
| |    127 N/mm2
FS 3 FS  3

|]  0.5 []  0.5  127  63 N/mm2

Accounting for the weakening effect of the keyway, we take

[]  0.75  63  47 N/mm 2

16 T EB 16  1053.5  10 3
 [],  47
 d3  d3

d  48.5 mm  50 mm standard
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.65

Problem 2.20: An overhung shaft carries a 90 cm diameter pulley whose centre is 25 cm

from the centre of the nearest bearing. The weight of the pulley is 0.6 kN and the angle
of lap is 180. The pulley is driven by a motor vertically below it. If the permissible tension
in the belt is 2600 N and if the coefficient of friction between the belt and pulley surface
is 0.3 estimate the diameter of the shaft when internal diameter is 0.6 times the external
diameter. Neglect centrifugal tension and assume permissible shear and tensile stresses as
64 and 84 N/mm2 respectively. (JNTU, Dec 2011, Set4)

Fig. depicts the arrangement of pulley

and shaft.

1. Calculation of belt tensions

900 m m
T1  0.3     180   rad
e e  2.5663
T2   0.3

T 1  2600 N given 250

T1 2600 T 1 +T 2 + W
T2    1013 N
2.5663 2.5663 ( W eight of th e P u lley)

2. Total load on the pulley, Maximum bending moment, Bending stress

Total pulley load  T1  T 2  W  2600  1013  600 [W  600 N]

 4213 N

BM max  4213  250  1,053,250 Nmm

32  BM max  do
b  [di  0.6 do]
 d4o  d4i 

32  1053,250  do 32  1053,250 12.33  10 6

 4
  N/mm 2
 [d4o  0.6do ] 2.73  d3o d3o

3. Twisting moment, shear stress

T  T1  T2  radius of the pulley

 2600  1013   900/2  714,150 Nmm

2.66 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

16T 16  714,150
 4

    d3o  1  0.6 4
3
 di  
 do  1    
 d 
  o 
4.18  10 6
 N/mm 2
d3o

4. Maximum principal stress and shaft diameter


 

2 2 2
b  b  2 12.33  10 6  12.33  10 6   4.18  10 6 
1            
2  2  2  d3o  2  d3o   d3o 

6.18  10 6 7.46  106 13.61  10 6

   N/mm2
d3o d3o d3o

 1  [] (No keyway effect)

13.61  10 6
 84 N/mm 2,
d3o

do  54.51 mm

5. Maximum shear stress and Shaft diameter



2
 b  2 7.45  10 6
max     
 2  d3o

max  | | (No keyway effect)

7.45  10 6
 64 N/mm 2, do  48.82 mm
d3o

We take the higher of the above values.

do  55 mm

di  0.6  do  0.6  55  33 mm
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.67

Problem 2.21: A steel shaft 1.6 m long supported in sleeve bearings at the ends, carries
two pulleys. One pulley weighing 600 N, is fitted to the centre of the shaft and the other
weighing 500 N, at a distance of 0.4 m from one end. The shaft is hollow of external
diameter 0.08 m, and internal diameter 0.04 m. The specific weight of the material is
8  104 N/m3 and its modulus of elasticity 2  105 N/mm2. Determine the critical speed of
the shaft.

1. Since the shaft is supported W 1 =500 N W 2 =600 N

in sleeve bearings, it can be
assumed to be simply 1 2
supported.
2. Considering the weights of
the pulley 1, the pulley 2 and
a=0 .4 0.8
the hollow shaft separately,
l=1.6m
the deflections at 1, 1, at b=1 .2
2, 2 and at the centre of the
shaft, 3 due to self weight are obtained.


I d4  d4i  for the hollow shaft
64 o

 0.08 4  0.04 4  188.5  10  8 m 4 E  2  10 11 N/m 2
64
W 1a2b 2 500  0.4 2  1.2 2
1    0.0637  10  3 m
3 EIl 3  2  10 11
 188.5  10 8
 1.6

W 2l3 600  1.6 3

2    0.1358  10  3 m
48 EI 11 8
48  2  10  188.5  10

5 wl 4
3  deflection at the centre due to uniformly distributed lo ad
384 EI
5  301.6  1.6 4 weight per metre
 w
384  2  10 11
 188.5  10 8 length of shaft

 2
 0.0683  10  3 m  d  d21  l  sp.wt
4 0

 0.08 2  0.04 2  1  8  10 4  301.6 N/m
4
2.68 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3. Calculation of frequencies



9.81
 1 due to pulley 1  

g/
1   392.4 rad/s
0.0637  10  3



9.81
 2 due to pulley 2  

g/
2   268.8 rad/s
0.1358  10  3



9.81
 3 due to the mass of the shaft  
3 
g/  379 rad/s
0.0683  10  3

4. Dunkerley’s method
1 1 1 1
  
 2c  21 2 2
 23

1 1 1
 2
 2
 2
 27.29  10  6
392.4 268.8 379

 c  191.4 rad/s

c 191.4  60
Critical speed   60   1827.7 rpm
2 2

Simple method: [For details, Refer Dr. S.R. book "Dynamics of Machinery"]
0.4985
Natural frequency for 

1.27
s
 1  2 

0.4985




0.0683
0.0637  0.1358   10  3 
1.27

 31.32 Hz  31.32 rps

Critical speed  31.32  60  1879.4 rpm

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.69

Problem 2.22: A horizontal nickel steel shaft rests on two bearings A at the left and B
at the right end and carries two gears C and D located at distance 250 mm and 400 mm
respectively from the centre line of the left and right bearings. The pitch diameter of the
gear C is 600 mm and that of gear D is 200 mm. The distance between the centre line
of the bearing is 2400 mm. The shaft transmits 20 kW at 120 rpm. The power is delivered
to the shaft at gear C and is taken out at gear D in such a manner that the tooth pressure
Ftc of the gear C and FtD of the gear D act vertically downwards. Find the diameter of
the shaft, if the working stress is 100 MPa in tension and 56 MPa in shear. The gear
C and D weights 950 N and 350 N respectively. The combined shock and fatigue factors
for bending and torsion may be taken as 1.5 and 1.2 respectively.
(Anna Univ., ME 2303 - Dec 2012)

Given
Refer Fig. AC  250 mm, BD  400 mm, DC  600 mm, R C  300 mm,
D D  200 mm, R D  100 mm, AB  2400 mm, P  20 kW  20  10 3 W , N  120 rpm,

t  100 MPa  100 N/mm 2,   56 MPa  56 N/mm 2, W c  950 N , W D  350 N, Kb  1.5 ,

K t  1.2 .

Solution

(i) Find T D
C D C
A B
P  60 20  10 3  60
T   1590
2 N 2  120
175 0 400
3 250
T  1590 Nm  1590  10 Nmm 240 0 F tC F tD

(ii) Tangential force F t , FtD 

C

T 1590  10 3
Ft    5300 N
c RC 300

Load at C (downward)  F t  W c  5300  950  6250 N

c

T 1590  10 3
Ft    15900 N
D Rc 100

Load at D (downward)  F t  W D  15900  350  16250 N

D
2.70 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(iii) To find reaction at A and B

6250 N 1625 0
The load is shown in Fig.
A C D
400 R
R A  R B  6250  16250  22500 N 250 1750
2400
RA RB
Moment at A

R B  2400  16250  2000  6250  250

3.40625  10 7
RB   14193 N
2400

R A  22500  14193  8307 N

(iv) Moment at C and D

M C  R A  250  8307  250  2.077  10 6 Nmm

M D  R B  400  14193  400  5.677  10 6 Nmm

(v) Shaft diameter

(a) Equivalent Twisting Moment

Te  
 K b  M2  K T  T2 [Since M D  M C we take moment at D ].

 
 1.5  5.677  10 62  1.2  1590  10 32

Te  8725  10 3 Nmm


Now    d3  8725  10 3
16

8725  103  16
d3   793  10 3
  56

d  92.5 mm

(b) Equivalent bending moment

1
Me  [K b  M   K b  M2  K T  T2]

2

1
 [1.5  5.677  10 3  8725  10 3]
2
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.71

M R  8620  10 3 Nmm


Now Me   b  d3
32

8620  10 3  32
 d3   878  10 3
  100

or d  95.7 mm

Taking bigger of two d  95.7 From R20 standard shaft diameter d  100 mm.

Problem 2.23: It is required to replace a solid shaft of 400 mm diameter by a hollow

shaft of same material. For saving 25% material, find the inside and outside diameter of
hollow shaft. (JNTU, Dec 2011, Set-1)

Given
d  400 mm, % saving of material  25%

Since it is replacement of solid shaft with hollow shaft, d0  d.

Solution
A s  AH
Now % saving material 
As

d2  2
 do  d2i 
4 4

 2
d
4

d2  d2o  d2i  d2 d2  d2i

0.25  
d2 d2

d2i
0.25 
4002

d2i  40,000

di  200 mm

So do  400 mm, di  200 mm

2.72 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 2.24: A 600 mm diameter pulley driven by a horizontal belt transmits power
through a solid shaft to a 262 mm diameter pinion, which drives a mating gear. The
pulley weighs 1200 N to provide some fly wheel effect. The arrangement of elements, the
belt tensions and the components of the gear reactions on the pinion are as indicated in
the diagram. Determine the necessary shaft diameter using a suitable value for commercial
shafting and shock fatigue factors of Kb  2 and Kt  1.5; (Apr 2004 - AU)

150 0N
P ulley

P inion
300 0N

A C D B

800 0N 225 375 350

600 0N
120 0N W eight of pulley W P

Given data
Diameter of pulley  600 mm ;

Diameter of pinion  362 mm ; K b  2 : K t  1.5 :

From the diagram, the forces or load acting on pulley and pinion are

Horizontal load Vertical load

Pinion C F N  3000 N  F t  8000 N 

Pulley D T1  T 2  6000  1500 W p  1200 N 

 7500 N 

Consider, horizontal loading

Let R AH and RBH are reaction supports. To find RA H and R BH

R A  RB  3000  7500  0
H H

RA H  R B H   10,500 N ; (1)

Taking moments about A,

RB H  850  7500  600  300  225  0 (2)

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.73

T 2 = 1500 N
P ulley D
300 0N FN P inion C

+
A C D B
Ft
T 1 = 6000 N 225 375 250

H orizon tal loadin g 300 0N 750 0N

A C D B
(R A ) H = (R B ) H =
-4420 N -6080 N

M odified H o rizonta l 442 0N 608 0N

loading A C D B
(R A ) H 300 0N 750 0N (R B ) H

C D
Horizontal bend ing A 6
B
3
m om ent diagram 994 .5x10 1.52x10
N .m m N .m m

800 0N 120 0N
Vertical loa ding (R B ) V
(R A ) V = -5530N C D -1270 N
120 0N
553 0N 127 0N
M odified Vertica l D
B
loading A 800 0N (R B )V
(R A )V
C D
A 6
B
Vertical bend ing 1.24x10 N .m m 0.3175 x1 0 6 N.m m
m o m en t diag ram
C D B
A 6 6
Resultant b endin g 1.5895 x1 0 N .m m 1.5528 x1 0 N .m m
m o m en t diag ram
2.74 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

850 RAH   5.175  10 6

R BH   6080 N ;

and RAH   10,500  6080   4,420 N

Since R AH is -ve value, modify the horizontal loading diagram

To find bending moments at A, B, C and D

MA  MB  0 ;

Bending moment at C  M C H   4420  225   994.5  10 3 N. mm

Bending moment at D  M D H   6080  250   1.52  10 6 N. mm

Consider, vertical loading,

Let R AV and R B V are reaction supports; to find RA V and RB V

R A V  R B V  8000  1200

R AV  R B V   6800 N (1)

Taking moments about A

R B V  850  1200  600  8000  225 (2)

R B V   1.27  103 N

R AV   5530 N

Since R AV value is -ve, modify vertical loading diagram

To find bending moments at A, B, C and D

MA  MB  0

Bending moment at C  M C V   5530  225   1.24  10 6 N. mm

Bending moment at D  M D V   1270  250  0.3175  10 6 N. mm

Since the shaft is subjected to horizontal and vertical bending moments, hence
calculate resultant bending moment
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.75



2 2
Resultant bending moment at C  M C   M B V    M B V 
   


 3 2
994.5  10   1.24  10  6 2

M C  1.5895  10 6 N. mm



2 2
Resultant bending moment at D  M D   M D H    M D V 
   


 6 2

1.52  10   0.31  5  10  6 2

M D  1.5528  10 6 N. mm

From the above calculations, the bending moment at C is maximum

 M bat c  1.5895  10 6 N. mm

To find twisting moment M t;

M t  T1  T 2 R p ulley R pulley  Radius of pulley

 6000  1500  300

 1.35  10 6 N. mm

Since the shaft is subjected to combined bending and twisting, to find diameter,
16
d3   K b M b2  K t M
 t
2
 [] Assume []  60 MPa  60 N/mm2
K b  2 ; K t  1.5 given)

16

  60

 2  1.5895  10 62  1.5  1.3510 62

d  68.39 mm

The shaft diameter  d  71 mm (From Design databook according to R20 series)

2.76 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 2.25: Power is transmitted to a shaft supported on bearings 900 mm apart, by

a belt drive running on a 450 mm pulley, which overhangs the right bearing by 200 mm.
Power is transmitted from the shaft through a belt drive, running on a 250 mm pulley,
located mid-way between the bearings. The belt drives are parallel to each other and the
ratio of belt tensions is 3; with the maximum tension in both the belts being limited to 2
kN. Determine the diameter of the shaft, assuming permissible tensile and shear stresses
are 100 MPa and 60 MPa respectively. (Apr/May - 2004, Nov/Dec 2004 - AU)

Given data
Ratio of belt tensions  3

Maximum tension in both the belts  2 kN  2  10 3 N ;

[t]  100 MPa  100 N/mm 2; []  60 MPa  60 N/mm 2

The diameter of pulley C  250 mm; The diameter of pulley D  450 mm

Let T 1 and T 2 are the tensions on tight side and slack side on pulley C .

T1
since  3 ; and T1  2  10 3 N (given); then, T2  666.67 N
T2

Similarly,

Let T 3 and T 4 are the tensions on tight side and slack side on pulley D

T3
since  3 ; and T 3  2  10 3 N ; given, then T4  666.67 N
T4

From the diagram,

Horizontal load Vertical load

Pulley C T1  T 2  2000  666.67 0
 2666.67 N
Pulley D T3  T 4  2000  66.67 0
 2666.67 N
Since, there is no vertical load acting at each pulley, consider horizontal load
only.

The horizontal loads acting at C and D induces bending moment.

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.77

P ulley D T3
P ulley C T1

A C B T2
T4
D
450
200 P ulley C
900

266 6.67 N 266 6.67 N

H orizon tal Loading
A C B D
R A =740 .75 N

3 3
333 .33x10 533 .55x10
N .m m N .m m
A B D
C

From the diagram,

Let R A and RB are the reaction supports.

R A  R B  2666.67  2666.67

 5333.34 N

Taking moments about A,

R B  900  2666.67  1100  2666.67  450

R B  4592.59 N

 R A  5333.34  4592.59

 740.75 N
2.78 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Calculation of bending moments at A, B, C and D

M A  0 , MD  0

M C  Bending moment at C   740.75  450   333.33  10 3 N. mm

M B  Bending moment at B   2666.67  200   533.33  10 3 N. mm

From the above calculations, bending moment at B is maximum.

Maximum bending moment  M B  533.33  10 3 N. mm

The shaft is also subjected to twisting moment M t

M t  T 1  T2 R pulley C  2000  666.67   125

 166.66  10 3 N. mm

Since the shaft is subjected to bending moment and twisting moment,

To find the shaft diameter d, From data book, Page No. 7.21


16 2
d3  b b
2
K M   K M  t t [Assume Kb  K t  1]
 []


16 3 2
 d3  533.33  10   166.66  10  3 2
  60

d  Shaft diameter  36.19 mm

Take d  40 mm (From R 20 series, databook Page No. 7.20)

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.79

DESIGN OF KEYS

2.10 INTRODUCITON
A key is a device which is used for connecting two machine parts (Ex. shaft
with pulley gear or crank) for preventing relative motion of rotation with respect to
each other. In other words, key is used to transmit torque from a shaft to a gear,
pulley or similar device and viceversa.
The connected parts act as a single unit.
Keys are generally made from Cold rolled mild steel.
Keys are designed based on diameter of shaft.
(PSG databook 5.16 (Parallel keys) or 5.19 (Gib head keys)

2.10.2 Types of keys

Key
(A) Saddle Key
Sh aft
A keyway is provided only in the
hub of the attached part.
Hallow Saddle Key Bottom of the
key is machined to have a curved H ub
surface (Fig. 2.5 (a)) (a) Saddle (b) Fla t
key
Flat Saddle Key Bottom of the
h h
key is flat and the shaft is flattened to b
match (Fig. 2.5 (b))
When the key is fitted into its
H ub
keyway, it presses down on the shaft
b b=h (d) F lat (Su nk)
and sets up the frictional resistance d
necessary to transmit torque. The above (c) Squ are
keys are meant for very light loads.
Fig 2.5. Ty pes of K eys
Usually
d
b
4

2b d
t 
3 6
2.80 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(B) Sunk Keys

Keyways are provided both on the shaft as well as in the hub. One half of the
key will be in the shaft and the other half in the hub. Square and flat (rectangular)
keys are the common types used in industrial machinery (Fig. 2.5 c & d).
These keys may be straight (parallel) or tapered. In tapered keys, the width is
uniform and the height is tapered as shown in Fig. 2.6

b b b b
T aper 1in 100 T aper 1in 100
h h

h= b L
L
(b). F lat (Su nk )K ey
(a) Squa re K ey
Fig. 2.6. Taper K eys

Taper is provided to facilitate insertion and removal of the key. The matching
taper is in the hub and not on the shaft. Taper sets up a high pressure between the
shaft and the hub resulting in a large frictional force which aids the transmission of
power.

(C) Gib Head Tapered Key (Fig. 2.7)

When dismantling, tapered keys are driven out by pounding at the small end.
In some situations, proximity of other parts may make the small end of the key
inaccessible. In such situations, Gib head tapered key is used. The hook like head
facilitates pulling out the key (Fig 2.7 a).

G ib head key U sually

Taper1:100 b=d/4
1.75t
2b =
t= h
3
d
_t or
b

45 0

Sh aft

(b) W heel Or
b
1.5t Pu lley O r G ear
(a)
F ig .2.7 G ib H ead Tap ered K ey
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.81

(D) Feather Key (Fig. 2.8)

When it is necessary to slide a gear or pulley along the shaft, feather keys or
splines are used. The sunk key is tight in the keyway and also held in place with
screws. In Fig. 2.8 (b), the key is held to the hub of the wheel as shown, and slides
freely with the hub along the keyway of the shaft.

Feath er W heel or Pulley or

key G ea r
Set Screw

Sh aft

Sh aft

(a) (b)
Fig.2.8.Feather K eys

W oodruff key Sem icircular Slot

W heel or Pulley or G ear

Sh aft

K ey installed
B etw een M ating
Parts
Fig.2.9. W oodruff Key

R ound k ey w heel
shaft

Fig .2.10. R ound K ey

2.82 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(E) Woodruff Key (Fig. 2.9)

It resembles a segment of a circle. It is widely used for light duty applications
especially in machine tools and automobiles. Keyseat is formed by a special sidemilling
cutter.
Woodruff key goes deeper into the shaft preventing the possibility of key tipping.
The circular bottomed seat permits the key to align itself with the keyseat in the
hub, and is successfully used in tapering shaft end. This has the disadvantage of
weakening the shaft because of deeper slot.

(F) Round Key (Fig. 2.10)

Advantage is less stress concentration at the seat. Pin hole can be drilled only
after the assembly of the shaft and hub and this is the disadvantage in production
because, this prevents interchangeability.

(G) Splined Fitting (Fig. 2.11)

Splines are multiple parallel keys integral with the shaft or the hub. Splined
fittings are used where there is a limitation in radial space.
Splines are used in sliding gear transmissions of automobiles and machine tools.
For a positive and very
accurate sliding connection
between shafts and sliding
members (e.g., gears),
D D
splines are used.
External splines on the
shaft are formed by milling
and internal splines in the
hub are formed by
broaching. Straight side (a) P arallel Side Spline Fitting (b).Involute Splin e
splines are being replaced Fig .2.11.Parallel-Side an d In volu te Splines
by involute splines for
greater strength, self-
centering characteristic and production economy.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.83

FORCES ACTING ON A KEY

b
F1
h F

Fig.2.12. Forces acting on a key.

Forces on Keys
1. Force due to the torque transmitted giving rise to shear and compressive
stresses.
2. Force due to the fit of the key. D istribution of
Tight fit leads to compressive Ft T angentia l Load
stresses in the shaft and hub. It
is impossible to predict the K eyw ay Sh aft
magnitude of these stresses.

Assumptions Made in the Design of d

Keys
1. Stress distribution is uniform T orqu e
along the length of the key. This
is not true-maximum force acts at
2d
the torque input end. Refer to
Fig.2.13.Load D iagram For
Fig. 2.13.
a rectangular Key
2. Stress induced due to the fit of
the key is neglected.

Failures Modes of Keys (Fig. 2.14 (a), (b))

1. Shear failure 2. Crushing failure
2.84 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

F t  tangential force on the ke y

Torque on shaft T
 
radius of the sha ft d/2

Induced shear stress on the key

Ft Ft
 
A rea resisting shear bL

Induced compressive stress on the key

Ft Ft
c  
Area resisting crushing L  h/2

b  width of key
b
h  t  thickness of key A rea in S hear
l  length of the key  L = bL

Ft  tangential force L Ft L Ft

acting at the
A rea in C ru shin g
circumference of the shaft sh ear
t=h =0.5hL
plan e
d  dia. of the shaft
2.14 (a) Key in Shear 2.14(b) C rushing of K ey
The tangential force
produces shearing and
crushing stresses in the key.

Let fs  Shear stress

fc  Crushing stress

Due to the power transmitted by the shaft, the key may be fail due to
1. Shearing 2. Crushing

1. Consider shearing
Tangential force acting at the circumference of the shaft

 F t  fs  Shearing area

 fs  b  l
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.85

d
Torque transmitted by the shaft (T)  F 
2

d
 fs  b  l 
2

d
T  fs  b  l 
2 ... (1)

2. Considering crushing
Tangential force acting at the circumference of the shaft

 F  fc  Crushing area
[t  h]

t
 fc  l 
2

d
Torque transmitted by the shaft (T)  F 
2

t d
 fc  l  
2 2

t d
T  fc  l  
2 2 ... (2)

When the key is equally strong in shearing and crushing.

In general, key material is having

fc  2fs

equating (1) and (2) equations.

d t d
fs  b  l   fc  l  
2 2 2

t . .
fs  b  2fs  [ . f c  2 fs ]
2

 we get b  t (A square key)

Therefore, the square key is equally strong in shearing and crushing.

2.86 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2.10.3 Design procedure of key

1. From tables, at diameter of shaft take b and t values.

2 NT
2. Calculate torque, P  w atts
60

3. By considering shearing stress, Calculate length of key by using

d
T  fs  b  l 
2

4. By considering crushing stress, Calculate the length of key by using

t d
T  fc  l
2 2

5. Consider the larger value of length ‘l’

  d 
 Note: Width of the key must b e  4  
  
2.10.4 Effects of Keyways
The keyway cut on the shaft reduces the load carrying capacity. It is due to
stress concentration near the corner of the keyways and reduction in cross-sectional
area.

b  h
Shaft strength factor  e  1  0.2    1.1
d d

Strength factor of shaft: It is the ratio of the strength of shaft with keyway to the
strength of the same shaft without keyway.

b  Width of the keyway.

d  Dia. of shaft.

t
h  Depth of keyway 
2

t  thickness of key.

Problem 2.26: A 45 mm dia. shaft is made of steel with yield strength of 400 N/mm2; A
parallel key made of steel with a yield strength of 340 N/mm2 is to be used. Design the
key; take FOS  2. (Use max. shear stress theory)

According to max. shear stress theory.

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.87

Yield strength 1
Max. shear stress  
2 FOS

[ ys ]shaft  400; FO S  2

400 1
Max. shear stress for shaft  shaft  
2 2

 100 N/mm 2

340 1
Max. shear stress for key  key  
2 2

 85 N/mm 2


Torque transmitted by the shaft  T   d3
16 shaft


  100  45 3
16

 1789235 Nmm

From table, Refer page No (5.16)

for shaft of dia. 45 mm; Width of key b  14 mm ; thickness of key h  9 mm  t

(a) Consider shearing strength

d
Tbl  key
2

45
17892.35  14  l   85
2

l  133.64 mm

Length  134 mm

(b) Consider crushing strength

t d [c  fc]
T  l   c
2 2 crush  2   fs

9 45  2  85
1789235  l  170
2 2
2.88 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

l  103.9 mm  170 N/m m2

Length  104 mm

Take the larger value of ‘l’

 l  Length of key  134 mm

Problem 2.27: Design a keyway and a key in motor shaft extension for a 20 kW, 1000
rpm motor having a mild steel shaft 50 mm diameter and the extension of 80 mm. The
permissible shear and crushing stresses for the mild steel key are 60 MPa and MPa. Check
for the shear strength of the key against the normal strength of the shaft.

Given

P  20 kW  20  10 3 W, N  1000 rpm. d  50 mm

  60 MPa  60 N/mm 2, c  120 MPa  120 N/mm 2, l  80 mm

Solution

(i) To find Torque T

P  60 20  10 3  60
T   191 Nm  191  10 3 Nmm
2 N 2    1000

(ii) Width of key: considering shearing in key

d
Tlb
2

50
191  10 3  80  b  60 
2

 b  1.59 mm

d 50
This width is very small hence width can be taken as b    12.5 say 13
4 4
mm

Since  c  2  given, Let us take a square key

b  13 mm and t  13 mm  h
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.89

(iii) Check for shear strength

b  h
Strength factor e  1  0.2    1.1
d d

 13   13 
 1  0.2 
50   1.1  2  50 
   
e  0.805

Strength of shaft with keyway

 
    d3  e   60  503  0.805  1185460 N
16 16

Shear strength of the key

d 50
lw  80  13  60   1560,000
2 2

Shear strength of the key 1560000

   1.316
Normal strength of shaft 1185460
2.90 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

DESIGN OF COUPLINGS

2.11 INTRODUCTION
Couplings are used to connect sections of long transmission shafts.

Couplings are also used to connect the driving shaft to the driven shaft.

 Couplings are permanent connections.

 Clutches permit easy and quick engagement and disengagement of two
shafts.

2.11.1 Couplings are classified as

Rigid coupling: It is used to connect two shafts which are perfectly aligned (Collinear
Shafts).

Flexible coupling: It is used to connect two shafts which are having lateral and
angular misalignment.

1. Rigid Coupling
(a) Box (or) Muff coupling (or) Sleeve coupling.
(b) Clamp (or) Compression coupling.
(c) Flange coupling.
(i) Protected
(ii) Unprotected
(iii) Marine type.

2. Flexible Coupling
(a) Bushed pin coupling.
(b) Oldhams coupling.
(c) Universal coupling.

2.11.2 Features of shaft coupling

A good shaft coupling has following features.

(i) It should be easy to connect and disconnect,

(ii) It should provide perfect alignment of shafts.
(iii) It should avoid transmission of shock loads between shafts.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.91

(iv) It should transmit full power between shafts without losses.

2.11.3 BOX (OR) SLEEVE (OR) MUFF COUPLING

Sleeve is made of cast iron. It is fitted over the ends of two shafts by means
of gib head key as shown in Fig 2.15. Power is transmitted by means of key and
sleeve.
It is a hollow cylinder of inner dia. equal to dia. of shaft.

Proportions of Sleeve
D  Outer dia. of sleeve  2d  13 in mm

L  length of sleeve  3.5  d

where d  Diameter of the shaft.

Sleeve
key

D d

Shaft 1 Shaft 2

Fig. 2.15. Box (or) sleeve (or) M uff Coupling

Design procedure
1. Calculate torque transmitted by the shaft.
2. Calculate the diameter of the shaft.

T shaftd3
16 d  dia. of the shaft.

3. Design of sleeve:
(a) Outer dia. of the sleeve  D  2d mm
2.92 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

16 M tD
From PSG. D.B Pg 7.21, For Hollow Shaft, max 
 D 4  d4


 Mt   D 3 1  K 4
16

(b) Length of sleeve  L  3.5 d

 d
4. Check sleeve; T  sleeve D 3[ 1  K4 ] where K 
16 D

If sleeve induced is less than the permissible shear stress of sleeve, then design
is safe.

5. Design of Key (refer page no. 5.16 and 5.17)

(a) From tables at shaft dia. ‘d’ take values of b and h

L ength of sleeve
l  length of key in each shaft 
2

(b) Consider shearing stress

d
Tbl 
2 coupling sleeve
Check ‘’ value.
If induced sleeve key  given Permissible shear stress for sleeve k ey,

then the design is safe.

(c) Consider crushing stress
h d
T  l   c
2 2

Check  c

If induced ckey  given Permissible crushing stres of key,

then the design is safe.

Problem 2.28: Muff Coupling is to be designed for a shaft which transmits 56.25 kW at
120 rpm. The following are the permissible stresses
[]shaft  60 N/mm2 ; []muff  10 N/mm2; []key  40 N/mm2 ; []key  100 N/mm2
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.93

Given Data:

Power = P = 56.25 kW = 56.25  10 3 Watts; Speed = N = 120 rpm

Design Stresses []shaft  60 N/mm2 ; []muff  10 N/mm2 ; []key  40 N/mm2 ;

[c]key  [ c]  100 N/mm2

1. Design of the shaft

 []shaft d3 2  N Mt
Mt  P
16 60

16  4476.23  10 3 P  60
d3  Twisting Moment M t 
  60 2 N

d3  379955 56.25  10 3  60

d  72.423 mm 2    120
R20 Series standard d  80 mm  4476.23 N.m
M t  4476.23  10 3 N.mm }

2. Design of Sleeve
Assume sleeve as a hollow shaft with D as outer diameter and d as inner
diameter

Outside diameter of sleeve D  2d  13  2  80  13  173 mm

Length of s leeve  L  3.5d  3.5  80  280 mm

The sleeve is subjected to shear stress. Therefore, check the shear stress in the
sleeve

Hollow shaft subjected to twisting moment M t

 d 80
Mt  sleeve D 3 1  K 4 where K    0.4624
16 D 173
 PSG. DB Pg.No.7.21 For Hollow Shaft
4476.23  10 3  sleeve 1733 [1  0.4624 4]
16 we have
Induced shear stress sleeve 16M tD
max 
4476.23  10 3  16  D 3  d4

  1603 [1  0.4624 4] 
 Mt    D 31  K 4
16
 5.832 N/mm 2
2.94 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Since sleeve  []sleeve 10 N/mm 2

(Induced shear stress in the sleeve is less than design shear stress in the sleeve)

 The design is satisfactory

3. Design of Key:
From Databook, Page No.5.16 and 5.17, for a shaft diameter d  80 mm , take
the values of b = Width of key = 22 mm and h = Height of key = 14 mm
Sleeve length 280
Assume Length of key on each shaft  l    140 mm
2 2

(a) Checking of shear stress 

d d  80 mm
M t  b  l   
2
80 []  Key Design shear stress
4476.23  10 3  22  140   
2
 40 N /mm2
Induced shear stress
4476.23  10 3  2
   36.30 N/mm2 ,
22  140  80

  36.30 N/mm 2  []  40 N /mm 2

 Design based on shear stress is satisfactory

(b) Checking of crushing stress (c

h d
Mt   l  c  [c]  Design crushing stress  100 N/mm2
2 2

Mt  2  2
Induced crushing stress   c 
hld

4476.23  10 3  2  2
c   114.18 N/mm2
14  140  80

 c  114.18 N /mm 2  [ c]  100 N/mm 2

The design based on crushing stress is not satisfactory.

Therefore, change the length of the key.

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.95

Select preferred length of key from page No. 5.17

at b = 22 mm and h = 14 mm; take length l  160 mm

Recalculate , c and check

(a) Recalculation and checking of 

d
M t  b  l   
2

Mt  2 4467.23  103  2
    31.79 N/mm 2  []key  100 N/mm 2
bld 14  160  80

so,  [] hence design is satisfactory

(b) Recalculation and checking of c

h d
Mt   l c 
2 2

Mt  2  2 4476.23  103  2  2
 c    99.91 N/mm 2  [ c]key  100 N/mm 2
hld 14  160  80

(Approximately equals to [ c] Hence take length l  180 mm.

 The key dimensions b = 22 mm, h = 14 mm ; length = 180 mm are

satisfactory.
Problem 2.29: Design a muff coupling to connect two shafts transmitting 40 kW at 120
rpm. The permissible shear and crushing stress for the shaft and key material are 30 MPa
and 80 MPa respectively. The material of muff is cast iron with permissible shear stress
of 15 MPa. Assume that the maximum torque transmitted is 25% greater than the mean
torque. (Anna Univ, ME2303, June 2012)

Given data:
Muff coupling, P  40 kW  40  10 3 Watts; N  120 rpm,
[]shaft  []key  30 MPa  30 N/mm 2,

[ c]shaft  [c]key  80 MPa  80 N/mm 2, []muff  15 N/mm 2, [M t]Design  1.25 T

(i) To find M t and diameter of shaft d

2  NT
Power P 
60
2.96 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

40  10 3  60
T  3183 Nm
2    120

 M t  1.25 T  1.25  3813  3979 Nm

M t  3979  10 3 Nmm

 []sh d3
Now M t 
16 (PSG D.B. Page No 7.1)

3979  10 3  16
 d3   675496
  30

 d  87.74 mm

R 20 standard shaft size d  90 mm.

(ii) Design of sleeve

Outer Diameter of sleeve D  2d  13

Inner diameter of sleeve d  Diameter of shaft  90 mm

 D  2  90  13  193 mm

Length of sleeve L   3.5d  3.5  90  315 mm

Check for shear stress in sleeve

 d 90
Mt  sleeve  D 3 1  K 4 [K    0.47]
16 D 193


3979  10 3   sleeve  193 3 1  0.47 4
16

Induced shear stress in sleeve

3979  10 3  16
sleeve  3 4
 2.963 N/mm 2
  193 1  0.47 

sleeve  []sleeve  15 N/mm2

 Design is satisfactory.

(iii) Design of Key

From PSG D.B Page No. 5.16 & 5.17, For shaft d  90 mm we have,
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.97

Width of key b  25 mm

Height of key h  14 mm

Assume length of key on  sleeve length

l
each side  2

315
  157.5 mm say 158 mm
2

Check for shear stress  key

We know for twisting moment
d
M t  b  l   
2

90
3979  10 3  25  158  key 
2

3979  10 3  2
key   22.38 N/mm 2
2.5  158  90

key  []key  30 N/mm 2

Design is satisfactory

Check for crushing stress

h d
Mt   l  c 
2 2

3979  10 3  2  2
 c   217.78 N/mm 2
14  158  90

c  [ c]  80 N/mm 2.

So select the length from the PSG DB Page No. 517 select l  180 mm.

Rechecking 
d
M t  b  l   
2

3979  10 3  2
   19.65 N/mm2  []key  30 N/mm 2
25  180  90

Deign is safe
2.98 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Rechecking for c

h
Mt   l c d/2
2

3979  10 3  2  2
c   70 N/mm 2  [c]  80 N/mm 2
14  180  90

 selection is satisfactory

 b  25 mm, h  14 mm, l  180 mm

Problem 2.30: Design and make a neat dimensional sketch of a muff coupling which is
used to connect two steel shafts transmitting 40 kW at 350 r.p.m. The material for the
shafts and key is plain carbon steel for which allowable shear and crushing stresses may
be taken as 40 MPa and 80 MPa respectively. The material for the muff is cast iron for
which the allowable shear stress may be assumed as 15 MPa.
(Anna Univ., ME 2303, May 2011)

Given data:

P  40 kW; N  350 rpm;   40 MPa shear stress 

c  80 MPa crushing stress; muff  15 MPa

To find
Design the muff coupling
Solution

Design of shaft
P  60 60  40  10 3
(a) M t  
2N 2   360

M t  1061.03 N  m  1061.03  103 Nmm

(b) Torque transmitted by the shaft M t


Mt    d3
6 s


1061.03  10 3  40  d3
16

d  51.30 mm
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.99

2. Dimensions of the coupling

(a) Outer diameter of sleeve or muff

D  2.5 d  2.5  51.3

D  129 mm

(b) Length of Sleeve

L  3.5 d  35  51.3

L  180 mm

3. Design of Sleeve
Sleeve is considered as hollow shaft:

  D 4  d4 
Mt  s  
16  D 

  129 4  51.3 4 
1061032.95   s  
16  129 
s  2.58 N  mm

Induced stress for sleeve is less than the permissible stress  The design is
safe

4. Design of Key:
L 180
(a) Length of the key l  
2 2

l  90 mm

(b) Check for shear strength [ DB Pg - 5.16 ]

b  16 mm; h  10 mm

d 51.3
M t  l  b  k   90  16  k   1061.03  10 3
2 2

Substituting all the Values, k  28.72 N/mm2

Induced shear stress for key in less than the permissible stress.  The design
is safe. k  28.72 N/mm2  []  40 N/mm 2
2.100 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

5. Check for Crushing

h d
Mt  l  
2 ck 2

51.3
1061032.95  90  5  ck 
2

ck  9.92 N/mm 2  150 N /mm 2

 Design is safe

6. Design of bolts
2
Mt     db2  t  n  d
16

(i) Assume no of bolts n  4

t  70 N/mm2

  0.3

Substituting all the values we get

d2b  399.165

db  20 mm

Ans:

1. Diameter of shaft d  52 mm

2. Dimension of coupling

(i) outer diameter D  129 mm

(ii) Length of Sleeve L  180 mm

3. Length of key l  90 mm

4. Diameter of bolts db  20 mm

2.11.4 Clamp (or) Compression (or) Split Sleeve Coupling

Clamp coupling is also called as split muff coupling. The sleeve is made into
two halves and are bolted together using two, four or six bolts or studs. The sleeve
halves are made up of cast iron.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.101

ve
L = 3.5d s le e
S p lit

y
Ke

D
E

Sh aft

C
J
B olt

Fig.2.16. C lam p (or) C om pression (o r) Sp lit Sleeve Coupling

Proportions
J  2db  20 mm where db  bolt dia. d  shaft dia.

D  2d  13 mm

E  0.5d mm

C  d  2db  10 mm

L  3.5d

Margin  1.5d

This coupling is used for heavy and moderate loads. The advantage of this
coupling is that the position of the shafts need not be changed for assembling and
disassembling.

Design procedure
1. Sleeve design
D  Outer dia. of the sleeve  2d mm ; L  Length of sleeve  3.5d mm ; d  dia. of
the shaft.
2.102 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 d  Let s  Shearing stress for the key material.

where  K  
 D  c  Crushing stress for the key material.
2. Design of Key
l  length of key = length of sleeve.
P  60
Mt  Nm From databook, at the shaft diameter take
2N
the values of b and h
d
Mt  b  l  s  Check (key) ... (1)
2

h d
Mt   l  c  Chec k c ... (2)
2 2

Induced shear stress   Design shear stress []

Induced crushing stress  c  Design crushing stress [c]

3. Design of Clamping bolts

p
Let M t  Torque transmitted

d  Dia. of the bolt d/2

db  Root dia. (or) effective dia of bolt.

Fig.2.16(a)
n  No. of bolts (2, 4, 6)

t  ft  Permissible or allowable tensile stress for bolt material.

  Coefficient of friction between sleeve and shaft. = 0.25 to 0.3

L  length of sleeve.

 2
Force exerted by each bolt  d f
4 b t
 2 n
Force exerted by each bolt on each side of shaft  db ft
4 2
Let p  Pressure on the shaft and muff surface due to force (pressure distribution
is uniform)
force  d
p  Projected area  L  2 
projected area  
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.103

 2 n
d f
4 b t2  2 1
p  d b ft n 
d 4 Ld
L 1
2 Surface area  dL
2
Frictional force between shaft and muff F    p  a rea

 2 1 1 
 d fn  dL 
4 b t Ld  2 
2 2
F d fn
8 bt
Torque transmitted by coupling
d
Mt  F 
2

2 2 d
Mt   d fn
8 bt 2
2 2
Mt   d fnd
16 b t db
d = Nominal dia.  mm
0.84

Refer P.No. 5.42 and take the standard nominal diameter of the bolt and
represent interms of metric thread ex: if d= 25 mm, M 25

2.11.5 Flange Coupling

 The flanges made of cast iron are fitted onto the ends of the shafts being
connected, using keys. The flanges are connected together by bolts (steel)
which are snug-fitted into the holes of the flanges (Fig 12.7 (a)). For better
axial alignment, one of the flanges has circular projection and the other a
corresponding circular recess. In some types, the nuts and bolt heads are
covered by circumferential protecting flanges (Fig 12.7 (b)).
 They transmit great torques (in applications like steam turbo generators,
vertical hydroturbines, marine propellers) and are employed to connect shafts
of diameters 18 to 200 mm.
 Types of flange couplings are
 Unprotected type
 Protected type - marine type coupling
2.104 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

F lan ge (C .l) P rotectin g C ircum ferentia l

t f =d/2 Flange
db d/4
C oupling bolt
(Steel)
key
(M .S)
4d 3d d 1.5d
D =2d
0.8d

0.15d

1.5d 1.5d
(b) Flange Coupling of
(a) Flange C oupling P rotected type
(Un Protected type) Fig. 2.17. Flanged Coupling

Design of flange coupling

d  Dia. of the shaft; tf  Thickness of flange  0.5 d; D  Outside diameter of
the HUB  2d

D1  Pitch circle dia. of bolts  3d ; D2  Outside dia. of the flange  4d

db  Dia. of bolt.

Clearance A  7 to 9 mm; L  1.5d

Clearance B  15 to 19 mm

No. of bolts = 3 upto dia. of shaft 40 mm

= 4 upto dia. of shaft 100 mm

= 6 upto dia. of shaft 180 mm

Design procedure
Let fsshaft  Allowable shear stress for shaft  s  []shaft

fsbolt  Allowable shear stress for bolt  b  []bolt

fskey  Allowable shear stress for key  k  []key

fsflange  Allowable shear stress for flange (or) HUB flange  []flange
C .I
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.105

t f = d/2
Flange
Flange
C oupling bolt
(Steel)
db

K ey
shaft

d D 2= 4 d
1.5d
D 1 =3d
D = 2d

A
B
K ey

L=1.5d L=1.5d
L
F ig.2.18. F lan ge C ouplin g (U n P rotected T ype)

fcbolt  Allowable crushing stress for bolt  c bolt  []bolt

fckey  Allowable crushing stress for key. c key  []key

1. Design of HUB
(Consider hub as hollow cylinder)

 d
T f  D 31  K4 K 
16 s HUB D

Check the value of fsHUB

Take D  2d
2.106 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Calculate dia. of shaft

P  60
T N m
2N

T f d3
16 s
 16T 
d3  
fs 
 



3 16T
d
d s

2. Design of Key
Take b, h and l values at dia. of shaft. (from PSG D.Book Page No. 5.16 & 5.17)

d
T  b  l  fskey
2 ... (1)

Check fskey  []

t d
Tb  fckey
2 2 ... (2)

Check fckey  [ c]

3. Design of Flange
Flange fails due to shearing at the junction of hub & flange.

Shearing strength or load  fsflange  [ D  tf ]

Shearing area

D
Torque transmitted  fsflange  Dtf 
2

D2
T t f 
2 f s flange

Take tf  0.5d

D  2d

Check the value of fsflange  []flange

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.107

4. Design of bolt
Bolt may be subjected to shearing and crushing.
(a) Considering shearing
 2
Load on each bolt  d  f 
4 b s bolt

 2
Total load on all the bolts  n  d f 
4 b s bolt

 D1
Torque transmitted T  n  fsbolt  d2b 
4 2

Calculate dia. of the bolt db

(b) Considering crushing

Crushing area  tf  db

Crushing strength of all the bolts  ntf  db  fc

D1
Torque transmitted  T  ntfdb  fcbolt 
2

Check the value of fcbolt

12.11.6 Marine Type Flange Coupling (Fig. 12.9)

This is mostly used in
marine propeller shafts shaft cou pling bolt shaft
which transmit torques as
well as axial forces. This
coupling is also used to
connect vertical turbine
shafts to generator shafts.
When large torques
and forces are to be
transmitted, the flanges are Flange Flange
forged at the ends of the Fig.2.19. M arine Type Flange Coupling
shafts. The bolts are
generally tapered and made with or without heads.
2.108 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2.11.7 Flexible Couplings

Flexible couplings are used to join two shafts whose centres are not in exact
alignment. Flexible coupling are used to permit an axial misalignment of the shaft
without undue absorption of power transmitted by shaft.

Types of flexible couplings

(1) Bushed pin flexible coupling
(2) Oldham’s coupling
(3) Universal coupling

2.11.8 Bushed pin flexible coupling

A bushed pin flexible
coupling is shown in Fig H t 2/3F
2.20. The coupling bolts are
R ubb er
known as pins. Rubber or B ush
leather bushes are used over dia of
F bush
these pins. Both the halves db
of couplings are dissimilar
in construction. A clearance
of 5 mm is left between the
faces of these two halves of
D
couplings. These are B C A
modified type of rigid
coupling. The bearing
pressure on the bush should
not exceed 0.5 N /mm 2.

Design of Bushed - Pin

Flexible Coupling:
Diagram - Refer Page No.
7.106; Table - Refer Page No G
E Fig .2.20.B ushed Pin
7.108. Flexible C ou plin g
A  Dia. of the shaft;
B  Outside diameter
C  HUB diameter; D  P.C.D. of bolts
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.109

E  HUB length; F  bolt diameter

G  Flange width; H  protective circumferential flange thickness

db  Bush diameter; n  no. of bolts; t  clearance

Read the values of A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, n, t from data book at the design power

at 100 rpm

I. Calculation of the shaft diameter d

Let P  Power to be transmit in watts; N  Speed of the shaft in r.p.m.

T  torque transmitted by the shaft N-m; [  ]  permissible shear stress of the

shaft.

P  60 y 1
T Nm [] 
2N 2 F OS

16T
[]
d3

16T


3
d
[]

Calculate the shaft diameter d; Select d from R 20 series.

II. Selection of Coupling

Page No. 7.108 and 7.109

KW of power a pplication  service factor  100

Maximum rating at 100 r.p.m. 
R.P. M o f a pplication

Selec t servic e fac to r fro m page no . 7.109.

Refer page no . 7.108; and selec t c o upling no . at the maximum rating.
Take the pro po rtio ns o f the c o upling no . (Data o f the c o upling)
A, B, C, E, G, H, D, n, F, db, t

III. Bearing pressure in the rubber bush

Let F t  Tangential force on the pitch circle. (Refer PSG D.B Pg No.7.106)
2.110 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Torque T
Ft  
Pitch circle dia. of bolt D
2 2

Let p  bearing pressure

Ft
p N/mm 2
 2 
db  G  F  n
 3 

p[p]
[ p should not exceed 1 N/mm 2 ]

Note: If p  [ p ]

Change the coupling no. and select new proportions and re-calculate bearing
pressure.

IV. Check the stresses in the pin

The pin is subjected to bending and shear

Let M b  bending moment in pin

 1 2 
t 2 G 3 F
  
 Ft
n

 load  distance

Mb
Bending stress in the pin   b 
Z [F  bolt dia]

 3
Z F
32

Force /n F t /n
Direct shear stress  d  
sectional area of pin  2
F
4



2
 b  2
maxp in or bolt     d
 2 

If max  [ max ]bolt, then the design is safe.

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.111

V. Design of Key: (Page No. 5.19 or 5.21)

Select b and h from databook at shaft dia. d

Length of key  H ub length  E

Check the stresses in the key: key and  c 

key

Check for shear stress key

d
T  b  l  key 
2

Check key

If key  [  ]key then design in safe lE

Check for crushing stress c 

key

h d
T  l   c 
2 2

Check  c

If  c  [ c ]key,

then the design is safe.

Problem: 2.31: Design a bushed pin type flexible coupling for the following:
Power to be transmitted  40 kW; Shaft speed  1000 r.p.m; Select materials and determine
the dimension. (Oct 96 - Nov, Nov 2009 - AU)

Given Data
Power  40 kW; Speed  1000rpm

Material Selection:
y 1
From databook bolt, pin and shaft C40 steel   y  330N/mm 2 So     
2 FOS

(DB Pg.No. 1.9 & 1.10)

300 1
Key - C55 - y  400 N/mm2 []  
2 2
y 1 400 1
Select FOS = 2 to 3,      [] bolt, shaft  82.5 N/mm 2
2 FOS 2 2
2.112 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

  100 N/mm 2,

Key

[ c ]Key  2      2  100  200 N/mm2 [Take FOS = 2]

Step I: Calculation of Shaft dia. (d):

P  60 40  10 3  60
T   381.971 Nm .
2N 2   1000

 381.971  10 3 Nmm
.

16  16  381.971  10 3     82.5 N /mm 2

 
 d3   d3

16  381.971  10 3
d3   23580
  82.5

 d  Shaft diameter  28.67 mm

 From databook, according to R 20 Series,

(P.No. = 7.20) Select Shaft diameter as 31.5 mm

d  31.5mm

Step II: Selection of Coupling: PSG D.B Page No. 7.108

KW of power application  Service fa ctor  100
Max. rating at 100 rpm 
RPM of application

(Take Service factor = 1.5) 40  1.5  100

  6 kW per 100 rpm
1000

From data book, 7.09 Select coupling No. at 6 kW/100 rpm

(from P.No. 7.108)

Select Coupling No (6) at 6 kW/100 rpm.

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.113

All dimensions are in mm.

Coupling A B C E G H D n F db t Remarks
No. Min Max
6 56 75 200 100 56 40 15 150 4 12 30 4 Not
Satisfactory
7 75 85 250 140 63 45 22 190 6 16 40 5 Satisfactory

Step III: Bearing pressure in the rubber bush:

F t  tangential force on the particle

Torque T 381.97  10 3
  
Pitch circle radius of bolts  D /2  150 /2

 5092.93 N

Ft
Bearing pressure (p) 
 2 
db  G  F  n
 3 

5092.93

 2 
30  40   12   4
 3 

p  1.326 N/mm 2

Bearing pressure (p) should not exceed 1N/mm2

 The Selection of Coupling no. is not correct.

 Select next coupling No. (7).

Re-Write the proportions. (Refer table)

T T 381.97  103
Ft     4020.73 N
P .C.R. D/2 190
2

Ft
Bearing pressure  p 
 2 
db  G  F  n
 3 
2.114 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4020.73
p
 2 
40  45   16  6
 3 
 0.4879 N/mm 2

Since bearing pressure is less than 1 N/mm 2

 Selection of Coupling No. is Satisfactory

Step: IV
Check the stresses in the bolt (or) pin;
Bolt is subjected to bending and shear stress

M b  b ending moment on pin

 1 2 
Ft  t   G  F  
 2  3 

n

 1 2 
4020  5   45  16  
 2 3 
  14.85  10 3 Nmm
6

Mb  3
b  Bending stress  [Z F ;
Z 32

14.85  10 3 F  bold dia]


 3
 16 
32

 b  36.92 N/mm 2

F t/n
Direct shear stress  d 
C.S. area of pinor bolt

4020 /6
  3.33 N/mm 2

 16 2
4
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.115

 

2


2
 b  2  36.92  2
     d   2    3.33 
max  2   

 18.75 N/mm 2

   82.5 for bolt.

max max

 Design is Satisfactory.

Step V: Design of Key:

Select b and h from databook P.No: 5.19 for d  31.5 mm

Width of Key b  10 mm

Thickness (or) height of Key h  8 mm

l  Length of Key  Length of hub  E  63 mm. Refer Fig. 2.20

Key is subjected to (a) shear stress and (b) crushing stress.

Consider   Key
d
T  b  l   B  
 Key 2

31.5
381.97  10 3  10  63     
Key 2

 Key   19.24 N/mm2

 Key    Key    100 N/mm 2

 
So design is satisfactory for key.

Consider  C Key
h d
T  l   C  
2  Key 2

8 31.5
381.97  10 3   63    C  
2  Key 2

 C Key  96.23
2.116 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 C Key  [  C ]Key  200 N/mm 2

 The Design of Key is Satisfactory and hence safe.

To Fasten Shaft of dia 31.5 mm in the Coupling,

Provide Sleeve with di  31.5mm, d0  75 mm

Problem 2.31: The split muff coupling is to be designed to transmit 6.75 kW. at 180
rpm. Determine the diameter of the solid shaft if the permissible shear stress in the shaft
material is limited to 42 N  mm2. Assuming that the two halves of the coupling are
connected by 8 bolts, determine the diameter of each clamping bolt if the permissible tensile
stress intensity for the bolt material is limited to 70 N/mm2. The Coefficient of friction is
0.3. (Oct 96 - MU, Nov 2010 - AU)

Given

P  6.75 kW;  6.75  10 3 W; N  180 rpm

  42 N/mm 2; n  8 ;  t   70 N /mm2 ;   0.3

Shaft  

Step I
Design of Shaft:

2  NT
P
60

P  60 6.75  10 3  60
Torque transmitted by the shaft  T  
2N 2   180

 358.098 N m

T  358.098  10 3 Nmm


T    d3
16


 

3 16  T 3 16  358.098  10 3
Dia. of shaft  d    35.148
   42 

d  35.148 mm
From R 20 Series; shaft dia  d  35.5 mm (Pg.No.7.20)
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.117

Step II
Design of clamping bolt:

2 2
T d  nd
16 b  t 

2
358.098  10 3  0.3   d2b  70  8  35.5
16


db   97.338

Bolt dia. (core) db  9.86 mm

db
Nominal dia. of the bolt  d   11.74 mm
0.84

 Select standard size of the bolt from page No. 5.48

M12 bolt It’s nominal dia  12 mm , 1.75 coarse pitch

or M 12  1.25 fine pitch

Problem 2.32: Design a protected type flange coupling for the following power to be
transmitted by the shafts = 5 kW. Speed of shafts = 1440 rpm; Selecting appropriate
materials for the coupling parts and. determine the dimensions of the coupling.
(Apr 96 - MU, Oct 2012 - AU)

Given data:

P = 5 kW  5  10 3 W; N  1440 rp m

Step 1: SELECTION OF MATERIALS AND Allowable Stresses.

(Page No. 1.10, Pg No.1.9)

1. SHAFT - C50; 2. KEY - C50; 3. BOLT - C45; 4. FLANGE - Cast iron

Assume, Material for Shaft and Key - C50 (PSG D.B Pg.No.1.9)

y  380 N/mm 2, Ass ume FOS  2

y 1 380 1
      95 N/mm 2
shaft, KEY 2 FOS 2 2

[ C ]KEY  2     2  95  190 N /mm2

KEY
2.118 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

BOLT
Material - C45

y  360 N/mm2 & assume FOS  2

y 1 360 1
      90 N/mm 2
bolt 2 FOS 2 2

[ C ]bolt  2  90  180 N/mm 2

Flange
MATERIAL CAST IRON

  15 N /mm 2
flange

Assume     10 N /mm 2
flange

The following are the allowable stresses:

  95 N/mm2;     95 N/mm 2;  c   190 N/mm 2

Shaft Key  Key

  90 N/mm 2;  c   180 N/mm 2;     10 N/mm2

bolt  bolt flange

Step II
Calculation of Torque (T).

P  60
Torque transmitted T 
2N

5  10 3  60
  33.5172 Nm
2   1440
T  33.5172  10 3 Nmm

Step III
Calculation of Shaft diameter (d)


T  d3
16 shaft
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.119

16 T 16  33.5172  10 3
d3    1797
   95
shaft

Dia. of the shaft  d  12.15 mm.

from R 20 series, select dia. of shaft d  14 mm

Step IV
Proportions of the Coupling.

Thickness of flange tf  0.5  d  0.5  14  7 mm.

Outside dia. of the Hub D  2  d  2  14  28 mm .

Pitch circle dia. of bolts D 1  3d  3  14  42 mm

Outside dia. of flange D 2  4d  4  14  56 mm

Length of hub L  1.5d  1.5  14  21 mm .

1 1
Protective Circumfrential flange thickness tp  d   14  3.5 mm .
4 4

Assume n  no . of bolts  3 [because shaft diameter  40 mm ]

Step V
Design of Hub: Check for shear stress


T  D3  1  K4 
16 hub  

16T 16  33.5172  10 3
    7.6926 N/mm 2
Hub  D 3  1  K4    28 3  1  0.54 
   
  10 N/mm 2.
Hub

Induced stress < Design stress

 The Design is SAFE.

Step VI - DESIGN OF KEY

Refer PSG D.Book P.No. 5.16

For a shaft dia. of 14 mm; b  5 mm ; h  5 mm   95 N/mm 2

Key
2.120 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Assume length of Key l  length of Hub  L  21 mm  c   190 N/mm 2

 Key

T  33.5172  10 3 Nmm

(a) Check for Shear Stress

d
Tbl 
Key 2

14
33.5172  10 3  5  21     
Key 2

33.5172  10 3
   45.6 N/mm2
Key 5  21  7

     95 N/mm2
Key Key

Induced Stress < Design Stress. Hence it is safe.

(b) Check for Crushing Stress.

h d
Tl  c  
2   2

5 14
33.5172  10 3  21   
2 c 2

33.5172  10 3  2  2
(or) c   91.20 N/mm 2
21  5  14

  c   91.20 N/mm2
 

 c     190 N/mm 2

 Key  c Key

Induced Stress < Design Stress.

Therefore, the design of KEY is satisfactory.

Step VII Design of flange: (Check for Shear Stress)

D2
T t 
2 f flan ge
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.121

T 33.5172  10 3
  2
 2
 3.888 N/mm 2
flange D 28
 t  7
2 f 2

  3.888 N/mm 2

flange

   10 N/mm2

flange flange

Induced < Design. Therefore, the design is Satisfactory.

Step VIII Design of bolts:

Bolts are subjected to shearing and crushing stress.
(a) Consider bolt subjected to shear. T  33.5172  10 3 Nmm

 D1 n  3; D 1  42 mm
Tn  d2b
4 bolt 2
  90 N/mm 2
bolt

 42 db  ? core dia. of bolt

33.5172  10 3  3   90  d2b 
4 2

33.5172  10 3  4  2
d2b   7.5265
3    90  42
 db  2.74 mm

Dia. of bolt  db  2.74 mm

2.74
Major dia. of bolt   3.26
0.84

(Page No. 5.42) Select Major diameter of bolt as M4

(b) Bolt subjected to crushing.

D1 Revised Standard
T  n tf db  c  
 bolt 2 db  4  0.84  3.36

33.5172  10 3
 c  
 bolt 42
3  7  3.36 
2

 22.61 N /mm2
2.122 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

tp
t p = P rotective
C ircum ferential
Flange T hickness Flange

db

shaft

d D2
D1
D

A
B
K ey

Flange Coupling L= 1.5d

 c     180 N/mm2

 bolt  c bolt

Induced Stress < Design Stress

 The Design is Satisfactory.

Problem 2.33: A mild steel shaft has to transmit 80 kW at 200 rpm. The allowable shear
stress in the shaft is limited to 45 N/mm2. Allowable shear stress for key material is
45 N/mm2, crushing stress for bolt and key is 160 N/mm2, shear stress for bolt material
 30 N/mm2; shear stress for cast iron  8 N/mm2. Design and draw a cast iron flange
coupling of protected type.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.123

1. Design torque
Td  Nominal torque  Service factor

Service factor is assumed to be 1.25

Power in watts  60
Nominal torque 
2  RPM

80  1000  60
  3819.7 Nm
2  200

T d  3819.7  1.25  4774.65 Nm

2. Shaft diameter
16 Td
Induced shear stress   |]
 d3

16  4774.65  10 3
3
 45 []  45 N/mm2
d

i.e., d  81.45 mm  85 mm

3. Other dimensions of the coupling

(a) Hub diameter D  2  85  170 mm

(b) Hub length l  1.5d  1.5  85  127.5 mm  130 mm

(c) Bolt circle diameter  3 d  3  85  255 mm

(d) Key, b  22 mm, h  14 mm

d 85
(e) Flange thickness, tf    42.5 mm
2 2

4. Design of hub as a hollow shaft

16 T d 16  4774.65  10 3  170
hub  D
 D 4  d4  170 4  85 4

 5.3 N/mm2  []Cl  8 N/mm 2

Satisfactory.
2.124 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

5. Design of bolts
n  Number of bolts  4 for d  85 mm. Tangential force acting on the bolt circle
Td Td
Ft  
radius of the bolt circle 3d/2

4774.65  10 3
  37,448.2 N
3  85/2
Ft 37,448.2
Force/bolt  F tb    9362 N
n 2

Shear failure of bolts

 d2b
F tb   []bolt
4

 d2b
9362   30, db  19.93 mm  20 mm
4
M20 bolts can be used.

Crushing failure of bolts

Check the induced crushing stress.
Ftb 9362
c  
tf d b 42.5  20

 11 N /mm2  [c]  160 N/mm 2

Satisfactory.

6. Failure of key
Shear failure

Tangential force on key  F tk

Td 4774.65  10 3
   112,344.7 N
d/ 2 85/ 2
Ftk 112,344.7
Induced shear stress,   
bl 22  130
 39.3 N/mm2  []key  45 N/mm2
Satisfactory.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.125

C oupling dra w in g

42.5

21
M 20
13








130 68
A ll dim ensions in m m

Crushing failure
F tk 112,344.7
Induced crushing stress,  c  
lh/2 130  14/2

 123.5 N/mm 2  [c]  160 N/mm 2

Satisfactory.

7. Failure of flange by shearing from hub

Tangential force on hub  Shearing area  
2.126 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Td
  D tf  
D/2

4774  10 3
   170  42.5  
170/2

i.e.,   2.47 N/mm2  []  8 N/mm 2

Satisfactory.
Problem 2.34: Two 35 mm shafts are connected by a flanged coupling. The flanges are
fitted with 6 bolts on 25 mm bolt circle. The shafts transmit a torque of 800 N-m at 350
rpm. For the safe stresses mentioned below, calculate (i) diameter of bolts (ii) thickness
of flanges (iii) key dimensions (iv) hub length and (v) power transmitted. Safe stress for
shaft material 63 MPa, Safe stress for bolt material 56 MPa, Safe stress for cast iron
coupling 10 MPa and Safe stress for key material 46 MPa.
(Anna Univ, ME 2303, Dec 2011)

Given data
Diameter of shaft d  35 mm

No. of bolts n  6; Bolt dia db  25 mm

Torque M t  800 N  m  800  10 3 N  mm; N  350 rpm

s  65 MPa or 65 N/mm 2; b  56 Mpa or 56 N/mm 2;

ci  10 Mpa or 10 N/mm 2; k  46 Mpa or 46 N/mm 2;

Solution

Step 1:
(a) Outside diameter of hub D  2 d  2  35  70 mm

(b) Length o f hub h  1.5 d  1.5  35  52.5 mm

(c) Pitch hole diameter of flange D 1  3 d  3  35  105 mm

(d) Outside diameter of flange D 2  4 d  4  35  140 mm

(e) Thickness of flange tf  0.5 d  0.5  35  17.5 mm

(f) Thickness of protective layer tp  0.25 d  0.25  35  8.75 mm

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.127

Step 2: Diameter of bolts db

 D1
Mt  db2  b  n 
4 2

 105
800  10 3   db 2  56  6 
4 2

db  7.59 mm

Step 3: Thickness of the flange

tf  0.5  d  0.5  35

tf  17.5 mm

Step 4: Key dimension (from data book)

d  35 mm; width of the key b  10 mm

length of the key l  52.5 mm; height of the key h  8 mm

Step 5: Check for shear

d
M t  lb k
2

35
800  10 3  52.5  10  k 
2
k  87.07 N /mm 2
It is lesser than the allowable value. Hence the design is safe.

Step 6: Check for crushing

h 2d
Mt  l   c 
2 2
8 35
800  10 3  52.5   c 
2 2
 c  217.68 N /mm 2
It is lesser than allowable value. Hence the design is safe.

Step 7: HUB length

h  1.5 d  1.5  35  23.33

h  23.33 mm
2.128 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Step 8: Power transmitted

P  60
Mt 
2 N

P  29.32 kW

Problem 2.35: Design a rigid type of flange coupling to connect two shafts. The input
shaft transmits 37.5 kW power at 180 rpm to the output shaft through the coupling. The
service factor for the application is 1.5. Select suitable material for various parts of the
coupling. (Anna Univ, ME2303, Dec 2010)

Given data
P  37.5 kW; N  180 rpm; c  80 MPa; FOS  1.5

B  40 MPa assume; CI  8 MPa

1. Design for hub

2 NT
P
60

2  180  T
37.5 
60

T  1.99 Nm

. .
. FOS is 1.5, the max. torque transmitted by the shaft

Tmax  1.5  1.99  2.98 Nm

Tmax  2.98  10 3 Nmm

Torque transmitted by the shaft


T   d3
16 s

2.98  10 3   40  d3
6
d  7.23 mm
R20 series standard dia is d  8 mm
Outer diameter of the hub D  2d  2  8  16 mm
Length of the hub L  1.5d  1.5  8  12 mm
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.129

To check

  D 4  d4 
T  
16  D 

  164  84 
2.98  10 3   
16  16 

2.98  10 3     3840
16

  3.95 MPa  []

. .
. Since it is less than permissible stress, design is safe

2. Design for key

From DB for shaft dia d  8 mm (Pg 5.16)

Width of key w  3 mm; Thickness of key t  w  3 mm

Length of key  length of hub  1.5 d  1.5  8  12 mm

To check
For shear stress

d
T  l  w  k 
2

8
2.98  10 3  12  3  k 
2

k  13.73 MPa  []  40 N  mm 2, hence it is safe.

For crushing stress

t d
Tl  ck 
2 2

3 8
2.98  10 3  10.85   c 
2 2

ck  45.78 MPa  [ c]  80 N  mm 2

Since it is less than the permissible stress, design is safe

2.130 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3. Design for flange

Thickness of flange tf  0.5 d  0.5  8  4 mm

To check shearing stress

 D2
T  c  tf
2

  162
2.98  10 3   c  4
2
  1.85 MPa  []  8 MPa
. .
. It is less than 8 MPa, the design is safe

4. Design for bolts

Take n  2
Pitch circle diameter of bolts D 1  3d  3  8  24 mm

 2 D1
T d 1 b  n 
4 2
 24
2.98  10 3   d21  40  2 
4 2
d1  1.98 mm

Standard bolt size (Pg. No. 5.48) d = M3

Outer diameter of flange D 2  4d  4  8  32 mm

D 2  32 mm

2.11.9 Oldham Coupling (Fig. 2.21)

This coupling is used to
connect shafts that have lateral
misalignment. This coupling
consists of two slotted hubs and
a central floating member. The
floating member has two
tongues, one on each face, at Tongues
(a) (b)
right angles to each other. These
tongues slide in the slots of the Fig 2.21. O ldham couplin g
hubs.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.131

Universal or Hooke’s Coupling

An universal coupling
F ork
is used to connect two shafts 0.5d
whose axes are inclined to
each other at small angle. 1.75d
Main application of
universal joint is found in 
1.75d 2d
transmission from gear box d
to differential or back axle
of automobiles. It is also
pin s
used in transmission of
multiple spindle drilling d
machine. Fig 2.22 shows a 1.5d
0.5d Fig 2.22. U niversal C ou pling
schematic diagram of
universal coupling.

Design of Universal coupling

(i) Shaft diameter d

Shaft diameter is calculated from the torque equation.

T    d3
16

T: Torque transmitted
: Allowable shear stress of shaft material
d: Shaft diameter.

Double shear of pin or bolt

The pin or bolt is subjected to double shear, therefore the torque transmitted
is given by

T2  d2b  pin  d
4

where db : Bolt or pin diameter

pin : Allowable shear stress of pin material
T: Torque transmitted
d: shaft diameter
2.132 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(iii) Speed Ratio of Shafts

The speed ratio of the driving shaft N 1 to the driven shaft N 2 is given by

N1 1  cos 2   sin2 

N2 cos 

where : Angle of Inclination of shafts

: Angle of driving shaft from position where the pins of driving shaft
fork are in plane of the two shafts.

(iv) Other dimensions

The ratios of the other dimensions of coupling are shown in Fig 2.22.

Problem 2.36: A Torque of 3000 Nm is to be transmitted between two shafts by using a

universal coupling. Shaft is transmitting torque only. Find the diameter of the shaft and
pins. Take shaft  50 MPa, pin  30 MPa. If Angle of inclination of shafts is 15 and in
plane angle driving shaft with shaft fork is 20. Find the speed of output shaft and speed
of input shaft is 1200 rpm.

Given

T  3000 Nm, s  50 MPa  50 N/mm 2, pin  30 MPa  30 N/mm 2

  20 ,   15, N 1  1200 rpm

Solution

1. Diameter of shaft d

We know that


Torque T   d3
16 s


3000  10 3   50  d3
16

3000  10 3  16
d3   305578
  50
d  67.35 mm
From R20, standard diameter of shaft  70 mm.
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.133

2. Diameter of pin d p

Again, Torque T   2   p  d 2p  d
16


3000  10 3  2   30  d 2p  70
16

3000  10 3  16
 d 2p   3637.8
2    30  70

d p  60.314 mm

R20 series standard diameter d p  65 mm.

3. Speed of output shaft N 2

We know that

N1 1  cos 2  sin 2  2 2
1200 1  cos 20 sin 15
 or 
N2 cos  N2 cos 15

Speed of output shaft N 2  1502.4 rpm

2.134 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

DESIGN OF CRANKSHAFT

2.12.1 Introduction
 Crankshafts are used to convert rotary motion into reciprocating motion (or)
vice versa.
 There are two types of crankshafts.
1. Overhung or side crankshaft.
2. Centre crankshaft.
 In a overhung crankshaft, the crankpin is a cantilever while in a centre
crankshaft, the crank is a simply supported beam.
 Crankshafts for marine engines are forged by C20 or C25 steels. For
automobile or aircraft engines: Chrome - Nickel alloy steels are used (35 Ni
1 Cr 60, 30 Ni 4 Cr 1.)
 In I.C. engines, when the crank angle is between 25 to 40 from IDC, the
max. torque is obtained.
 A crankshaft with only one side crank or centre crank is called single throw
crankshaft. A crankshaft with two side cranks, one on each end or with two
or more centre cranks in known as multi throw crankshaft.
 Fig 2.23 shows overhung and centre crankshaft.

(a) Overhung side crank shaft (b) Centre crank sh aft

Fig 2.23 Types of C rank shaft

2.12.2 Design Procedure of a Overhung Crankshaft: (7.123)

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.123
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.135

Ft F
p in
Cr ank

A +

F
Fr

Gu dgeon P in
r

 ( )
P
B
C rank shaft
Fig.2.24. Schem atic of IC E ngine M echanism .

STEP - 1
To determine the crankpin diameter d c and the length of crankshaft

l  length of the connecting rod

r  radius of the crank.

  Crank angle. (when   25 to 40 , then the torque is maximum)

Let F  Force acting on the connecting rod due to gas pressure or explosion
pressure.

The force F is acting along the connecting rod, and it is inclined at an angle
of  to the line of stroke and    angle to the crank.


F  D 2  Max. gas pressure Newton 
4

Where D  Piston diameter (or) cylinder bore.

Resolving the force F into

1. Along the crank F r

2. Perpendicular to the crank F t

F r  Radial component  F  cos   

F t  Tangential component  F  sin   

2.136 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

From the diagram, AB  l  sin  ... (1) and

AB  r  sin  ... (2)

  Angle between connecting rod and line of stroke

Equate (1) and (2) equations.

l  sin   r  sin 

 r  sin  
  sin  1  
 l 

To determine the crankpin diameter d c and length of crankpin bearing

lc

The force F is assumed to act at a distance of 0.75 l c from the edge of the web.

F r induces bending moment

 Bending moment on the crankpin  M b  F  0.75 l c

STEP - 2: Selection of material

Select C 40 material for the crankpin, web and crankshaft

Take  y from PSG D.Book Pg.No.1.9 & 1.10

Since the crankshaft is subjected to heavy shock load,

Select FO S  5

y 1
[] 
2 FO S

Calculate [  ]  Permissible shear stress N/mm 2

Refer data book, Page No. 7.31

lc
Select ratio and [ p b ]  Allowable bearing pressure in N/mm 2
dc

F
pb 
l cd c

Calculate l c and d c
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.137

M b  bending moment  F  0.75l c

Calculate M b

The crank pin is subjected to bending moment, which induces bending stress.

32 M b
Bending stress on the crankpin b 
d 3c

Check b

  y  2

If b  [ b ],  where [ b]  Allowable bending stress     N  mm 
  FOS  
then the design is SATISFACTORY

STEP - 3: Calculation of crankshaft dia. d; Length of bearing L

From Page No. 7.31,

L
Select and [ p b ]  Allowable bearing pressure in N /mm 2
d

F
pb 
Ld

Calculate L and d

STEP - 4: Calculation of t and w

Thickness of web t varies from t p to t b (from Databook 7.123) t p  1.4 d c

i.e., t  1.4d c to d to 1.25 d t b  1 to 1.25 d

Width of web  w  Varies from a to b (from Databook 7.123) a  1.5 d c

i.e., w  1.5d c to 1.35 d. b  1.35 d c

Select t and w

STEP - 5: Checking of stresses in the web

In the web portion, consider point (A), At (A) introduce two equal and opposite
forces F r and F r  F r;
1 2

F r and F r induces couple. The effect of couple induces bending moment

1
2.138 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 t 
Couple  C  F r  0.75l c    B.M  M
 2 
M 1
b  Bending stress  Z wt 2
Z 6

The force F r induces a direct compressive stress.

2

Fr
c 
wt

w  Total stress in the web  c  i (Compressive)

w   [  b ]

Then the design is satisfactory.

STEP - 6: Checking of stress in the crankshaft

The crankshaft is subjected to combined moments of bending & torsion.

The force F r produces bending moment,

 L 
M b  F r  0.75 l c  t  
 2 

The force F t produces twisting moment.

M t  F t  radius of the crank

According to the max. shear stress theory,



 M2b  M 2t 
16
 d 3

Check 

If   [  ], then the design is satisfactory.

Problem 2.37: Design an overhang crankshaft for an I.C. engine for the following data:
Stroke L  350 mm; Cylinder bore  d1  250 mm; Length of connecting rod = 5 times the

crank radius. Maximum gas pressure  2 N/mm2

Given data
L 350
Stroke  L  350 mm; Radius of crank r    175 mm
2 2
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.139

l
Cylinder bore  d 1  250 mm ; 5
r

 l  length of the connecting rod  5r  5  175  875 mm

p  2 N/mm 2

(Torque is maximum when  varies from 25 to 40)

 Select   30

STEP - I: Material selection

From Page No. 1.10 select material; From page No. 1.9 select y

Select C 40 material - for Crankpin, Web and Crankshaft y  330 N/mm 2

Select factor of safety = 5

y 330
Permissible bending stress  [  b ]    66 N/mm 2  [c]
FO S 5

y 1 330 1
Permissible shear stress  [  ]      33 N/mm 2
2 FO S 2 5

STEP - II: Find Gas Force (F)

 2 
Gas force  F  d p  2502  2  98.17  10 3
4 1 4

F  98.17  10 3N

This force ‘F’ induces bending stress in the crankpin.

STEP - III: To find lc and d c (crankpin)

lc
Select and [ p b ] from the databook Page No. 7.31.
dc

Consider 4-stroke engine.

For crankpin,

lc
 0.6 to 1.5; p b  108  126 kgf/cm 2  10.8  12.6 N /mm2
dc
2.140 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

lc
Select  0.6; [ p b ]  11 N/mm 2
dc

F  l cd c [ p b ]

98.17  10 3  0.6d c d c  11

Diameter of crankshaft  d c  121.96 mm

Length of crankpin l c  73.17 mm

Step - IV: Check for the stress in the crankpin.

The load F induces bending moment.

The max. BM occurs at 0.75 l c from the web.

BM  M  F  0.75 l c  98.17  10 3  0.75  73.17

 5.387  10 6Nmm

6
M 5.387  10
 Bending stress  b  
Z  3
d
32 c

5.387  10 6


 121.963
32

b  30.24 N/m m2

  b  [ b ]  66 N /mm2

Therefore, the design of crankpin is safe.

lc
Note: 1. If b  [  b ] then change ratio, and [ p b ] value.
dc

2. Always start from least value.

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.141

STEP - V: To find L and d crankshaft (Main bearing)

L
 0.6 to 2.0 p b  49 to 84 kg f/cm2  4.9 to 8.4 N/mm 2}
d
(Pg.No.7.31 for Main & 4 stroke Engine)
L
Select  0.6; [ p b ]  5 N/mm 2
d
F  L  d [ pb ]

98.17  10 3  0.6d d 5

Diameter of crankshaft d  233.53 mm

Length of bearing L  140.12 mm

STEP VI: Calculation of t and w

From PSG D.B Page No. 7.123

Proportions
t  Thickness of web varies from t p to t b; t p  1.4 d c

t b  1 to 1.25 d

 1.4d c to 1 to 1.25d

t  1.4  121.96 to d to 1.25  233.53 

 170.74 to 233.53 to 291.91 

 170.74 to 291.91 mm

 Select t  180 mm

w  Width of the web varies from a to b

 1.5d c to 1.35 d

 1.5  121.56 to 1.35  233.53

 182.94 to 315.26 mm

 S ele ct w  250 mm (average approximately)

w  250 mm

t  180 mm
2.142 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

STEP - VII: Calculate F r and Ft (components of force F)

sin  sin 30

sin    [  30 assum ed]
l 5
r

  5.73 

F r  Radial component  F  cos     98.17  10 3cos 30  5.73

F r  79.68  10 3N

F t  Tangential component  F  sin     98.17  10 3sin 30  5.73

F t  57.32  10 3N

STEP - VIII: Check the stresses in the web

In the web portion, consider point (A)

At (A) consider two equal and opposite forces F r and F r

1 2

such that F r  F r  F r
1 2

F r and F r produces couple, the effect of couple produces bending moment, which
1

induces bending stress (compressive).

 t 
C   0.75 l c   F r  M  BM
 2 
 180  3
M   0.75  73.17    79.68  10
 2 
 11.54  10 6Nmm

M 1
1. Bending stress due to couple  b  Z w t2
Z 6

11.54  10 6 
1
 250  180 2
b  6
1.35  10 6

 8.548 N/mm 2 (compressive)  1.35  10 6mm 3

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.143

2. Force F r induces direct compressive stress.

2

Fr 79.68  10 3
c    1.770 N/mm2
wt 250  180

Total stress in the web  w    b  c  8.548  1.77

 10.318 N/mm 2 compressive

w   [  b ]  66 N/mm 2

 The design of web is safe.

STEP - IX: Checking the stress in the crankshaft d

The crank shaft is subjected to bending stress due to F r and shear stress due
2

to F t.

 L 
Bending moment  F r  0.75l c  t  
2
 2 

 140.12 
 79.68  10 3  0.75  73.17  180  
 2 

M b  24.29  10 6Nmm

Twisting moment FR
 M t  F t  crank rad .
t
F

F R2
(Crank rad. r  150 mm dc A C rank pin
F R1
 57.32  10 3  150 0.751c
W eb
6
 8.598  10 Nmm
lC
r
 C rankshaft

M 2b  M 2t 
16
 d 3

d  233.53 m m

24.29  1062  8.598  10 62

 d


   233.533 Fig.2.25.
16
L
2.144 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

  10.3 N/m m2

   [  ]  33 N/mm 2

 The design of crankshaft satisfactory.

2.12.3 Design of Centre Crankshaft

AB  l  sin  1 l = length of connecting rod

AB  r  sin  2 r = radius of the crank

Equating (1) & (2)   crank angle

  Angle between connecting rod and line of stroke

90-( )
Ft
F

l Fr
F r
 

B
Fig 2.26

 r sin  
  sin  1  
 l 
Let F  Force acting along the connecting rod.

Resolving the force F into two components.

(i) F r radial component (along the crank)

(ii) F t tangential component ( to the crank)

Radial component  F r  Max. load on connecting rod  cos   

Tangential component  F t  Max. load on connecting rod  sin   

I. SELECTION OF MATERIAL
From databook, Page No. 1.10; Select C 40 or C 60 material
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.145

From Page No. 1.9

Read the values of  y  yield stress;  u  tensile stress or ultimate stress

for C 40 material,

y  yield stress  33 kg f/mm 2  330 N/mm 2

Crankshaft is subjected to variable stresses

Therefore, select factor of safety 4 to 5

Assume FO S  5

330
[b]  The permissible bending stress   66 N/mm 2
5

y 1 330 1
[  ]  The permissible shear stress =     33 N/mm2
2 FOS 2 5

II. Calculation of crankpin diameter d and crankpin length l

Let l  Crankpin length in mm; d  Dia. of crankpin in mm
p b  Bearing pressure in N/mm 2; P  Max. gas force in Newton.

l
If p b, and values are not given in the problem,
d
Select from databook Page No. 7.31,
l
Select ratio (crankpin) and p b bearing pressure
d
P
pb  where l  d  Projected area
ld
P  G as force
By using above equation,
Calculate l and d

III. Calculate the other proportions

Given in the databook t  0.7 d

l c  1.1d

w  1.14d
2.146 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

IV. Calculation of length of crankshaft bearing L and Diameter of the

crankshaft D
L
Take ratio and Bearing pr. N/mm 2 for main bearing from databook Page
D
No. (7.31)
P
Bearing pressure p b 
LD

Calculate L and D

V. Check for the bending stress in the crankpin

Consider crankshaft as a simply supported beam.

P S
M  Max. B.M 
4

P  Max. gas force in newton

L L 
Distance between two bearing S    2t  l c  
 2 2 

M M
b  B ending stress  
Z  3
d
32

where d  Cra nkpin diameter

Check  b

If  b  [ b ] Permissible  66 N/mm 2

 Design is safe.

Check for stresses in the web

w  width of web  1.14d

t  0.7 d  thickness of web.

The web is subjected to the following stresses.

AB  l sin  l  length of connecting rod

AB  r sin  r = radius of connecting rod

l sin   r sin    crank angle

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.147

 r sin  
  sin 1   Fr
FT
 l  t t
E
Calculate  d
Radial force Fr 
Max. load on the
connecting rod (or) y R
F r  Max. gas force
 cos   
D
Tangential force (to
crank) F t  Max. load on
L L
the connecting rod
 sin    x
S
1. The direct Fig.2.26.
compressive stress
due to radial force F r
Fr
2
c 
wt

2. Bending stress due to radial force F r

1
F  x
2 r
b 
1
w t2
6

x  Distance between centre of bearing to the centre of the web (shown in the
diagram)
L t
 
2 2

3. Bending stress due to tangential force F t

2.148 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1
F y
2 t
b 
2
wt 2
6

y  Distance between the crankpin centre to the centre of the crankshaft.

d
r
2

L
where, r  Radius of crank 
2
L  Length of stroke

d Crankpin d ia.
The radius of crankpin r  
2 2

4. The force F t induces twisting moment also,

L t 
Torque  T  F t    
 2 2
Tr
Shear stress  xy 
J

J 
But    Z p  Polar section m odulus
 r 
1
 wt 2 for rectangular section
4.5

T
xy 
Zp

Calculate xy

Total resultant stress   x  c   b  b

1 2

y  0

T
xy 
Zp

Calculate Max. principal stress  1;

For combined stress system, according to principal stresses:

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.149

1
max 
2

 x2  2xy  33 N/mm2



2
 x  y  x   y  2
1      xy  66 N/mm 2
2  2 

Then the design is safe.

DESIGN OF CENTRE CRANKSHAFT

Problem 2.38: Design a Center Crankshaft for the following:
l
Stroke of piston  400 mm; Ratio of C.R. (connecting rod) to crank  5
r
l
Allowable bearing pressure  3.4 N/mm2; Ratio of length of pin to diameter  1
d
Max. force acting on the piston  40,000 N; Assume suitable permissible stresses.

Solution:
STEP - I: From databook, P.No. 1.10

Select C 40 material for crankpin, web and crankshaft.

From P.No. 1.9, y  yield stress  330 N/mm 2; Select factor of safety  5

y 330
Permissible bending stress  [  b ]    66 N/m m2
FO S 5

y 1 330 1
Permissible shear stress  [  ]      33 N/mm 2
2 FO S 2 5

STEP - II: Calculation of crankpin diameter and crankpin length.

l  length of crankpin; (mm); d  dia. of the crankpin; (mm)

p b  allowable bearing pressure N/mm 2; P  Max. gas force (N)

P l
pb   1 (given) l  d
ld d

3.4 
40,000 p b  3.4 N/mm 2 (given)
ll
40,000 P  40,000 N
l2 
3.4
2.150 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

l  108.46 mm
Length of crankpin l  108.46 mm

Diameter of crankpin  d  108.46 mm

STEP - III: Calculations of other proportions

Databook Page No. 7.123. Also refer fig in PSG DB Pg. No. 7.123.

Thickness of web  t  0.7d  0.7  108.46

 75.922 mm

Width of web  w  1.14d

 1.14  108.46  123.64 mm [l c  1.1d  1.1  108.46  119.31]

STEP - IV: Calculation of length of the crankshaft bearing L and diameter of the
crankshaft D 

L
Take ratio and bearing pr. N/m m2
D

For main bearing from databook, P.No. 7.31 assume, High speed engine,

L L
 1.5 to 3.0 ; take  2 L  2D 
D D

Allowable bearing pressure  17.5 kgf/cm 2  1.75 N/mm 2

P
Bearing pressure 
LD

40000
1.75 
2D  D

D  106.904 mm

L  213.808 mm

STEP - V: Check for the bending stress in the crankpin, (Refer diagram)

Consider crankshaft as a simply supported beam,

PS
M  Max. B.M 
4
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.151

where P  Max. gas force in Newton

S  distance between two bearings

L L   213.808 213.808 
   2t  l c      2  75.922  119.31    484.962 mm
 2 2   2 2 
M M
b  Bending stress  
Z  3
d
32

40,000  484.962
M  4.84  10 6 Nmm
4

4.84  10 6
b   38.64 N/mm 2

 108.46 3
32

b  [  b ]  66 N/mm 2

Therefore design of crankpin is SATISFACTORY.

 Design is safe.

STEP - VI: Check for stresses in the web

(Refer diagram)

r  l
  sin 1  sin    5 (given)
 l  r
1 1  when   25 to 40
 sin  5 sin 30  
 
  5.739  The torque is max.
 Select   30
Radial force F r  P  cos    where P  Max. gas force
 40,000  cos 30  5.739    30
 32.46  10 3N   5.739 

Tangential force F t  P  sin   

 40,000  sin 30  5.739  23.36  10 3N

1. The direct compressive stress due to radial force F r

2.152 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Fr From databook No. (7.123)

2 w  Width of web
c 
wt  1.14d  1.14  108.46  123.64 mm
3 t  0.7d
32.46  10
2 t = thickness of web

123.64  75.92  0.7 d  0.7  108.46  75.92 mm
c  1.7289 N/mm2
2. Bending stress due to radial force F r

1 L t
F   x  x  (Ref. diagram)
2 r 2 2
b 
1
w t2 213.808 75.92
 
6 2 2
1  144.864 mm
 32.46  10 3  144.864
2

123.64  75.92
6
b  19.79 N /mm2
1

b   19.79 N/mm2

1

3. Bending stress due to tangential force F t

1 d
F y yr
2 t 2
b 
2
w t2 400 108.4
 
6 2 2
1 y  145.77
 23.36  10 3  145.77
2
 2
 14.33 N/mm2
123.64  75.92
6

4. The force F t induces twisting moment also,

L t   213.808 75.922 
Torque T  F t      23.36  10 3    
 2 2  2 2 
T  3.384  10 6N/mm
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.153

Shear stress Tr J 1

xy   wt 2  Z p
J r 4.5

T 3.384  10 6 Zp 
1
 123.64  75.922 2
xy   4.5
Zp 158373.22
 158373.22

xy  21.367 N/mm 2

Total resultant stress   x  c   b  b

1 2

 1.7289  19.79  14.33  35.849 N/mm 2

For Combined Stress System

1
 
1 2
max 
2
2
   
x xy 
2

 2
35.849 2  21.367  20.87 N/mm2

max  []  32 N/mm 2

Maximum principal stress (1)



2
 x  y  x   y 
1      2xy y  0
2  2 
[ y  0 ]



2
35.849  35.849  2 2
1      21.367  17.9245  27.889  45.81 N/mm
2  2 

 1  []  66 N/mm 2

 Design is Satisfactory.

Problem 2.39: Design a plain carbon steel centre crankshaft for a single acting four
stroke, single cylinder engine for the following data. piston diameter  200 mm, stroke
 400 mm, maximum combustion pressure  2 N/mm2, weight of the fly wheel  15 kN, total
belt pull  3 kN, Length of connecting rod  900 mm. When the crank is turned through
30 from top dead centre, the pressure on the piston is 1 N/mm2 and the torque on the
crank is maximum. Any other data required for the design may be assumed.
(Anna Univ., June 2012, ME 2303)
2.154 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Given
D  200 mm, L  400 mm or r  200 mm, p  2 N/mm 2, W  15 kN  15  103 N ,
900
T 1  T 2  3 kN  3  10 3 N,   30, l  900 mm So l/r   4.5 , plain carbon steel,
200
single acting 4 stroke, single cylinder engine.

I. Selection of material
Select C40 steel for crankpin, web and crankshaft from pg No. 1.9
2
 y  330 N /mm ; Select factor of safety  5

y 330
Permissible bending stress [ b]    66 N/mm2
FOS 5

y 1 330
Permissible shear stress []     33 N/mm 2
2 FOS 2  5

Design of Crankshaft when crank is at Top dead centre

II. Find maximum gas force F

 D2 
F  p   200 2  2  62840 N
4 4

III. Design of Crankpin

Horizontal reaction due to gas force at each bearing

F 62840
Hg    31420 N
2 2

Horizontal reaction due to belt tension on each bearing

3
H6   1.5 kN  1500 N
2

Vertical reaction due to height of flywheel

W 15
Vf    7.5 kN  7500 N
2 2

Let l c length of crank d c : Diameter of crank pin

From PSG. D.B Page No. 7.31 for Gas and oil engine 4 stroke for crankpin
l c/d c  0.6  15; p b  10.8 to 12.6 N/mm2
Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.155

let us select l c/d c  0.8 and P b  11 N/mm 2

F 62840
 Bearing pressure p b  
l c  d c 0.8 d 2
c

62840
d 2c   7141
0.8  11

d c  84.51 say 85 mm

 l c  0.8  85  68 mm say 70 mm

From PSG D.B Page No. 7.123 other dimensions are

Thickness t  0.7 d  0.7  85  59.5 say 60 mm

width w  1.14 d  1.14  85  96.9 mm sa y 97 mm

l c  1.1 d  1.1  85  93.5 mm say 94 mm

IV. Calculate length of crankshaft L and diameter of crankshaft D 

L
From PSG D.B page No. 7.31 for main  0.6  2 and p b  4.9 to 10.4 N /mm 2
D

L
Let us take  1 and p b  10 N/mm 2
D

F
Bearing pressure p b 
LD

62840
10 
2D  D

D  79.27 mm say 80 mm

L  80 mm

V. Check for bending stress in crank pin

FS
Max. BM M 
4

F : Max. gas force

L L   80 80 
S    2t  l c      2  60  94   294 mm
 2 2   2 2 
2.156 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

M M 62840  294
Bending stress b     76.6 N/mm 2
Z d 3
  85 3  4
32 32

Since  b  [b] Design is not satisfactory increase the value of d c

Let us take d c  100 mm (say) l c  0.8  100  80 mm

Calculate other parameter

Thickness t  0.7d c  0.7  100  70 mm

width w  1.14 d  1.14  100  114 mm

l c  1.1  d  1.1  100  100 mm

L L   80 80 
S    2t  l c      2  70  100   320 mm
 2 2   2 2 

Check
M 62840  400
b    64 N/mm 2
2   1003
4
32

b  [ b]  66 N/mm2  Design is safe.

Check of crank web stress

r  l
  sin  1  sin    4.5 given
 l  r

 1 
 sin  1  sin 30    30 max  torque
 4.5 
  6.38 

Radial force F r  P  cos   4

 62840 cos 30  6.38   50593 N

Tangential force F t  P  sin   

 62840 sin 30  6.38  37273 N

Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings 2.157

1. Direct compressive stress due to radial force F r

F r/2 50593
c    3.17 N/mm 2
wt 2  114  70

2. Bending stress due to radial force Fr

1
 Fr  x
2  L t 160 70 
b  2  x  2  2  2  2  115 
1
wt  
6

6  50593  115
b  2
 31.25 N/mm 2
1
2  114  70

Maximum principal stress



2
x   y   x  y  2
1      xy
2  2 
[ y  0 ]



2
59.87  59.87  2
   2   15.44
2  

 30  33.68

 1  63.68 N/mm 2

1  []  66 N/mm 2

 Design is safe.

VI. Design of right hand crank web

For balancing right hand crank web, dimensions are same as that of left web

VII. Design of shaft under flywheel

Length of main bearing are same at all places
Let width of flywheel  100 mm
 total distance c   100  L  100  80  180 say 200 mm
2.158 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Bending moment due to weight of flywheel

200
M p  v f  c /2  7500   75000 Nmm
2
Bending moment due to belt pull
c 200
MB  H b   1500   1.5  10 5 Nmm
2 2

Resultant bending moment

Mf  
 
2B  
M 2f  M 7.5  10 52  1.5  10 52  7.65  10 5 Nmm


Diameter of flywheel shaft M s   d 3s   b
32

7.65  10 5  32
d 3s 
  66
d s  49.20 mm say 50 mm
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.1

CHAPTER 3

Design of Temporary and Permanent Joints

- Design of Fasteners

3.1 THREADED FASTENERS

In thread fastening process, joining of two parts is by means of nuts and bolts.
Thread is formed on the surface of a cylindrical rod or cylindrical hole by machining
a helical groove. Threaded joints are detachable joints. Threaded joints are generally
used in machine parts assemblies.
3.1.1 Advantages of threaded joints
1. Threaded joints can be easily assembled and disassembled.
2. Threaded joints have large damping force due to the wedge action at the
threads. Hence these joints are highly reliable.
3. Threaded joints are self-locking.
4. Threaded joints are standardised.
3.1.2 Disadvantages of threaded joints
1. Due to vibrations during operating conditions of machine parts, threaded joints
may loosen.
2. The stress concentration is high near the threaded portion of the parts, which
causes fatigue failure.
3.1.3 Nomenclature of screw threads
The important terms used in screw threads are shown in the following diagram
and they are defined as follows:
1. Major diameter or Nominal diameter d 
It is defined as the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that bounds the crest of
an external thread or root of an internal thread. It is the largest diameter of the
screw thread.

2. Minor diameter or core diameter or root diameter d c

It is defined as the diameter of an imaginary cylinder that bounds the root of
an external thread or crest of an internal thread. It is the smallest diameter of the
screw thread.
3.2 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

M ajor diam eter d M ajor diam eter D

P itch diam ete r d p M inor diam eter D c
M inor diam eter d c

C rest

R oot

R oot
Th read angle P itch p
C rest P itch diam ete r D p
Fig. 3.1 Term in olog y of T hreads

3. Pitch diameter or Effective diameter d p

It is defined as an imaginary cylinder diameter, the surface of which would pass

through the thread at such points as to make equal width of the thread and width
of spaces between the threads.

4. Pitch p
It is an axial distance between two similar points on adjacent threads. It is
measured in millimeters.

5. Lead
It is defined as the axial distance which a screw thread advances in one rotation
of the nut.

For single start threads, lead = pitch

For double start threads, lead  2  pitch

For multi start threads, lead  n  pitch

Where n  number of starts of the thread

6. Crest
It is the top surface generated by the two adjacent flanks of the thread.

7. Root
It is the bottom surface generated by the two adjacent flanks of the thread.
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.3

8. Depth of thread
It is defined as the perpendicular distance between crest and root.

9. Flank
The inclined surface, which joins the crest and root.

10. Angle of thread

The included angle between two flank surfaces.

11. Slope of the thread

It is defined as the half the pitch of the thread.

3.1.4 Common types of screw fastening

Threaded fastenings are classified according to their shape and the basic
application.

The basic types of threaded fastenings are as follows.

(a) Through bolt

(b) Tap bolt

(c) Studs

(d) Cap screws and

(e) Set screws

(a) Through bolt

It is shown in Fig. 3.2(a). The bolt consists of a cylindrical shank, which is
passed through drilled holes in the two parts to be joined together. The bolt consists
of threads for the nut at one end and hexagonal or square head at the other end.
The threaded portion of the bolt is screwed into the nut.

Machining finish is not required for through bolts. According to the usage the
through bolts are known as machine bolts, carriage bolts, automobile bolts, etc.

(b) Tap bolts

These bolts shown in Fig 3.2 (b) are used to fasten the parts without using a
nut. The tap bolts are screwed in a tapped hole, (Internal threaded) of one of the
parts to be joined.
3.4 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(a)
(b)
(c)
Types of S crew Fastenin g
Fig.3.2 (a) Through B olt (b) Ta p B olt (c) S tud

(c) Studs
A stud shown in Fig 3.2 (c) consists of threaded portion at both ends. One end
of the stud is screwed into a tapped hole of the parts to be fastened and the other
end is tightened by means of a nut. Studs are normally used for fixing various kinds
of covers of engine and pump cylinders, valves etc.

(d) Cap screws

Cap screws shown in Fig. 3.3 are similar to tap bolts except smaller in size.
The cap screws are available according to their shapes of head.

(e) Set screws

Set screws shown in the Fig 3.4 is used to prevent relative motion between two
parts. Set screws can also be used instead of key, which prevent relative motion
between the shaft and the hub.
The threaded portion of the set screw passes through the tapped hole in one of
the parts to be joined and the end of the screw (also called point) presses against
the other part.
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.5

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

C ap S crew w ith D ifferent H ead s
(a) H exag on al (b) Filister (c) B utto n (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
(d) Flat (e) H exago nal So cket H ead
Fig . 3.4. Types of S etscrew
Fig . 3.3

3.1.5 Bolt of uniform strength

In engineering applications, the bolts are subjected to shock and impact loads.
Examples are, cylinder head bolts of an internal combustion engine, connecting rod
bolts. In such cases, bolts should be designed based on resilience. Resilience is the
ability of the material to absorb energy when deformed elastically and to release this
energy when unloaded.

The following Fig 3.5 (a) represents an ordinary bolt. The major diameter of
the thread d and shank diameter are equal. Let d c represents core diameter.

Since the shank diameter d changes to core diameter d c in the threaded portion,
the stress concentration is more. Both of uniform strength means, f the stress level
is same at different cross-sections.

There are two methods to convert ordinary bolt into a bolt of uniform strength,
by reducing the cross-sectional area of shank.
d

(a)
dc

(b)
d1

(c)
Fig. 3.5. Bolts of U niform Strength
3.6 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

In first method, shown in the Fig 3.5 (b), the diameter of the shank is reduced
to core diameter of the threads.

In second method, shown in the Fig 3.5 (c), the cross-sectional area of the
shank is reduced by drilling a hole.

When the bolt is subjected to a tensile force, the stress in the shank and the
threaded portion are equal in the first method. Similarly, in the second method, to
find diameter of the hole d 1.

d1  
 d2  
d 2c

where

d 1  diameter of the hole

d  Nominal diameter of the bolt

d c  Core diameter of the bolt

But drilled holes results in stress concentration and also machining of long hole
is difficult. Hence, bolt with reduced shank diameter (First method) is generally used.

3.1.6 Designation of screw threads

According to Indian standards IS: 4218, 1967, the designation of screw threads
are two types,

(a) Coarse series threads - designated by the letter ‘M’ followed by the nominal
or major diameter in mm.
Example: M12

(b) Fine series threads - designated by the letter ‘M’ followed by the nominal
diameter or major diameter and pitch, both represented in mm.
Example: M12  12.5

The profile of an IS metric screw thread (Coarse and fine) are represented in
PSG Design databook, Page No. 5.42.

The table represented, indicates designation of screw threads. The various

parameters are also specified in the same table. (Refer PSG Design Databook, Page
No. 5.42).
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.7

dc
d  Nominal or major diameter of bolt  (where d c  core diameter or
0.84
minor diameter)

3.1.7 Design of bolts for cylinder cover

The cylinder cover may be rigidly attached to the cylinder flange by means of
bolts or studs as shown in the Fig 3.6.

D1
d

P
D

Fig.3.6. Cylinder Bolts

Let p  pressure inside the cylinder

D  Inner diameter of the cylinder

d c  Core diameter of the bolt

n  number of bolts

[t]  Permissible tensile stress

3.8 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

The upward force acting on the cylinder cover

 2
P D p
4

Since, the both bolts are subjected to tensile stress,

 2
The resisting force offered by bolts  P  d n [ t]
4 c (2)

Equating equations (1) and (2)

 2 
D  p  d 2c n [ t]
4 4 (3)

From the above equation,

1. If d c is known, find the number of bolts n 

2. If number of bolts are known, find the core diameter d c

The circumferential pitch of the bolts or studs should be between 20  d 1 and


30  d 1 , where d 1  the diameter of the hole in mm.


Let D p  pitch circle diameter of bolts

 D  2t  3d 1

Where D  Effective diam eter or diameter of cylinder

t  thickness of cylinder wall (Assume 10 mm, if it is not given in the problem)

d 1  diameter of hole for bolt

  Dp
Circumferential Pitch 
n

Problem 3.1: A steam engine cylinder has an effective diameter of 400 mm and the
maximum steam pressure on the cylinder cover is 2 N/mm2. Determine the number of bolts
required to fix the cylinder cover and select the bolt. Take the permissible tensile stress in
the bolt as 35 MPa.

Given data
D  400 mm; p  2 N/mm 2; [t]  35 MPa  35 N/mm 2

Let d c  core diameter of the bolts

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.9

n  number of bolts required


Upward force acting on the cylinder cover   D2  p
4


  400 2  2
4

 251.32  10 3 N ...(1)

Trial (1) Assume M30 bolts

 dc 
Nominal diameter  d  30 mm,  since d  
 0.84 

Core diameter  d c  d  0.84  25.2 mm

Let n  Number of bolts

 2
Resisting force offered by n number of bolts  d [ ]  n
4 c t


 25.22  35  n
4

 17.456  10 3  n (2)

Equate, equation (1) and (2)

251.32  10 3  17.456  10 3 n

251.32  10 3
 n  no. of bolts   14.39
17.456  10 3

Take n  16 bolts

Pitch circle diameter  D p  D  2t  3d 1

take t  10 mm and

d 1  31 mm

(since bolt diameter is 30 mm, select d 1 slightly higher than bolt diameter)

D p  400  2  10  3  31  513 mm
3.10 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

  Dp
 Circumferential pitch 
n

  513
  100.72 mm
16

But, for a leak-proof joint, the circumferential pitch of the bolts should be
between 20  d 1 to 30 
 
d1

check for the range,


Minimum circumferential pitch  20  d1

 20 

31  111.35 mm

Maximum circumferential pitch  30 

d1

 30 

31  167.03 mm

Since the calculated circumferential pitch (100.72 mm) is less than minimum
circumferential pitch (111.35 mm),

selection of M30 bolt is not suitable.

Trail 2:
Assume M36 bolts

Nominal diameter  d  36 mm

Core diameter  d c  d  0.84  36  0.84

 30.24 mm

Recalculate resisting force offered by ‘n ’ number of bolts

 2
 d  [ t]  n
4 c


 30.34 2  35  n
4

 25.137  10 3 n  Newton (3)

Equate, the equations (1) and (3)

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.11

251.32  10 3  25.137  10 3 n

n  number of bolts required  9.998

Take n  10 bolts

Pitch circle diameter  D p  D  2t  3d

Take t  10 mm

Bolt hole diameter d 1  37 mm a ssume

D p  400  2  10  3  37

 531 mm

  Dp
Circumferencial pitch 
n

  531
  166.81 mm
10

But, for a leak proof joint, the circumferential pitch of the bolts should be
between 20  d 1 to 30 
 
d1


Minimum circumferential pitch  20  d 1  20 

37

 121.65 mm

Maximum circumferential pitch  30  d 1  30 

 
37

 182.48 mm

Since the calculated circumferential pitch (166.81 mm) is within the minimum
value of 121.65 mm and maximum of 182.48 mm, the size of the bolt selected is
satisfactory.

 Size of bolt: M36

3.1.8 Stress due to combined forces

Let P 1  Initial tension due to tightening of the bolt

 2840 d where, d  nominal dia. of bolt

P 2  External load on the bolt

3.12 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

a
K K value varying from 0.1 to1.0
1a

where a  Ratio of elasticity of connected parts to the elasticity of bolt

To find the resultant axial load P

P  P 1  KP 2

Problem 3.2: The cylinder head of a steam engine is subjected to a steam engine is
subjected to a steam pressure of 1 N/mm2. The number of bolts used are 14. A soft copper
gasket is used to make the joint leak proof. The effective diameter of cylinder is 400 mm;
Determine the size of bolt. Take the stress in the bolt as 120 MPa.

Given data

p  1 N/mm 2; n  14; The value of K, is varying from 0.5 to 0.75; Take

K  0.5, D  400 mm; [ t]  120 MPa  120 N/mm2

 2
D p
4
The load force or external load acting on cylinder cover per bolt  P 2 
n


 400 2  1
4

14

 8.975  10 3 N

The initial tension due to tightening of the bolt  2840  d

The resultant axial load on the bolt  P  P 1  KP 2

 2840  d  0.5  8.975  10 3 (1)

 2
But the load on each bolt  d  [t]
4 c


 0.84d2  120  66.5 d 2
4 (2)

Equate, equations (1) and (2)

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.13

2840 d  4.48  10 3  66.5 d 2

66.5d 2  2840 d  4.48  103  0

d 2  42.7 d  67.36  0
By solving,

42.7  
 
42.72  4  1  67.36
d
2

 d  44.22 mm

Select d  45 mm

 The size of bolt required is M 45 (coarse)

Problem 3.3: In a steam engine, the cylinder head is subjected to a steam pressure of
1.2 N/mm2. The effective diameter is 280 mm. The cylinder head is fastened by means of
10 bolts, having yielding point of 200 MPa and endurance limit of 220 MPa. The initial
pre-load on the bolts is 1.5 times the steam load acting on the cylinder head. To make
the joint leak-proof, a soft gasket is used, with K  0.5; Assume the factor of safety as 2.
Select the size of bolt required.

Given data

D  280 mm; p  1.2 N/mm2, n  10;

y  300 MPa  300 N/mm 2;   1  200 MPa  220 N/mm 2

P 1  1.5 P 2; K  0.5; FOS  2

Since the bolt is subjected to maximum and minimum loads, find the bolt
diameter by using soderberg equation of variable stresses.
Refer data book page No.7.6

1 m a
  (neglecting stress concentration factor)
FOS y   1

where  m  mean stress on bolt

 a  amplitude or variable stress on bolt

y  yield stress

 1  endurance limit
3.14 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 2
Steam load acting on the cylinder head  D p
4


  2802  1.2
4

 73.89  10 3 N

Initial pre-load on bolt  P 1  1.5 P 2

 1.5  73.89  10 3

P 1  110.835  10 3 N

The resultant load or maximum load on the cylinder head P max  P 1  K P 2

 110.835  10 3  0.5 73.89  10 3

 147.78  10 3 N

Since, there are 10 bolts,

147.78  10 3
 The maximum load on each bolt  P max 
10

 14.778  10 3 N

P1 110.835  10 3
The minimum load on each bolt 
n 10

P min  11.0835  10 3 N

P m ax  P min
Mean or Average load 
2

14.778  10 3  11.0835  10 3

2

 12.93  10 3 N

P max  P min
Amplitude or variable load  P a 
2

 1.847  10 3 N
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.15

 2
Area of bolt  A bolt  d
4 c

 0.7853  d 2c

Pm 12.93  103
Mean stress or average stress   m  
A bolt 0.7853 d 2c 

16.465  10 3

d 2c

Pa 1.847  10 3
Amplitude stress (or) variable stress  a  
A bolt 0.7853 d 2c 

2.351  10 3

d 2c

According to Soderberg equation,

1 m a
 
FOS y   1

 16.465  10 3   2.351  10 3 
   
1  d 2c   d 2c 
 
2 300 220

54.88 10.68
0.5  
d 2c d 2c

d 2c  131.12

Core diameter of bolt  d c  11.45 mm

But, core diameter of bolt d c  0.84 d
dc
Therefore the nominal diameter of bolt  d 
0.84
11.45
  13.63 mm
0.84
From PSG design data book, refer page No. 5.42
Select M14 Bolt
3.16 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3.1.9 Design of bolted joints under eccentric loading

3.1.9.1 Eccentric load acting parallel to the axis of bolt

Consider a wall bracket having a rectangular base, which is bolted to a
horizontal plate by means of four bolts as shown in the Fig. 3.7.

1 2
A A A A

L1
W
L2

Fig.3.7.Eccentric load acting parallel

to the axis of bolts.

Let W is the load acting at a distance L from left edge. L 1 and L 2 are distance
from left edge for the first row and second row of bolts respectively.

The bolts are subjected to the following loads.

(a) Direct tensile load W t 

1

(b) Tensile load on each bolt (which are heavily loaded) W t 

2

W
Direct tensile load  W t 
1 n (1)

(where, n  number of bolts)

Let W 1 is the load on each bolt at a distance L 1 and

W 2 is the load on each bolt at a distance L 2

w is the load in a bolt per unit distance

The load W, tends to rotate the bracket about the edge A  A . Hence, each bolt
is subjected to different loads, which depends on the distance from the edge.

Load on each bolt at a distance L 1  W 1  w  L 1

and moment of this load about the edge  w  L 1  L 1  w L 21

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.17

Similarly,

Load on each bolt at a distance L 2  W 2  wL 2

and moment of this load about the edge  w  L 2  L 2  wL 22 (2)

Total moment about the edge  2w L 21  2wL 22

Since there are two bolts in each row (3)

But, the moment due to load about the edge  W  L

 Equate, equations (2) and (3)

WL  2w L 21  2w L 22

WL
w 2
2L 1  2L 22 (4)

The bolts which are placed at the greatest distance from the edge are identified
as heavily loaded bolts.

In this example, the bolts situated at a distance L 2 are heavily loaded.

Therefore the tensile load on each bolt at a distance L 2

 Wt  w  L2
2

W  L  L2

2L 12  2 L 22

Total tensile load on the heavily loaded bolt

Wt  Wt  Wt
1 2 (5)

Let d c  core diam eter of bolt,

[ t]  design tensile stress of bolt material

 2
Total tensile load  W t  d  [ t ]
d c (6)

From the above equation, find the value of d c and calculate nominal diameter
dc
of bolt  and select bolt.
0.84
3.18 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 3.4: A bracket having a rectangular base bolted to a horizontal plate by means
of four bolts as shown in the diagram. The bracket supports a load of 25 kN. Determine
the size of bolt, if the maximum allowable tensile stress of bolt material is 50 N/mm2.

A A A A

60

180

W = 25 KN
360

Given data

W  25 kN  25  10 3 N; n = 4 bolts, [ t]  50 N/mm 2

L 1  60 mm, L 2  180 mm; L  360 mm

W
Direct tensile load carried by each bolt W t 
1 n

25  10 3
  6250 N
4

WL 25  103  360

Load in a bolt per unit distance  w  
2L 21  2L 22 2  60 2  2  180 2

 125 N /mm

Since, the heavily loaded bolt is located at a distance of L 2 from the edge.

Therefore, Load on the heavily loaded bolts  W t  w L 2

2

 125  180

 22500 N
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.19

Therefore, the maximum tensile load on heavily loaded bolt  W t  W t  W t

1 2

 6250  22500  28750 N

Let d c  core diameter of the bolt

 2
Wt  d [ ]
4 c t

 2
28750  d  50
4 c

d c  27.05 mm

dc 27.05
The nominal diameter of bolt  d    32.21
0.84 0.84
From PSG Design data book, Refer Page No. 5.42 and select M 33 (Coarse
series)

3.1.9.2 Eccentric load acting perpendicular to the axis of bolt

Consider a wall
L
bracket carrying an eccentric
load acting perpendicular to W
the axis of the bolt as shown
4 3
in the Fig. 3.8.
L2
In this case, all the
1 2
bolts are subjected to shear L1
load therefore, the direct A A A
shear load on each bolt
W
 Ws  Fig . 3.8. E ccen tric load perpen dicular to the axis of bo lts.
n
Where W  Eccentric load and

n  number of bolts

The Eccentric load W tries to tilt the bracket about the edge A  A in the
clock-wise direction.

Therefore the maximum tensile load on a heavily loaded bolt W t

3.20 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

W  L  L2
Wt  (which is similar to W t in the previous section)
2L 21  2L 22 2

When the bolts are subjected to combined load (shear load and tensile load), to
find the equivalent tensile load W teq

1
W teq 
2
[W t  

W t2  4 W 2
s ]

To find core diameter d c of bolt,

where [t]  Permissible tensile stress of bolt material

 2
W teq  d [ ]
4 c t

Calculate d c  Core diameter of bolt from the above equation.

To find the nominal diameter d  of the bolt.

dc
d Calculate d and represent in terms of Metric threads
0.84
Problem 3.5: A wall bracket shown in the diagram carries an eccentric load of 10 kN
from the face of the column at a distance of 500 mm. The vertical face of bracket is
attached to a column by means of four bolts. Determine the size of the bolts, if the
permissible tensile stress for the bolt material is 80 N/mm2.

( L )500

10K N

(L 2 ) 400

(L 1 ) 6 0

Given data
W  10 kN  10  10 3 N; L  500 mm; L 1  60 mm; L 2  400 mm
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.21

n  4 bolts; [t]  80 N/mm 2

3
W 10  10
Direct shear load on each bolt  W s  
n 4

 2500 N

Since the load W, tries to tilt the bracket in clockwise direction about the lower
edge, the heavily loaded bolts carry a maximum tensile load.

In this case, bolts 3 and 4 are heavily loaded.

Therefore,

The maximum tensile load carried by bolts 3 and 4 is given by

W  L L2
Wt 
2L 21  2L 22

10  10 3  500  400

2  60 2  2  400 2

 6112.46 N

When the bolts are subjected to combined load (shear load and tensile load), to
find equivalent tensile load W teq

1
W teq 
2
[W t  
 W t2  4 W 2
t ]

1

2
[6112.46  
 6112.462  4  2500 2]

 7004.71 N

To find core diameter of bolt d c

 2
W teq  d [ ]
4 c t

 2
7004.71  d 80
4 c

d c  18.71 mm
3.22 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

To find the nominal diameter of bolt d 

dc
d  22.27 mm
0.84

From PSG Design data book, Page No. 5.42, select M 24 (coarse series bolt)

3.1.9.3 Eccentric load acting in the plane containing the bolts

The Fig 3.9 represents the threaded joint eccentrically loaded in the plane
containing bolts. The eccentric load induced two types of loads on each bolt.

W
1. Primary shear load W s 
1 n e
where, W  Eccentric load
1
2
n  number of bolts +G
4 3
2. Secondary shear load W s 
2
w
W  e  l1 Fig.3.9. Eccentric load in
Ws  2 the plane containing the bolts.
2
l 1  l 22  l 23  l 24

where

l 1, l 2, l 3, l 4 are the distances from the centre of gravity G . l 1  distance between

centre of bolt (1) to the centre of gravity.

Similarly l 2, l 3 and l 4 are the distances of cente of bolts (2), (3) and (4) from
centre of gravity respectively.

To find maximum shear force or load  W max

  W 2s  W2s  2 Ws  Ws  c o s 

1 2 1 2

where,

 is the angle between W s and W s

1 2

Calculate maximum shear force or load for all the bolts

Identify the maximum value of shear force from the above calculation and equate
to maximum permissible shear force or load.
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.23

 2
W max Maximum permissible shear force  d []
4 c
where d c  core diameter of bolt

[]  Maximum permissible shear stress in bolt

And find the nominal diameter of bolt d

Problem 3.6: A rigid steel bracket subjected to a vertical force of 10 kN is shown in the
following diagram.

200
1 3 W = 10KN

300 200

2 4
50

C C

300

250

It is fastened to a vertical section by means of four identical bolts. Determine the size of
the bolts by maximum shear stress theory. The maximum permissible shear stress in any
bolts is limited to 50 N/mm2 (April/May 2002, AU)

W  10 kN  10  10 3 N; e  250 mm; n  4; []  50 N/mm 2

3
W 10  10
(a) Primary shear load  W s    2500 N
1 n 4
3.24 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Locate centre of gravity ‘G’

Since all the bolts at equal distances from the centre of gravity of the four bolts,
The distances of each bolt from the centre of gravity

l1  l2  l3  l4   2
100 2  100  141.4 mm

(b) Secondary shear load on each bolt,

W  e  l1
Ws  2
2
l 1  l 21  l 23  l 24

10  10 3  250  141.14
Ws   4420 N
2
4  141.4 2

From the diagram

100 W s2
The direction of W s e= 250
2

for each bolt is 1 1 3 W =10K N

perpendicular to its length 100 W s1 O

1
O
3

W s 31
(line joining centre of bolt to W s2
centre of gravity) in W s2 G
O
O
2 4
clockwise direction.
2 4
 is the angle between 2
4
W s and W s from the above W s2
1 2 W s1
W s1
diagram, it is observed that
 1  2  135 ; and  3  4  45

Maximum shearing force on the bolts 1 and 2

  W 2s  W 2s  2W s W s c o s 

1 1 1 2

  2500 2  4420 2  2  2500  4420  cos 135


 3187.37 N

But,
Maximum shearing force on the bolts 3 and 4

 
 W 2s  W 2s  2W s W s cos 3
1 2 1 2
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.25

Therefore,

  2500 2  44202  2  2500  4420  cos 45

 
 6435.32 N

Therefore, the bolts (3) and (4) are heavily loaded.

To find bolt diameter d

The maximum shearing force  6435.32 N

 2
But Maximum shearing force  d  []
4 c


6435.32   d 2c  50
4

Core diameter of bolt  d c  12.80 mm

dc 12.80
The nominal diameter of bolt  
0.84 0.84

 15.23 mm

From PSG Design data book, Refer Page No. 5.42

Select M 16 coarse series bolt

or

M 16  1.5 fine series bolt

Problem 3.7: A steel plate subjected to a force of 5 kN and fixed to a channel by means
of three identical bolts is shown in Fig. 1. The bolts are made from plain carbon steel 45
C8 and the factor of safety is 3. Specify the size of bolts.

Given data
5kN
W  5 kN ; FOS  3 ; N  180 rpm 1 2 3

e  200 mm ; r 1  75 mm ; r 2  75 mm
30 75 75 30 200
1. Primary shear force
Figu re.1
W 5  10 3
W 1 
 W2  W 3    1666.67 N
No. of bolts 3
3.26 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2. Secondary shear force

W r 1 e 5  10 3  75  200  30  75
W 1  W 3  2 
r 1  r 22 75 2  75 2

W 1  W 3  10166.7 N

3. Resultant shear force at bolt (3)

W 3  W 3  W 3  10166.7  1666.7  N  11 833.4 N

4. Shear force
0.557 y

FOS
Take material as plain carbon steel
Refer PSG data book P.No.1.9
Select yield stress value  y

y  380 N/mm 2

0.557  380
  73.09 N/mm2
3

5. Bolt dimensions
W3 11833.4
   73.09
A A
11833.4
73.09 
A
A  161.9 mm2
 2
A d
4 c

161.9  4
 d 2c 

 dc   206.137  14.35 mm


Nominal diameter of bolt

dc 14.35
d   17.09 mm
0.84 0.84

The standard size of the bolts is M20.

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.27

Design of Knuckle and Cotter Joints

3.2 KNUCKLE JOINT

Knuckle joint is used to connect two rods which are under the action of tensile
loads. If the joint is guided properly, the rods may support a compressive load. This
joint permits a small amount of flexibility or angular movement if necessary.

It’s use may be found in the link of a cycle chairs, tie rod joint for roof trusses,
levers and rod connections etc. In a Knuckle Joint one end of one of the rods is made
into an eye. The end of the other rod is formed into a fork, with an eye in each of
the fork leg. The Knuckle pin passes through the both eye holes. Materials used for
the joint may be mild steel or wrought iron.

3.2.1 Proportions
d  diameter of the rod
d1  dia. of fork end rod  1.2d

d2  dia. of knuckle pin  d

d3  dia. of knuckle pin head and collar  1.5 d

d4  Outer dia. of eye  2d

h  thickness of pin head  0.5d

a  thickness of fork  0.75 d

b  thickness of eye  1.25 d

3.2.2 Design Procedure

Let F be the Applied load:

1. Stress in the rod:

The rod is subjected to tensile stress.

‘d’ is the diameter of the rod.


  t   permissible tensile stress; resisting area  d2
  4

 2
F d  t 
4  
3.28 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

K N U C K LE P IN H EA D

d4
d3 FO R K

EYE

C O LLA R

TA P E R P IN d2
K N U C K LE P IN
d3
d4

d1
d

Fig. 3.10. Design of a Knuckle Joint.

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.29

Calculate diameter of the rod ‘d’.

2. Find the proportions of the Knuckle Joint, i.e., diameters d2, d3, d4 pin head
thickness h, fork thickness (a) and eye thickness (b).

3. Stresses in the Knuckle Pin:

Let     permissible shear stress

The failure of pin is due to shear stress, that occurs at two planes
Let d2  dia. of the pin  d

 2
resisting shear area  d
4 2

 
F  2  d22      (2 times, since shear stress occurs at two planes)
4 
2F

 d22

2F

 d22

Check 

  []

4. The Pin is also subjected to bending

moment.
In case, the stress due to bending is
a
taken into account, it is assumed that the F/2
load on the pin is uniformly distributed a/3
along the middle portion (the eye end) and
varies gradually over the forks. The load F/2
F 1 b
acts through a distance of from the
2 3 F/2
inner edge
a/3
 The maximum bending moment will a
F/2
be at the centre. Fig .3.11
3.30 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Fa b Fb1
Max. B.M. M max   
2  3 2  2  2  2

Fa b Fb
  
2  3 2  2  4 

F  a b b  F  a 2b  b 
      
2  3 2 4  2  3 4 
Fa b
 
2  3 4 

M max
The maximum bending stress  b 
Z

F  a b  F  4a  3b 
 
2  3 4  2  12 
 
 2  3
d d
32 3 32 2

F  4a  3b 
  32
24  d32

4F 4a  3b
b 
3  d32

The induced bending stress should be less than permissible stress.

b   [ t ]

If  b  [ t ]; then the design is not satisfactory. Therefore change the

proportions and re-calculate shear stress and bending stress.

5. STRESSES IN THE EYE:

The eye is subjected to tensile, shear and crushing stresses.

Let [ t ]  permissible tensile stress

    permissible shear stress

[ c ]  permissible Crushing stress (or) compressive stress

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.31

(a) The tensile stress in the eye:

F
resisting area   d4  d2  b

F   t   d4  d2  b

F
 t   d4
 d4  d2  b d2

Take d4  2d;

d2  d
F
b  1.25d
t Fig.3.12(a)
Check   t 

 t   [ t ]

(b) The pin may shear out from the eye as shown in Fig 3.12 (b).

The shearing takes place at two planes ie, double shear

 d4  d2 
shearing area   b
 2 

 d4  d2 
F2  b   d2 d4
 2 
F

d4  d2 b
d 4 -d 2
2 Fig.3.12(b)
  []
(c) Failure of the single eye or rod end in crushing.

resisting area  projected area  d2  b

F  d2 b  c 
 
F d2
 c  
  d2 b

Check  c 
 
b Fig.3.12(c)
  c    c 
   
3.32 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

6. Stresses in the fork:

(a) Failure of forkend in tension:
resting area   d4  d2  a  2 (on both sides)
 
F   t   d4  d2  a  2
  
F
 t  
  2 a  d4  d2 
 
Check  t 
 
 t    t 
   
(b) Failure of forkend in shearing:
(Similar to shear failure of single eye)

shear area    d4  d2  a   2
  
double shear

 F   d4  d2  a  2 
 
F

 d4  d2   a  2
 
Check 

  []

(c) Failure of forkend in crushing

resisting area  d2 a  2

F   c  d2 a 2
 
F
c 
d2a2

Check  c 
 
  c    c 
   
Then the design is safe.
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.33

3.3 COTTER JOINTS

A Cotter is a flat wedge-shaped piece of rectangular cross section and its width
is tapered from one end to another for easy adjustment. The taper varies from 1 in
48 to 1 in 24. It is usually made of mild steel or wrought iron. A Cotter Joint is a
temporary fastening and it is used to connect rigidly two co-axial rods or bars, which
are subjected to axial tensile or compressive forces.

Ex: The connection of piston rod to the cross head of an engine.

In a Cotter Joint one end of the rod is provided with a socket type end. The
other end which is inserted into the socket is known as spigot. A Cotter is then driven
lightly through a hole to make the temporary connection between the two rods.

 The advantage of this Joint is that it can be quickly and easily made or
easily removed.

 Difference between Keys and Cotters

Keys are usually driven parallel to the axis of the shafts which are subjected
to torsional or twisting stresses.
Cotters are normally driven at right angle to the axes of connected parts, which
are subjected to tensile (or) compressive stresses.
Cotter
Spigot
Socket Collar
Spigot
Clearances Collar
(2 to 3 m m)

d3
d d1 b c d2 d Fd
4
F

Socket
a
e
Fig.3.13. D esign of a Cotter Joint
3.34 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Let F  applied load carried by the rods.

d  diameter of the rod
. s
d1  socket inside dia.
.

d2  spigot collar outside diam e. ter

d3  socket outside diameter

.

d4  socket collar outside diam e. ter

t  thickness of cotter
.
b  width of the cotter
.
a and c are the distances.
e  spigot collar thickness
[  t ]  permissible tensile stres.s

[ c ]  permissible crushing stres.s

    permissible shear stress

.

3.3.1 Design Procedure

(I) Design of the rod

Failure of the rod due to tensile stress.

 2
tearing area  d
4

F
 t  
  
d2
4



4F
d
  t 
 
Calculate the rod diameter ‘d’

(II) Inside diameter of the socket d 1

(or) diameter of the spigot

(a) Consider failure due to tensile stress.

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.35

 
area resisting tearing off the across the slot   d21  d1t 
4 
F
 t  
   2
d  d 1t
4 1

4F t  thicknes s of cotter
 t   2
(a)
  d1  4d1t d1
Assume t 
(b) Consider failure due to crushing stress. 4
[ t ]  permissible tensile stress
resting crushing area  d1t
[ c ]  permissible crushing stress
F
 c   (b)
  d1t

F   c  d 1 t t
 
In general,
d1
Assume t 
4

substitute the value of t in EQ (a) and find d1 d1

And, Check the value of c by substituting d1 and t

  c    c 
   
Then the design is safe. Fig.3.14(a)
If  c     c 
    d3
then change the value of t. d1

(III) Outside diameter of the socket d 3

The outside dia. of the socket is obtained by
considering the failure of the socket in tension or
compression across the slot.

  
resisting area   d23  d21    d3  d1  t
4 4 t
  

Fig.3.14(b )
3.36 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

F
 t  
   2
d  d21    d3  d1  t
4 3   

Calculate the diameter d3 by considering

 t  value
 
b
(IV) Cotter Width (b)
It is obtained by considering the failure of
the cotter in shear. It is in double shear.
resisting shear  2 b  t Fig.3.14(c)
F

2bt

Calculate the width (b)

(V) To find distance ‘a’ (distance between the end of the slot and end of the
rod)
By considering the failure of the rod end in shear.
resisting area  a  d1  2
(double shear)

F

2ad1

Calculate (a).

(VI) Diameter of the socket Collar:

By considering the failure of the socket collar in crushing.

area resisting crushing   d4  d1  t

 
F
 c  
   d4  d1  t
 
Calculate d4

(VII) Diameter of the spigot collar: d 2

by considering the spigot collar in crushing.

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.37

 2  2 d1
resisting area of crushing  d  d
4 2 4 1

4F
 c  
   d22  d21 

 
Calculate d2

(VIII) To find distance ‘c’

d2
by considering shear stress induced at the socket end. Fig.3.15(a)
area resisting shear  2 c d4  d1 
 
(double shear)
d4
d1
F

2c d4  d1 
 
Calculate ‘c’

(IX) To find the thickness of spigot collar (e)

By considering shear stress
t
induced in the collar. Fig.3.15(b)
area resisting shear stress  d1  e

F

d1 e

Calculate ‘e’.
Problem 3.8: Design and draw a Knuckle Joint to transmit a load of 100 kN; permissible
stresses are 80 N/mm2 in tension, 65 N/mm2 in shear and 160 N/mm2 in crushing.
(April / May 2006 AU, April 1996 Madras University)

F  100 kN  100  10 3 N

  t     b   80  80 N/mm2
   
    65 N/mm2

 c   160 N/mm 2
 
3.38 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(1) Stresses in the rod:

Let d is the rod diameter

 2
F d  t 
4  

 2
100  10 3  d  80
4

d  39.89 mm

d  40 mm

2. Proportions of the Knuckle Joint

d2  diam eter o f the Knuckle pin  d  40 mm

d3  diameter of Knuckle pin head and collar  1.5 d  1.5  40  60 mm

d4  Outer diameter of the eye  2d

 2  40

 80 mm

h  Pin head thickness  0.5 d

 0.5  40  20 mm

a  Fork thickness  0.75 d

 0.75  40

 30 mm

b  Eye thickness  1.25 d

 1.25  40

 50 mm
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.39

3. Stresses in the knuckle pin

(a) Failure due to shear stress


F2 d22
4

2F

 d22

2  100  103
 2
 39.78 N/mm 2
  40

        65 N/mm2

(b) Pin subjected to bending stress.

4 4a  3b
b F
  3  d32

4 4  30  3  50 
 3
 100  10 3
3  40

 b   179 N/mm 2
 
 b     t 
   
 The design is not satisfactory.

Therefore, change d2  1.5 d  1.5  40  60 mm

d3  2d  2  40  80 mm

d4  2.5d  2.5  40  100 mm

Repeat (a) and (b)

2F 2  100  103
(3)(a)       17.68 N/mm 2
 d22   602


 design is safe.
3.40 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4  4 a  3b  4  4  30  3  50 
(b)   b   F 3
  100  10 3    53.05 N/mm
2
  3  d2 3    60 

  b    b  or   t   80 N/mm2
     
 Design is safe.

(4) Stresses in the eye:

(a) tensile stress in the eye:

F 100  103
 t     50 N/mm2
   d4  d2  b 100  60 50
 
  t     t   80 N/mm 2
   
 design is safe.

(b) Shearing stress in the eye:

F 100  10 3
   50 N /mm 2
 d4  d2  b 100  60 50
 
        65 N/mm 2

(c) Crushing stress in the eye:

F 100  10 3
 c     33.33 N/mm2
  d2 b 60  50

  c    c   160 N/mm2
   
 Design of eye rod is safe.

(5) Stresses in the fork

(a) Failure due to tension.

F 100  10 3
 t     41.66 N/mm 2
  2a  d4  d2  2  30  100  60
 
  t     t   80 N/mm 2
   
 design is safe.
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.41

(b) Failure due to shear.

F 100  10 3
   41.66 N /mm 2
 d4  d2  a  2 100  60  30  2
 
        65 N/mm 2

 design is safe.

(c) Failure due to crushing.

F 100  10 3
c    27.77 N/mm 2
d2  a  2 60  30  2

  c    c   160 N/mm 2
   
 Design of fork is safe.
Problem 3.9: Design a knuckle joint to transmit 150 kN. The design stresses may be
taken as 75 MPa in tension, 60 MPa in shear and 150 MPa in compression.
(Nov/Dec 2011 - AU)

Given data
P  150 kN  150  10 3 N

[t]  75  10 6 MPa  75 N/mm2

[]  60 MPa  60 N/mm 2

[ c]  150 MPa  150 N/mm 2

To Design a knuckle joint

Solution

Step 1: Failure of solid rod in tension is given by

 2
F d t
4


150  10 3   d2  75
4

d2  2546.516

d  50.46 mm
3.42 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Step 2: Various standard proportions of the knuckle joints are

(a) Diameter of pin d1  d  50 mm

(b) Outer diameter of eye d2  2 d  2  50.46  100.92  101 mm

(c) Diameter of pin head d3  1.5 d  1.5  50.46  75.69 mm

(d) Thickness of eye t  1.25 d  63.075 mm

(e) Thickness of fork t1  0.75 d  37.845 mm

(f) Thickness of pin head t2  0.5 d  25.23 mm

Check for 

1. Failure of knuckle pin by double shears

 2
F2 d 
4 1


150  10 3  2  50.46 2      37.5 N/mm2
4

It is less than permissible shear stress. Hence the design is safe.

2. Failure of single eye (or) rod end in double shear

F  d2  d1 t  

150  10 3  101  50.46  63.07      47.05 N/mm2

3. Failure of fork ends in double shear

F  d2  d1 t  2  

150  10 3  101  50.46  63.07  2      23.52 N/mm2

It is less than permissible shear stress. Hence the design is safe.

Check for t

1. Failure of the single eye or rod end in tension

F  d2  d1 t  t

150  10 3  101  50.46  63.07   t ,  t  47.05 N/mm 2

It is less than permissible tensile stress. Hence the design is safe.

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.43

2. Failure of fork end in tension

F  d2  d1 t1  2  t

150  10 3  101  50.46   37.84  2  t , t  39.217 N/mm 2

It is less than permissible tensile stress. Hence the design is safe.

Check for c

1. Failure of single eye (or) rod end in crushing

F  d1  t   c

150  10 3  50.46  63.07  c ,  c  47.13 N/mm 2

It is less than permissible compressive stress. Hence the design is safe.

2. Failure of fork end in crushing

F  d1  t1  2  c

150  10 3  50.46  37.84  2   c , c  39.27 N/mm 2

It is less than permissible compressive stress. Hence the design is safe.

Problem 3.10: Design a Cotter Joint to support a load of 30,000 N. The following are
the permissible stresses: 50 N/mm2 in tension compression, 35 N/mm2 in shear and
90 N/mm2 in crushing. Sketch the Joint. (Oct 1996 MU, Nov/Dec 2005 AU)

Solution:

F  30,000 N ;  t   50 N/mm2 ;     35 N /mm 2;  c   90 N /mm2

   

Step I:
Design of the rod: (d)

Failure of the rod due to tensile stress.

4F
The axial stress in the rods    t  
   d2

4  30,000
50 
 d2
3.44 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements



4  30,000
diameter of the rod  d 
50  

d  27.63 mm

Step II
Inside diameter of the socket d1

(or) dia. of the spigot.

(a) Failure due to tensile stress:

4F
Axial stress across the slot of the rod   t  
   d21  4 d1t

d1
assume, thickness of cotter  t 
4

4F
50 
d1
 d21  4 d1
4

4  30,000
d21 
50   1

d1  33.47 mm

(b) Failure due to crushing stress.

Crushing strength of the cotter (or) rod  F  d1t

F 33.47
 c   t
  d1 t 4

30,000  8.369 mm
  107.09
33.47  8.369 

  c   107.09 N/mm 2
 
  c   c  . It is not safe.
   
Therefore, change the value of t and recalculate d1
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.45

d1
assume t 
3

4F
 t  
  d1
 d21  4 d1
3

4F 4  30,000
d21  
   1.33  50 50    1.33 

d1  36.39 mm

and t  12.13 mm

F 30,000
(b)   c   
  d1 t 36.39  12.13

  c   67.96 N/mm 2
 
  c    c 
   
Therefore, the design is Safe.

 d 1  36.39 mm and t  12.13 mm

Step III
Outside diameter of the socket d3

failure of the socket in tension across the slot.

4F
tensile stress across the slot of the socket    t  
   d3  d1   4t  d3  d1 
2 2
   
4  30,000
50  2 2

 d3  36.39  4  12.13  d3  36.99 
   
4  30,000
  d23  36.39 2   4  12.13  d3  36.39  
    50

3.14 d23  4160.19  48.52 d3  1765.64  2400

3.14 d23  48.52 d3  4794.55  0

d23  15.45 d3  1526.92  0

3.46 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

15.45  15.45 2  4  1526.92

 
d3 
2

d 3  47.55 mm

Step IV
Cotter Width (b)

Failure of Cotter in shear.

The strength of the cotter in shear  F  2 bt   

F 30000
b i.e., b   35.33 mm
2t  2  12.13  35

Step V
To find distance (a)
failure of rod in shear.
F
Shear stress, due to the double shear at the rod end     
2ad1

30,000
35 
2  a  36.39

a  11.77 mm

Step VI
diameter of the socket collar d4:

failure of socket collar in crushing:

F
Crushing stress induced in the socket or cotter   c  
   d  d1  t
 4 
30,000
c 
 d4  36.39   12.13
 
30000
 d 4  36.39  ,  d 4  63.87 mm
90  12.13
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.47

Step VII
Diameter of the spigot collar d2:

4F
The bearing stress in collar   c    90
    d22  d21 
 
4  30000
i.e., d22  36.39 2   d22  1748.64
  90

 d2  41.81 mm

Step VIII: To find distance (c):

Shear stress induced at the socket end
F
  35
2c  d4  d1 

30,000
c  15.595 mm
2  35  63.87  36.39 

c  15.595 mm

Step IX: To find the thickness of the spigot collar (e)

Shear stress induced in the collar.
F

 d1 e

30000
e  7.49 mm
  36.39  35

e  7.49 mm

3.3.2 SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT

 It is used to connect two round rods or bars

 In this type of Joint, a sleeve or muff is used over the two rods and then
two cotters are driven in the holes.

 The taper of cotter is usually 1 in 24

 The taper sides of the two cotters should face each other.
3.48 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3.3.2.1 DESIGN OF SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT

C le arance
3m .m .

S leeve

b
P d d2 P

a c c a
L
C otte rs
Fig. 3.16. Design of Sleeve and Cotter Joint

Let P  L oad carried by the rods

d  dia. of the rods.

d1  outside dia. of the sleeve

d2  dia. of the enlarged end o f rod.

d2
t  cotter thickness  .
4
L  sleeve length  8d
Allowable stresses are [  t ], [  ], [  c ];

b  Cotter width
a and c are distances.
1. Failure of rods in tension.

 2
Area resisting tearing  d
4
P
 [ t ] 
 2
d
4

Calculate (d)
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.49

2.(a) Failure of the rod end in tension across the weakest section.

 
area resisting tearing   d22  d2 t 
4 
P
[ t ] 
 2 
 4 d2  d2 t 
  (1)

(b) Failure of the rod in Crushing.

area resisting Crushing  d2 t

P
 c  
   d2 t  (2)
 
d2
assume t  and substitute in EQ. (1).
4
and Calculate d2
and then substitute the value of P, d2 and t in EQ. (2)

and check the  c  value.

 c   
 induced  c 

then design is safe.

3. Failure o f Sleeve in tensio n ac ro ss the slo t

  
  d21  d22   d1  d2 t
4 4 

 2
  d  d2   d  d  t
4 1 2 1 2

P
 t  
  
 d2  d2    d  d  t
4 1 2
 1 2


Calculate d1.

4. Failure of Cotter in shear.

area resisting shear  b  t  2 (double shear).

P
[] 
2bt
3.50 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

5. Failure of rod end in shear.

resisting area  d2  c 2

P
[] 
2cd2

Calculate c
6. Failure of sleeve end in shear
P
[] 
2d1  d2 a

Calulate (a)
Table 3.1 DESIGN OF SLEEVE AND COTTER JOINT
S. Name of Type of Failure Resisting area Equation To be Calculated
No. the Part Parameter
1. ROD (a) Failure of rods in  2 P P Calculate (d)
d  t   
tension 4 resisting area  2
d
4
2. Enlarged (a) Failure of the rod  2  P Calculate d2
 4 d2  d2t   t  
rod in tension    2 
 4 d2  d2 t 
d2  
assume t 
4
(b) Failure of rod in d2t P Check  c .
 c   If  c    c  change the
crushing d2t  c    c .
value of (t) and Repeat 2 (a) and 2 (b)
steps.
(c) failure of rod in 2  C  d2 P Calculate (c)
   Cal.
shear (double shear) 2Cd2

3. Sleeve (a) failure of sleeve  2  2 P Calculate

 4 d1  4 d2   t  
in tension    2  2 d ü ç2Ç[ç22yd 5Œ1ç‹2ÇÏé
 4 d1  4 d2    d1  d2  t 1
  d1  d2  t  
(b) failure of sleeve 2ad1  d2 P Calculate (a)

and in shear. 2ad1  d2
4. Cotter (a) failure of cotter 2bt P Calculate (b)
  
in shear 2bt
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.51

C
t t C
d2 d2 d2
d2 resisting area in tension
 2
=( 4 d 2 d 2t) resisting area in shear = (d 2 x c) x 2
Fig.3.17.(a). S ub jected to tensile s tress (2 for doub le shear)
Fig.3.17.(b).Su bjected to S hear
t

t
d2 d2
projected area = d 2 t

Fig.3.17.(c).S u bjected to C rushing

Problem 3.11: Design a Sleeve & Cotter Joint to connect two rods to transmit 100 kN.
Same material is used for all parts of the Joint. Assume suitable working stresses. Sketch
the Joint. (MU Oct 1998)

P  100  10 3 N
Assume the following design stresses.
[ t ]  60 N /mm2 ;     50 N/mm 2 ; [ c ]  150 N/mm2

Step 1:
Failure of rod in tension.
P
 t  
  
d2
4

100  10 3
i.e.,60 
 2
d
4

 d  46.06 mm
3.52 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Step 2:
(a) Failure of the rod in tension.

P d2
 t   assume t 
   2  4
 4 d2  d2 t 
 

100  10 3 100  10 3 100  103

60   
 2 d2  d22 d22
d2  d2 d 2
 1
4 4 4 2 4 4

d2  55.79 mm

and

t  13.94 mm

(b) Failure of enlarged rod in crushing.

P 100  10 3
 c     128.58 N/mm2
  d2t 13.94  55.79

  c    c 
   
 The design of enlarged rod is satisfactory.

P 100  10 3
(c) Failure of rod in shear       50 
2cd2 2c  55.79

c  17.92 mm

Step 3
(a) Failure of sleeve in tension.

P
[ t ] 
 2  2
 d1  d2    d1  d2  t
4 4   

100  10 3
60 
 2  2
 d1  55.79   d1  55.79 13.94 
4 4 
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.53

100  10 3
60 
  0.785 d2   2444.57    13.94 d  777.71
 1  1

100  10 3
60 
0.785 d21  13.94 d1  1666.85

47.1 d21  836.4 d1  200011  0

d21  17.758d1  4246.51  0

17.758  
  17.758 2  4  1  4246.51
 d1 
2

 d1  74.64 mm

(b) Failure of sleeve end in shear.

P

2a  d1  d2 
 

100  103
a 
50  2 74.64  55.79

 a  53.05 mm

(c) Failure of cotter in shear.

 P 
 100  10 3
   50
 2bt  2  b  13.94

b  71.73 mm

3.3.3 DESIGN OF GIB AND COTTER JOINT

This joint is used to join square rods.

b1  0.55 B

b2  0.45 B

x
t  thick ness of cotter 
4
3.54 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Let P  load carried by the rods

x  side of the rod
B  total width of Gib and Cotter
B 1  strap width  x

x
t  cotter thickness 
4
t1  strap thickness

S quare rod t

t1

B x
P P
b1 b2

t1

l2 l1 x
S trap
b 1 =0 .55 B
G ib b 2 =0 .45 B Fig.3.18. G ib and
t = thickn ess of cotter=x/4 Cotter joint
C otte r

3.3.3.1 Design procedure

1. Failure of rod in tension
Area resisting  area  x2 . .
 . x  B 1

P
tensile stress  t  2
x

P
t  2
x
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.55

x
Find the value of x and find t 
4

2. Failure of the Gib and Cotter in shearing

Area resisting in shear  B  t  2 . .
 . double shear

P
Shear stress s 
2Bt

Calculate B

b 1  0.55B ; b 2  0.45B

3. Failure of strap end in tension

Area resisting shearing  2xt1  2t1t  2t1x  t

P
 ft 
2t1x  t

Calculate t1

4. Failure of strap in crushing

Area resisting crushing  2tt1

P
fc 
2tt1

Check the value of fc

If fc induced  fc given.

Then the design is safe.

5. Failure of rod end in shear
Area resisting shear  2l1 x

P
fc 
2l1 x

Calculate l1
3.56 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

6. Failure of strap end in shear

Area resisting shear  2l2 t1
P
fs 
2l2 t1

Calculate l2

Problem 3.12: Design and draw the gib and Cotter Joint, to carry a load of 35 kN;
Assume that the gib cotter, rod, and strap are made of same material.

The following are the allowable stresses:

ft  20 N/m m2

fs  15 N/mm 2

fc  50 N/mm 2

Given Data

P = Load carried by the rods = 35 kN = 35  10 3 N

The design stresses [t]  20 N/mm2 ; []  15 N/mm 2 ; [c]  50 N /mm 2

x
Lex x = side of the rod; t = thickness of cotter
4

1. Failure of rod in tension

Resisting area  x2
P
Tensile stress  [t] 
x2

35  10 3
20 
x2
S trap w idth  x  41.83 mm
45
Take x  45 mm and t   11.25  12 mm
4
2. Failure of Gib and cotter in shearing

Area of resisting in shear  B  t

 2 B  t s ince double shear
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.57

P 35  10 3
Shear stress  []  
2Bt 2  B  t

35  10 3
15 
2  B  12

Total width of Gib and cotter

B  97.2 mm  100 mm

b1  0.55 B  0.55  100  55 mm

b2  0.45  100  45 mm

3. Failure of strap end in tension

Area resisting in tension  2 x t1  2 t1 t

 2 t1 x  t

P
Tensile stress [t]  .
2 t1 x  t

35  10 3
20 
2  t1 45  12

Strap thickness t1  26.51 mm

t1 30 mm

4. Failure of Strap in Crushing

Area resisting in crushing = 2 t  t1

P 35  10 3
Crushing stress  [ c]  
2 t t1 2  12  30

 c  48.61 N/mm 2  50 N/mm 2

 Design is safe.
3.58 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

5. Failure of rod end in shear

Area resisting in shear = 2 l1  t

P
Shear stress [] 
2 l1 x

35  10 3
15 
2  l1  45

l1  97.22  100 mm

l1  100 mm

6. Failure of strap end in shear

Area resisting in shear  2  l2 t

P
Shear stress [] 
2 l2 t 1

t1  30 mm ; (Double Shear)

35  10 3
15 
2  l2  30

l2  38.88  40 mm

l2  40 mm
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.59

DESIGN OF RIVETED JOINTS

3.4 RIVETED JOINTS

The parts of machines are connected together by various forms of fastenings. They
are classified as follows:
1. Rivets
2. Screws, bolts and nuts
3. Pins, keys and cotters.
Rivets are used as permanent fastenings that cannot be dismantled without
some part or part of the joint being destroyed.
Examples: Various boiler joints, steel structural joints, pressure vessels.
 Riveted joints are used for connecting two parts in which strength is
necessary.
 In structural connections, strength and rigidity are required.
 In pressure vessels - strength, rigidity and prevention of leakage are the
essentialities of the joint.
 During the last few decades, the field of application of the riveted joints in
mechanical engineering has been radically reduced owing to advancement in
the art of welding. However, riveted joints still remain the fundamental type
of permanent joint in the production of structures made of light alloys for
which there are no reliable methods of power welding.

3.4.1 TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS

1. Lap Joint
A lap joint is
that, in which one
plate overlaps the P
other plate and
the two plates are P
then riveted
together. Fig.3.19 (c) Shearing of the rivets in Lap joint
3.60 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2. Butt Joint
A butt joint is
that, in which the
P P
plates are kept in
alignment touching
each other (butting)
Fig.3.19 (b) Shearing of the riv ets in Butt joint
and a cover plate (or
strap) is placed either on one side or on both sides of the main plates. The cover
plate is then riveted together with the main plates.
Butt joints are of the following two types:

(a) Single strap (or) single cover butt joint.

(b) Double strap (or) double cover butt joint.
In addition to the above, following are the types of riveted joints depending upon
the number of rows of the rivets.

(a) Single riveted joint,

(b) Double riveted joint,
(c) Triple riveted joint. (Quadruple riveted joint) (used in boiler shells).
According to the arrangement of rivets, there are two types:
(a) Chain riveting
(b) Zig-zag riveting.

3.4.2 Terms used in riveted joints

Pitch p: It is the distance from the centre of one rivet to centre of the next rivet
measured parallel to the joint.

Margin m: It is the distance between the centre of rivet hole to the nearest edge
of the plate.

Generally, m  1.5d where d  dia. of rivet hole.

It is also known as transverse or row pitch.

Back pitch pb: It is the perpendicular distance between the centre lines of the
successive rows.

Diagonal pitch pd: It is the distance between the centres of the rivets in adjacent
rows of zig-zag riveted joint.
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.61

3.4.3 Caulking and Fullering

In order to make the joint leak proof or fluid tight in pressure vessels, a process of
caulking and fullering is employed.
Caulking: In this process, a narrow blunt tool is moved after each blow along the
edge of the plate. In general, both edges of the plates are caulked.
Fullering: In this process, a fullering tool with a thickness at the end equal to that
of the plate is used in such a way that the greatest pressure due to the blows occur
near the joint, giving a clean finish.

3.4.4 FAILURES OF A RIVETED JOINT

1. Tearing of the plate at an edge: (Fig

m
3.19 (c))
A joint may fail due to bearing of the plate
at an edge. This can be avoided by keeping the
margin as m  1.5d, where d  dia. of rivet hole.
P P
2. Tearing of the plate across a row of
rivets (Fig.3.19 (d))
Due to the application of tensile stresses in the
main plates, the main plate or cover plate may
Fig.3.19(c)
tear-off rivets.
Let p  pitch of rivets

d  dia. of rivet hole

t  plate thickness
P p-d p P
[  t ]  allowable tensile stress of the plate material

tearing area per pitch length  p  d t

Tearing strength (or) tearing resistance.

 [  t ]  A rea of tearing Fig.3.19(d)

Tearing strength P t  [ t ] p  d t

The resistance offered by the plate against tearing is known as ‘Tearing strength’ of
the plate.
3.62 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3. Shearing of the rivets (Fig 3.19 (e))

Fig.3.19 (e) Shearing of the rivets

Let [  ]  Allowable shear stress for the rivet material

d  dia. of rivet hole

n  no. of rivets per pitch length

 Rivets are in single shear in a lap joint and a single cover butt joint.

 Rivets are in double shear in a double cover butt joint.

 2
Shearing area  d - (Single shear)
4

 
 2   d2   Double shear theoretically
 4 
 
 1.875   d2   According to Indian Boiler Regulation I.B.R
4 
Shearing strength (or) shearing resistance

 P s  [  ]  d2 - (Single shear)
4

 2
2[] d  D oub le shear theoretically
4

 2
 1.875  [  ] d  double shear According to I.B.R 
4

P P

Fig.3.19 (f) Shea rin g of reve ts in butt joint

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.63

P P

Fig.3.19 (g)

The resistance offered by a rivet to be sheared-off, is known as shearing

resistance (or) shearing strength of the rivet.

4. Crushing of the rivets [Fig 3.19 (h)]

Sometimes, the rivets do not
C ru shing o f th e rivets
actually shear-off under the tensile stress,
but are subjected to crushing. Due to this,
the rivet hole diameter increases and the
joint becomes loose.

Let [  c ]  permissible crushing P P

stress for the rivet material.
Area of crushing per rivet  d  t

for n rivets,
Total area of crushing  n  d  t Fig. 3.19.(h )

P c  Crushing resistance (or) crushing strength  [  c ]  n  d  t

(Note: no. of rivets under shear shall be equal to no. of rivets under crushing).

There is no standard rule to decide the rivet diameter.

If plate thickness is greater than 8 mm, then the diameter of rivet hole,
 t mm; where t  thickness of the plate in mm.
d  6

If the plate thickness be less than 8 mm, the diameter of the rivet hole is
determined by equating the shearing resistance of a rivet to its crushing resistance.

Ps  P c
... (1)

 2
n d [  ]  n  d  t  [  c ] single shear
4
3.64 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements


1.875  n   d2[  ]  n  d  t [ c ] double shear
4

Calcula te d  dia. of the rivet hole

The pitch of the rivets is calculated by equating the shearing resistance to the
tearing resistance of the plate.

Pt  Ps ... (2)

 2
p  d t  [ t ]  n  d [  ] single shear
4

p  d t [ t ]  1.875  n  d2[  ] double shear
4
Calculate p  Pitch of the rivets

Pitch should not be less than 2d

Maximum permissible pitch, (Refer data book P.No. 7.126)
pmax  C  t  41 mm

for the value of (C), refer table in P. No. 7.126.

t  plate thickness in mm ; C = factor from boiler code.
If pmax  p then consider only p into consideration.

Butt
No. of rivets/pitch Lap
Single Double
1 1.31 1.53 1.75
2 2.62 3.06 3.5
3 3.47 4.05 4.63
4 4.17 – 5.52
5 – – 6.0

3.4.5 Standard diameter of rivet and rivet hole diameter

Dia of rivet (mm); Rivet hole dia. (mm) Refer P.No. 5.29

Rivets for General purposes - 5.26

Rivets for General purposes - 5.27

Types of Boiler rivets - 5.28

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.65

3.4.6 DESIGN STRESSES: (P.No. 7.124)

[ t ]plate  Allowable tensile stress of plate

 [  ]rivet

[  ]rivet  Allowable shear stress of rivet

 1000  1400 kgf/cm2 for steel

 100 N/mm 2  140 N/m m2

[  c ]  Allowable compressive s tress

 2100  2400 kgf/cm 2 for steel

 210 N/mm 2  240 N /mm2

Refer Page No.7.127

Let t1  strap (or) cover thickness

 1.125 t  single cover

 0.625 t  double cover equal width

 pd  with outermost row

 1.125 t    single cover  having alternate rivets.
 p  2d 
 pd  with outermos t row
 0.625 t    double cover  having alterna te rivets.
 p  2d 
When two unequal width of cover plates are employed.

then, t1  0.75t wide strap

t1  0.625t narrow strap 

margin, m  1.5 d

3.4.7 STRENGTH OF A RIVETED JOINT

Strength of a riveted joint = Least of P t, Ps and P c

3.4.8 EFFICIENCY OF A RIVETED JOINT

Let P plate  strength of the solid plate per pitch length.

 p  t  [ t ]
3.66 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Least of P t, P s and P c
Efficiency of the riveted joint 
Solid plate strength
p  d t  [  t ]  p  d 
  
p  t [ t ]  p 
Problem 3.13: A single riveted lap joint is to be made of 10 mm plates. Find the diameter
of the rivets, their pitch and efficiency of the joint [ t ]  80 N/mm2; [  ]  64 N/mm2. and
so design the joint, such that its strength to withstand shear of rivets equals its strength
to withstand tearing of the plate across the line of rivet holes.

t  10 mm ; [  t ]plate  80 N/mm 2 ; [  ]  64 N/mm2

Since plate thickness is greater than 8 mm.

 dia. of rivet hole  d  6 

 t  6

10

d  18.97 mm

Refer, P.No. 5.29 Standard rivet hole dia.  19 mm

Corresponding dia. of rivet  d  18 mm

Equate P t  P s

  
p  d t [  t ]   n   d2  [  ] (Single shear)
 4 
n  1 (no. of rivets/pitch)


p  19  10  80   19 2  64
4

Pitch of rivets p  41.68 mm

Since p  2d i.e.,  38 mm , satisfactory.

 The pitch = 41.68 mm

Tearing strength  P t  p  d t  [ t ]  41.68  19 10  80  18144 N

Solid plate strength  p  t  [  t ]  41.6810   80  33344 N

18144
Efficiency of the joint   0.544  54.4%
33344
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.67

p  d 41.68  19
or Efficiency of the joint   0.5441  54.41 %
p 41.68

Problem 3.14: Mild steel tie bars for a bridge structure 40 cm wide and 2 cm thick are
to be connected by a double cover butt joint. Design the joint.

The Allowable stresses are [ t ]  90 N/mm 2

[  ]  75 N/mm 2

[  c ]  150 N/mm 2

Since plate thickness is  8 mm ,

d  6
 t  6 20  26.8 mm


 Standard rivet hole dia.  28.5 mm

 dia. of rivet = 27 mm

Tearing resistance of plate at outer row  b  d t [  t ] ...(i)

 400  28.5  20  90

 668700 N ... (1)

 2
Shearing resistance of one rivet  1.875  d [  ](Since double shear, double cover)
4
...(2)


 1.875   28.5 2  75
4
 89710.26 N
Crushing resistance of one rivet  d  t  [ c ] ...(3)

 28.5  20  150
 85,500 N
Since crushing resistance is less than shearing resistance.
Therefore, equate 1 & 3 which decides no. of rivets.
tearing resistance 668700
 n   7.82  8
crus hing resistance 85,500
n  8 rivets
3.68 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Thickness of strap  0.75t

 0.75  20  15 m m

To Find strength of joint at four critical sections. A-A, B-B, C-C, D-D.
Alo ng A-A
Jo int has a strength  b  d t  [  t ]

 400  28.5  20  90

 668700 N
Along B-B

Joint has a strength  b  2d t  [  t ]  Shearing of rivet before BB


 b  2d t  [  t ]  1.875   28.5 2  75
4

 400  2  28.5  20 90  1.875   28.5 2  75
4
 61,7400  89710.26 N
b
 707110.26 N

Along C-C


 b  3d t  [  t ]  3 1.875   28.5 2  75
4 A A
B B
 400  3  28.5   20  90  269130.79
C C
 566100  269130.79 D D
 835230.79 N

Along D-D


 b  3d t  [  t ]  6 1.875   28.5 2  75
4

 566100  538261 .58  1104361.58 N

Shearing resistance of all rivets  9  89720.26

 807482.37 N
Structural joint (Diam ond joint)
 The lowest strength of the joint is along A-A.
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.69

b  d 400  27
 of the joint  
b 400

 0.9325

 93.25 %

3.4.9 DESIGN OF BOILER JOINTS

Size of rivet diameters for rivet hole diameter as per IS: 1928-1961

Basic size of rivet 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 48

mm
Rivet hole diameter 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 28.5 31.5 34.5 37.5 41 44 50
mm

 Boiler has a longitudinal joint as well as circumfrential joint.

 The longitudinal joint is used to join the ends of the plate to get the required
diameter of a boiler.
(Butt joint with two unequal cover plates is used)
 The circumfrential joint is used to get the required length of the boiler.
(Lap joint with one longitudinal joint overlapping the other.)

3.4.9.1 DESIGN OF LONGITUDINAL BUTT JOINT FOR A BOILER: (P.No.

7.126)

Step 1: Thickness of boiler shell t

pD
t
2 l [  t ]

t  Plate thickness  mm

p  Pressure  N/mm 2

l  Eff. of longitudinal joint  0.6 to 0.8 single riveted

 0.75 to 0.85 double riveted

 0.8 to 0.9 triple riveted

[ t ]  design stress in tension for plate  N/mm 2

3.70 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Step 2: Diameter of rivets

After calculating the thickness of plate t, the diameter of the rivet hole ‘d’ may
be determined by using ‘UNWIN’S EMPIRICAL FORMULA’.

 t  for t  8 mm
d  6

If t  8 mm

Calculate dia. of rivet hole d by equating the shear strength to crushing
strength.

Ps  Pc

 2
Ps  n  d [  ] ...(1)
4

P c  n  d  t  [ c ] ... (2)

Equate (1) and (2) and find d

To find dia. of rivet, refer P.No. 5.29, Corresponding to the rivet hole diameter.

Step 3: The pitch of the rivets is obtained by equating the tearing resistance of the
plate to the shear resistance of the rivets.

Pt  Ps

 2
p  d t  [ t ]  n  d []
4

Calculate p in mm.

But,

pmax  C  t  41 Where value of C depends on no. of rivets/pitch.

and type of joint refer P.No. 7.126.

If pmax is more than p (calculated by equating P t  P s ) then consider only ‘p’

Step 4: Distance between the rows of rivets pb 

Refer P.No. 7.126 and according to condition and type of riveted joint-chain or
Zig-zag,
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.71

Calculate pb

Step 5: Margin m

Margin  m  1.5 d

Step 6: Cover or strap thickness t1

refer P.No. 7.127 (According to condition)

Step 7: Efficiency of the designed joint.

(a) Calculation of P t  p  d t  [ t ]

 
(b) Calc ulate P s  n1  1.875  d2[  ]  n2 d2[  ]
4 4
double shear single shear

(c) Calculate P c  n  d  t  [ c ]

In addition to the above strengths, calculate also the following strength.

P shear  tear and P crush tear .

(d) Strength of the joint on shearing of rivet in outer row and tearing in the
next inner row

P shear tear  n  d2  []  p  2d t [t ]
4
(e) Strength of the joint on crushing of rivet in outer row and tearing in the
next inner row
P crush tear  n  d  t [c ]  p  2dt [ t ]

Strength of un-riveted plate or solid plate strength

P solid  p  t  [ t ]

least of P t , P s , P c , P shear  tear and Pcrush  tear

Efficiency of the joint 
solid plate strength

po  Outer pitch  2p i

pi  Inner pitch

pc  Circumfrential pitch
3.72 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3.4.9.2 DESIGN OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL JOINT

Step 1: Thickness of boiler shell plate t and dia. of rivet hole d and, the
diameter of the rivet are similar to the longitudinal joint. (i.e., t and d will be same
as for the longitudinal joint).

Step 2: Total no. of rivets i

2
D p
i 
 d  []
where D  diameter of shell or diameter of vessel - in mm

d  diameter of rivet hole - in mm

p  Pressure - N/mm 2

[  ]  Design shear stress for rivet - N/mm 2

Step 3: No. of rows of rivets & pitch of the rivets

ip
ra 
D  t

where ra  no. of rows of rivets = 2

i  Total no. of rivets

D  Boiler shell diameter

t  Thickness of shell plate

From the above equation, calculate p

ra  D  t
p  Pitch of the rivets 
i

Step 4: Efficiency of the joint: c

pd
c 
p

p  Pitch of the rivet

d  diame ter of rivet hole

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.73

LO NGITU DINAL A ND CIRCUM FERENTIAL JOINT

pc Circum ferential Joint

po
pi

Pb P b1 m

p o =outer pitch p o = 2 p i
p c = C ircum ferential pitch Lon gitudinal Joint
p i =inner pitch
Fig.3.20. Longitudinal and Circum ferential Joint

Step 5: Margin m

Margin m  1.5  d

3.74 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Step 6: Distance between the rows of rivets. (Refer P.No. 7.126)

P b  0.33p  0.67d

LONGITUDINAL JOINT
Triple riveted unequal cover butt joint.

[ Outer pitch  2Inner pitch ]

Zig-zag type.
Diagram - Verify databook - P.No. 7.126

CIRCUMFERENTIAL JOINT
Double riveted zig-zag lap joint.

Problem 3.15: A steam boiler is to be designed for a working pressure of 25 kgf/cm2 with
its inside diameter 160 cm. Give the design calculations for the longitudinal and
circumferential joints for the following working stresses for steel plates and rivets,
[ t ]  750 kgf/cm2 ; [  ]  600 kg f/c m 2 ; [ c ]  1250 kg f /c m 2. Draw the joints.

Given Data
Boiler shell joint
(a) Longitudinal joint (Triple riveted unequal cover butt joint)
(b) Circumferential joint (Double riveted lap joint)

Pressure  P  25 kgf/cm 2

Inside diameter  D  160 cm

Working stresses  [  t ]  750 kgf/cm 2; [  ]  600 kgf/cm 2

[ c ]  1250 kgf/cm 2

(a) DESIGN OF LONGITUDINAL JOINT

Step 1: Thickness of boiler shell t

pD
t from databook
2 l  [  t ]

25  160

2  0.85  750 l  0.8 to 0.9 (for triple riveted joint)
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.75

 3.13 cm  31.3 mm  assume l  0.85

Say (or) t  32 mm

Step 2: Dia. of rivet

Since plate thickness is greater than 8 mm.

dia. of rivet hole d  6

t

 6 32  33.94 m m


fro m data bo o k, P.No . 5.29

Standard rivet ho le dia.  34.5 mm

 d  34.5 mm

the corresponding dia. of rivet  33 mm

Step 3: Pitch of the rivets (Assume triple riveted unequal cover butt joint)

Equate P t  P s

P t  p  d t  [ t ]  p  3.45  3.2  750

 p  3.45   2400 ... (1)

Since, the joint is triple riveted unequal cover butt joint, there are five rivets
per pitch.

Out of these five rivets - 4 rivets are in double shear and 1 rivet in single
shear.

 
 P s  4  1.875  d2[  ]  1  d2[  ]
4 4

 
 4  1.875   3.45 2  600  3.452  600
4 4

 47675.82 kgf ... (2)

equate equations (1) and (2)

p  3.45  2400  47675.82

47675.82
Pitch of the rivet p   3.45  23.31 cm
2400
3.76 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

But pmax  C.t  41

(from databook) C  6

 pmax  6  32  41

 233 mm

or pmax  23.3 cm

Since p and pmax are equal

Take p  23.3 cm
say p  24 cm
p  po  pitch of outer row  24 cm

24
pi  pitch of inner row   12 cm
2
Step 4: Distance between rows of pitch pb & pb
1

(Refer diagram) [Refer databook P.No. 7.126]

pb   0.2p  1.15d

pb  0.2  240  1.15  34.5

pb  87.675 mm

pb  0.165 p  0.67 d
1

 0.165  240  0.67  34.5

 62.715 mm

Step 5: Margin m

Margin m  1.5d  1.5  34.5  51.75 mm

Step 6: Cover or strap thickness

Refer databook P.No. 7.127
for unequal cover plates
t1  0.75t (wider)

 0.625 t narrower
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.77

 t1  0.75  t  0.75  32  24 mm

 0.625t  0.625  32  20 mm

Step 7: Efficiency of the designed joint.

(a) P t  tearing strength  p  d t  [  t ]

 24  3.45 3.2  750

 49320 kgf

 2 
(b) P s  shearing strength  n1  1.875  d [  ]  n 2 d 2[  ]
4 4

 
 4  1.875  3.45 2 [ 600 ]  1   3.45 2  600
4 4

 47675.82 kgf n1  4 under double shear d  3.45 c m

n2  one rivet in single shear

(c) Crushing strength  P c  n  d  t  [  c ]

 5  3.45  3.2 [ 1250 ]  69000 kgf

(d) Strength of the joint in shearing of rivet in outer row and tearing in the
next row

 2
P shear  tear  d  []  p  2dt  t
4


  3.45 2  600  24  2  3.45  3.2  750  46,648.92 kgf
4

(e) Strength of the joint in crushing of rivet in outer row and tearing in the
next inner row,

P crush  tear  n dt [c ]  p  2dt .  t

 1  3.45  3.2  1250  24  2  3.45 3.2  750  54,840 kgf

Minimum strength of joint  Least of P t , P s , P c , P shear  tear and P crush  tear

 P shear  tear  46648.92 kgf which is the least strength

3.78 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Strength of the solid plate  p  t  [  t ]  24  3.2  750  57600 kgf

P shear  tear 46,648.92

efficiency of the joint  
p  t  [ t ] 57,600

Efficiency of the joint    0.8098  80.98%

Design of circumferential joint

Step 1: Similar to longitudinal joint.

t  3.2 cm ; d  3.45 cm
Step 2: Total no. of rivets
2 p  pressure
D p
i  D  dia. of steel
 d  []
d  rivet hole dia.
[  ]  design shear stress
i  Total no. of rivets
2
 160  25

3.45   600  89.6
 
i  90 rivets
Step 3: Pitch of the rivets

no. of rows of rivets  ra  2

ra D  t 2  160  3.2

p   11.39 cm
i 90
Take pitch of rivets  12 cm
Step 4: Efficiency of the joint

p  d 12  3.45
c    0.7125
p 12
c  71.25 %

Step 5: Margin m  1.5d  1.5  3.45  5.175 cm

Step 6: Distance between the rows of rivets

P b  0.33p  0.67 d  0.33  12  0.67  3.45  6.2715 cm

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.79

DESIGN OF WELDED JOINTS

3.5 WELDED JOINTS

(PSG Databook 11.1)

Welding is a process of joining metals in which the parent metals are fused
together to form a single piece. Welding is used

1. As substitutes for castings and forgings.

2. As a fabrication technique to join parts permanently.
3. As a joining medium to replace fasteners such as rivets and bolts.
4. As a repair medium to replace broken and wornout sections of a member.
When compared to riveting, welded joints are

(a) light in weight.

(b) stronger than riveting.
(c) involve less labour.
(d) welding can be made automatic.

3.5.1 CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING

Welding

Forge welding Electric resistance welding Fusion welding

(Pressure welding) (Non-pressure)

Manual Machine
forge forge
Direct current Alternating current

Gas welding Electric arc Thermal welding

welding
3.80 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3.5.2 TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS

1. Butt welds
2. Fillet welds
3. Edge welds
4. Tack welds - (used for holding metal parts in positions)

P l

V P
w
o
45
w
h t

Butt w eld

P
P

Edge weld

Lap w eld
Fig.3.21.Butt weld; Edge w eld; Fillet w eld

3.5.3 STRENGTH OF FILLET WELD

Fillet welds are designed for shear over the throat area irrespective of load.

Let P  load applied

w  w eld size
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.81

t  thro at thic kness

l  length o f w eld

(The minimum c ro ss-sec tio nal dimensio n is termed as thro at distanc e)

t
cos 45  
w

t  w  cos 45 

 0.707  w

P
Shear stress  
A

A  area of weld  l  t  l  0.707  w 

3.5.4 Parallel fillet weld

Problem 3.16: Two plates are joined together by means of a fillet welds as shown in the
diagram. The weld size is 10 mm, permissible shear stress is 75 N/mm2. Calculate the
length of each weld.

50kN 50kN

(Parallel fillet weld on sides)

P  50 kN  50  10 3N
3.82 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

weld size  w  10 mm

[  ]  75 N/mm 2
Area of weld  A  2l  t
 2  l  0.707  w
 2  l  0.707  10
Shea r load
Shear stress 
Shear area of weld

50  10 3
75 
2  l  0.707  10

50  10 3
l  47.14 mm
75  2  0.707  10
l  length of w eld  47.14 mm

3.5.5 METHOD OF INDICATION OF WELD SYMBOL

B A
B A

W eld on th e arrow side W eld on th e other side

B A

Fig.3.22
W eld on both sides
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.83

3.5.6 Combination of transverse and parallel fillet welds

Problem 3.17: A plate 75 mm wide and 12.5 mm thick is joined with another plate as
shown in the diagram. The max. tensile stress  70 N/mm2; The allowable shear stress
 56 N/mm2. Find the length of the weld. (April / May 2011 Anna University)

P 75m m
l1
P

From databook, select weld size w

for a plate thickness of h  12.5 mm

the weld size  6 mm

[ t ]  70 N/mm 2; [  ]  56 N /mm 2

P
Tensile stress 
area of plate

P
70 
75  12.5

 P  65625 N

Let P 1 is the load carried by single transverse weld;

Shear load carried by transverse weld

Shear stress 
Weld area
3.84 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

P1 Shear area  t  l
56 
0.707  6  75
P 1  17816.4 N  0.707  6  75

Let P 2 is the load carried by parallel fillet weld

But P  P 1  2P 2

65625  17816.4  2P 2

P 2  23904.3 N

Let l2 be the length of double parallel fillet weld

 Area of weld  2  l2  t

 2  l2  0.707  w  l2  0.707  6  2

Shear load P 2
Shear stress 
are a of weld

23904.3
56 
l2  6  0.707  2

Length of parallel fillet weld l2  50.31 mm

Problem 3.18: A welded joint shown in the diagram, is subjected to an eccentric load at
2 kN. Find the weld size if the maximum shear stress is 25 N/mm2.

P, P 2 produces couple C  P  e  M

C Pe
This couple induces bending stress  b  
Z Z

P
P 1 induces direct shear stress  
A

Shear loa d
Direct shear stress  
Area of weld

Area of weld  t  l  2  0.707  w  40  2

 56.56 w mm 2
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.85

P1

P2
C
e

40 d= 40

d= 40
120
2K N
b
pla te thickness

2  10 3  35.36 
  N/mm 2
56.56 w  w 

M from databook,
bending stress   b 
Z
d2
3 Z t
2  10  120 636.50 3
b  
377.06 w w
40 2
According to max. shear stress theory,   0.707w
3

 377.06 w



2
  b   2
ma x    
 2 



2 2
 636.49   56.56 
25   2w    w 
   

323.23
25 
w
323.23
w  12.92 mm
25
 Weld size w  13 mm
3.86 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 3.19: Calculate the max. shear stress in the weld, if the weld size is 15 mm.

Weld area  D  t

   50  0.707  w

   50  0.707  15 50
10K N
 1665.82 mm 2

The eccentric load induces

1. direct shear stress 

2. bending stress due to couple
3
Shear load 10  10
1.   
Weld area 1665.82 200 m m

 6.003 N/mm2

M Z from databook
2.  b 
Z

10  10 3  200  2
 Z D t
20822.86 4

 96.048 N/mm 2 
  50 2  0.707  w
4

  50 2  0.707  15  20822.86 mm 2
4



2
 b  2
Max. shear stress  max    
 2 



2
 96.048  2
  2   6.003
 

 48.39 N/mm 2

Problem 3.20: Determine the weld size for the eccentrically welded joint shown in the
diagram. max  95 N/mm2 for steady load condition.
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.87

Let w  weld size in mm.

The eccentric load induces, (1) bending stress and (2) direct shear stress.

P =10K N

d= 70

200 mm
b= 50

M
1. Bending stress  b 
Z

from databook,

10  10 3  200 551.07  d2 
b   N /mm 2 Z   bd  t
3629.26w w  3 

 70 2  3
  50  70    0.707 w  3629.26  w mm
 3 

P A  Area of weld
2.  
A

10  10 3 58.93  250  70   t
  N/mm 2
169.68 w w
 2120  0.707 w

 169.68 w mm 2



2
 b  2
Max. shear stress    
 2 
3.88 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements



2 2
 551.07   58.93 
  2w    w 
   

281.76
95 
w

281.76
w  2.96 mm
95

 Weld size  w  3 mm

Problem 3.21: A rectangular cross section bar is welded to a support by means of fillet
welds as shown in figure. Determine the size of the welds, if the permissible shear stress
in the weld is limited to 75 MPa. [AU Nov/Dec 2011]

25kN
500

50

100

All Dim ensions are in m m .

Given data
P  25 kN, b  100 mm, d  150 mm

e  500 mm

Let w  size of weld in mm

The eccentric load induces (1) bending stress and (2) direct shear stress

M
1. Bending stress  b 
Z
 d2 
From databook Z   bd  t
 3 
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.89

 150 2 
  100  150   0.707 w
 3 

 15907.5 w

3
M 25  10  500
 b  
Z 15907.5 w

785.79
b  N/mm 2
w

P
2. Shear stress  
A
Area of weld A  2 150  100   t

 2  250  0.707 w

 353.5 w mm 2

3
P 25  10 70.72
   N/mm 2
A 353.5 w w



2
 b  2
Max shear stress    
 2 



2 2
 785.79   70.72 
i.e., 75   2w    w 
   

399.208
75 
w

 w  5.32 mm

Hence standard weld size w  6 mm

Problem 3.22: The diagram represents a welded connection subjected to a force ‘F’. The
member is 10 mm thick hot rolled steel and is welded to the support using two 6 mm
parallel fillet welds Estimate the safe force, for a factor of safety of 2.8. Assume permissible
stress to be 55 MPa. (Oct.2005 - AU, Oct 96 MU)
3.90 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

[  ]  55 MPa
6
 55 N/mm 2
Weld size  w  6 m m

area of weld  A  0.707  w  l  2 60m m F

 0.707  6  30  2

 254.52 mm 2
Permissible shear stress 30m m

Shear loa d
[]
Area of weld

Shear load  55  254.52

 13.998  10 3 N

 13.998 kN

Problem 3.23: An eccentrically loaded plate is welded to a frame as shown in the

diagram. Design the welded joint if the tensile stress in the plate should not exceed
100 N/mm2 and shear stress in the weld is 80 N/mm2.

la

50 60K N

80

lb

[ t ]  100 N/mm 2

Width of the plate  50  80  130 mm

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.91

P  60 kN

load
Tensile stress  t 
area of plate

60  103
100 
130  t

60  10 3
t  4.615 mm
100  130

from databook, at t  4.615

 5 mm

the weld size w  3 mm

 Select weld size w  3 mm

 Let s  resistance offered by the weld/unit length.

 Therefore, the moment produced by the resistance of the weld about the line
of action of the load is zero.
i.e., s  la   50  s  lb   80

la 80
  1.6
lb 50

la  1.6lb ... (1)

load
Shear stress in the weld 
weld area

P 
[] 
A
60  10 3
80 
0.707  w  la  lb 

60  10 3
la  lb  
80  0.707  3

la  lb  353.60 ... (2)

 from equations (1) and (2)

3.92 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1.6lb  lb  353.6

353.6
lb   136 mm
2.6

la  1.6  lb  1.6  136

 217.6 mm

la  136 mm

lb  217.6 mm

Problem 3.24: A bracket shown in the diagram is welded to a plate the welds have the
same size. The permissible force per mm of the weld length is 1 kN. Calculate the lengths
l1 and l2.

Let s is resistance offered by the weld.

l1  s  100  l2  s  50

1
l1  l
2 2

3
load/strength 1  10
Stress   ... (1)
t t

Load 120  103

But, Stress   ... (2)
Area of Weld l1  l2 t
120 KN

1  10 3 120  10 3
Equate (1) and (2), 
t l1  l2 t 50

l1  l2  120 l1
l2

1 80
l  l2  120 ; l1   40 mm
2 2 2

2 120 KN
l2  120   80 m m
3
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.93

3.5.7 Eccentric load on welded joints

The line of action of the load ‘F’ does Y
not pass through the centroid of the weld. e F
A
Let F  Eccentric load

e  eccentricity x d x
Let ‘G’ is the centroid of the weld.
b B (a)
At ‘G’ introduce two equal and opposite
forces F 1 and F 2

F and F 2 produces couple. Y

The effect of couple tries to twist the A

bracket about the centroid ‘G’. e
x G F1
The force F 1 induces direct shear stress. F2 x
F
y
1. The effort of F 1, induces direct shear stress. B
(b)
F Y
d  x
weld area
Y
F
 A
t  l
( F 2 or F) x e
F
 x G x
0.707  w  l C
F1
where F  eccentric load B
(c)
Y Fig.3.23.
w  weld size

l  length of weld

d is max. at point (A)

i.e., at the farthest point d is max.

Let GA  r2

2. The effect of couple tries to twist the bracket about the centroid (G)
T  r2
Shear stress due to rotation s  (where T  torque  F  e
J
3.94 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

F  e  r2

J

i.e., At (A) two stresses are acting.

1. d - direct shear stress - primary shear stress.

2. s - shear stress due to twisting - Y A

secondary shear stress.

The directions of d and s are in the r2
same direction of (F) s
 d
The resultant shear stress
G

 R  
 2d  2s  2dscos 

where  is the angle between d and s

Fig.3.23.(d)
r1 B
cos   Y
r2

 r1 
Calculate,   cos  1 
r
 2

3.5.8 Design procedure

 
1. Calculate x and y
2. Locate centre of gravity ‘G’ in the weld portion.
3. Mark r1, r2 and 

r1  b  x r1
cos  
r2

 r1 
  c o s 1



2 
d r
r2  2
 2   r1  2
 

Calculate r1 and r2 and also ‘’

4. Locate point (A)

Draw two lines,
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.95

(a) A line parallel to Y axis acting downwards represents the direct shear stress
(Primary shear stress) d .

(b) Another line inclined  degrees to d , which represents the shear stress due
to twisting (secondary shear stress) s .

F
5. Calculate d 
A

A  weld area  l  t

 l  0.707  w

F  e  r2
6. Calculate s 
J

Take the value of J from databook, according to weld cross-section

J  t mm 4.

7. Calculate resultant shear stress R

R  
 2d  2s  2d s cos 

Note (a): If R , (Max. shear stress in the weld) is given, calculate the weld size
w

(b) If the weld size is given, calculate R .

(c) To find FOS of the weld

Select weld material as C 15 (low carbon steel 0.5 to 0.25% C)

for C 15 material,  y  240 N/mm 2

y 1 
R  
2  FOS 

 y  1
FO S   
 2  R

y
FO S  y  yield point shear stress
R
3.96 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 3.25: The diagram represents an arrangement to support a load of 100 kN.
Suggest suitable size of fillet weld if shear stress intensity in the weld material
 9000 N/cm2

N  cm 2
(Conversion  N/mm 2)
100

[  ]  9000 N/cm 2 100 kN

 90 N/mm 2
5cm

 100
x  50 mm
2

P  100  10 3N 20cm

The weld cross-section is rectangle.

100
r1   50 mm
2 10cm

r2  
 2
100 2  50
P =10 0kN
 111.8 e= 100
A
r1
cos  
r2
r2 
50 d s

111.8

 0.4472 200 r1
G

e  50  x  50  50  100 mm
y
Area of weld
 0.707  w  100  200 2

 424.2 w mm 2
x
from databook, 100
Consider weld as a line for rectangular shape,

b  d3
J t
6
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.97

100  2003
  0.707  w
6

 3.1815  10 6w mm 4

At point (A),

The eccentric load induces (1) direct shear stress (primary)

(2) torsional shear stress (secondary)

P P  e  r2
a  s 
A J

100  10 3 235.73 100  10 3  100  111.8

  ... (1) 
424.2w w 3.1815  10 6  w

351.4
 ... (2)
w

R   2d  2s  2d s  c o

 s



2 2
 235.73   351.4  235.73 351.4 64212.26
     2   0.4472 
 w   w  w w w2

503.12
R   90
w

503.12
w  weld size   5.59 mm
90

The standard w eld size w  6 mm from databook, (Page No. 114)

Problem 3.26: The diagram represents an arrangement to support a load of 90 kN,

suggest the suitable weld size for a permissible shear stress of 100 N/mm2

P  90 kN

 90  10 3N

[  ]R  100 N/m m2.

Treat the weld as line.

3.98 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

The weld is in the form of ‘C’

 90K N
Find x (un-symmetric about x-axis)
100
from databook,

 b2 150 2
x 
2b  d 2  150  250 250

 40.9 mm

b  150 mm
150
d  250 mm
 250
y  125 m m
2 e=209.09
100
Lo c ate c entre o f gravity (G) A

r1  150  x  150  40.9  109.09 mm r2 
d

9
5.
16
r2  
 125 2  109.09 2  165.9 mm d=250
G r1 B s

100

e  100  150  x  100  150  40.9 y 109.09

e  209.1 mm
150
r1  109.09 mm b
x
r2  165.9 mm

Weld area  t  l t  0.707 w

 0.707  w  550 l  150  150  250
2  550 mm
 388.85w mm
At point the weld subjected to (1) direct shear stress d  (primary)

(2) shear stress s  (secondary)

P 90  10 3 P  e  r2
d   s 
A 388.85 w  J
 231.45  2  2b  d3 b2b  d2 
  N/mm J  t
 w  12 2b  d 

Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.99

r1  2  150  250 3 150 2150  2502 

cos     t
r2  12 2  150  250  
109.1  7319128.788  0.707 w
  0.6576
165.9
 5174624.05 w mm 4
90  10 3  209.1  165.9 603.34
s  
5174624.05 w w

[ R ]  

2d  2s  2d s  c o
s



2 2
 231.45   603.34   231.45   603.34 
  w   w   2 w   w  0.6576
      

775.4
100 
w

775.4
weld side w   7.754 mm
100

The standard weld size w  10 mm

Problem 3.27: A bracket carrying a load of 15 kN is to be welded as shown in the

diagram. The plate thickness is 10 mm. Find the allowable shear stress in the weld
material. (Apr.’97 - MU)

Eccentric load  P  15 kN  15  103 N

Eccentricity  e  125 mm ; plate thickness  t  20 mm Let [] is the allowable

shear stress in the weld material. From databook. Refer page No.11.4 (Plate thickness
and weld size) For a plate thickness of 20 mm, select weld size  w  10 mm Locate
centre of Gravity G and start of weld at A.

At Point A, the weld subjected to (1) r1  25 mm

direct shear 0
r2  

40 2  25 2  47.169 mm
(2) Torsional shear stress s  r1 25
cos     0.5299
r2 47.169
  57.99
3.100 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Y
125
50 A
15K N
125 mm
r2
A s

80  d
G
80
r1

B y
50

x B

1. direct shear stress length of weld l  50  50  100 mm

3 Throat thickness
P 15  10
 d    21.2164 N  mm 2
Aw 707  t  0.707 w  0.707  10  7.07 mm
p. e. r2 weld area
2. Torsional shear stress  s 
J  Aw  l  t  100  7.07  707 mm 2
b3  3bd2
J
6
15  10 3  125  47.169
 6
 69.18 N  mm2 J  1.2784  10 6 mm 4
1.2784  10

Resultant shear stess  max  

 2d  2s  2d s c o s 

 21.2164 2  69.18 2  2 21.2164  69.18 0.5299

 
 82.41 N  mm 2

Problem 3.28: A bracket is welded to the side of a column and carries a vertical load
‘P’. Calculate P so that max. shear stress in the 10 mm filet welds is 80 N/mm2.
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.101

The weld outline is similar to ‘’ shape.

 from databook (P.No. 11.5)

Y P
225

X X
200

150
Y
 b2
NY  x  e
2b  d NY

 d2 A
r2
NX  y  NX
2b  d
r1
d2 200 2 G
NX    57.14 mm d s
2b  d 2200  150  d= 200

b2 150 2
NY    32.14 mm
2b  d 2200  150 
B
At point (A)
b= 150

P A w  area of fillet weld.

1. Direct shear stress d 
Aw

P  lw  t

Aw
3.102 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

P  150  200  0.707w w  10 mm given

 ... (1)
2474.5

 350  0.707  10  2474.5 mm 2

T  r2 r1  b  N Y   200  32.14  167.86 mm
2. Secondary shear stress s 
J
T  P  e  P  342.86 Nmm r2  
 
2X  
r21  N 167.86 2  57.14 2
 177.31 mm
J  (from databook) (from P.No. 11.5)

b  d4  6b 2d2 b  150 mm e  225  [ 150  NY ]  225  150  32.14 

J
12b  d d  200 mm  342.86 mm

150  2004  6  150 2  200 2 r1 167.86

 cos     0.9467
12150  200 r2 177.31

 2.287  10 6 mm 4

P  342.86  177.31
s   0.026P 
2.287  10 6

R  
 2d  2s  2d s  cos  80

squaring both sides

2
 P  2 P 2
 2474.5   0.026 P  2 2474.5  0.026 P 0.9467   80 
 
P2 [1.633  107  6.76  10 4  1.98  10 5

P26.959  104  6400

6400
P2   10 4
7.259

 P  3032.6 N
Design of Temporary & Permanent Joints - Design of Fasteners 3.103

Problem 3.29: A bracket

carrying a load of 0 kN is to
be welded as shown in Figure
2. Calculate the size of th
weld is the working shear
strss is not to exceed
2
70 N/mm
(Nov/Dec 2010 - AU)

Solution:
Width  120 mm, thickness  15 mm

1. Length of the weld for a single transverse weld

Thickness of weld  12.5 mm assume

Effective length of weld l1  120  12.5

 107.5 mm

2. Length of the weld for double parallel fillet weld

Length of weld run for each parallel fillet  l2

w  size of weld  thickness of weld  15 mm

Assume tensile stress as 90 MPa

90
Permissible tensile stress t 
1.5

 60 N/mm2

70
Permissible shear stress  
2.7

 25.93 N/mm 2

Load carried by single transverse weld

P 1  0.707 w  l1   t

 0.707  15  107.5  60

 68502.3 N
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.1

CHAPTER 4

Design of Energy Storing Elements – Springs and

Flywheels

4.0 INTRODUCTION
 A spring is an elastic member used to connect two bodies of two parts of a
machine.
OR
 A spring may be defined as an elastic body member whose primary function
is to deflect (or) distort underload, it recovers its original shape when load
is released.

4.1 MATERIAL OF SPRING

The material of spring should have high fatigue, strength, high ductility, high
resilience and creep resistant. Type of material largely depends upon the service of
application i.e severe service, average service or light service.
There are four basic varieties of steel wire which are used in springs.
1. Steel wire unalloyed cold drawn - used in springs, subjected to static forces.

There are four Grades Gr. 1 Static load,

Gr. 2 Moderate load
Gr. 3 Moderate dynamic load
Gr. 4 Loads subjected severe stresses.

2. Oil-hardened and tempered spring steel wire - (unalloyed)

There are two grades SW General purpose

VW Intended for valve springs subjected to high dynamic
stresses.

3. Oil - hardened and tempered steel wire (alloyed)

- Used for elevated temperature
- IS - Static loads 2S
- ID - Dynamic loads 2D
4.2 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4. Stainless steel spring wire for normal corrosion resistance.

The average values of tensile strength values are given in the table (PSG Data
book Page No.7. 105)
According to IS 4454:1967 - The permissible shear stress  0.5 u

PSG Databook: (Page No. 7.100 to 7.105 and 13.1)

4.2 Applications of the springs :

1. To apply forces and to control motions as in brakes and clutches.
2. To measure forces ex: Measuring instruments, spring balance.
3. To store energy as in clock springs.
4. To reduce the effect of shock (or) impact loading as in-carriage spring.
5. To absorb or control the energy due to shock (or) vibration.
(Springs in Railway wagons, Automobiles etc.)
6. To return mechanical parts to its original position, when it has been
temporarily displaced - Springs in valves, clutches, and linkages.

4.3 Important types of Springs :

1. Helical Compression (or) Extension
springs
The major stress is torsional shear stress
due to twisting. They are made of wire coiled
into helical form. The load being applied along
the axis of the helix. The deflection is linear.
These springs may be Compression or Tension
(a)Com pression (b) Tension Spring
spring.
springs
2. Helical torsion spring : The major Fig 4.1.H elical Springs.
stresses are tensile and compressive
due to bending. The torque is being
applied about the axis of the helix. The
deflection is circular.
3. Spiral springs: The major stresses are
tensile and compressive due to bending.
They consist of flat strip wound in the
Fig 4.2. H elical Torsion Spring.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.3

form of a spiral and loaded in torsion. The deflection

is angular.
4. Leaf spring : The major stresses are tensile and
compressive. Leaf spring consists of flat strips of
varying lengths clamped together. The deflection is
linear.

Fig.4.3. Spiral Spring.

P 2L P

2P
Fig.4.4. Leaf Spring.

5. Disc or bellevile springs

These springs consist of a number of
conical discs held together against slipping by
a central bolt or tube as shown in Fig. 4.5.
These springs are used in applications where
high spring rates and compact spring units are Fig.4.5. Disc or
required. bellevile springs.

The major stresses produced in disc or bellevile springs are tensile and
compressive stresses.

6. Special purpose springs

These springs are air or liquid springs, rubber springs, ring springs, etc. The
fluids (air or liquid) can behave as a compression spring. These springs are used for
special types of application only.
4.4 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4.4 HELICAL SPRINGS

4.4.1 Terminology used for Helical springs: [Refer PSG DB. Pg.No.7.100]
1. Stiffness (or) Spring rate = q = load required to produce unit
(or) Spring constant deflection
P
   N/mm
 y 
2. Free length l Overall length of Compression coil
spring with no application of load.
l  n  d  ymax  0.15 ymax

  So lid length    Compression o r d eflec tio n  [Clearance]

n  Total no. of c o ils depends on end conditions .

ymax  maximum deflection

W
d  W
F ree len gth

D
W W
Fig.4.6. C om pression spring no m enclatu re.

3. Solid length L Length of completely Compressed spring

n d
4. Deflection  or y Lengthening or shortening of coil spring caused
by load in mm.
5. Pitch p Axial distance between adjacent coils in
uncompressed state
Free length
p (mm)
n  1
6. Gap e Gap existing between adjacnt coils - mm.
7. Coil diameter D Mean Dia. of the spring (mm)
(or) Mean
diameter
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.5

8. Wire diameter d Dia. of spring wire (mm).

9. Spring index D Ratio of mean diameter to wire diameter.
C
d
10. Number of n active no. of turns (no. of turns resisting the
turns force)

11. Clash allowance

The compression springs are seldom designed to close up under the maximum
working load and for this purpose, a clearance (or clash allowance) is provided between
the adjacent coils to prevent closing of the coils during service. It may be taken as
15 percent of the maximum deflection.

4.4.2 Close-Coiled Helical Spring

If the helix angle is small 10  12, the plane of the coils can be safely assumed
to be perpendicular to the axis of the spring. The effect of bending moment on such
a spring is very small and that can be neglected. The torsional stress due to twisting
moment predominates in close coiled springs.

4.4.3 Open-Coiled Helical Spring

Helix angle is significant and hence plane of coil cannot be assumed to be
perpendicular to the axis. The wire will experience the effects of twisting as well as
bending moments.

4.4.4 Helical Compression Springs Subjected to Axial Loading:

A helical compression and extension springs are so designated because the spring
coil, as a whole is compressed or extended in length along its central axis.

Let P  Axial load ;

D  Mean dia. of coil;

d  Diameter of spring wire

l  Length of the spring wire ;

 or y  Deflection o f spring

n  No . of active coils (or) active no. of turns.

D
C  Spring index 
d
4.6 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

The free body diagram of a spring loaded by the axial force P is shown in
Fig. 4.7 (a). The wire is subjected to torsion T and direct load P .

d P
Do
Di

p
T

d
P
D
D
(a) (a)
D /2

P d

( D N )

(c) D /2
P
Fig.4.7. H elical Spring - C om pressions Springs.

Let the spring is subjected to an axial load.

It is in equilibrium, under the action of
1. Axial force (P) and
2. Twisting moment (T).
Shear stresses are setup within the material of the wire as follows.
1. Shear stress due to axial force (direct shear stress)
2. Shear stress due to twisting moment.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.7

P 4P
Shear stress due to axial force (or) direct shear stress d  
 2
d  d2
4
T r
Shear stress due to twisting moment  t 
J
PD d d
Where r 
2 2 8PD 2
t  
 4
d  d3  4
J d
32 32
D
Torque T  P 
2
Total shear stress   t  d

4P 8PD
Total shear stress    2

d  d3

8PD  1 d  8PD  1 
 3 
1  1
d  2 D  3 
d  2C 

This analysis holds good, if the wire is straight. But, due to the curvature of
the wire, shear stress does not remain uniform and hence a factor called WAHL’S
FACTOR K s is used to find the maximum shear stress

8 PD 8 PC
 Maximum s hear stress  max  K s or max  Ks
d 3
 d2

Refer PSG DB Pg.No. 7.100

Where Ks  Wahl’s factor D

C  S pring index 
d

4C  1 0.615 D  mean diameter

 
4C  4 C d  Spring wire diameter

The stress distribution is shown in Fig. 4.8 (b)

4.8 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Direct shear stress

Torsional sh ear stress
P

d
T T d/2 P
+ = Resu ltant
D P J A
(a) F ree-body (b) S tress distribu tion across w ire
D iagram (n eglectin g effect of cu rvature)
Fig.4.8. S tress Distribu tion in H elical
Com pression Sp rin gs.

Curvature effect Including

curvature
The effect of curvature on stress distribution N eglecting
is depicted in Fig. 4.9. curvature

Spring axis

Shear stress
In a coil, the length of the inside surface of
the wire is less than that of the outside surface. 0
Hence shear stress induced on the inside surface
is greater than that induced on the outside
surface. (The torsional shear stress distribution Fig. 4.9. Effect of Curvature on
shown in Fig. 4.8 (b), is for a straight Stress D istribution
circular rod). The curvature effect becomes 1.6
more significant as the curvature increases,
i.e., for small values of C . A single factor 1.6
K s, Wahl factor is used to account for both
the direct shear stress and increased 1.6
W ahl stress factor, K

torsional shear stress on the inside surface

of the wire. 1.6
(Refer PSG DB Pg.No. 7.100)
C lutch spring

1.6
For valve and

K can also be obtained from the

graph shown in Fig. 4.10.
M in .

1.6
N orm a l range
(ii) To find Angular Deflection: 
1.6
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Consider torsion eq. Spring in dex, C
T G Fig. 4.10. W ahl’s factor.
 (or)
J l
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.9

Tl PD
Angular deflection    where T  Torque transmitted 
GJ 2
P  Axial load in Newtons
D  Mean diameter in mm
l  length of wire  n  D
n  No. of active turns
 4
J  Polar moment of inertia  d
32
G  Modulus of rigidity  N/mm2
.   Angular deflection in radius
Substitute the values of T, J and L in the above equation
D
P nD
2 16 PD 2 n
  [Refer PSG DB Pg 7.100]
 4 G d4
G d
32

D 8PD 3n 8PC 3n
Linear deflection  y   .  or
2 Gd4 Gd

End connections for helical springs:

The end connections for compression
helical springs are suitably formed inorder
to apply the load.
1. Plain ends
2. Ground ends
3. Squared ends
4. Squared and ground ends
(a) P lain (b ) G rou n d (c) Sq ua red (c) Sq ua red
Refer PSG DB Pg.No. 7.100 an d gro u nd
F ig .4.1 1. C o m pression S prin g E n ds.
The turns which impart spring
action are known as active turns (n)
But the total number of turns (n) depends on type of end conditions.
4.10 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

S.No. Type of end condition Total no. of turns n

1. Plain ends n
2. Ground ends n
3. Squared ends n + 2
4. Squared and ground ends n + 2

(iii) Stiffness : (q) It is defined as load per unit deflection.

P P
Stiffness  q  
y 8PC 3 n
Gd

Gd
k Refer PSG DB Pg.No. 7.100
8 C3 n

4.5 ECCENTRIC LOADING OF SPRINGS

When the load on the springs does not coincide with the axis of the spring, then
the spring is subjected to an eccentric load. The eccentric load on the spring increases
the stress on one side of the spring and decreases on the other side. The safe load
D
on the spring may be obtained by multiplying the axial load by the factor ,
2e  D
where D is the mean diameter of the spring and e is the offset distance from spring
axis.

4.6 BUCKLING OF COMPRESSION SPRINGS

It has been found experimentally that when the free length of the spring L F
is more than three times the mean or pitch diameter D, then the spring behaves
like a column and may fail by buckling at a comparatively low load as shown in
Fig. 4.12. The critical axial load W cr  that causes buckling may be calculated by
using the following relation, i.e.

W cr  q  KB  L F

where

q  Spring rate or stiffness of the spring  W/,

L F  Free length of the spring, and

K B  Buckling factor depending upon the ratio L F/D

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.11

It order to avoid the buckling of spring, Fixed end G u ided end

it is either mounted on a central rod or
located on a tube. When the spring is located
on a tube, the clearance between the tube
walls and spring should be kept as small as
possible, but it must be sufficient to allow for
increase in spring diameter during
compression.

Helical Tension springs (Extension Fixed end G u ided end

Fig.4.12. B ucklin g of C om pression
springs)
Springs.
Design formulae of helical compression
springs can also be used for tension springs.
Extension springs are wound with some initial tension so that an initial force
is required before extension begins.
Initial tension is induced during winding by twisting the wire as it is wound
on to the mandrel, with coils in contact with one another. When the spring is wound
and removed from the mandrel, the initial tension is locked in, because the spring
can not become any shorter.

4.7.1 Types of Ends for Extension Springs (Fig. 4.13)

(a) Full R ound Hook (b) Raised H ook

(c) Threadded plug to fit (d) Coned end w ith

plain end spring swivel Hook
Fig.4.13. Types of Ends for E xtension Springs.
Load on the Extension Spring
P  Pi  q 

where P i  Maximum possible initial tension

  E xtension of the spring

4.12 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

q  Stiffness of the spring

P is used in the design calculations.

 i d 3
Pi 
8D

i  maximum shear stress due to initial tension given in Table 4.1

Table 4.1

C 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15

i N /mm 2 170 160 143 130 116 100 93 83 76 69 50

4.8 ADVANTAGES OF COMPRESSION SPRINGS OVER EXTENSION SPRINGS

1. Stress concentration is less at the end coils of a compression spring than at
the book of a tension spring. Tension springs often fail at the hook (stress
concentration is high at sharp bends).
2. In a compression spring, breaking of spring wire does not lead to a serious
damage; in a tension spring, if wire breaks, control will be lost.
3. When compression spring is excessively loaded, it will be compressed to solid
condition and a limit to induced stress will be reached. In a tension spring,
excessive load may stretch the spring to plastic state resulting in the failure
of the spring.
4. Compression spring can also be used for tension purposes.

4.9 SPRING SURGE

If a compression spring is held at one end and the other end is deflected by a
suddenly applied load, the coils of the spring will not instantaneously have the same
deflection. End coil in contact with the load deflects first and transmits a large part
of its deflection to the next coil. Thus the deflection wave travels from one end to
the other where it gets reflected and travels back. This travelling back and forth of
the deflection wave, i.e., vibration with natural frequency dies out because of damping.
If the frequency of the applied force equals the natural frequency of the spring,
resonance known as spring surge occurs with large deflections of the coils and the
spring may fail due to high stresses.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.13

The natural frequency should be atleast 12 times the frequency of applied force
to avoid resonance with the harmonics.

f  12fi,

fi  frequency of the applied force

If f is not high enough, the spring rate should be increased or mass should be
decreased.

Surge is a problem in valve springs in I.C Engines.

The natural frequency for springs clamped between two plates is given by (Refer
PSG DB Pg.No. 7.101)

Gg
n
8
d
fn  2
cycles/s
D

where

d  Diameter of the wire,

D  Mean diameter of the spring,

n  Number of active turns,

G  Modulus of rigidity,

g  Acceleration due to gravity, and

  Specific weight of spring m aterial

The surge in springs may be eliminated by using the following methods:

1. By using friction dampers on the centre coils so that the wave propagation
dies out.
2. By using springs of high natural frequency.
3. By using springs having pitch of the coils near the ends different than at the
centre to have different natural frequencies.

4.10 ENERGY STORED IN HELICAL SPRINGS OF CIRCULAR WIRE

We know that the springs are used for storing energy which is equal to the
work done on it by some external load.
4.14 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Let

W  Load applied on the spring, and

  Deflection produced in the spring due to the load W.

Assuming that the load is applied gradually, the energy stored in a spring is,

1
U W
2 ...(i)

We have already discussed that the maximum shear stress induced in the spring
wire,

8W  D  d3  
K or W 
 d3 8K  D

We know that deflection of the spring,

8W  D 3  n 8   d 3   D 3  n    D2  n
   
G  d4 8K  D G  d4 KdG

Substituting the values of W and  in equation (i), we have

1  d3      D 2  n
U  
2 8K  D KdG

2  2 2
  D  n    d   V
4K 2  G 4
2
 4K  G

V  Volume of the spring w ire

 Length of s pring w ire  Cross  sectiona l area of spring wire

 
  D  n   d2 
4 

Note:
1. When a load (say P ) falls on a spring through a height h, then the energy
absorbed in a spring is given by
1
U  P h    W
2
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.15

where

W  Equivalent static load i.e. the gradually applied load which shall produce
the same effect as by the falling load P, and

  Deflection produced in the spring.

2. If a moving vehicle is brought to rest by buffer springs, then

K.E. of the moving vehicle = Energy stored in spring

1 1
mv 2  P 
2 2

(P is determined and used for spring design)

Problem 4.1: A helical spring is made from a wire of 8 mm diameter and has outside
diameter of 7.5 cm. If the permissible shear stress is 30  103 N/cm2 and modulus of
6 2
rigidity 8.4  10 N/cm , find the axial load which the spring can carry and the deflection
per active turn.
(a) Neglecting the effect of curvature. (b) Considering the effect of curvature.

Given data:
Diameter of wire  d  8mm  0.8 c m

Outside diameter D 0  7.5 c m

 Mean diameter  D  D 0  d  7.5  0.8  6.7 cm

D 6.7
Spring index  C    8.375
d 0.8

Permissible shear stress    30  10 3 N /cm 2;

Modulus of rigidity  G  8.4  10 6 N/cm 2.

(a) Neglecting the effect of curvature:

8PD  1 
Max. shear stress  max  3 
1 
d  2C 

8P6.7  1 
30  10 3  3 
1 
 0.8  2 8.375 

P  849.55 k g [PSG DB Pg.No. 7.100]

4.16 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

8 P  C 3n
Deflection  y 
Gd

y 8PC 3
Deflection / active turn  
n Gd

8  849.55  8.375 3

8.4  10 6  0.8

y
 0.5941 cm /active turn
n

(b) Considering the effect of curvature :

Refer P.S.G. Data book; Page No. 7.100
where K s  W ahl’s factor
8 PC
Maximum shear stress  max  Ks
 d2 4C  1 0.615
 
4C  4 C
8  P  8.375
30  10 3   1.175
  0.82 4  8.375   1 0.615
 
P  766.19 kg 4  8.375   4 8.375

8 PC 3n  1.175
Deflection  y 
Gd

y 8PC 3
Deflection / active turn  
n Gd

8  766.19  8.375 3
  0.5358 cm /turn
8.4  10 6  0.8

Problem 4.2: Design a helical compression spring for a maximum load of 1000 N for a
deflection of 20 mm. The value of spring index as 6. The maximum permissible shear
stress  400 N  mm2 and modulus of rigidity  84 kN  mm2.

Given data
Maximum load  P  1000 N

Maximum deflection  y  20 mm

Spring index  C  6

Permissible shear stress  []max  400 N  mm 2

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.17

Modulus of rigidity  G  84 kN  mm 2  84  10 3 N/mm 2

Solution:

1. To find diameter of spring wire d:

Refer PSG Databook Page No. 7.100
8 PC K s  Wahl’s factor
Shear Stress   Ks
d2
4C  1 0.615
8  1000  6  
400   1.2525 4C  4 C
 d2
4  6  1 0.615
d2  47.84  
464 6
d  6.9 mm
 1.25 25
Take d  Diameter of spring wire  7 mm

D
C 6
d

 D  Mean coil diameter  6  d  6  7  42 mm

2. To find the total number of turns (n)
Do
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.100 Di
8.P.C 3  n
Deflection  y 
Gd
p
8  1000  63  n
20 
84  10 3  7

A ctive no. of turns  n  6.8

D
T ake n  7 turns
Since the end condition of the spring is n
d
not given, assume end condition as squared
and ground.
p
Refer PSG Databook Page No. 7.101
 Total number of turns  n  n  2
72 d
Fig. 4.14.
n  9
4.18 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3. To find solid length L s

Solid length  L s  n d

L s  9  7  63 mm

F ree length  L s  n d  y max  0.15 ymax

 9  7  20  3  86 mm

L s  86 mm

4. To find pitch of the coil p

Free length
Pitch of the coil  p 
n  1

86 86
   10.75 mm
91 8

Problem 4.3: Determine the required number of coils and permissible deflection in a
helical spring made of 2 mm dia steel wire if the spring rate is 1600 N  m. Take spring
index as 6 and permissible shear stress as 350 N  mm2

Given data:

Diameter of steel wire  d  2 mm  2  10  3 m

P
Spring rate     1600 N  m
 y 
Spring index  C  6

Permissible shear stress    350 N  mm 2  350  10 6 N  m 2

From PSG data book page No. 1.1, take the value of G

Modulus of rigidity G  0.8  10 5 N  mm 2  0.8  10 11 N/m 2

Solution:
(i) To find no. of coils (n)

8 PC3
Deflection  y  n
Gd (PSG DBo o k Pg.No . 7.100)

(o r)
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.19

P Gd

y 8 C3 n

0.8  10 11  2  10  3
1600 
8  63  n

0.8  10 11  2  10  3
n  57.8
1600  8  6 3

Take n  58 turns

(ii) To find the permissible deflection (y)

8PC
Shear stress   Ks
d2 (PSG D.Book Pg. 7.100)

Wahl’s factor

4C  1 8P6
 Ks   0.615 350  10 6   1.2525
4C  4  2  10  32

461
  0.615
441

 1.2525 P  73.157 N

But,

P
Spring rate    1600 N  m is given
 y 
73.157
  1600
y

73.157
 y  Deflection   0.0457 meters
1600

Permissible deflection y  45.718 mm

Problem 4.4: Design a coil spring with a spring rate of 18 kN  m is compressed 25 mm,
when the coil is closed. Take shear stress  350 MN  m2 and spring index  8; The ends are
squared and ground. Modulus of rigidity of spring wire as 83 GN  m2
4.20 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Given data:
P
Spring rate  k   18 kN  m  18000 N  m
y

or k  18 N  mm

Maximum deflection  y  25 m m  25  10  3 m

Shear stress    350 MN  m 2  350  10 6 N  m 2

Spring index  C  8

Ends are squared and ground

Modulus of rigidity  G  83 GN  m 2  83  10 9 N  m 2

Solution:
(i) Find load P 

P
Stiffness  k   18000
y

P  Ma x. load  18000  y  18000  25  10  3

P  450 N

(ii) To find d and D:

We know that, from page No. (7.100)

4C  1 0.615
8PC K s  W ahl’s factor  
 Ks 4C  4 C
 d2
4  8  1 0.615
8  450  8  
350  10  6
 1.184 484 8
 d2
K s  1.184
2 5
d  3.1  10

 d  5.56  10 3 meters

Diameter of wire  d  5.56 m.m

Take standard dia of spring wire d  6 mm

D
or C  8  d  6  10  3 m
d
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.21

 Mean diameter  D  8.d

D  8  6  48 mm

(iii) To find total no. of turns n:

8PC 3 n
Deflection  y 
Gd (PSG D Book Pg.No. 7.100)

8  450  83  n
25  10  3 
83  10 9  6  10  3

Active of no. of turns n  6.75

take n  7 turns

For squared and ground end.

n  Total no. of turns  n  2 (PSG DB Pg.No. 7.101)

729

(iv) To find Solid length, Free length and Pitch of the coil
So lid length  L s  n d  9  6  54 mm

L s  54 mm

Free length  L f  n d  max  0.15 max

 9  6  25  0.15  25

L f  54  25  3.75  82.75 mm say 83 mm

Free length
Pitch of the coil p 
n  1

83 83
p    10.375 mm
91 8

p  10.375 mm

Problem 4.5: Design a close coiled helical compression spring for a service load ranging
from 3000 N to 4000 N. The axial deflection of the spring for the load range is 10 mm.
Take spring index as 6; permissible shear stress is 42  103 N  cm2 and modulus of
rigidity  0.84  107 N  cm2 Draw a fully dimension sketch.
4.22 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Given data:
Minimum load  P min  300 N;

Maximum load  P max  4000 N;

Deflection for load range (ie., 4000  3000  1000 N  y  10 mm  1 cm

Spring index  C  6

Permissible shear stress  max  42  10 3 N  c m2;

Modulus of rigidity  G  0.84  10 7 N  cm 2

Solution:

(i) Find d, D, D o, Di

Refer PSG Data book, page no. 7.100 and 7.101

8P max C
Max. shear stress  max   KS
d2

8  4000  6 4C  1 0.615
42  10 3  2
 1.2525 KS  
d 4C  4 C

d2  1.822 4  6  1 0.615
 
464 6

d  1.35 c m  1.2525

D
But C  , diameter of spring wire  d  13.5 mm
d

Mean dia of coil  D  C  d  6  13.5  81 mm

Outer diameter of coil  D0  D  d

 81  13.5  94.5 mm

Inner diameter of coil  D i  D  d

 81  13.5  67.5 mm
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.23

(ii) To find Total no. of turns n:

8 P max C 3 n
ymax 
G .d

The deflec tio n y, given i.e. y  1 c m in the problem refers to load range, i.e.
P max  P min  4000  3000  1000 N

8 P range C 3 n
y
Gd

8  1000  63  n
1
0.84  10 7  1.35

Active no. of turns n  6.5625

Take n  7 turns

Assume ends are squared and ground

Total no. of turns  n  n  2
729

n9

(iii) To find maximum deflection, max

For the load range 1000 N  the deflection is 1 cm

For a max load of 4000 N  max  ?

4000  1
max   4 cm
1000

(iv) To find solid length L s, free length L f and pitch of the coil p

Solid length  L s  n  d

 9  13.5  121.5 mm

Free length  L f  n  d  max  0.15 max

 9  13.5  40  0.15  40  121.5  40  6  167.5 mm

L f  167.5 mm
4.24 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Free length 167.5

Pitch of the coil  P    20.9375
n  1 8
P  20.9375 mm
Inner dia  Di  D  d  81  31.5  49.5 mm

Outer dia.  D0  D  d  81  31.5  112.5 mm

Problem 4.6: The following data refers to a helical spring used for an I.C. engine.
Length of the spring when valve is open  3.5 cm
Length of the spring when the valve is closed  5 c m
Spring load when valve is open  600 N
Spring load when valve is closed  300 N
Maximum inside diameter of the spring = 4 cm
Maximum permissible shear stress  3.5  104 N  cm2
Modulus of rigidity  8  105 N  c m2

Note: In the above problem, wire dia (d), mean diameter (D) and spring index (C)
are not given.
Therefore, calculate d and D, by trail and error method
Assume d, find D, and C;
Then check shear stress;
Induced shear stress < Design shear stress
induced  []

Solution

Trail (1)

Assume d  5 mm D  Di  d

D i  4cm  40 mm

Mean dia  D  D i  d  45 mm

D 45
Spring index  C   9 [Refer PSG D.Book Pg. 7.100]
d 5
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.25

8P  C 4 C  1 0.615
  2
Ks K s  Wa hl’s factor  
d 4C  4 C

8  600  9 4  9  1 0.615
  1.162  
  0.5 2 4  9 4 9

  6.39  10 4 N  1.162

Since   []

Therefore design is not satisfactory
Trail (2)

Take d  6 mm 4C  1 0.615
K s  Wa hl’s factor  
4C  4 C
 0.6 cm

D i  40 mm 4  7.66  1 0.615
 
4  7.66 4 7.66
 4 cm given 
29.64
  0.080
D 4.6 26.64
C   7.66
d 0.6
 1.1928
Mean dia D  Di  d

 4  0.6  4.6 c m

8PC 8  600  7.666

  2
KS   1.1928
d  0.62

induced  3.8  10 4 N  c m2

induced  []design : Hence Design is not safe.

4C  1 0.615
Trail (3) Wahl’s factor  K s  
4C  4 C
Take d  7 mm  0.7 cm
4  6.714  1 0.615
 
D i  40 mm  4 cm given 4  6.714  4 6.714

Mean dia  D  Di  d 25.857

  0.0915
22.857
 4  0.7  4.7 cm
K s  1.222
4.26 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

D 4.7
Spring index  C    6.714
d 0.7

8PC 8  600  6.714

  2
Ks   1.222
d  0.72

 2.5  104 N  cm 2  3.5  10 4 N  cm2

induced  []design : Hence Design is safe.

Therefore the diameter of wire d  6 to 7 mm

Problem 4.7: A railway boggy weighing 20 kN and moving at a velocity of 1.5 m/sec is
brought to rest by a bumper consisting of two helical steel springs made of square wire.
Spring index as 6. The springs are compressed by 250 mm in bringing the boggy to rest.
The maximum shear stress is 400 MN  mm2. Design the spring. Take modulus of rigidity
8  104 N  mm2

Given
P  20 kN  20  10 3 N; v  1.5 m/sec; N  2 ; C  6; y  250 mm  0.25 m;

max  400 MN/mm 2  400 N/m 2;

G  8  10 4 N/mm2  8  109 N/m 2 w

b
Solution t
Refer Databook, Page No. 7.100
For rectangular cross-section of wire
D
Spring index  C 
b

D
F ig. 4.15.
Q2  P  D
Shear stress   
2t  b 2 ...(1)

Q1    P  D3  n
Deflection  y 
4  G  t3  b ...(2)

For Square cross-section of wire.

Put t  b in eq (1) and (2)

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.27

where b  side of square

Q2  P  D
Shear stress   
2b 3 ...(3)

Q 1    P  D 3n
Deflection  y 
4  G  b4 ...(4)

The values of Q 1 and Q 2 can be taken from Databook, Pg No. 7.100 based on
b
ratio.
t

b b
For square cross-section,  1 (bec ause t  b) therefore, at  1, take the values
t t
o f Q 1 and Q 2. Q 1  7.09 , Q 2  4.79

Let P  Maximum load on the spring, when it stops the boggy.

1
Work done by the load  load  deflection
2

Since there are two springs

1
Workdone by the load  2  Py ... (5)
2

1
Energy stored by the spring  m.v2 (kinetic energy of the moving boggy) ...(6)
2

Equating equations (5) and (6)

1 y  250 mm
Py  m  v2
2  0.25 m

3 20
1  20  10  m
P  0.25     1.5 2 g
2  9.81 
20  103
 kg
9.81

P  9174.31 N v  1.5 m  sec.

4.28 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

From stress equation (3)

Q2  P  D From data book P.No. 7.100

Shear stress    3 b
2b at  1
t

4.79  9174.31  6b Q 2  4.79

400  3
2b D
C 6
2
b  329.587 b
b  18.15 mm D  6b

Take side of square wire b  19 mm

and Mean diameter  D  6  b  6  19  114 mm
From deflection equation (4)

Q 1  P  D 3n From data book, (page No.7.100)

y  Deflection  b
4G b4 at  1
t

7.09    9174.31  114 3  n Q 1  7.09

250 
4  8  10 4  19 4
n  Active no. of turns  34.43
Take n  35 turns

Problem 4.8: Design a helical spring for an engine valve. Length of the spring when the
valve open is 20 mm and the length when closed is 60 mm. Spring load on the valve
when open is 590 N and when closed is 350 N. Minimum internal diameter of the spring
is 30 mm. Take permissible shear stress, []  400 N/mm2 and G  0.8  105 N/mm2.

1. Wire diameter
8P max D
[]  K s
 d3

4C  1 0.615
Ks  
4C  d C

D
C
d
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.29

D  ID  d  30  d P max  500 N

[]  400 N /mm 2

  30  d  
4
d
1 
0.615  8  500  30  d
 
400    
4  30 d   30  d    d3
  4  
d d
    
 120  3d 0.615 d  30  d
400      1273.24 
 120 30  d  d3

Solve for d by trial and error method

RH side quantity is evaluated for various values of d

d RH side quantity
3 mm 1760 N/mm 2
4 mm 793 N/mm 2
5 mm 432 N/mm 2
6 mm 265.8 N/mm 2

We adopt d  6 mm (standard)

D  30  6  36 mm

2. Number of turns

8PD 3 n

Gd 4

P is the load that causes deflection 

 P  500  350  150 N

  60  50  10 mm

8  150  36 3  n
10 
0.8  10 5  64

i.e., n  18.51 say 19

4.30 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3. Free length
Free length max  So lid height  clashing allowance

8P max D 3 n 8  500  36 3  19
max    34.2 mm
Gd4 0.8  10 5  64

n  n  2 for squared and ground ends

 19  2  21

n d  21  6  126 mm

Clashing allowance 0.15 max  0.15  34.2  5.13

Free length 34.2  126  5.13  165.33 say 166 mm

4. Spring rate/stiffness

Gd4 0.8  10 5  64
k   14.62 N/mm
8D 3 n 8  36 3  19

Problem 4.9: Design a compression spring for a safety valve for following data. Valve
operating pressure  2 N/mm2. Diameter of valve seat = 200 mm.
2 5 2
[]  600 N/mm , G  0.8  10 N/mm . The spring is to be kept in a casing of 120 mm
internal diameter. Maximum lift of the spring is 10 mm when the pressure is
2.08 N/mm2. (JNTU, Dec - 2011, Set - 3)

P 2  2 N/mm2, D v  200 mm, []  600 N/mm 2, ID casing  120 mm,

  10 mm, P 1  2.08 N/mm2

Solution

(i) Forces acting on the valve

 D 2v  P1   200 2  2.08
P1    65345 N
4 4

 D 2v  P 2   200 2  2
P2    62832 N
4 4

(ii) Diameter of wire d  and mean diameter D 

[PSG D.B. Pg.No. 7.100]
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.31

K s  PC
We know that [] 
 d2

Let us assume C  6 Given []  600 N /mm2

4C  1 0.615 4  6  1 0.615
Ks      1.252
4C  4 C 464 6

1.252  65345  6
Now 600 
  d2

d2  260.41 or d  16.137 say 17 mm

D
C  Mean coil diameter D  6  17  102 mm
d

Outer dia of spring OD  D  d  102  17  119 mm

But Inner dia of casing is 120 mm so, there is less clearance, hence not
acceptable. So we reduce C  5

Trial 2
C5

4C  1 0.615 4  5  1 0.615
Ks      1.3105
4C  4 C 454 5

1.3105  65345  5
600 
 d2

d2  227.15 ; d  15.072 say 16 mm

D
C  Mean coil diameter D  5  16  80 mm
d

Outer diameter of spring (OD)  D  d  80  16  96 mm

 There is sufficient clearance in casing

(iii) Number of coils n

8PC 3 n
We know deflection y 
Gd
P  P 1  P 2  65345  62832  2513 N
4.32 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

8  2513  53  n
 10 
0.8  10 5  16

 n  5.0935 say 6 turns

(iv) Free Length Lf, Solid lengths L s and pitch

Free Length L f  max  solid length Ls  clash allowance

8Pmax D 3 n 8  65345  803  6

max    306.3 mm
Gd4 0.8  10 5  16 4

Solid length L s  n  d

n  n  2 Assuming ground and square ends

628

Solid length L s  n d  8  16  128 mm

Clash Allowance  0.15 max  0.15  306.3  45.95 mm

Free Length L f  306.3  128  45.95  480.25 mm

Free Length 480.25

Pitch p    68.6 mm
n  1 81

Stiffness q

Gd 4 0.8  10 5  16 4
Stiffness q    213.3 N/mm
8D3 n 8  80 3  6

P 1  P2 2513
(or) q   251.3 N/mm
 10

Problem 4.10: At the bottom of a mine shaft a group of 20 identical helical springs are
set in parallel to absorb the shock caused by a falling cage in case of a failure. The cage
with load weights 100 kN and the counter weight weighs 30 kN. If the loaded cage falls
through a height of 50 m from rest, find the maximum stress induced in each spring.
Take d  50 mm, C  6, n  20, G  0.8  105 N/mm2.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.33

Refer to Fig. 4.16. Shaft is a

vertical opening sunk from the ground G round
surface to attend to underground su rface C oun ter
operations in the mine-field.
w eight
1. Energy balance W 2 =30 kN
Energy given to springs =
Potential energy of the cage  Work
done by the cage to deflect the spring
h
through   Work done by the cage in
raising the counterweight through
h  . M in e M in e shaft
Fig.4.16. Springs

1
U  W 1 h  W 1   W 2 h    P   20 for 20 springs
2
10 P  100  10 3 50    30  10 3 50  

10 P  70  10 3 50  

P  350  10 3/   7  10 3 (1)

2. Maximum deflection
8PD 3 n 8PC 3 n
  C6
Gd 4 Gd
n  20
8  P  6 3  20
 d  50 mm
0.8  10 5  50
G  0.8  10 5 N/mm2
  864  10  5 P in mm

 0.864  10  5 P in metres (2)

3. Equivalent static load

Substituting Eqn. (2) in Eqn. (1) we get,

350  10 3
P  7  103
0.864  10  5 P

i.e. P 2  7000 P  405.09  10 8  0

4.34 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

7000  
 7000 2  4  1  405.09  108
P
2

P  204798.90 N

P  204800 N

4. Shear stress
K s  8PD
 K  1.25 from PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.100
 d3
D  6  d  6  50  300 mm

1.25  8  204800  300

  1564.55
  50 3

  1564.55 N/mm2

Problem 4.11: In a spring loaded governor as shown in Fig. 4.17 (a) the balls are
attached vertical arms of the bell crank lever, the horizontal arms of which lift the sleeve
against the pressure exerted by a spring. The mass of each ball is 3 kg and the lengths
of the vertical and horizontal arms of the bell crank lever are 160 mm and 120 mm
respectively. The extreme radii rotation of the balls are 120 mm and 150 mm and the
governor sleeve begins to lift at 250 r.p.m. It reaches the highest position with a 8 percent
increase of speed when effects of friction are neglected. Design a suitable close coiled round
section spring for the governor.

Assume permissible stress in spring steel as 450 MPa, modulus of rigidity

84 kN/mm2 and spring index 8. Allowance must be made for stress concentration, factor
4C  1 0.615
of which is given by  , where C is the spring index.
4C  4 C

Solution
Given: m  3 kg; x  160 mm = 0.16 m; y = 120 mm = 0.120 m; r2  120 mm
= 0.12 m; r1  150 mm = 0.15 m; N 2  250 r.p.m;   450 MPa
 450 N/mm 2; G  84 kN/mm 2  84  103 N/mm 2; C  8

The spring loaded governor, as shown in Fig. 4.17 (a) is a *Hartnell type
governor. First of all, let us find the compression of the spring.

*For further details, see Dr. S.R. book on “Dynamic of Machinery”

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.35

C ap

C asting

Spring

B all

L ever
x

R oller

A A
F F
P in
F ulcru m y Sleeve
Spin dle
Fig.4.17.(a)
r
r2
r1 F C2
F C1

r
m
m
S1
x 2 x

S2
A
y 2
1
F F 2
y
(b) M axim u m position. (c) M inim um position .
Fig 4.17.

We know that minimum angular speed at which the governor sleeve begins to lift,
2 N2 2  250
2    26.18 rad/s
60 60
Since the increase in speed is 8%, therefore maximum speed,
4.36 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

8 8
1   2    2  26.18   26.18  28.27 rad/s
100 100

The po sitio n o f the balls and the lever arms at the maximum and minimum
speeds is sho w n in Fig. 4.17 (b) and (c)respec tively.

F C1  Centrifugal force at the maximum speed, and

F C2  Centrifugal force at the minimum speed.

We know that the spring force at the maximum speed  1,

x x 0.16
S 1  2 F C1   2 m  12 r1   2  3 28.27 2 0.15   959 N
y y 0.12

Similarly, the spring force at the minimum speed 2,

x x 0.16
S 2  2F C   2m  22 r2   2  3 26.18 2 0.12   658 N
2 y y 0.12

Since the compression of the spring will be equal to the lift of the sleeve,
therefore compression of the spring,

y y y
  1  2  r1  r  r  r2  r1  r2
x x x

0.120
 0.15  0.12   0.0225 m  22.5 mm
0.16

This compression of the spring is due to the spring force of S 1  S 2 i.e.

959  658  301 N

1. Diameter of the spring wire

Let d  Diameter of the spring wire in mm.

We know that Wahl’s stress factor

4C  1 0.615 4  8  1 0.615
K     1.184
4C  4 C 484 8

We also know that maximum shear stress ,

8W  C 8  959  8 23131
450  K  2
 1.184  2

d d d2
(Substituting W  S 1, the maximum spring force)
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.37

23131
d2   51.4 or d  7.17 mm
450

From Table, we shall take the standard wire of size SWG 1 having diameter
d  7.62 mm.

2. Mean diameter of the spring coil

Let D  Mean diameter of the spring coil

We know that the spring index,

C  D/d or D  C  d  8  7.62  60.96 mm

3. Number of turns of the coil

Let n  Number of active turns of the coil

We know that compression of the spring ,

8W  C 3  n 8  301  83  n
22.5    1.93 n
Gd 84  10 3  7.62 ...(SubstitutingW  S 1  S2)

 n  22.5 / 1.93  11.66 say 12 W  959  658  301

and total number of turns using squared and ground ends,

n  n  2  12  2  14

4. Free length of the coil

Since the compression produced under a force of 301 N is 22.5 mm, therefore
maximum compression produced under the maximum load of 866 N is,

22.5
max   959  71.69 mm
301

We know that free length of the coil,

L F  n  d  max  0.15 max

 14  7.62  71.69  0.15  71.69  189.12 mm Ans.

5. Pitch of the coil

We know that pitch of the coil

Free length 189.12

   14.547 mm Ans.
n  1 14  1
4.38 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 4.12: A single plate clutch is to be designed for a vehicle. Both sides of the
plate are to be effective. The clutch transmits 30 kW at a speed of 3000 r.p.m and should
cater for an over load of 20%. The intensity of pressure on the friction surface should not
exceed 0.085 N/mm2 and the surface speed at the mean radius should be limited to 2300
m/min. The outside diameter of the surfaces may be assumed as 1.3 times the inside
diameter and the coefficient of friction for the surfaces may be taken as 0.3. If the axial
thrust is to be provided by six springs of about 25 mm mean coil diameter, design the
springs selecting wire from the following gauges:

SWG 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Dia. (mm) 5.893 5.385 4.877 4.470 4.064 3.658 3.251 2.946 2.642

Safe shear stress is limited to 420 MPa and modulus of rigidity is 84 kN /mm2.

Solution

Given: P  30 kW  30  10 3 W; N  3000 r.p.m; p  0.085 N/mm2; v  2300 m/min;

d1  1.3 d2 ; r1  1.3 r2;   0.3; No. of springs = 6; D  25 mm;   420 MPa
 420 N/mm 2; G  84 kN /mm 2  84  10 3 N/mm 2

First of all, let us find the maximum load on each spring. We know that the
mean torque transmitted by the clutch,

P  60 30  10 3  60
T mean    95.5 Nm
2 N 2  3000

Since an overload of 20% is allowed, therefore maximum torque to which the

clutch should be designed is given by

T max  1.2 T mean  1.2  95.5  1114.6 Nm  114600 N mm ...(i)

Let r1 and r2 be the outside and inside radii of the friction surfaces. Since
maximum intensity of pressure is at the inner radius, therefore for uniform wear,

p  r2  C (a constant) or C  0.085 r2 ...(ii)

Since both sides of the plate are effective, therefore maximum torque
transmitted,

1
Tmax    W r1  r2 2  2    C [r12  r22]
2 [From equation (ii)]
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.39

114600  2  0.3  0.085 r2 [1.3 r22  r22]  0.11 r23

 r23  114600/0.11  1.04  10 6 or r2  101.4 say 102 mm

and r1  1.3 r2  1.3  102  132.6 say 133 mm

 Mean radius,

r1  r2 133  102
r   117.5 mm  0.1175 m
2 2

We know that surface speed at the mean radius,

v  2 r N  2  0.1175  3000  2215 m/min

Since the surface speed as obtained above is less than the permissible value of
2300 m/min, therefore the radii of the friction surface are safe.

We know that axial thrust,

W  C  2 r1  r2  0.085 r2  2 r1  r2 . .

 . C  0.085 r2

 0.085  102  2 133  102  1689 N

Since this axial thrust is to be provided by six springs, therefore maximum load
on each spring,

1689
W1   281.5 N
6

1. Diameter of the spring wire

Let d  Diameter of the spring wire.

We know that the maximum torque transmitted,

D 25
T  W1   281.5   3518.75 Nmm
2 2

We also know that the maximum torque transmitted T,

 
3518.75     d3   420  d3  82.48 d3
6 16

 d3  3518.75 / 82.48  42.66 or d  3.494 mm

4.40 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Let us no w find o ut the diameter o f the spring w ire by taking the stress
fac to r K into consideration. We know that the spring index,

D 25
C   7.155
d 3.494

Wahl’s factor

4C  1 0.615 4  7.155  1 0.615

Ks      1.21
4C  4 C 4  7.155  4 7.155

Maximum shear stress 

Ks  8  W1 D 1.21  281.5  25 21681

420   
d 3
d 3
d3

d3  51.6 or d  3.72 mm

from standard SWG8 we have d  4.064 mm

Outer diameter of spring

OD  D  d  25  4.064  29.064 mm

ID  D  d  25  4.064  20.936 mm

2. Free length of spring

Let us assume active number coils n  10, therefore Compression
produced by axis thrust of 281.5 N per spring

8W 1 D 3  n 8  281.5  25 3  10
   15.356 mm
Gd 4 84  10 3  4.064 4

For square and Ground ends, the total number of turns of coil,

n  n  2  10  2  12

Free length L f  n d    0.15 

 12  4.064  15.356  0.15  15.356

L f  66.43 mm
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.41

3. Pitch of coil
Free length 66.43
Pitch    6.04 mm
n  1 12  1

Problem 4.13: Find the maximum shear stress and deflection induced in a helical spring
for the following specification, if it has to absorb 1200 Nm of energy. Mean diameter of
spring = 120 mm, diameter of steel wire used = 25 mm and number of coils = 35, take
G  84 kN/mm2.

Given: U  1200 Nm, D  120 mm  0.12 m, d  25 mm  0.025 m;

2 9 2
n  35, G  84 kN/mm  84  10 N /m

Solution

(i) Maximum shear stress induced

D 0.12
Spring Index C    4.8
d 0.025

Wahl’s factor

4C  1 0.615 4  4.8  1 0.615

Ks      1.325
4C  4 C 4  4.8  4 4.8

   
Volume of spring V   Dn   d2     0.12  35    0.025 2 
 4   4 

 0.00648 m 3

2
Energy Absorbed U  V
4K2s  G

2  0.00648
1200 
4  1.325 2  84  10 9

2  1.092  10 7 or   330.513  10 6 N /m 2

  330.5 MPa

(ii) Deflection in spring 

  D2 n   330.5  10 6  0.12 2  35
   0.188 m
Ks  d  G 1.325  0.025  84  10 9
4.42 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

  188 mm

Example 4.14: Design a close coiled helical compression spring for a service load ranging
from 2000 N to 2500 N. The axial deflection of the spring for the load range is 5 mm.
Assume a spring index of 6. The permissible shear stress intensity is 420 MPa and modulus
of rigidity, G  84 kN/mm2.
Neglect the effect of stress concentration. Draw a fully dimensional sketch of the spring,
showing details of the finish of the end coils. (JNTU, Dec 2011 - Set 2)

Solution
Given: P 1  2000 N; W 2  2500 N;   5 mm; C  D/ d  6;   420 MPa
 420 N/mm ; G  84 kN/mm  84  10 N/mm2
2 2 3

1. Mean diameter of the spring coil

Let D  Mean dia meter of the spring coil for a maxim um load of

P 2  2500 N, and

d  Diameter of the spring wire

We know that twisting moment on the spring,
D 6d . . D 
T  P2   2500   7500 d  . C d 6
2 2  
We also know that twisting moment T,
 
7500 d     d3   420  d3  82.48 d3
16 16
7500
 d2   90.93 or d  9.54 mm
82.48
From Table, we shall take a standard wire of size SWG 3/0 having diameter
d  9.50 mm. (PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.105)

 Mean diameter of the spring coil,

D  6d  6  9.5  57.00 mm Ans.
We know that outer diameter of the spring coil,
D o  D  d  57  9.5  66.5 mm Ans.

and inner diameter of the spring coil,

D i  D  d  57  9.5  47.5 mm Ans.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.43

2. Number of turns of the spring coil

Let n  Number o f ac tive turns.

It is given that the axial deflec tio n  for the load range from 2000 N to 2500
N (i.e, for P  500 N) is 6 mm.

We know that the deflection of the spring ,

8P  C 3  n 8  500 6 3 n
5   1.083 n
Gd 84  10 3  9.5

5
 n  4.61 say 5 Ans.
1.083

For squared and ground ends, the total number of turns,

n  5  2  7 Ans.

3. Free length of the spring

Since the compression produced under 500 N is 5 mm, therefore maximum
compression produced under the maximum load of 2500 N is

5
max   2500  25 mm
500

We know that free length of the spring,

D
L F  n  d  max  0.15 max

 7  9.5  25  0.15  25 d

L F  95.25 mm sa y 96 mm Di 96m m
Do
4. Pitch of the coil
16m m
We know that pitch of the coil

Free length 96
   16 mm A ns.
n  1 71 Fig.

The spring is shown in Fig.

Problem 4.15: Design and draw a valve spring of a petrol engine for the following
operating conditions:
Spring load when the valve is open = 400 N
Spring load when the valve is closed = 250 N
4.44 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Maximum inside diameter of spring = 25 mm

Length of the spring when the valve is open = 40 mm
Length of the spring when the valve is closed = 50 mm
Maximum permissible shear stress = 400 MPa (Anna Univ, May 2011 - ME 2303)

Solution
Given: P 1  400 N; P 2  250 N; D i  25 mm; l1  40 mm; l2  50 mm;
  400 MPa  400 N/mm 2

1. Mean diameter of the spring coil

Let d  D iameter of the spring w ire in mm , and

D  Mean diameter of the spring co il

D  Inside diameter of spring  Diameter of spring wire  25  d mm

Since the diameter of the spring wire is obtained for the maximum spring load
P 1, therefore maximum twisting moment of the spring,

D  25  d 
T  P1   400    5000  200 d Nmm
2  2 
We know that maximum twisting moment T,

 
5000  200 d     d3   400  d3  78.55 d3
16 16

Taking this equation by trial and error method, we find that d  4.2 mm.

In PSG DB Pg. 7.105, we find that standard size of wire is SWG 7 having
d  4.5 mm.

Now let us find the diameter of the spring wire by taking Wahl’s stress factor
K into consideration.

We know that spring index,

D 25  4.5
C   6.555 say 6.6
d 4.5 . .
 . D  25  d

 Wahl’s stress factor,

4C  1 0.615 4  6.6  1 0.615

K     1.227
4C  4 C 4  6.6  4 6.6
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.45

We know that the maximum shear stress ,

8pc
  Ks
d2

8P 1  C 8  400  6.6 8248

400  K s  2
 1.227  2

d d d2

8248
 d2   20.62 or d  4.54 mm
400

Taking larger of the two values, we have

d  4.54 mm

From PSG DB Pg. 7.105 we shall take a standard wire of size SWG 6 having
diameter d  5.0 mm.

 Mean diameter of the spring coil

D  25  d  25  5  30 mm Ans.

and Outer diameter of the spring coil,

D o  D  d  30  5  35 mm Ans.

2. Number of turns of the coil

Let n  number of active turns of the coil.

We are given that the compression of the spring caused by a load of P 1  P 2,
i.e. 400  250  150 N is l2  l1, i.e. 50  40  10 mm. In other words, the deflection
 of the spring is 10 mm for a load W of 150 N

We know that the deflection of the spring ,

8P  D 3  n 8  150 303 n
10    0.648 n
G  d4 80  10 3 54 (Taking G  80  10 3 N/mm 2)

10
n   15.43 say 16 Ans.
0.648
Taking the ends of the springs as squared and ground, the total number of
turns of the spring,

n  16  2  18 Ans.
4.46 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3. Free length of the spring

Since the deflection for 150 N of load is 10 mm, therefore the maximum
deflection for the maximum load of 400 N is

10
max   400  26.67 mm
150

 Free length of the spring,

L F  n  d  max  0.15 max

 18  5  26.67  0.15  26.67  120.67 mm

4. Pitch of the coil

We know that pitch of the coil

Free length 120.67

   7.1 mm
n  1 18  1

Problem 4.16: Design a helical spring for a spring loaded safety valve (Ramsbottom safety
valve) for the following conditions:

Diameter of valve seat = 65 mm; Operating pressure 0.7 N/mm2; Maximum pressure when
the valve blows off freely  0.75 N/mm2; Maximum lift of the valve when the pressure rises
from 0.7 to 0.75 N/mm2  3.5 mm; Maximum allowable stress = 550 MPa; Modulus of
rigidity  84 kN/mm2; Spring index = 6.
[Anna Univ, Dec 2012 - ME 2303, June 2012 JNTU - Dec 2011 - Set 3]

Solution

Given: D 1  65 mm; p1  0.7 N/mm 2; p2  0.75 N/mm 2;   3.5 mm;

  550 MPa  550 N/mm 2; G  84 kN /mm 2  84  103 N/mm2; C  6

1. Mean diameter of the spring coil

Let

D  Mean diamete r of the spring coil, and

d  Diameter of the spring wire

We know that initial tensile force acting on the spring (i.e. before the valve
lifts),
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.47

 
P1  D 12 p1  65 2 0.7  2323 N
4 4

Maximum tensile force acting on the spring (i.e. when the valve blows off freely),

 
P2  D 12 p2  65 2 0.75  2489 N
4 4

 Force which produces the deflection of 3.5 mm,

P  P 2  P 1  2489  2323  166 N

Since the diameter of the spring wire is obtained for the maximum spring
load P 2, therefore maximum twisting moment on the spring,

D 6d
T  P2   2489   7467 d
2 2 . .
 . C  D /d  6

We know that maximum twisting moment T,

 
7467 d     d3   550  d3  108 d3
16 16

7467
 d2   69.14 or d  8.3 mm
108

From PSG DB RC 7.105, we shall take a standard wire of size SWG 2/0 having
diameter d = 8.5 mm

 Mean diameter of the coil,

D  6 d  6  8.5  51 mm

Outside diameter of the coil,

D o  D  d  51  8.5  59.5 mm

and inside diameter of the coil,

D i  D  d  51  8.5  42.5 mm

2. Number of turns of the coil

Let n  Number o f ac tive turns o f the c o il.

We kno w that the deflec tio n o f the spring ,

4.48 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

8P  C 3  n 8  166  63  n
3.5    0.4 n
Gd 84  10 3  8.5

3.5
 n  8.75 say 9
0.4

For a spring having loop on both ends, the total number of turns,

n  n  1  9  1  10

3. Free length of the spring

Taking the least gap between the adjacent coils as 1 mm when the spring is in
free state, the free length of the tension spring,

L F  n  d  n  1 1  9  8.5  9  1 1  84.5 mm

4. Pitch of the coil

We know that pitch of the coil

Free length 84.5

p   9.4 mm
n  1 10  1

Problem 4.17: Design a close-coiled helical spring of silicon-manganese steel for the valve
of an IC engine capable of exerting a net force of 65 N when the valve is open and 54 N
when the valve is closed. The internal and external diameters are governed by space
limitations, as it has to fit over bushing of 19 mm outside diameter and go inside a space
of 38 mm diameter. The valve lift is 6 mm. (Anna Univ Dec 2010 - ME 53204)

Given data
P 1  65 N; D o  19 mm; l  6 mm; P 2  54 N; D i  38 mm;   200 MPa;   6 mm

1. Mean diameter of the spring coil

d  diameter of the spring wire

D  mean diameter of spring coil

D  D i  d  38  d

D  38  d 
T  P1   65    N mm
2  2 
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.49


Max. Twisting moment T   d3
16

 38  d  
65      200  d3
 2  16

1235  32.5 d  39.27 d3

By hit & trial method, d  3.241 mm

Spring index

D 38  3.241
C   12.72
d 3.241

C  12.72

Wahl’s factor

4C  1 0.615 4  12.72   1 0.615 49.88

K     ; K  1.25
4C  4 C 4  12.72  4 3.241 46.88

We know that maximum shear stress

8 P1 C 1.25  8  65  12.72
K 
d 2
  3.241 2

  250.5 MPa

Mean diameter of the spring coil

D  38  3.241  41.241 mm

2. Number of Turns of the coil

P 1  P 2  lift W

65  54  W
11  W

8WD 3 n
Deflection  
Gd 4

8  11  41.241 3  n 6.172  10 6 n
6 
8  10 4  3.241 4 8.827  10 6

6  8.827  10 6
n
6.172  10 6
4.50 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

n  8.58 turns

n9

n  n  2  9  2  11 turns

3. Free length of spring L f

6
max   65  35.45 mm
11

Free length L f  n d   ma x  0.15  max

 11  3.241  35.45  0.15  35.45

L f  76.42 mm

4. Pitch of coil p

Free length 76.42
p   7.64 mm
n  1 11  1

Problem 4.18: A body weighing 2500 N moving at 4 kmph has to be brought to rest by
a buffer. The buffer consists of similar close coiled springs (helical) of circular section
arranged in parallel. The compression of each spring is 125 mm. Assuming a spring index
of 8, permissible shear stress of spring wire is 450 MPa and modulus of rigidity 84 GPa,
calculate the diameter of wire, number of active turns and free length of spring. The spring
has squared and ground ends. (JNTU - Dec 2011 Set 4)

P1 2500
Given: Weight P 1  2500 N Mass m     250 kg
 10

4  1000
V  4 kmph   1.11 m/sec; No. of springs = 4
3600

  125 mm,   450 MPa  450 N/mm2; G  84  10 3 N/mm 2

Solution

(i) Diameter of wire

1 1
Kinetic energy of body  m  V 2   250  1.11 2  154 N m
2 2

K.E  154  10 3 Nmm

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.51

1
Energy stored in springs  P 4
2 1

(Here P is equivalent load when applied gradually on each spring causing

deflection of 125 mm)

1
  P 1  125  4  250 P 1
2

Equating the above two we have

154  10 3  250 P 1

154  10 3
 P1   616 N
250

Torque transmitted by spring

D
T  P1 
2

D D
Spring Index C  or 8  or D  8 d
d d

D 616  8d
T  P1    2464 d
2 2


We know that torque T    d3
16


 2464 d   450  d3
16

2464  16
or d2   27.887
  450

d  5.28 mm

Standard diameter from PSG P.B Pg.No. 7.105

We have d  5.6 mm
4.52 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2. Number of turns of the spring

We know that deflection

8P 1 C3 n
y 
Gd (PSG Pg.No. 7.100)

8  616  8 3  n
125 
84  10 3  5.6

n  23.3 say 24

Given square and ground ends

No. of turns n  n  2  24  2  26

Free length of spring L f

L f  n d  y  0.15 y

 26  5.6  125  0.15  125

 289.35 mm

Problem 4.19: Calculate critical frequency of a helical spring wire diameter 10 mm, mean
coil diameter 50 mm and number of active coils is 12. Take   550 MPa,
G  80 kN/mm2. (JNTU - Dec 2011 - Set 4)

Given: d  10 mm, D  50 mm n  12,   550 MPa  550 N/mm 2

G  80 kN/mm 2  80  10 3 N/mm 2

Solution
From PSG D Book Pg 7.101. We have

Critical natural frequency f

n
8
d Gg
f 2
D

  specific weight of spring material or density

Assuming steel wire   7.8 g/cc

7.8  10  3  10
 3
N/mm 3
10
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.53

  7.8  10  5 N /mm 3

g  9810 mm/s2



10 80  10 3  9810
f  119 cps
  50 2  12 8  7.8  10  5

 f  119 cps (cycles/sercond)

Problem 4.20: Design a set of helical steel springs to support a static load of 1563 N
per spring. In order to provide isolation, the natural frequency of the system must not
exceed 100 cycles/min based on each spring supporting a load of 156.3 kg weight. Use
shear yield point of 466.7 MPa, a factor of safety 3 and spring index of 6. Design for
squared and ground ends and 20% clash allowance. (JNTU - Dec
2011 - set 1)

100
Given: P  1563 N, f  100 cycles/min   1.67 cps, []  466.7 MPa  466.7 N/mm 2,
60
F.O.S  3, C  6, 20% clash allowance. Squared and ground ends.

Solution

(i) Diameter of wire d and Mean diameter D

From PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.100
Given F.O.S  3
466.7
  155.6 N/mm 2
3
K s  8PC

 d2
4C  1 0.615
Ks  
4C  4 C
4  6  1 0.615
   1.25
464 6
1.25  8  1563  6
 155.6 
 d2
d  13.85 mm sa y 15 mm
Mean diameter D
4.54 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

D
C or D  6d  6  15  90 mm
d

(ii) Number of active turns n

100
Given f  100 cycles/min   1.67 cps
60

From PSG D.B. Pg.No. 7.101 we have



d Gg
f 2
D n 8

  7.8 c c or 7.8  10  5 N/mm 3

g  9810 mm/s 2

G  80  10 3 N /mm 2 Assume



15 80  10 3  9810
 1.67 
  90 2  n 8  7.8  10  5

n  395.8 say 396

For squared and grounded ends

n  n  2  396  2  398

(iii) Maximum deflection y

From PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.100

3
8PC 3 n 8  1563  6  396
y   891.3 mm
Gd 80  10 3  15

(iv) Free Length Lf

L f  n d  y  20% clash allowance

 n d  y  0.2 y  398  15  891.3  0.2  891.3

 7039.56 mm
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.55

(v) Pitch of spring coil

Lf 7039.56
p   17.73 mm
n  1 398  1
L oad

L oa d
0 T im e 0 T im e
(a) Fluctuating stress (b) R epeated stress
Fig. 4.18.

4.11 FATIGUE LOADING Soderberg line

D
OF HELICAL SPRINGS (F ailure stress line)
A spring is never F
V ariable stress

Safe stress line

subjected to completely
e /2
reversed loads. Usual load
cycle is as shown in Fig. 4.18 C A

(a) and the most severe one is v

as shown in Fig. 4.18 (b). O B  
O1 G
e /2 E
For designing springs for m
variable loading (fatigue), if y /F.S.
y
endurance limit in reversed M ean stress
torsion  1 is known, Fig. 4.19. M odified soderberg m ethod
Soderberg equation can be for helical springs.
used. However, spring wires
are subjected to one way torsion and endurance limit in one way torsion o is usually
known. In such cases, modified Soderberg equation has to be used as shown in Fig.
4.19.
From similar triangles ABG and DOE , we have
AB OD AB OD
 or 
BG OE O 1 G  O1 B O 1 E  O1 O
4.56 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

v e/2 e
  or
y e 2 y  e
 m y 
F.S. 2
e  y
2v  y  v  e   m  e
F.S.
e  y
  2v  y  v  e  m  e
F.S.
Dividing both sides by e  y and rearranging, we have

1 m  v 2v
 
F.S. y e ...(i)

Notes
1. From equation (i), the expression for the factor of safety (F.S.) may be written as
y
F.S. 
2v  y
m  v 
e

2. The value of mean shear stress m is calculated by using the shear stress
factor KS, while the variable shear stress is calculated by using the full value
of the Wahl’s factor K. Thus
Mean shear stress,
8P m  D
m  K s 
d3

1 Pmax  P min
where K s  1  ; and P m  P
2C 2
8Pv  D
and variable shear stress, v  K 
 d3 1 k1
4C  1 0.615 P max  P min
where K  ; and P v 
4C  4 C 2
2 k2
4.12 SPRINGS IN SERIES
Consider two springs connected in series as shown in Springs in series.
Fig. 4.20 Fig.4.20
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.57

Let
P  Load carried by the springs ,
1  Deflectio n of s pring 1,

2  Deflectio n of s pring 2,

k 1  Stiffness of spring 1  P/1, and

k 2  Stiffness of spring 2  P/2

We know that when the springs are connected in series, then the total deflection
produced by the springs is equal to the sum of the deflections of the individual springs.

 Total deflection of the springs,

  1  2

P P P
or  
k k1 k 2

1 1 1
   P
k k1 k 2

where k  Combined stiffness of the springs.

4.13 SPRINGS IN PARALLEL k1 k2

Consider two springs connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 4.21.

Let
Springs in parallel.
P  Load carried by the springs, F ig.4.21

P 1  Load shared by spring 1,

P 2  Load shared by spring 2,

k 1  Stiffness of spring 1, and

k 2  Stiffness of spring 2

We know that when the springs are connected in parallel, then the total
deflection produced by the springs is same as the deflection of the individual springs.

We know that P  P 1  P 2
4.58 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

or   k    k1    k2

 k  k 1  k2

where k  Co mbined stiffness of the springs, and

F
  Deflection produced
a
4.14 HELICAL TORSION SPRING
Helical torsion spring may be made from round,
rectangular or square wire. These are wound in a
similar manner as helical compression or torsion
springs but the ends are shaped to transmit torque. Fig. 4.22. H elical Torsion
Helical torsion springs are widely used for transmitting Sprin g.
small torques. The primary stress in helical torsion
spring is bending stress.
Application: Door hinge springs, springs for starters in automobiles.
According to Wahl, the bending stress inK b  Wahl factor (refer page No.7.100)
a helical torsion spring,
4C 2  C  1
Refer databook, Page No.7.131  where C spring index
4C 2  4C
For round wire,
d  Diameter of wire
32 K b M
  [] ... (1)
 d3 b, t  Dimensions of rectangular wire.

Fo rrec tangularw ire, b  Side of square wire

6 Kb  M []  Design stress

  [] ... (2)
bt 2
(Refer page No . 7.100)
For square wire; put t  b in equation (2)
D = Mean diameter o f c o il
6 Kb M
  [] ... (3)
b3

Where   Induced bending stress

D
MF , (bending moment)
2
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.59

[]
 0.8 for oil tempered wire
u
 0.065 for music wire and hard drawn
 0.9 for alloy steel wire
 0.55 for stainless steel wire
 0.42 for brass wire
 0.67 for phosphor bronze model, beryllium copper wires.

Take  u value from Data book page No. 7.105

 MD ne
Angular deformation    in radian ... (4)
EI

where M  F  D/2 (bending moment)

d4
D Mean coil diameter of spring I for round wire
64
1
ne  Number of active turns. = bt 3 for rectangular wire
12
1 4
E Youngs modulus of springs wire material = b for square wire
12
(For steel, E  2  10 5 N  mm 2 b  side of square

Problem 4.21: A helical torsion spring of mean diameter 70 mm is made of a round

wire of 8 mm diameter. If a torque of 6KN-mm is applied on this spring, find the bending
stress induced and angular deflection of the spring in degrees. Spring index is 8; active
no. of turns 6; E = Youngs modulus 2  105 N  mm2.

Given data
Mean dia of wire  D  70 mm

dia of spring wire  d  8 mm

Torque applied  M  6 kN  mm

 6  10 3  N  mm

spring index  C  8

active no. of turns n  6

4.60 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Youngs’ modulus  2  10 5 N  mm 2

Solution:
K b  1.18

Wahl’s factor K s; (refer databook, page No.7.100 at C  8 Refer graph)

32 K b  M
Bending stress   
d3

  140.85 N  mm 2

 MD n e
Angular deflection   
EI

  6  10 3  70  6  4
 I d
5 64
2  10  201.06
 0.1968 radians 
  84  201.06 mm 4
64
angular deflection    11.28 
Problem 4.22: A helical torsion spring of mean diameter 80 mm is made of round wire
of 8 mm diameter. If a torque of 10 N-m is applied on the spring, find the bending stress
induced and the angular deflection of the spring in degrees. The spring index is 8 and
modulus of elasticity for the spring material is 210 kN/mm2. The number of effective turns
may be taken as 6.5.

Solution
Given: D  80 mm; d8 mm; M  10 N-m = 10000 N-mm; C  8;
2 3 2
E  210 kN/mm  210  10 N/mm ; n  6.5

(i) Bending stress induced

We know that Wahl’s stress factor for a spring made of round wire,

4C 2  C  1 4  82  8  1
K   1.1
4C 2  4C 4  82  4  8

 Bending stress induced,

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.61

32M 32  10000
b  K  3
 1.1   218.84 N/mm 2 or MPa Ans.
d   83

(ii) Angular deflection of the spring

We know that the angular deflection of the spring (in radians),

64M.D.n 64  10000  80  6.5

 4
  0.387 rad
E.d 210  10 3  8 4 B

180
 0.387   22.17  Ans.


4.15 FLAT SPIRAL SPRING

A flat spiral spring is a long thin strip of elastic D
material wound like a spiral as shown in Fig. 4.23. These F
springs are frequently used in watches and gramophones A
Fig.4.23. Flat Spiral
etc.
Spring.
When the outer or inner end of this type of spring is
wound, the strain energy is stored into its spirals. This energy is utilised in any
useful way while the spirals open out slowly. Usually the inner end of spring is
clamped to an arbor while the outer end may be pinned or clamped. The material of
the spring is in a state of pure bending.

Let
F  Force applied at the outer end A of the spring
D  Distance of centre of gravity of the spring from A,
l  Length of strip forming the spring ,
b  Width of strip
t  Thickness of strip,

I  Moment of inertia of the spring section  b  t3/12, and

Z  Section modulus of the spring section  b  t2/6

 . . I bt 3 bt 2 
 . Z   
 y 12  t/ 2 6 

When the end A of the spring is pulled by a force F, then the bending moment
on the spring, at a distance D from the line of action of F is given by
4.62 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

MFD

The greatest bending moment occurs in the spring at B which is at a maximum

distance from the application of F.

 Bending moment at B,

MB  M max  F  2D  2F  D  2M

 Maximum bending stress induced in the spring material,

Mmax 2F  D 12F  D 12M

b   2
 
Z b  t /6 bt 2
b  t2

Assuming that both ends of the spring are clamped, the angular deflection (in
radians) of the spring is given by

M  l 12 M  l
 
E  I E  b  t3  . . b  t3 
 . I 
 12 

MlD
and the deflection,     D 
EI

12M  l  D 12F  D 2  l b  D  l
  
E  b  t3 Ebt 3 Et . . 12F  D 
 . b  
 b  t2 

The strain energy stored in the spring

1 1 M  l 1 M2  l
 M M  
2 2 EI 2 EI

1 F2  D2  l 6F 2  D 2  l
  
2 E  bt 3/12 E  b  t3

6F 2  D 2  l 24bt 144F 2  D 2 btl

   
E  b  t3 24bt Eb 2 t4 24

(Multiplying the numerator and denominator by 24 bt)

 b  2 b2
  btl   Vo lume o f the spring
24E 24 E
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.63

Problem 4.23: A spiral spring is made of flat strip 8 mm wide and 0.5 mm thick. The
length of the strip is 3 metres. Assuming the maximum stress of 900 MPa to occur at the
point of greatest bending moment, calculate the bending moment, the number of turns to
wind up the spring and the strain energy stored in the spring. Take E  210 kN/mm2.

Solution

Given: b  8 mm; t  0.5 mm; l  3 m  3000 mm;   900 MPa  900 N/mm 2;
E  210 kN/mm 2  210  10 3 N/mm 2

Bending moment in the spring

Let M  Bending moment in the spring.

We know that the maximum bending stress in the spring material b,

12M
b 
b . t2

12M 12M
900    6M
bt 2
8 0.52

900
 M  150 Nmm Ans.
6

Number of turns to wind up the spring

We know that the angular deflection of the spring,

12M  l 12  150  3000

 3
  25.71 rad
Ebt 210  10 3  8 0.53

Since one turn of the spring is equal to 2 radians, therefore number of turns
to wind up the spring

25.71
  4.09 turns Ans.
2

Strain energy stored in the spring

We know that strain energy stored in the spring

1 1
 M     150  25.71  1928.2 Nmm Ans.
2 2
4.64 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4.16 DISC SPRINGS OR BELLEVILLE SPRINGS

Refer PSG Databook Page No. 7.104
These springs have high capacity and
Do
relatively small space requirement, in Di
direction of load application. But this is
obtained at the expense of relatively h
non-uniform stress distribution across the
section. They have non-linear relationship (a )
between load and deflection. The
dimensions can be arranged so that a large
deflection can be obtained with practically
no change in load. These springs are used
where high spring rate is required. These
springs occupy small space.
These springs may be used in single
(Fig. 4.24 (a)), stacked in parallel (or)
stacked in series as shown in the Fig. 4.24 (b)
(b). Fig.4.24. D isc or B elleville Sprin gs.
 By stacking in parallel, load
capacity is increased in proportion to no. of discs.
 By stacking in series, the deflection is increased in proportion to no. of discs.
 Applications: dampers, spring washers, buffer springs, clutches etc.

Design procedure
(Refer data book, page No. 7.104)

Calculation of axial load on the spring:

Ey  y  3
P  Axial load on the spring  2   h  2  h  y t  t  in kgf or N
 d0     
1   2 M  
 2 

where E  yo ung’s modulus  kgf  c m2 or N  mm 2

y  Deflection  mm

  poisson’s ratio  0.3 for steel

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.65

2 di  Internal diam eter  mm

  d0 
 1
6   di  d0  Outer diameter  mm
M
 d0   d0 

 log e   n  Free height  thickness  mm
di  di 
  
t  thickness of the disc  mm

Calculation of stress at the inside circumference:

  Stress at the inside circumference

Ey   y  2 2
  C1  h  2   C2 t  kgf  cm or N  mm
2
 d0     
1   2 M  
 2 
Where C 1  constant , C 2  constant

 d0 
 1 
6  di  6
C1    1 C2 
 d0    d0    d0 
 log e    lo ge     log e  

di
   di   d
 i 
Problem 4.24: The disc spring is made of 3 mm sheet metal with an outside diameter
of 125 mm and an inside diameter of 50 mm. The spring is dished 4.5 mm. The maximum
stress is 560 N  mm2 Find (a) The deflection at this load. (b) The load that may be safely
carried. [Oct - 1999 - Madras University]

Given data:
t  thickness of the disc  3 mm

d0  outside diameter  125 mm

di  inside diameter  50 m m

h  free height minus thickness  4.5 mm

  Mamum s tress  560 N  mm 2

Since the values of E  Young’s modulus and   poissons ratio are not given

Read from data book. refer page No.1.1

For steel E  2  10 5 N  mm 2 and   0.3

4.66 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

The maximum stress will be produced at the inner edge.

  Stress at the inside circumference  560 N  mm 2

Refer PSG data book, page No. 7.104

Ey   y  
  stress at the inside circumference  2 C 1  h  2   C 2 t  ... (1)
 d0     
1  2 M  
 2 
Where

2  125  2
     50   1  
   d0     
     1       
 6   di    6  

M   
 d   d      125    125   
  log  0    0      log e       
 50    50  
 e d d  
  i    i   

 
 

M  0.7503

   d0  
   125   
   d 1   50   1
 6    6   
C1    i  1     
   1
  lo g  d 0    d0     log e 
125 
  125   
log e   log e  
 e d   
  i   
di



  50    50   

C 1  1.327

6 6
C2  
 0
d  125 
 log e    lo ge  50 
 di   

C 2  2.084

Substitute the values of M, C 1 and C 2 in equation (1)

2  10 5  y   y  
   1.327  4.5  2  2.084 3 
2
 125     
1  0.3 2 0.7503   
 2 
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.67

560  74.98 y  5.9715  0.6635 y   6.24 

 447.74 y  49.74 y 2  467.87 y

560  915.6152 y  49.74 y 2

49.74 y2  915.6152 y  560  0

The above equation is in the form of Quadratic equation in terms of y

To find y

y
  915.6152  

 2
 915.6152   4  560  49.72
2  49.74

915  6152  852.60

y
2  49.74

915.6152  852.60
y  17.77 mm
2  99.74

915.6152  852.60
y  0.63 mm
2  49.74

Consider the least value of y, because the deflection in disc spring is

comparatively less.

Ey  y  3
Axial load  P  2   h  2  h  yt  t 
 d0    
1  2 M  
 2 

2  10 5  0.63  0.63  3
 2   4.5  2  4.5  0.63   3  3 
 125    
1  0.3 2  0.703   
 2 
P  50.42  57.58  2903.3 N

Problem 4.25: A load of 2 kN is dropped axially on a closed coil helical spring from a
height of 250 mm. The spring has 20 effective turns and it is made of 25 mm diameter
wire. The spring index is 8. Find the maximum shear stress induced and the amount of
compression produced. The modulus of rigidity may be taken as 84 kN  mm2
4.68 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Given data:
W  Falling lo ad  2 kN  2  10 3 N

h  Height  250 mm

n  No . o f effec tive turns  20

d  Diameter o f spring w ire  25 mm

C  Spring index  8

G  Mo dulus o f rigidity  84 kN  mm 2  84  10 3 N/mm 2

Let P  equivalent static lo ad o n spring, w hic h c an pro duc e the same effec t as
by the falling lo ad ‘W’

8  PC3 n
Deflec tio n y 
Gd

8  P  83  20
y
84  10 3  25

y  0.04096 P ... (1)

Since workdone by the falling load is equal to the energy stored in the helical
spring.

1
W h  y  Py
2

1
2  10 3  250  y   Py .... (2)
2

Substitute the value of y in the above equation (2)

1
2  10 3  250  0.04096 P    P  0.04096 P 
2

5  10 5  2  10 3  0.04096  P  0.02048 P 2

0.02048 P 2  81.92 P  5  10 5  0

The above equation is in the form of Quadratic equation. Solve for P .

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.69

P
 81.92  


2
 81.92  4 0.02048   5  10 
2 0.02048 
5

 81.92  218.3366
P  3330.48 N or  7330.5 N
0.04096

Consider the positive value,

P  3330.48 N

8. P.C
Shear stress    Ks K s  Wahl’s factor
d 2

8  3330.48  8  1.2
 Refer DB Pg No. 7.100 from graph
  25 2

K s  1.2

  130.268 N  mm 2

Substitute the value of P in equation (1)

Deflection  y  0.04096 P

 0.04096 3330.48 

y  136.416 mm

Problem 4.26: A spring loaded safety valve for a boiler is required to blow off at a
pressure of 1 N/mm2. The diameter of the valve is 60 mm and the maximum lift of the
valve 15 mm. Design a suitable compression spring for the safety valve assuming the spring
index to be 6 and providing initial compression of 30 mm. The maximum shear stress in
the material of the wire is limited to 450 N/mm2, G  0.84  105N/mm2.
(Oct 2006 Anna University)

Given data

Blow-off pressure  p  1 N /mm 2

Diameter of the valve  D 1  60 mm

Maximum lift of the valve  y2  15 mm

Spring index C6

4.70 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Initial compression  y1  30 mm

Maximum shear stress  [  ]  450 N/mm 2

Modulus of rigidity  G  0.84  10 5N/m m2

Solution
 2 
Load acting on the valve  P  D  p   60 2  1  2827.433 N
4 1 4

Maximum compression  ymax  y1  y2  30  15  45 mm

Since a load of 2827.433 N keeps the valve on its seat by providing initial
compression of 30 mm.

Therefore, for a maximum compression of 45 mm.

45  2827.433
The maximum load acting on the spring 
30

Maximum load  Pmax  4241.15 N

(i) To find the diameter of the wire,

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.100,

8 P ma x  C
Maximum shear stress  max  Ks
d 2

8  4241.15  6  1.25 K s  Wahl’s factor

450  2
d
diameter of the spring wire  d  13.416 mm 4C  1 0.615
 
4C  4 C
Take, diameter of spring wire  d  14 mm 4  6  1 0.615
 
464 6
Let D is the mean diameter of the coil.  1.25
D
Spring index  C 
d
D
6
14

Mean diameter of coil  D  14  6  84 mm

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.71

(ii) To find the total no. of turns: n

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.100,

8PC 3n y  y max  45 mm
Deflection  y 
Gd
8  4241.15  6 3  n P  P max  4241.15 N
45 
0.84  10 5  14

Active no. of turns  n  7.22

Take n = 8 turns

Take end conditions of the spring as squared and ground

Total number of turns  n  n  2

82

n  10

Solid length  ls  nd

 10  14

ls  140 mm

Free length  lf  nd  ymax  0.15 ym ax

 140  45  6.75
lf  191.75

free length
Pitch of the coil  p 
n  1
191.75
  21.3 mm
10  1
p  21.3 mm

Problem 4.27: A spring loaded safety valve for a boiler is required to blow-off at a
pressure 1.3 N/mm2. The diameter of the valve is 65 mm and the maximum lift of the
valve is 17.5 mm. Design and spring. The spring index is 5 and provide initial compression
of 30 mm. The maximum shear stress in the material is limited to 450 N/mm2.
(Oct 2007 Anna University)
4.72 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Given data
Blow-off pressure  p  1.3 N/mm 2
Diameter of valve  D 1  65 mm

Maximum lift o f the valve  y 2  17.5 mm

Spring index C5

Initial compression  y 1  30 mm

Maximum shear stress  [  ]  450 N/mm 2

 2
Load acting on the valve  P  D p
4 1

  65 2  1.3  4313.799 N
4

Maximum compression  ymax  y1  y2  30  17.5  47.5 mm

Since a load of 4313.799 N keeps the valve on its seat by providing initial
compression of 30 mm. Therefore, for a maximum compression of 47.5 mm,

47.5  4313.799
The maximum load acting on the spring  P max 
30
P max  6830.182 N

(i) To find the diameter of the wire.

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.100,

8 Pma x  C
Maximum shear stress  m ax  Ks
d 2
8  6830.182  5  1.3105 K s  Whal’s factor
450  2
d
Diameter of spring wire  d  15.914 mm 4C  1 0.615
 
4C  4 C
Take, diameter of spring wire  d  16 mm 4  5  1 0.615
 
454 5
Let D is the mean diameter of the coil  1.3105
D D
Spring index  C   5 
d 16
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.73

Mean diameter of coil  D  16  5  80 mm

(ii) To find the total no. of turns (n)

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.100

8PC 3 y  ymax  47.5 mm

Deflection  y   n
Gd
8  6830.182  5 3 P  P max  6830.182 N
47.5  n
0.84  10 5  16
active no. of turns  n  9.34 Take, G  Modulus of rigidity
Take, n  10 turns  0.84  10 5N/mm 2

Assume end conditions of the spring as squared and ground.

Total No. of turns  n  n  2  10  2  12

n  12 turns

Solid length  ls  nd  12  16

ls  192 mm

Free length  lf  nd  ymax  0.15 ymax

 12  16  47.5  7.125

lf  246.6 mm

free length
Pitch of the coil  p 
n  1

246.6
p  22.42 mm
12  1

Problem 4.28: A spring made from a wire of 1.25 mm diameter and 750 N/mm2 as its
yield strength. For a mean diameter of 12.5 mm and 14 active coils of spring, find (i)
stiffness of spring (ii) solid height assuming that the ends are squared and ground. Take
modulus of rigidity  0.85  105N/mm2. (Apr 2002 Anna University)

Given data
Diameter of spring wire  d  1.25 mm
4.74 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Yield strength  y  750 N/mm 2

M ean diameter of coil D  12.5 mm

Active no. of coils  n  14

Modulus of rigidity  G  0.85  10 5N/mm 2

End condition: squared and ground.

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.100

Solution

(i) To find stiffness k

8PD 3n
Deflection  y 
Gd4

 P  Gd4
k  S tiffness    
 y  8D n
3

0.85  10 5  1.254

8  12.53  14

Stiffness k  0.9486 N/mm

(ii) To find solid length Ls

For squared and ground

n  Total no . o f turns n  2  14  2  16

n  16

Solid length  ls  nd  16  1.25

ls  20 mm

Problem 4.29: A helical spring is subjected to a load varying from 100 N to 1000 N
having spring index of 6 and the design factor of safety is 1.25; The compression of the
spring at the maximum load is 30 mm. Design the helical compression spring. Take yield
stress in shear as 110 N/mm2, endurance stress in shear as 350 N/mm2 and the modulus
of rigidity for the spring material as 80  103N/mm2. (April 2005 Anna University)
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.75

Given Data
Maximum load on the spring  P max  1000 N

Minimum load on the spring  P min  100 N

Spring index C6

Design factor of safety  n  1.25

The compression of the spring at max. load  ymax  30 mm

Yield stress in shear  y  110 N/mm 2

Endurance stress in shear   1  350 N/mm 2

Modulus of rigidity  G  80  10 3N /mm 2

Solution
This problem belongs to springs under varying loads. For design,

Refer PSG databook, Page No. 7.102

8  Kc  P a  C P a  Amplitude load
a  Amplitude shear stress 
d2
8  1.15  450  6 P max  P min
 2 
d 2
7906.817 1000  100
a  2   450 N
d 2
K c  Curvature factor
Refer P.No. 7.102
for C  6 ; Kc  1.15
P m  Mean load
P max  P min 1000  100
   550 N
2 2
8K sh  P m C Ks = Wahl stress factor  Ksh . K c
m  Mean shear stress  2
d
8  1.026  550  6

d2
4.76 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

8621.868 K sh  Direct shear factor

m  2
d
Ks
K sh 
Kc
Refer Page No. 7.100
at C  6, take Ks value from graph.
K s  1.18
Ks 1.18
 Ksh  
K c 1.15
 1.026
Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.102,

(a) For Repeated loading:

1 m  a 2a
  ... (1)
n y 0

where 0  endurance shear stress for repeated loading.

(b) For Reversed loading:

1 m  a 2a
  ... (2)
n y  1

where  1  endurance shear stress for reversed loading.

Since the given problem belongs to reversed type of loading, substitute the values
in eq. (2).

8621.868 7906.817  7906.817 

2 
 d2
1 d2 d2  
 
1.25 110 350

6.5004 45.1818
0.8  2

d d2

d2  64.602
 d  Spring wire diameter  8.037 m m

Take d  9 mm
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.77

D
Spring index C  6
d

 D  Mean coil diameter  C  d  6  9

D  54 mm

(ii) To find the Total no. of turns n

Refer Page No. 7.100

8PC 3n y  y max  30 mm
y  de flection 
Gd

8  PmaxC 3n P  P max  1000 N

ymax 
Gd

8  1000  6 3  n
30 
80  10 3  9

n  active no. of turns = 12.5

Take n  13 turns

To find total no. of turns n, assume end condition as squared and ground.
(Refer P.No. 7.101)

n  n  2  13  2

To tal no . o f turns  n  15 turns

Solid length  ls  nd  15  9

ls  135 mm

Free length  lf  nd  ymax  15  9  30 (Neglecting clash allowance)

lf  165 mm

free length 165 165

Pitch of the coil  p   
n  1 15  1 14

p  11.785 mm
4.78 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 4.30: Design a helical compression spring for a maximum load of 1,500 N for
a deflection of 30 mm, assuming a spring index of 5. Permissible shear stress for spring
wire is 400 N/mm2 and modulus of rigidity is 80 kN/mm2. (Apr 2001 Anna University)

Given data
Maximum load  P max  1500 N

Maximum deflection  y max  30 mm

Spring index C5

Permissible shear stress  [  ]  400 N/mm 2

Modulus of rigidity  G  80 kN/mm 2

 80  10 3N/mm 2

(i) To find the diameter of the spring wire ‘d’ and mean diameter of coil ‘D’.
Refer PSG design Databook, Page No. 7.100,

8PC K s  Wahl’s factor

Shear stress    2
Ks
d
8  1500  5  1.3105 4 C  1 0.615
400  2
 
d 4C  4 C
Diameter of spring wire  d  7.910 mm 4  5  1 0.615
 
454 5
Take, diameter of spring wire  d  8 mm 19 0.615
 
16 5
K s  1.3105
Mean diameter of coil
Spring index  C 
Spring wire diameter

D
5
8

Mean diameter of coil  D  8  5  40 mm

(ii) To find the total number of turns n

Refer PSG Databook, Page No. 7.100
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.79

8 PC 3n
Deflection  y 
Gd

8  1500  5 3
30  n
80  10 3  8

No. of active turns  n  12.8

Take, no. of active turns  n  13

Assume ends are squared and ground.

Total number of turns  n  n  2  13  2

n  15

(iii) To find solid length ls and free length lf

Solid length  ls  n  d

ls  15  8  120 mm

Free length  lf  nd  ymax  0.15 ymax

 15  8  30  4.5

lf  154.5 mm

(iv) To find the pitch of the coil: p

free length
Pitch of the coil  p 
n  1

154.5
p  11.03 mm
15  1

Problem 4.31: A helical compression spring of music wire carries a fluctuating load
C  8, n  3, d  10 mm, average load on the spring = 800 N. Find the permissible values
of maximum and minimum loads. Take u  1900 N/mm2.

1. Since the maximum and minimum loads are to be found, modified Soderberg
equation has to be used.

1 m  a 2a
 
n y o
4.80 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2. Yield point stress in shear y and endurance limit in one way shear o are to
be obtained in terms of u.

y  0.4 u  0.4  1900  760 N/mm 2

o  0.23  u  0.23  1900  437 N/mm 2

d  10 mm
3. Calculation of m and a D  Cd  8  10  80 mm
8P m D P m  800 N
m  K s 3
d
Static portion of Wahl factor,
1.06  8  800  80 0.5 0.5
 Ks  1  1  1.06
  10 3 C 8
static

 172.8 N/mm 2

4. Calculation of Pm ax and Pm in

1 172.8  a 2a
  or 110706.67  75513.6  1083 a
3 760 437

i.e., a  32.50 N/mm 2

8P a D
But, a  K s  K s  1.3 from PSG D.B Pg. No. 100 
 d3  
full 

1.3  8  P a  80
32.5 
  10 3

i.e., P a  122.72 N

P max  Pm in  2  P a  2  122.72  245.4 N

P max  Pm in  2  P m  2  800  1600 N

Solving the above two equations we get P max  922.7 N, P min  672.8 N
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.81

Problem 4.32: The load on an oil tempered carbon steel helical compression spring varies
from 600 N to 1600 N. Mean diameter of the coil = 60 mm. Factor of safety is 3 based
on variable stress. Determine the wire diameter d. Use y  800 N/mm2 and
530
b  0.2 MN/m2 where d is in m.
d

Solution

1. Modified Soderberg equation is written as given below

y 2a y
 m  a  
n o

The term on the LH side is considered as the permissible stress. RH side gives
the induced stress. By trial and error method we arrive at a suitable wire diameter
d so that RH side becomes just equal to or less than the L.H side.

D 60
2. D  60 mm; C  
d d
4C  1 0.615 4 60/d  1 0.615 d
Ks    
4C  4 C 4 60/d  4 60

240  d
Ks   0.0103 d
240  4d

0.5 0.5  d
Ks  1  1  1  0.008 d
C 60

8 Pm D 1600  600
3. m  Ks 3
; Pm   1100 N
d 2

1  0.008 d  8  1100  60 1  0.008 d  168068

 3

d  d3

8Pa D  1600  600 

a  Ks 3  Pa   500 N 
d  2 

  240  d   8  500  60
   0.0103d 
 240  4d     d3

787  240  d  76394

 a  2
  3
d  240  4 d  d
4.82 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4. Now we use the modified Soderberg equation

y 750
LH side    250 N/mm2
n 3

1  0.008 d  168068  787  240  d  76314 

RH side   2   
 240  4 d  d
3 3
d  d 
 787  240  d  76394   530 
2 2   3 
800/  0.2 
240  4d
 d   d   d/1000 

Trial 1
Put d  9 mm and evaluate the RH side

2  128.34  800  0.3898

RH side  297  128.34 
530

 269.68 N /mm 2  LH side

Not satisfactory

Trial 2
d  10 mm,

2  95.72  800  0.3898

RH side  181.51  95.72 
530

 200.8 N /mm 2  LH s ide

Satisfactory

So, the diameter d  10 mm

Problem 4.33: A steel Belleville spring is compressed flat by exerting a load of 4000 N.
For the maximum compression, the induced stress is 1200 N/mm2. Calculate the thickness
h
and diameter of spring if the ratio of height to thickness is 1.6. The ratio of outside to
t
inside diameter is 1.5.

1. P  axial load on the spring

Ey  y  3
 2   h  2  h  y t  t 
2
1    M do   
/2  

If y  h, i.e., when the spring is compressed flat,

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.83

Eh
P t3
1    M do/22
2
(1)

  maximum stress
Ey   y 
 2  C1  h  2   C 2 t 
2
1    M do/2    

Put y  h
Eh  h 
 2  C1 2  C2 t 
2
1    M do/ 2   (2)

2. We now evaluate the constants C 1, C 2 & M

2
6  do/di  1   do 
M     1.5 given 
 log e do/di  do/di  d
 i 
2
6  1.5  1  1
    4.71  9  0.523
 log e 1.5  1.5 

6  do/di  1 
C1   1
 log e do/di  lo ge do/ di 
 1.5  1 
 4.71   1   4.71  0.233  1.098
log e 1.5
 
6
C2 
 log e do/di

C 2  4.71

h
C1  C2 t
Eq n. 2   2
3.  
Eq n. 1 P t3 put h  1.6 t

1.6t
1.098   4.71 t
1200 2 6.467
  3

4000 t t2
 t  4.64 mm

h  1.6t  1.6  4.64  7.42 mm

4.84 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4. Use Eqn. (1) to obtain d o

Eh
P 2 2
t3 Assume Poission’s ratio   0.3
1    M do/ 2

2.1  105  7.42  4.64 3

4000  2 2
E  2.1  10 5 N /m m2
1  0.3  0.523 do/ 2
do  571.89 mm

1.25  8  6000  125

 3
 258 N/mm2
  21

  |y|  289 N/mm 2, Satisfactory.

No. of coils
Gd 4 0.8  10 5  21 4 995.74
k 3
 3
; 50  ; n  19.9
8D n 8  125  n n

4.17 CONCENTRIC SPRINGS

Concentric springs are two types according to applications. The first type of
concentric springs
consists of two or more D1
springs having same free D1
length as shown in Fig. D2
4.25 (a). These springs D2
are compressed equally
and used in automobile d1
d1
clutches, heavy duty d2
diesel engines, aircraft
valve springs etc. The
second type of concentric l1
springs consists of two d2 l2
springs made of different
lengths as shown in Fig.
4.25 (b). The inner
spring is shorter than
outer spring, which c c c c
begins to compress only (a) (b)
Fig 4.25. C oncentric Springs.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.85

after the outer longer spring is compressed to a certain amount. These types of springs
are used in variable speed engine governors.
The concentric springs are generally used (1) To obtain greater spring force (2)
To avoid the failure of mechanism in the event of any one spring is damaged.

4.17.1 Design procedure of concentric springs

Assume, both the springs are made of same material,

Let P  axial load

P 1  Load carried by outer spring

P 2  Load carried by inner spring

d1  diameter of the spring wire (outer)

d2  diameter of the spring wire (inner)

D 1  Mean coil diameter (outer)

D 2  Mean coil diameter (inner)

y1  Deflection in outer spring

y2  Deflection in inner spring

n1  number of active turns of outer spring

n2  number of active turns of inner spring

Assume both the springs are made of same material, then the shear stress
induced in both the springs approximate equal.

outer  inner

8P 1D 1 8P 2D2
Ks  Ks
d31 1
d32 2

D1 D2
Spring index  C  
d1 d2

P1D1 P2D2

d31 d32 ...(1)

Let both the springs are having same free length, then the deflections are equal
ie.,
4.86 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

y1  y 2

8P 1D 31n1 8P 2D 32n2

Gd41 Gd42

P 1  D31  n1 P2D32n2

d41 d42

From PSG Design Data book, refer page No. 7.101

4.17.2 Coaxial springs

2
P1  C 

P 2  C  2 

  Clearance between concentric springs

 D 1  D 2  d1  d2 d1  d2
  
 2  2 2

D1  D2
and d1 
2

Problem 4.34: One helical spring is nested inside another, the dimensions are tabulated
below. Both the springs have same free length and carry a total load of 2500 N; Take
G  83 GPa ;

Outer spring Inner spring

No. of active coils 6 10
Wire diameter 12.5 mm 9 mm
Mean coil diameter 100 mm 70 mm
Determine:
(i) Maximum load carried by each spring.
(ii) Total deflection of each spring.
(iii) Maximum stress on each spring (Nov/Dec - 2003 - AU)

Given data:

P  2500 N ; G  83 GPa  83  103 N /mm2

Outer Spring: n1  6 ; d1  12.5 mm ; D 1  100 mm

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.87

Inner Spring: n2  10 ; d2  9 mm ; D 2  70 mm

(i) Let P 1  load carried by outer spring and P 2  load carried by inner spring. Since
both springs have same free length, y1  y2

8P1D 31n1 8P 2D 32n2


Gd41 Gd42

P1 D32d41n2 703  12.5 4  10

 
P2 D 31d42n1 1003  94  6

P1
 2.126 or P 1  2.126 P 2
P2
...(1)

But P 1  P2  2500 ...(2)

2.126 P 2  P 2  2500

3.126 P 2  2500

2500
P2   799.74 N
3.126

and P 1  2500  799.41  1700.59 N

Maximum Load carried by outer spring  P 1  1700.59 N

Maximum Load carried by inner spring  P 2  799.74 N

(ii) Total deflection on each spring

8P 1D31n1 8  1700.59  100 3  6

y1  
Gd41 83  10 3  12.5 4

y 1  40.28 mm

(iii) Maximum stress on each spring:

Outer spring

8P 1D 1
outer  Ks
d31 1
4.88 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

8  1700.59  100 D1
 3
 1.184 C 8
  12.5 d1

4C  1 0.615
outer  262.51 N /mm 2 Ks  
1 4C  4 C

Inner spring: 4  8  1 0.615

 
484 8
8P2D 2
inner  Ks  1.184
d32 2

D2
C  7.77  8
8  1700.59  70 d2
  1.184
  93
Let K s  Ks  1.184
1 2

inner  492.33 N/mm 2

Problem 4.35: Design a set of concentric springs for an aircraft engine valve to exert a
maximum force of 5 kN for a deflection of 40 mm. Take []  800 N/mm2 ,
5 2
G  0.8  10 N/mm

1. Load carried by each spring

P 1  P 1  P 2  5000
(1)

2 2
P1  d1   C 
   C2 C  6 (assumed)
P2 d
 2  

2
P1  6  9
  
P2
62
4
(2)

9
Using Eqns. (1) & (2) w e so lve fo r P 1 and P 1. From Eqn. (2), P 1    P 2 
4
Substituting in Eqn. (1)

9
 4  P 2  P 2  5000
 

i.e. P2  1538.5 N, P1  3461.5 N

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.89

2. Wire diameters calculation

Outer spring
8P 1 C
||  Ks
 d21

1.25  8  3461.5  6
800  C6
  d21

i.e., d1  9.09 mm Ks  1.25 from PSB PB Pg.No. 7.100

Take d1  9.5 mm standard

D1  Cd 1  6  9.5  57 mm

Inner spring
Since we have used Eqns. (1) & (2) assuming the conditions mentioned in step
1, d2 should be obtained using the relation

d1 C

d2 C2

If w e use stress equatio n to determine d2, then the conditions mentioned in step
1 can not be met.
9.5 6
  d2  6.33 mm
d2 6  2

Take d2  6.4 mm standard

D 2  6  6.4  38.4 mm

Since d2  6.33 mm is rounded off to a standard value, there will be a deviation

from the conditions mentioned in step 1. However this deviation will be small and
can be neglected.
3. Check the induced stresses
As a check we calculate the induced stresses in both the springs.
8PD
  Ks  Refer PSG DB P.No.7.100
d3

1.25  8  3461.5  57
1  3
 732.5 N/mm 2
  9.5
4.90 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1.25  8  1538.5  38.4

2   717.4 N/m 2
  6.4 3

4. Check the solid heights

8PD 3n
y y  deflection
Gd4

Gd 41 y 0.8  10 5  9.5 4  40
n1    5.08  40 mm
8P 1 D31 8  3461.5  573

Gd 42 y 0.8  10 5  6.5 4  40
n2    7.7
8P 2 D 32 8  1538.5  38.43

Outer spring solid height  n1 d1  5.08  9.5  48.26 mm

Inner spring solid height  n2 d2  7.7  6.4  49.28 mm

Problem 4.36: A concentric spring for an aircraft engine valve is to exert a maximum
force of 6000 N under an axial deflection of 80 mm. Both the springs have same free
length, same solid length and are subjected to equal maximum shear stress of 900 MPa.
If the spring index for both the springs is 8, find (a) the load shared by each spring,
(b) the main dimensions of both the springs and (c) the number of active coils in each spring.

Assume G  84 kN/mm 2 and diametral clearance to be equal to the difference

between the wire diameters.
Given: P  6000 N;   80 mm; 1  2  900 MPa  900 N/mm 2; C  8;
G  84 kN/mm 2  84  10 3 N/mm 2
Solution
(a) Load shared by each spring
Let
P 1 and P 2  Load shared by outer and inner spring respectively.

d1 and d2  Diameter of spring wires for outer and inner springs respectively,
and
D 1 and D 2  Mean diameter of the outer and inner springs respectively.
Since the diametral clearance is equal to the difference between the wire
diameters, therefore
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.91

D 1  D 2  d1  d2  d1  d2

or D 1  D2  2d1

We know that D 1  C  d1, and D 2  C  d2

 C  d1  C  d2  2d1

d1 C 8
or    1.33
d2 C2 82

2
 d1  P1 2
We also know that    1.33   1.77
P2 d2
 
and P 1  P 2  P  6000 N

From equations (ii) and (iii), we find that

P 1  3834 N , and P 2  2166 N Ans.

(b) Main dimension of both the springs

We know that Wahl’s stress factor for both the springs,

4C  1 0.615 4  8  1 0.615
K s  Ks      1.255
1 2 4C  4 C 484 8

and maximum shear stress induced in the outer spring 1,

8P 1  C 8  3834  8 98023
900  K s   1.255  
1
 d1 2
 d1 2
d12

 d12  980.23 /900  109 or d1  10.44 say 12 mm

and D 1  C  d1  8  d1  8  12  96 mm

Similarly, maximum shear stress induced in the inner spring 2,

8P2  C 8  2166  8 55377

900  K s   1.255  
2
 d2 2
 d2 2
d22

 d22  55377 /900  61.53 o r d2  7.84 say 6 mm

and D 2  C  d2  8  8  64 mm
4.92 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(c) Number of active coils in each spring

Let n1 and n2  Number of active coils of the outer and inner spring respectively.

We know that the axial deflection for the outer spring y,

8P 1  C 3  n1 8  3834  8 3  n1
80    15.58 n1
G  d1 84  10 3  12

 n1  80/15.58  5.13 say 6

Assuming square and ground ends for the spring, the total number of turns of
the outer spring

n1  6  2  8

 Solid length of the outer spring,

L s1  n1  d1  8  12  96 mm

Let n2 be the total number of turns of the inner spring. Since both the springs
have the same solid length, therefore,

n2  d2  n1  d1

n1  d1 8  12
n2    12
d2 8

n2  12  2  10 . .
 . n2  n2  2

Since both the springs have the same free length, therefore

Free length of outer spring  Free length of inner spring

 L s  y  0.15 y  96  80  0.15  80  188 mm

1

Other dimensions of the springs are as follows:

Outer diameter of the outer spring  D 1  d1  96  12  108 mm

Inner diameter of the outer spring  D 1  d1  96  12  84 mm

Outer diameter of the inner spring  D 2  d2  64  8  72 mm

Inner diameter of the inner spring  D 2  d2  64  8  56 mm

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.93

4.11.3 Advantages of concentric springs

1. In order to achieve greater capacity when the diameter of the force to
accommodate the spring is limited, concentric springs are used. In other words
large resilience in a small space can be obtained.
2. Concentric springs also provide safety in the event of failure of one of the
springs.

Note:
Adjacent springs should be wound with opposite hand helices to prevent locking
of coils in the event of buckling or lateral shift of springs due to misalignment.
Normally coils have RH helix and in concentric springs, outer coils will have
RH helix and the inner LH.

Other Types of Springs

Conical and Volute Springs (Fig. 4.26)

In these springs, coils are in
telescopic arrangement. In the conical
type, constant axial pitch (variable
helix angle) is maintained. The spring
is in the form of a truncated cone. In
the volute type, axial pitch varies
(helix angle is constant). The spring (a) C on ica l (b) V olute (c) V olute
(rou nd w ire) (rou nd w ire) (rectan gu lar
is in the form of a truncated
w ire)
praboloid. Both conical and volute Fig.4.26. C onical an d V olute Sp rin gs.
springs become stiffer as load
increases. When load is increased, the largest and most flexible coil sets against
another coil or the spring seat; the number of active coils decreases resulting in an
increased spring rate. This characteristic is utilized in some vibration problems where
springs are used to support a varying mass.

4.18 LEAF SPRING

Leaf spring or laminated spring or semi-elliptical spring is widely used for
automobiles. It consists of a series of flat plates as shown in Fig. 4.27.
The longest leaf, called the master leaf, is bent at both the ends to form an eye
of the spring.
4.94 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

O rd ina ry round ed end s Squ are end

E gg shaped
tapered
en ds

P P
2L 1
Spring eye

R eboun d cilp
U - clips C am b er
M a in
leaf

T hin ed en ds C entre bolt

2P
Fig.4.27. Sem i- E lliptical L eaf Sprin g.

Leaf springs are provided with one or two extra full length leaves and remaining
graduated - length leaves. All the leaves are stacked and held together by means of
two U-bolts and a central band. Rebound bands are provided to keep the leaves in
proper alignment and also prevents the lateral shifting of the plates during the
operation. The leaves are usually given an initial curvature or cambered, so that these
leaves become straight under the load.

4.18.1 Constructional Details Refer to Fig. 4.28

1. The leaves are given an initial curvature (cambered) so that they will tend to
straighten under the load.
2. The leaves are held together at the centre by means of a central bolt and
U-clips or by using a band. The effective length of the spring subjected to
bending will be overall length minus band width 2L  2L 1  1.
3. A laminated spring made from only graduated leaves has a pointed end and
hence transverse shear load cannot be carried. To support the shear load and
also to provide for load convections, extra full length leaves (main leaves -
leave of uniform width and thickness) are added.
4. Ends of the first main leaf, (Master leaf) are formed as eyes through which
bolts are passed for making connections. Eyes are provided with bronze or
rubber bushes.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.95

5. Rebound (springing back) is a highly destructive factor on an automobile

spring. Without rebound clips, only the main leaf will be subjected to the effect
of rebound and greatly stressed. Rebound clips fasten the leaves together to
strengthen them against rebound and also keep the leaves in alignment.

Full length
leaf
R1
R2
Pi

N ipping

Gradu ated
(a) Nipping
leaf

Pf Pg
t
t
L

b b1
x

(c) Uniform (full length) leaf L

(b) Graduated leaf
Fig. 4.28. Leaf Springs.

Uniform (Full length) leaf Graduated Leaf

M  Maximum bending moment Let b  width of the plate
 P L  1
I b1  width of plate at a distance x from
z  Section modules   2
y free end
4.96 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1 From the Geometry

where I  bt 3 and
12
t b1 b
y 
2 x L
Substitute the values of I and y in Width at a distance of x from the end
equation (2) bx
 b1 
L
1 M  Maximum bending moment  P  x
bt 3
12 1
z  bt 2
t 6
2
M
Bending stress  b 
z
PL 1
 z  section modulus  b t2
1 2 6 1
bt
6 1  bx  2
 t
6  L 
6 PL M
b  2
Bending stress b 
bt z
Let n  no. of plates Px
b 
1 bx 2
t
6 L
6PL
b 
bt 2
6PL Let n = no. of plates
Bending stress b  2
...(3)
nbt
6PL
Bending stress  b  ...(4)
nbt2
bfull length  bgraduated length

Deflection for Full length leaf

PL 3 P.L 3 4PL 3  1 3
y  deflection   3  I  12 bt 
3EI 1
3E bt3 Ebt  
12

for n  no. of plates,

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.97

4PL 3
yfull  ... (5)
Ebt 3 n

2  6 PL  L2
Or yfull 
3  nbt 2  Et
 

2 L2
 bfull  6
3 Et

Deflection for graduated leaf

d 2y
EI. M  7
dx 2
Where M  bending moment   P.x
d 2y
 Px
E 2
dx 1  bx  3 1
t I b t3
12  L 

12 1
2 1  x 
 1 d y b.  t3
E bt 3  2
P  
12  L
 12 L  dx

 1 
Let A  E  bt 3 
 12 L  Integratingtheabo veequatio n
2
d y
A P dy
dx 2 A   Px  C1  8;
dx
Substitute the value of C1 in equation (8) dy
at x  L ,  slope  0
dx
dy
A   Px  PL
dx
 0   PL  C 1
Integrating again
 C1  PL
2
x
AyP  PL x  C 2  9; at x  L ; y  deflection  0
2

PL 2
0  PL 2  C 2
2

PL 2
C2  
2

Substitute the value of C 2 in equation (9)

4.98 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Px 2 PL 2
Ay  PL  x  ... (10)
2 2

y is maximum at x  0 , put x  0 in equation (10)

 PL 2
A  ymax 
2

 PL 2 PL2
ymax  
2A  E bt 8 
2 
 12 L 

8PL 3
ymax  
Ebt 3

or

6 PL3
y
E bt 3  ve sign indicates
downward deflection)

for n no. of leaves.

6PL 3
Deflection ygraduated  ...(11)
Ebt3 n

Compare equations (3), (4), (6) and (11)

From equation (3)

6PL
Bending stress of full length leaf bfull 
nbt 2

From equation (6)

4PL 3
Deflection of full length leaf  yfull 
Ebt3 n

2  6PL  L 2

3  nbt 2  Et
 

2 L2 
yfull   bfull   5 a
3 Et 
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.99

From equation (4)

6PL
Bending stress of graduated leaf  bgrad 
nbt 2

From equation (11)

6PL 3
Deflection of graduated leaf  ygrad 
Ebt3n
2
 PL  L
 2  Et
 nbt 

L2
  b 
 grad. Et

 Bending stress  full  B ending stressgrad. , but the deflections are different.

Therefore, for same deflection, equate equation (6) and equation (11)

yfull  ygrad.

3 2 L2
  bfull  bgrad. ; bfull  L 2/E t  b 
2 3 Et

bfull  1.5 bgrad.

That means, the bending stress of full length leaf is 50% greater than bending stress
of graduated leaf.
Since the deflection is same, equating the equating (5) and (11)

yfull or ye  yg where P e  Load on extra full length leap

ne  no. of extra full length leaves

4 Pe L3 6 P g L3
 P g  Load on graduated length leaf
Ebt3 ne Ebt 3 ng
ng  no. of graduated length leaves

4.18.2 Nipping of Leaf Springs (Fig. 4.28 (a))

As discussed earlier, the stresses in extra full-length leaves are 50% more than
stresses in graduated length leaves. One of the methods of equalizing the stresses in
different leaves is to pre-stressing of the spring. The pre-stressing can be done by
bending the leaves to different radii of curvature, before they are assembled.
4.100 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

As shown in Fig. 4.28 (a), the full length leaf is given a greater radius of
curvature than the adjacent graduated leaf. The radius of curvature decreases with
shorter leaves. The initial gap C between the extra full length leaf and the graduated
length leaf before the assembly is called a NIP. Pre-stressing achieved by providing
different radii of curvature to the leaves, is known as NIPPING. It is common in
automobile springs.

Notations used in the analysis

P  Applied load

L  Length of the cantilever or half the length of semi-elliptical spring.

ne or nf  Number of extra full length leaves.

ng  Number of graduated length leaves.

b  Width of each leaf.

t  Thickness of each leaf.

bg  Bending stress in graduated leaves.

be or  bf  Bending stress in full length leaves.

P e or P f  Portion of P taken by the extra full length leaves.

P g  Portion of P taken by the graduated length leaves.

E  Young’s modulus of plate material.

n  Total number of plates (or) leaves.

y  Deflection of the spring.

ye or y f  Deflection of extra full length leaves.

yg  Deflection of graduated length leaves.

l  Length of central band.

2L  l
L e  Effective length  (If length o f c entral band is given in the pro blem).
2
4.18.3 Initial Gap C: By providing greater radius of curvature to the full length
leaves than graduated length leaves, before the assembly, the clearance left between
the leaves is known as initial gap.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.101

6P gL 3
4P eL 3
C   1 
Engbt3 Enebt3

Since the stresses are same,

6 Pg L 6P e L
bg   be 
ng bt 2 ne bt2

Pg Pe
  2
ng ne

Pg ng

Pe ne

add  1 on both sides,

Pg  Pe ng  ne

Pe ne

P g  P e  P and ng  ne  n

P n

Pe ne

P  ne
Pe 
n
Similarly,
ng
Pg  P 
n
Substitute the values of P e and P g in eq. (1)

ng  3 4   P  e  L 3
n

6 P   L n 
n  
C  
Engb t3 Enebt3

6PL 34PL 3
C 
Enbt3 Enbt3

2PL3
C
Enbt3
4.102 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4.18.4 Initial Pre-load: Pi

It is the load required to close the gap C between the extra-full length leaves
and graduated length leaves.

C  ye  y g

P 
 P i  3 6 i  L 3
4   L
2PL 3  2 
  2  
Enbt3 Enebt3 Engbt3

2P 2Pi 3P i 2P ing  3P ine

  
n ne ng n en g

2P Pi2ng  3ne

n neng

2P  ne  ng
Pi 
n2ng  3ne

Graduated length leaf Extra full length leaf

Pe 3  ne  Pg 2  ng 
     
Pg 2  ng  Pe 3 ne
 
Add  1 on both sides

Pe  Pg 3ne  2ng Pg  Pe 2ng  3ne

 
Pg 2ng Pe 3ne

But Pe  Pg  P

P 3ne  2 ng P 2ng  3ne

 
Pg 2ng pe 3ne

2P  ng 3P  ne
Pg  Pe 
3ne 2ng 2ng  3ne

6P g  L 3 4P e  L 3
But, yg  But, ye 
Ebt 3 ng ne Ebt3
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.103

Substitute the value of P g in the above substitute the value of P e in the above
equation equation

 2P ng  L3  3P ne  L 3
 yg  6   ye  4  
 3ne  2ng  Ebt ng
3 3
 2ng  3ne  Ebt ne

12 PL 3 12 L 3
yg  ye 
3 ne  2ng Ebt 3 3 ne  2ng Ebt3

12 PL3
that means, yg  ye 
3ne  2ng E bt 3

6P gL 6P e L
bg  2
be 
ngbt ne bt2

62P ng L 3P ne L

 2
6 
3ne  2ng n bt  2ng  3ne n bt2
g e

12 PL 18 PL
bg  2
be 
3ne  2ng bt 2ng  3ne  bt 2

Factors Not Considered When Deriving the Design Formulae

1. Shape of the leaves is semi elliptic. At no load, spring is curved or cambered
and when the full load is applied, the spring becomes approximately straight.
But the formulae have been derived assuming a straight beam.

2. Stress concentration due to holes, U-clips etc., has been neglected.

4.18.6 Design Formulae [PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.104]

1. Bending stress in the extra full length leaves when installed without initial
stress
18 PL
be  2
bt 3ne  2ng

2. Bending stress in the graduated leaves when assembled with extra full length
leaves without initial stress.
4.104 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

12 PL
 bg  2
bt 3ne  2ng

3. Bending stress in all the leaves, (extra full length as well as graduated leaves)
when extra full length leaves are given an initial stress.
6PL
b 
n bt2

4. The deflection of a laminated spring for any of the above situations.

12PL 3
y
bt 3 E 3ne  2ng

Note: The above formulae are applicable to cantilever type leaf springs also. Care
should be taken in substituting for P and L in the formula.

1. In the case of cantilever springs P represents the full load (tip load) and L is
the length of cantilever.
2. In the semi elliptic spring total load carried by the spring 2P each end carrying
P . Distance between the eyes is 2L .

5. Central deflection / Camber (Fig. 4.28)

When the maximum load is applied, the spring becomes flat, i.e., the camber
disappears. The camber is equal to the deflection y of the spring at the maximum
load, because when the end of the spring deflects by y, camber disappears.

It will be necessary to know the radius to which the leaves should be curved
by using the relation

L2
y
2R

4.18.6 Leaf spring material

1. Plain carbon steel with 0.9 to 1% carbon, properly heat treated is widely used.
2. For greater toughness and endurance limit and for fluctuating loads,
chromium-vanadium and silicon-manganese-steels are used.
50 Crl, 50 Crl V 23 and 55 Si 2 Mn 90
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.105

4.18.7 Permissible stresses

y
[b] 
FS

(based on  y)

FS  2.5 for rear springs 


 3.5 from front springs  of automobile

 2.25 rail car 

1
[b]  , FS  1.5
FS

(based on   1)

Table 4.2 Standard Nominal Width of Leaves

32, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 90, 100 & 125 mm
Table 4.3 Nominal Thickness of Leaves
3.2, 4.5, 5. 6. 7, 7.5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14 & 16 mm
Problem 4.37: Design a leaf spring for a truck for the following specifications: Maximum
load on the truck = 200 kN, No. of springs = 4, Maximum no. of leaves = 12. Span of
spring = 1200 mm, Permissible stress  700 N/mm2. Permissible deflection = 100 mm, No.
of extra full length leaves 2, E  2.1  105 N/mm2. Design for both conditions (a) with no
initial stress (b) with initial stress.

I With no initial stress

1. Extra full length leaves will be subjected to the maximum stress.

Refer PSG data book 7.104

18 PL
be  2
 [ b]
bt 3ne  2ng

200
P  load at each end of the spring   25 kN
42
1200
L  600 mm
2
ne  2 ; ng  12  2  10

[ b]  700 N/mm2
4.106 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

18  25,000  600
 700
bt 2 3  2  2  10

bt 2  14835.17  1

Now, the deflection equation is used.

12 PL3
y ,
Ebt 3 3ne  2ng
E  2.1  10 5 N/mm2

12  25,000  600 3
100 
2.1  10 5  bt 3  3  2  2  10

bt 3  118681.3  2

3. Thickness
Dividing Eqn. (2) by Eqn. (1) we get

bt 3 118681.3
2
 , t  8 mm
bt 14835.17

We adopt t  8 mm (standard)

4. Width
Put t  8 mm in Eqn. (2) and find b .

b  8 3  b  231.8 mm

We take b  235 mm

II With initial stress

With initial stress, all the leaves are equally stressed.

6PL
b   [ b]
nbt2 n  12

6  25,000  600
700 
12 bt2

bt 2  10714.3  3

Whether the leaves are initially stressed or not, deflection formula is same for
both the cases. Therefore, for this case with initial stress also.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.107

bt 3  118681.3

bt 3 118681.3
2
 , t  11.08 mm
bt 10714.3

We adopt t  12 mm (standard). Using Eqn. (3) and putting t  12 mm, we get

b  74.4 mm and using Eqn. (2) we get b  68.6 mm

We adopt b  75 mm (standard).

Problem 4.38: A carriage spring 800 mm long is required to carry a load of 5000 N at
the centre. The spring is made of steel plates 80 mm wide and 7.5 mm thickness. If the
maximum permissible stress for the material of the plates is not to exceed 190 N/mm2,
determine the number of plates. (April 2005 Anna University)

Given Data
2L  800 mm; L  400 mm

2P  5000 N; P  2500 N

b  80 mm; t  7.5 mm

b  190 N/mm 2

Let n  no. of plates

6PL
b  bending stress  (PSG DB Pg.No. 7.104)
nbt2

6  2500  400
190 
n  80  7.52

6  2500  400
n
190  80  7.52

No. of Plates  n  8

Problem 4.39: A locomotive spring has an overall length of 1.1 metre and sustains a
load of 75 kN at its centre. The spring has 3 full length leaves and 15 graduated leaves
with a central band of 100 mm wide. All leaves are to be stressed to 420 N/mm2, when
fully loaded. The ratio of spring depth to width is approximately 2. Take
5
E  2.1  10 N/mm. Find the width and thickness of leaves. (Oct 2000 Madras University)
4.108 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Given Data
2L  effective length  2L 1  l  1100  100  1000

1000
L  500 mm
2

2P  75 kN  75  10 3N ne  3; ng  15

P  37.5  10 3N n  18

b  420 N/mm2

nt
2
b
t
18 2
b

b  9t

18P L 18  37.5  10 3  500

b   PSG DB Pg.No. 7.104
bt23ne  2ng 9t t23  3  2  15

961.538
420 
t3
t  13.179

Take t  14 mm

Width b  9  14  126 mm

Problem 4.40: Design a cantilever leaf spring to absorb 620 N-m energy without exceeding
a deflection of 150 mm and the permissible stress 875 MPa. The length of the spring is
600 mm. The modulus of elasticity is 0.21  106 MPa. (Apr/May - 2004 - AU)

Given data:
Energy absorbed  620 N  m ; y  150 mm  0.15 m ;

b  875 MPa  875 N/mm 2 ; L  600 mm ;

E  0.21  10 6 MPa  0.21  10 6 N/mm 2

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.109

Let P is the load carried by the spring

1
Energy stored   P  y  620 N.m
2

620  2
P  8266.66 N
0.15

Refer PSG design databook, Page No. 7.104

6PL
Permissible stress   b 
nbt2
6  8266.66  600
875 
b  t2 take n  1

bt 2  34008 ...(1)

6PL3
Deflection  y 
nbt3

6  8266.66  600 3
150 
bt3

bt 3  226724 ...(2)

divide equation (2) by equation (1)

bt 3 226724

bt 2 34008

Thickness of plate t  6.66 mm,say 7 mm S tandard Table 4.3

To find b, take equation (1) or equation (2)

from equation (1) bt2  34008

 Width of plate b  694 mm say 700 mm

Problem 4.41: A semi-elliptical leaf spring is of 1 m long and is required to resist a

load of 50 kN. The spring has 15 leaves, of which three are full length leaves. The width
of central band is 100 mm. All the leaves are to be stressed to 420 MPa. The ratio of
total depth to width is 3; Take E  2.1  105 MPa.
Determine
(a) The thickness and width of the leaves
4.110 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(b) The initial gap that should be provided between the full length and graduated leaves
before assembly
(c) The load exerted on the band for the assembly. (Nov/Dec - 2004 - AU)

Given data:
2L 1  1 m  1000 mm ;

2P  50  10 3 N ; P  25  10 3 N ;

n  15 ; ne  3 ; and ng  n  ne  15  3  12 ;

l1  100 mm ; E  2.1  10 5 MPa  2.1  10 5 N/mm2

Effective length  2L  2L 1  l1  1000  100  900

 L  450 mm

nt
b  420 MPa  420 N/mm2 ; 3
b
t
15  3
b
or b  5t
Refer PSG design databook, Page No. 7.104
6PL
(a) b 
nbt 2

6  25  10 3  450
420 
15  5t  t2

t  12.89 mm

take t  13 mm

and b  5t  5  13  65 mm

Refer Text book Page No. 2.73

2PL 3 2  25  10 3  450 3
(b) Initial gap  C  
nEbt 3 15  2.1  10 5  65  13 3

C  10.1286 mm
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.111

(c) Load Exerted (or) Initial pre -load P i

Refer section No. 4.18.4

2P neng 2  25  10 3  3  12
Pi  
n 2ng  3 ne 15 2  12  3  3

P i  3636.36 N

Note: The equations to find C and P i are not given in the PSG Design Data
book.
Problem 4.42: A locomotive semi elliptical spring of span 1.2 m carries 80 kN load at
its centre. The spring has 2 full length leaves and 18 graduated leaves with a central
band of 325 mm. All the leaves are to be stressed to 500 N/mm2 when fully loaded. The
ratio of the total spring depth to width is 2. Take E  2  105 N/mm2. Determine 1. width
and thickness of the leaves 2. initial gap that should be provided before the application
of band load and 3. load on the band after the spring is assembled.
(Anna Univ Dec 2011, ME. 2.303)

1. All the leaves are to be stress equally

6 PL
[b] 
nbt 2 P  80000/2  40000 N

2L 1  1200 mm

Effective length, 2L  2 L1  band width

2L  1200  325  875 mm

L  875 /2  437.5 mm

n  2  18  20

6  40,000  437.5 20 t
500  2
nt  2
20  10t  t b

i.e., t  10.16 mm b  10 t

 12 mm standard

b  10  10  12  120 mm

We adopt b  125 mm standard

4.112 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2. Initial gap

2PL3 2  40,000  437.5 3

Nip, h    7.754 mm
nEbt 3 20  2  10 5  125  12 3

3. Load on the band/load on the clip bolts to close the gap

2n e n g P 2  2  18  40,000
Pb    3428.6 N
n 2ng  3ne 20 2  18  3  2

Problem 4.43: A 120 mm OD steel coil spring 12 active coils of 12 mm diameter wire.
The spring is fixed to a 800 mm long steel cantilever spring as shown in Fig. The cantilever
spring has six graduated leaves 120 mm wide and 8 mm thick. Take
5 2
E  2.0  10 N/mm .

P
L

800

(a) What force P (gradually applied) will cause the cantilever to deflect 30 mm?
(b) What will be the maximum shear stress in the coil spring?

1. Since force P is common for both helical and leaf springs, the springs are said
to be in series.
2. All the necessary data are available for the leaf spring for calculating the force
P.
ne  0
Refer PSG DB P.No. 7.104
12PL 3 ng  6
y 3
bt E 3ne  2ng b  120 mm

12  P  800 3 t  8 mm
30 
120  83  2.0  10 5  2  6 L  800 mm
P  720 N
3. The same force is acting on the helical spring,
d  12 mm
OD  120 mm
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.113

D  OD  d  120  12  102 mm
D 102
C   8.5
d 12
Refer PSG DBP. No. 7.100
4C  1 0.615 4  8.5  1 0.615
Ks      1.172
4C  4 C 4  8.5  4 8.5

8PD 8  720  102

  Ks 3
 1.172   126.84 N/mm 2
d   123

Problem 4.44: Design a cantilever leaf spring to absorb 620 Nm energy without exceeding
a deflection of 150 mm and permissible stress 875 MPa. The length of the spring is 600
mm. The modulus of elasticity is 0.21  106 MPa.

1
1. Strain energy stored in a leaf spring is given as U  Py
2

Strain energy = Energy absorbed

1
Py  620 Nm
2 y  0.15 m

1
 P  0.15  620, P  8266.7 N
2

P is the equivalent static load (gradually applied load)

2. Assume No. of extra full length leaves = 2 and No. of graduated leaves = 10.
Also assume no pre-stress (initial stress)
3. With no pre-stress, extra full length leaves will be subjected to a greater stress
than the graduated leaves.
18PL
be  2
 || L  600 mm
bt 3ne  2bg

18  8266.7  600
 875 []  875 N/mm2
bt2 3  2  2  10

bt 2  3924.4  1
4.114 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4. Use deflection equation

12PL 3
y
bt 3 E 3ne  2ng

12  8266.7  600 3
150 
bt 3  2.1  10 5  3  2  2  10

bt 3  26,162.7  2

5. Thickness, Width

Eqn. 2 bt 3 26,162.7

 t  6.67 mm
Eqn. 1 bt 2 3924.4

Take t  7 mm standard

3924.4 3924.4
Using Eqn. 1, b  2
  80.08 mm
t 72

26,162.7 26,162.7
Using Eqn. 2, b  3
  76.27 mm
t 73

Take b  80 mm (standard)

Problem 4.45: A semi-elliptical laminated vehicle spring to carry a load of 6000 N is to

consist of seven leaves 65 mm wide, two of the leaves extending the full length of the
spring. The spring is to be 1.1 m in length and attached to the axle by two U-bolts 80
mm apart. The bolts hold the central portion of the spring so rigidly that they may be
considered equivalent to a band having a width equal to the distance between the bolts.
Assume a design stress for spring material as 350 MPa. Determine: 1. Thickness of leaves,
2. Deflection of spring, 3. Diameter of eye, 4. Length of leaves and 5. Radius to which
leaves should be initially bent.
Sketch the semi-elliptical leaf-spring arrangement.
The standard thickness of leaves are: 5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 9, 10, 11 etc. in mm.

Solution
Given: 2P  6000 N or P  3000 N; n  7; b  65 mm; ne  2; 2L 1  1.1 m
 1100 mm or L 1  550 mm; l  80 mm;   350 MPa  350 N/mm 2
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.115

1. Thickness of leaves
Let t  Thickness of leaves

We know that the effective length of the spring,

2L  2L 1  l  1100  80  1020 mm

 L  1020 /2  510 mm

and number of graduated leaves,

ng  n  ne  7  2  5

Assuming that the leaves are not initially stressed, the maximum stress F,

Refer PSG DB P.No .7.104

18P  L 18  3000  510 26480
350  2
 2

b  t 2ng  2ne 65  t 2  5  3  2 t2   F  

 t2  26480/350  75.66 or t  8.7 say 9 mm

2. Deflection of spring
We know that deflection of spring,

12P  L 3 12  3000 5103

y 
E  b  t3 2ng  3ne 210  10 3  65  93 2  5  3  2

 30 mm
 (Taking E  210  10 3 N /mm 2)

3. Diameter of eye
The inner diameter of eye is obtained by considering the pin in the eye in
bearing, because the inner diameter of the eye is equal to the diameter of the pin.

Let

d  Inner diameter of the eye or diameter of the pin,

l1  Length of the pin equal to the width of the eye or lead (i.e. b) = 65 mm

pb  Bearing pressure on the pin which may be taken as 8 N/mm 2

We know that the load on pin P ,

4.116 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

3000  d  l1  pb  d  65  8  520 d

3000
 d  5.77 say 6 mm
520
Let us now consider the bending of the pin. Since there is a clearance of about
2 mm between the shackle (or plate) and eye as shown in Fig., therefore length of
the pin under bending.

l2  l1  2  2  65  4  69 mm &OHDUDQFH 3ODWH
(\H
Maximum bending moment on the pin,
G
W  l2 3000  69
M   51750 Nmm O E
4 4 

 O
and section modulus, Z   d3  0.0982 d3 

32

We know that bending stress b,

M
b 
Z

M 51 750 527  10 3
80   
Z 0.0982 d3 d3  (Taking b  80 N/mm 2)

527  10 3
d3 
  6587 or d  18.7 say 20 mm
80

We shall take the inner diameter o f eye o r diameter o f pin d as 20 mm

Let us now check the pin for induced shear stress. Since the pin is in double
shear, therefore load on the pin P,

 
3000  2   d2    2  202   628.4 
4 4

3000
   4.77 N/mm 2, which is safe
628.4

4. Length of leaves
We know that ineffective length of the spring

 l  80 mm . .
 ( . U -bolts are considered equivalent to a band)
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.117

Effective length
 Length of the smallest leaf   Ineffective length
n1

1020
  80  250 mm
71

1020
Length of the 2nd leaf   2  80  420 mm
71

1020
Length of the 3rd leaf   3  80  590 mm
71

1020
Length of 4th leaf   4  80  760 mm
71

1020
Length of the 5th leaf   5  80  930 mm
71

1020
Length of the 6th leaf   6  80  1100 mm
71

The 6th and 7th leaves are full length leaves and the 7th leaf (i.e. the top leaf)
will act as a master leaf.

We know that length of the master leaf

 2L 1   d  t 2  1100   20  9 2  1282.2 mm

5. Radius to which the leaves should be initially bent

Let

R  Radius to which the leaves should be initially bent, and

y  Camber of the spring

We know that

y 2R  y  L 12

5502
30 2R  30  550 2 or 2R  30   10083
30 . .
  . y  

10083  30
R  5056.5 mm
2
4.118 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

DESIGN OF FLYWHEEL

4.19 Introduction
 A fly wheel is a device, which redistributes energy within the cycle to control
speed.
 If the load output requirements are constant and the power input is constant,
no flywheel is needed.
 If the power input is variable, with the load output requirements constant,
a flywheel can be used to smooth out the operation.
 If the power input is constant, and the load output requirements are variable,
again a flywheel can be used to smooth out the operation.
Examples: Punch presses; Internal combustion engines.

In punch presses - the rate of energy input is considered as constant and the
output variable.

In internal combustion engines - the rate of energy input is variable and the
rate of output load may be constant (or) variable.

4.19.1 Differences between Flywheel and Governor

Flywheel Governor
The function of a flywheel is to decrease The function of a Governor is to keep the
the variations of speed due to difference speed of a prime mover constant.
in input and output.
Flywheel stores up energy and gives up A Governor regulates the speed by
whenever required during a cycle. regulating the quantity of the working
fluid.
Flywheel has no control over the Governor takes care of change of quality
quantity (or) quality of the working and quantity of the working fluid.
fluid.
Flywheel is not an essential element of Since Governor is an adjuster of fuel
energy prime mover. It is used only supply with demand, it is an essential
incase when there is undesirable cyclic element of every prime mover.
fluctuations input.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.119

4.19.2 Coefficient of Fluctuation of speed

The difference between the maximum and minimum speeds during a cycle is
called the maximum fluctuation of speed. The ratio of the maximum fluctuation of
speed to the mean speed is called coefficient of fluctuation of speed.

Let

N 1  Maxim um spe ed in r.p .m during the cycle,

N 2  Minimum speed in r.p.m during the cycle, and

N1  N2
N  M ean s peed in r.p.m 
2

 Coefficient of fluctuation of speed,

N1  N2 2 N 1  N2
CS  
N N1  N2

1   2 2  1   2 
 
 1   2  (In terms of angular speed)

V1  V 2 2 V 1  V 2
 
V V 1  V2  (In terms of linear speed)

The reciprocal of coefficient of fluctuation of speed is known as coefficient of

steadiness and it is noted by m .

1 N  v
 m   
C S N 1  N 2  1  2 v 1  v 2

4.19.3 Fluctuation of Energy

The fluctuation of energy may be determined by the turning moment diagram
for one complete cycle of operation.

The variation of energy above and below the mean resisting torque line is called
fluctuation of energy as shown in Fig. 4.29.

The difference between the maximum and minimum energies is known as

maximum fluctuation of energy.

The turning moment diagram for a compound steam engine having three
cylinders and the resultant turning moment diagram is shown in Fig. 4.30.
4.120 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

R esu ltan t M ean

T urining m om ent

P ositive turn ing m .om . ent

M ean resisting . . . . . . ..... .
. .. torque
loop . .................. ................. . ......... . ..... . .. .................
. .........
... .

........................................................................ ...................
....................... ............ ................................................................................ ...
torque . ... .

T urnin g m om en t
... .. . .. ...... ..
. ..... .. . ... .... ......... ........... .. ..
C ylinder1 2

. ... ....... ...... .. .......... ..

N egative loop 3

. .. . ... .............. .
. . . .... .
360 o ............

.. . .....
. . . . .......

...............
... . . . . . .
...........

..
. . .
. . .
180 o ..................................................... .
.. .
.. .

................................ ...............

......... ...
0 o
540 o 720 o

...
.. .
. .. . ..........
.. . ....
......
.

.... ..........
Suction W orkin g E xh aust
o o o o o
C rank angle
o
0
60 120 180 240 300 360
Fig. 4.29. Tunring m om ent diagram for a C rank angle
four strok internal com bustion engie. Fig.4.30.Turning m om ent diagram
for a com pound steam engine.

4.19.4 Maximum flunctutation of energy

A turning moment diagram for a multi-cylinder engine is shown by a wavy curve
as shown in Fig. 4.31. The horizontal line AG represents the mean torque line. Let
a1, a3, a5 be the areas above the mean torque line a2, a4 and a6 be the areas below
the mean torque line. These areas represent some quantity of energy which is either
added or subtracted from the energy of the moving parts of the engine.

Let the energy in the flywheel A  E, then from Fig. 4.31, we have

Energy at B  E  a1 .
T urnin g m om en t

a. ... .a.. .... D . .....a.. .5........ F. . . .. .

A . . ...1. . B...a C . . . .3. . ....a.. ....E
.
.
.. . a ....... G (A )
.2 .. 4.. 6..
Energy at C  E  a1  a2
M ean
Energy at D  E  a1  a2  a3 torque line
o o
0 360
Energy at E  E  a1  a2  a3  a4 C rank ang le
Fig.4.31. Tu rn ing m om ent diagram
Energy at F  E  a1  a2  a3  a4  a5 for a m u lti-cylinder en gine.

Energy at G  E  a1  a2  a3  a4  a5  a6  Energy at A

Let us now assume that that maximum of these energies is at B and minimum E .

 Maximum energy in the flywheel  E  a1

and minimum energy in the flywheel  E  a1  a2  a3  a4

Maximum flunctation of energy,  E  Maximum energy  Minimum energy

 E  a1  E  a1  a2  a3  a4  a2  a3  a4
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.121

4.19.5 Coefficient of fluctuation of Energy

It is defined as the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of energy to the work
done per cycle. It is usually denoted by C E . Mathematically, coefficient of fluctuation
of energy,

Maximum fluctuation of energy

CE 
Work do ne pe r cycle

The work done per cycle may be obtained by using the following relations:

1. Work done/cycle  Tmean  

where Tm ean  Mean torque, and

  Angle turned in radians per revolution

 2, in case of steam engines and two strok e internal comb ustion engines

 4, in case of four s troke internal combustion engines

The mean torque T mean in N-m may be obtained by using the following relation i.e.

2NT mean
P
60

P  60 P
Tmean  
2N 

where

P  Power transmitted in watts,

N  Speed in r.p.m., and
  Angular speed in rad/s  2N/60
2. The work done per cycle may also be obtained by using the following relation:

P  60
Workdone/cycle 
n

where

n  Number of working strokes per minute

 N, in case of steam engines and two stroke internal combustion engines

 N/2, in case of four stroke internal combustion engines

4.122 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4.19.6 Energy stored in a flywheel R im

A flywheel is shown in Fig. 4.32. We have
already discussed that when a flywheel absorbs
energy, its speed increases and when it gives up
energy, its speed decreases.
m  Mass of the flywheel in kg, R

k  Radius of gyration of the flywheel in metres,

Fig. 4.32. Flyw heel.

I  Mass moment of inertia of the flywheel about the axis of rota tion in kg  m 2,

 m  k 2,

N 1 and N 2  Maximum and minimum speeds during the cycle in r.p.m,

1 and  2  Maximum and minimum angular speeds during the cycle in rad/s,

N1  N2
N  Mean s peed during the cycle in r.p.m.  ,
2

1  2
  Mean angular speed during the cycle in rad/s 
2

N1  N2 1  2
C s  Coefficient of fluctuation of speed  or
N 

We know that mean kinetic energy of the flywheel,

1 1
E  I   2   m  k2 (in N-m o r Jo ules)
2 2

As the speed o f the flyw heel c hanges fro m  1 to  2, the maximum fluctuation
of energy,

1 1
 E  Maximum K.E  minimum K.E   I  12   I 22
2 2

1 1
  I [ 12   22]   I  1  2  1   2
2 2

 I    1   2  i . . 1  2 
 .  
 2 
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.123

 1  2 
 I  2  
    [Multiplying and dividing by ]

 I   2  C s  m  k 2  2 C s  ii . .
 . I  mk 2

 2E.C S  iii . . 1 
  . E   I  2 
 2 
The radius of gyration k may be taken equal to the mean radius of the rim
R , because the thickness of rim is very small as compared to the diameter of rim.
Therefore substituting k  R equation (ii), we have

 E  m  R 2  2  Cs  m  V2  Cs . .
  . v   R

Notes:
1. In the above expression, only the mass moment of inertia of the rim is
considered and the mass moment of inertia of the hub and arms is neglected.
2. The mass of the flywheel rim is given by
m  Volume  Density  2 R  A  .
3. Cross sectional Area of Rectangular rim
Abt
where
b  Width of the rim, and
t  Thickness of the rim

4.19.7 Design of Flywheel

For Diagram [Refer P.No. (7.120)] of Data book

I. Calculation of mass moment of inertia

Let E is maximum fluctuation of energy.

Change in KE of the flywheel  I  2C s

where I  Mass moment of inertia

 mk 2 m  Mass of the flywheel in kg.

  Mean angular velocity k  Radius of of Gyration
4.124 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 1  2 = Mean rad. o f the flyw heel


2
C s  Coefficient of fluctuation of speed  R in mm
 1  2   1  Max. angular velocity
 
    2  Min. angular velocity
C s value can be taken from databook according to application from Page
No. 7.121

Equate maximum fluctuation of energy E and change of KE of the flywheel.

E  I  2Cs

II. Calculation of mass of the flywheel

Let V  Mean rim speed in m/sec.

For C.I. Flywheel: V  1500 m /min for H P  100 73 kW

 2000 m/min for HP  100 73 kW

For cast steel flywheel V  3000  4000 m/min

 15 m /min

VR

  Mean angular velocity - rad./sec

R  Mean radius of flywheel - metre (Radius of Gynation)

V  Mean velocity of flywheel - m  sec

 I  mk 2 k  R  radius of Gyration

I
m  2 kg
k

III. CALCULATION OF RIM DIMENSIONS (Pg.No. 7.120 of Data book)

Let b  width of rim

h  thickness of rim

b
 0.65 to 2
h
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.125

m  D  bh

m  Mass of flywheel  kg

D  Mean dia. of flywheel ,

b  Width of rim in m

  Specific weightin kg/m 3

IV. CALCULATION OF FLYWHEEL SHAFT DIAMETER (d)

Let ADE
represents the energy A
absorbed by the flywheel. E
area of trian gle A D E = E
T orqu e

To find max. torque.

Area of triangle
T m ax
ABC is 30% more than
the area of triangle ADE T m e an D E

Area of triangle ABC

 1.3  area o f  ADE... (1) B C
O su ction  C om pression 2 P ow er 3 exh aust 4
But area of triangle ABC
Fig.4.23.

1
    Tmax  2
2

equate (1) and (2)

And find T max

16
But Tmax  , Let d1  Shaft diameter
d31

y 1
  shear stress of shaft material   assume FOS as 2 to 3
2 FOS

Calculate flywheel shaft dia. d1

V. HUB DIAMETER
D  2  d1
4.126 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

VI. LENGTH OF HUB

L  2  d1

VII. DESIGN OF KEY

For the shaft diameter, select key proportions w and t

w  Width of key

t  Thickness of key

VIII. STRESSES IN THE RIM

(a) Tensile stress due to centrifugal force t  v2  6.5 N/mm 2

[ t ]  6.5 N /mm 2 for C.I. or 6.5  10 6N /m 2

 28 N/mm 2 for Cast steel 28  10 6N/m 2

tInduced must be less than [ t ]permissible. [ie  t  [ t]]

2V 2D
(b) Bending stress  b  n  No. of arms = 6, 8 or 10
n 2h

D  Mean dia. in m

  7250 kg/m 3

3 1
total   Resultant stress  t   b
4 4

total   [  total ]

total  35 N/m m2 for C .I

 35 N/mm 2

 35  10 6N/m 2

Stresses in the arm (at the hub end)

Bending stress in the arm is given by

M t D  d
b 
1 n  Z YY  D
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.127

where
M t  Torque transmitted

D  Mean diameter of rim

d  Diameter of hub
n  No.of arms

For C.I,  b  130 k gf/cm2

1

 65 kg f/cm 2 for severe load

Problem 4.46: Design and draw C.I. flywheel for an IC Engine (4-stroke cycle); Energy
stored  10,000 N.m and speed range  150  3 rpm. During the power stroke, there is an
excess energy E in a fourstroke engine (Fig. 4.33). This energy is obsorbed by the flywheel.

Area of ADE  excess energy E

(i) To find T max

A
E
area of trian gle A D E = E
T orqu e

T m ax
T m e an D E

B C
O su ction  C om pression 2 P ow er 3 exh aust 4
Fig.4.23.

Area of triangle ABC  30% more than Area of triangle ADE

 1.3  E  1.3  10,000  13,000 N m ... (1)

1
But area of triangle ABC     Tmax
2 ... (2)

Equate equations (1) and (2)

4.128 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1
   T max  13,000
2

13000  2
T ma x   8276 N m


2. Find I
PSG DB Pg.No. 7.120

1. E  I 2C S  1  2
CS 

N 1  153 153  147
CS   0.04
150
N 2  147 2N 2  150
   15.7 rad./sec
60 60
N 1  N 2 153  147
N   150
2 2

Now  E  I  2 C S

10,000  I  15.7 2  0.04

I  1014.23 kgm 2

3. Mass of the flywheel

Assume power is less than 73 kW (For CI Flywheel)

 1500 
V  1500 m/min    25 m/sec
 60 
Assume V  15 m/sec

RV

15.7  R  15

R  Mean radius o f the flywheel  0.995 m

k  R  0.955 m

But I  mk2
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.129

1014.23  m  0.955 2

m  11124.06 kg

4. Calculation of rim Dimensions

m  Dbh    7250 kg/m 3 fo r C .I

1112.06    2  0.955   2h  h  7250 b
 0.65  2
h
h  0.113 m  113 mm b
take 2
h
b  2  113  226 mm b  2h

4. Flywheel shaft diameter d:

Tmax  82.75 Nm Shaft material: Select C40 material



 d3
y  360 N /mm2 ; FOS  3
16
 y 1 360 1
8276  10 3  60  d3      60 N  mm 2
16 2 FOS 2 3
d  88.89 mm
Take d  90 mm

6. Hub details
Hub diameter = 2  d  2  90  180 mm

Hub length 2d  2  90  180 mm

7. Design of key
Select key w and t at shaft dia.(d)

8. Stress in the rim

t  eV 2  7250  15 2  1.63  10 6N/m 2  1.63 N/mm 2

which is less than 6.5 N/mm 2

 Design is safe.
4.130 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2V 2D 2  15 2  1.91  7250

b   V  15 m/s
n 2h 6 2  0.113

 7.55  10 6N /m 2 D  0.955  2  1.91 m

 7.55 N/mm 2   7250 kg/m 3

3 1
total      3.3 N/mm 2 h  0.113 m
4 t 4 b

 35 N/mm 2 n6

 Design is safe.

9. Selection of arm: Assume cross-section of arm as an ellipse with a 

major axis, b  minor axis
(from databook)  b  13 N/mm 2
1

M tD  d Mt  Tmax
b 
1 m Z yyD

8.276  10 6 1910  190  8.276  10 6 Nmm

13 
6  Zyy  1910

D  2 R  2  955  1910 mm

d  190 mm

n6

Section modulus Z yy  95547.85 mm 3



3
64Z yy
a  124.8  125 m m


125
c  62.5 m m
2
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.131

Problem 4.47: A single cylinder double acting steam engine delivers 190 kW at 100 r.p.m.
The maximum fluctuation of energy per modulation is 15 percent of the energy developed
per revolution. The speed variation is limited to 1% either way from the mean. The mean
dia. of the rim is 2.4 m; Determine mass of flywheel, cross section of flywheel rim, dia
and length of hub and sketch the flywheel.

Given

P  Power  190 kW  190  10 3watts ; N  Speed  100 r.p.m

E  15% of E  0.15 E ; D  2.4 m ; R  1.2 m

Solution
P  60
Workdone / cycle (or) Energy developed per revolution  E 
n

Where n  no. of working strokes per minute

 N two stroke I.C. engines

N
 fo ur stroke
2

 N for steam engines

190  10 3  60
E  114  10 3Nm
100

 Max. fluctuation of energy  E  0.15  E  0.15  114  10 3

E  17.1  10 3Nm

Fluctuation of speed 1% on either side

 N 1  N2  0.02  N

N1  N2
 0.02
N

N1  N2
But  C S  0.02
N

 DN 100
V    2.4   12.566 m/sec
60 60
4.132 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(i) Mass of flywheel (PSG DB Pg.No. 7.120)

Max. fluctuation of energy  E  I 2Cs

E 17.1  103  10.47 2N 2  100

I     10.47 rad./sec
2 Ks 10.47 2  0.02
60 60

 7799.6 kgm 2

I  m k2 R = mean radius of flywheel

 1.2 m  k
7799.6
m  5416 kg (where k = radius of Gyration)
1.22

(ii) Cross Section of flywheel rim

Let b  width of flywheel rim ; h  thickness of flywheel

Let b  2h

m  Dbh   7200 kg/m 3

5416    2.4  2h  h  7200 b2h
h  0.223 m  0.4466 m
b  446 mm

h  223 mm

(iii) Dia. and length of hub

Hub dia.  2  d

Length of hub  width of flywheel rim  446 mm

To find shaft dia.

P  60 190  10 3  60
Tmean    18143.66 Nm
2N 2  100

But Tmax  2  Tmean

 T max  2  18143.66  36.28  10 3Nm  36.28  10 6 Nmm

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.133

Tmax 

 d3
Select C40 material for shaft y  360 N  mm 2
16

 y 1 360 1
36.28  10 6   60  d3      60 N/mm 2
16 2 FOS 2 3

d  dia of shaft  145.5 mm FOS 2 to 3; select FOS = 3)

d  146 mm

(iv) Cross-sectional dimensions of elliptical arms

Let a  major axis
Take  b  13 N  mm2
1
a
c  minor axis  D  2.4 m  2.4  10 3 mm
2
d  146 mm
n  no. of axis  6 select

M D  d
b 
1 nZ yyD

36.28  10 6 2.4  10 3  146

13 
6  Z yy  2.4  10 3

Z yy  436832 mm 3



3
64Z yy
Then a   207.22 mm  208 mm


a
c  104 mm
2

Design of key
 Select material and FOS

 Calculate [  ] and [  c ]

 Take the values of b and h from databook for the shaft diameter.

 Check  and c

4.134 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 4.48: An otto cycle engine develops 75 kW at 150 rpm with 75 explosions/min.
The change of speed from the commencement to the end of power stroke must not exceed
0.5% of eitherside. Workdone during power stroke is 1.4 times workdone during cycle.
Design the suitable rim if b  4h; the hoop stress t in the rim should not exceed

4 N/mm2    7200 kg/m3.

Note: If  t, e are not given in the problem, select the value of t, e from databook:

t value - Databook Page No. 7.120 Databook Page No. 1.1

t  6.5 N/mm 2  c ast iron For cast iron  0.072 N/cm3

  0.072  10 6 N/m 3
2
 28 N/mm  cast steel 
  7200 kg/m3
GIVEN DATA
Power  P  50 kW  50  10 3watts

Speed  N  150 r.p.m

A
Change of speed = 0.5%
E
of mean on either side area of trian gle A D E = E
T orqu e

no. of explosions/min
 n  75 T m ax
Workdone during power T m e an D E
stroke = 1.4 times Work
Done during cycle.
B C
width of rim b  4h O su ction  C om pression 2 P ow er 3 exh aust 4
where h  Thickness of Fig.4.23.
rim

Hoop stress t  4 N/mm2

  7200 kg/m 3

Solution

(i) Calculate  E

P  60 50  10 3  60
Workdone/cycle    40,000 Nm
n 75
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.135

Working during power stroke  1.4 workdone/cycle

 1.4  40,000

 56,000 Nm

[But W.D during power stroke = Area of triangle ABC]

1
But Area of triangle ABC     T max
2

1
56,000     T max ; Tmax  35650.7 Nm
2

2NTmean
Power P 
60 [Power P  50  10 3N]

P  60 50  10 3  60
Mean Torque T mean    3183.09
2N 2  150

Tmean  3183.09 Nm

Tmax  35650.7 Nm

Tmean  3183.09 Nm

Tmax  Tmean  35650.7  3183.09  32467.61 Nm

From T   diagram, Consider triangle ABC and triangle BDE

Tmax  Tm ean2
 Area of leADE  E  Area of leABC 
T max2

32467.61 2
 56,000   46,446.45 Nm
35650.7 2

 E  46446.45 Nm

(ii) CALCULATION OF VELOCITY OF FLYWHEEL

Hoop stress  t  4 N/mm 2

t   V 2

where   Specific weight  7200kg/m 3

4.136 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

4  10 6  7200  V 2



4  10 6
Velocity of the flywheel  V 
7200

V  23.57 m/sec.

(iii) CALCULATION MEAN DIA. OF FLYWHEEL (D)

DN
V
60
V  60 23.57  60
D  3m
N   150

Mean dia. of flywheel D  3 meters.

(iv) To Find ‘m’ mass of the flywheel

Change of speed N 1  N 2  0.5% of mean speed (0.5% of mean speed ie total
1%)
N1  N2
 0.01
N
N1  N2
But  0.01
N
C s  0.01

E  I . 2 . C s 
2N
60
46446.45  I  15.7 2  0.01 2  150

60
Mass moment of inertia of fly wheel   15.7 rad/sec
2
I  18843.13 kg  m

Mass of the flywheel

But I  mk2
18843.13
m  But k  radius of Gyration
1.5 2
D 3
 Mean radius of flywheel    1.5 metre
m  8374.72 kg 2 2
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.137

(v) To find (b) and (h) - Rim Dimensions

b
 4 (given)
h

m   Dbh  ; b  4h ; m   Dbh 

8374.72    3  4h  h  7200

h2  0.0308

h  0.1756 m ; or 175.6 mm

b  4  h  4  0.1756  0.702 mm

b  702 mm

h  175.6 m in
Problem 4.49: A single cylinder double acting develops 190 kW at 100 rpm. The
maximum fluctuation of energy for revolution is 15 percent of the energy developed per
revolution. The speed variation is limited to 1% either way. The mean diameter of the rim
is 2.4m. Design and sketch the flywheel. (Apr 2007 Anna University)

Given Data

P  P ower  190 kW;  190  10 3 watts ; N  100 rpm

Solution

(i) Find  E & V

Variation of speed is limited to 1% either way of the mean
(ie 2%) P = Power in watts
N 1  N 2  0.02 N n = no. of working
strokes/min
N1  N2
 0.02 = N (two stroke)
N
N
N1  N2  (Four stroke)
But,  C s. = Coeff. of fluctuation of speed. 2
N
C s  0.02

E  0.15 of Energy developed / Revolution.

Mean dia. of flywheel  D  2.4 m
Mean radius o f flyw heel  R  1.2 m
4.138 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Energy developed / revolution (or) workdone / cycle

P  60 190  10 3  600
E 
N 100

E  114  10 3 Nm

Max. fluctuation of energy  E  0.15  E  0.15  114  10 3

 17.1  10 3 Nm

DN   2.4  100

Mean vel. of the rim  V    12.566 m/s ec.
60 60

(ii) To find the mass of the flywheel (m)

E  I  2 Cs 2N 2100
 
60 60

 mk 2 2 C s   10.47 rad/sec

17.1  10 3  m  1.22  0.02  10.47 2 (radius of Gyration on k  R  1.2 m )

Mass of the flywheel m  5416.39 kg

(iii) Cross section of the flywheel rim. (b) and (h)

Mass of the flywheel m   D b h 

b From D.B Pg.No (1.1)

Let  2 (Assuming)
h
  0.072 N/cc  7200 kg/m 2
b  2h
Convert in to kg/m 3
5416.39    2.4  2h  h  7200 or h  223 mm

Thickness of flywheel rim h  0.223 m

Width of flywheel rim b  223  2  446 mm

(iv) To find the hub dia. (d)

Find shaft dia. d1

and hub dia. 2d1  2  shaft dia.

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.139

(a) to find shaft dia. (P.No. 1.9 and 1.10)

Select shaft material as C40 ;  y  330 N/mm 2

Select FOS = 3

y 1 330 1
[]      55 N/mm 2
2 FOS 2 3

P  60 190  103  60
Tmean    18143.66 Nm
2N 2  100

(v) Hub dimensions

IN GENERAL

But Tmax  2 T mean

Tmax  2  18143.66  36.287  10 3 Nm  36.287  10 6 N mm

From PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.21

16 M t
[max] 
 d31

M t  Tmax  36.287  10 6 Nmm

[]max  55 N/mm 2 (for C40 material)

16M t 16  36.287  10 6 Take  b  130 Kg /m2

d31  or d31  1
 [max ]   55
 130  10 5 N/m2
d1  149.66 mm
a  major axis
 Hub dia.  d  2 d1  299.55 mm
a
c  minor axis 
d  300 mm 2

(vi) Cross section of the arm (a and c) Let n  no. of axis  6,8 or 10

M t D  d select n  6
b 
1 n Z yy D

32.287  10 3[2.4  0.3]

130  10 5 
6  Z YY  2.4
4.140 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Z yy  0.000362 m 3

M t in Nm; D, d or in Metre; Z YY in m3; d  0.3 m



64 Z yy

64  0.000362

3 3
Major axis a    0.194 m
 

a  194 mm

a 194
Minor axis c    82 mm
2 2

c  82 mm

Problem 4.50: A punching machine makes 24 strokes per minute and is capable of
punching 30 mm diameter holes in 20 mm. thick steel plates having an ultimate shear
1
strength of 350 N/mm2, The punching operation takes place during of a revolution of
10th
the crankshaft.

(i) Determine the power required for the driving motor, assuming a mechanical efficiency
of 75%.
(ii) Find suitable dimensions for the rim section. The permissible coefficient of speed
fluctuation is 0.4; The flywheel revolves at 9 times the speed of the crankshaft. Assume
cast iron for flywheel. Assume suitable permissible stresses. Permissible coefficient of
flutuation of speed is 0.4. (Apr 2006 Anna University)

Given:
n  No. of strokes per minute  24; d1  D ia. of hole  30mm;

t1  Plate thickness  20mm; u  Ultimate shear stress  350N/mm 2

mech  Mechanical efficiency  75%  0.75

C S  Permissible Coeff. of Speed fluctuation  0.4

Solution
Refer PSG Databook Page No. 7.120
For Castiron flywheel. Assume, (HP < 100)

V  1599 m/min where, V  mean rim speed .

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.141

t  650 kgf/c m2 for C.I.  6.5 N/mm2 for C.I.

1
total   t  b
4

 350 kgf/cm 2

 35 N/mm 2

(i) Power required for the driving motor:

Area of the Hole sheared   d1 t1    30  20

A s  1884.95 mm 2

Maximum shearing force required for punching  A s  a

 1884.95  350  659.7325  10 3

F s  659.7325  10 3N

(As the hole is punched, the shearing force (Fs) decreases uniformly, from
maximum to zero)

Therefore consider average shearing force.

659.7325  10 3
ie., Fs   329.866  10 3 N
2

Energyrequired/stro ke  Average shearing force  thickness of plate

 329.866  10 3  20

 6.597  10 6 Nmm

Energy required / min  Energy / S troke  no. of working strokes/ min

Energy required / min  6.597  10 6  24

 158.335  10 6 Nmm

 158.335  10 3 Nm
4.142 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Energy required /min 1

Power required for the driving motor (Power)  
60 mech

158.335  10 3 1
 
60 0.75

 3518.58 Watts

Power required for the driving motor P  3.51858 kW

(ii) Dimensions for the rim cross-section

Assume, the cross-section of the rim as elliptical

b  Width of rim (width of the flywheel)

h  thickness of rim.
From databook, P.No. 7.120
b
Generally,  0.65 to 2
h
b
Select  2 (Assuming)
h
1
The punching operation takes place during of a crankshaft revolution.
10th
9
That means remaining revolution of crankshaft, the flywheel stores energy.
10th

We know that,

Energy required per stroke  6.597  10 6Nmm

9
 Excess energy E   6.597  10 6  5.9373  10 6Nmm
10

 E  5.9373  10 3Nm

From PSG databook Pg.No. 7.120, Note:

E  I  C   2 If C S is not given,
S
C S  0.4 (Given in the problem) C S from table P.No. (7.121) for punching presses.
C S  coefficient of fluctuation of speed  0.2
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.143

Since the flywheel revolves at 9 times the speed of the crankshaft.

There are 24 strokes/min.

Mean speed of the flywheel  9  24  216 revol. /min r.p.m

N  216 r.p.m

2N
 Mean angular speed  
60

2    216
  22.6194 rad./sec
60

E  I  C S2 I  Mass moment of inertia of flywheel - kgm 2

5.9313  10 3  I  C S22.6184 2 I  mk2

5.9313  10 3  I  0.4  22.6184 2 where m  mass of the flywheel - kg

I  29.011 kgm 2 k  radius of Gyration.

R
where R  mean radius of flywheel.

But, I  m k2

To Find Radius of Gyration k

VR

Assume V  1000 m/min  16.67 m/sec (from databook)

16.67
R  0.1368 m
22.6194
(or) R  736.8 mm

Radius of Gyration k (Mean radius rod of flywheel  R )

D2
k2  (from databook) (for circular cross-section)
4
or k  R

I  mk 2

29.011  m  0.7368 2
4.144 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Mass of the flywheel m  53.4351 kg

W  m  g  53.4351  9.81

But W  524.199 N

Weight mass of the flywheel  Area of flywheel  density of flywheel

 D  b  h     Density of C.I
524.199    147.36  b  h  0.072   0.072 N/cc
b D  147.36 cm
but 2
h b  cms
b  2h h  cms

524.199    147.36  2 h  h  0.072

h2  7.8632

h  2.804 cm

 b  2  h  2  2.804

b  5.6083 cm

 b  width of the rim  56.083 mm

h  thickness of the rim  28.04 mm

m  mass of the flywheel  53.4351 kg

Problem 4.51: For a multi cylinder engine the intercepted areas between the output torque
curve and mean resistance line of turning moment diagram taken in order from one end
are as follows  40,  400  300  350,  350,  250,  350  300,  260 mm2

The scale diagram is 1 mm = 75 N-m and 1 mm  5.

The engine speed is 1000 rpm and the fluctuation in speed is not to exceed 2% of mean
speed.
Find the mass and cross section of the flywheel rim having 700 mm mean diameter. The
density of material of flywheel is 7200 kg/m3. The rim is rectangular with the width 2
times the thickness. Neglect effect of etc.

2N 2  1000
Given: N  1000 rpm or     104.72 rad/s2
60 60
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.145

1  2
1   2  2%  or  C s  0.02; D  700 mm ; R  350 mm = 0.35 m;

  7200 kg/m3.

(i) Mass of flywheel rim m

Scale of turning moment diagram 1 mm = 75 Nm and 1 mm  5


1 mm 5  5   0.08726 rad
180

Therefore 1 mm 2 on turning moment diagram

 0.08726  75  6.545 Nm

The areas are sho w n in the Figure.

M ean
400 350 250 300
tu rn ing
.. .................... ... .. . .
.. .... . ........ C D .............. . ... .. G H ................... K Lm om ent
.
Turnin g m om ent

A ....B. ... . . . . . . .. . ............ . . . .... ... . . E F . . . . .. ................ (A )

.. . .
................. .. .. .. ........ . . ..
. ..... ....... . ................ .
. .
40
300 350 350 260

C rank angle

Let the to tal energy at A  E . Therefore from Fig., we find that

Energy at B  E  40

Energy at C  E  40  400  E  360

Energy at D  E  360  300  E  60

Energy at E  E  60  350  E  410

Energy at F  E  410  350  E  60

Energy at G  E  60  250  E  310

Energy at H  E  310  350  E  40

Energy at K  E  40  300  E  260

Energy at L  E  260  260  E  Energy at A

4.146 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

From above, the energy is maximum at E and minimum at B or H

 Maximum energy  E  410
and minimum energy  E  40
We know that maximum fluctuation of energy
 E  410  E  40  450 mm2
 450  6.545  2945.25 Nm
We also know that maximum fluctuation of energy  E,

2945.25  m  R2   2  Cs  m 0.35 2 104.72 2 0.02  26.86 m

2945.25
 m  109.65 kg
26.86

(ii) Cross-section of the flywheel rim

Let
t  Thickness of the rim in metres, and
b  Width of the rim in metres  2t
 Area of cross-section of the rim,

A  b  t  2t  t  2t2
We know that mass of the flywheel rim m, (PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.120)

109.65  A  2 R    2t2  2  0.350  7200  31667

109.65
 t2 
31667

and t2  0.0034 or t  0.058 m  58 mm

b  2t  2  58  116 mm

4.19.8 Stresses in a Flywheel Rim

A flywheel is shown in Fig. 4.34

The following types of stresses are induced in the rim of a flywheel.

1. Tensile stress due to centrifugal force,

2. Tensile bending stress caused by the restraint of the arms, and
3. The shrinkage stresses due to unequal rate of cooling of casting.
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.147

1. Tensile stress due to the centrifugal force

The tensile stress in the rim due to the centrifugal force, is determined in a
similar way as a thin cylinder subjected to internal pressure.

Let

b  Width of rim,

h  Thickness of rim,

A  Cross-sectional area of rim  b  h

D  Mean diameter of flywheel, b

R im h
R  Mean radius of flywheel,
keyw ay
  Density of flywheel material,
D0 D1 d1 d
l
  Angular speed of flywheel,
R b1
a1
V  Linear velocity of flywheel, and t

 t  Tensile or hoop stress, h

Fig.4.34.F lywheel

  Specific weight 
g

Consider a small element of the rim as shown shaded in Fig. 4.35. Let it
subtends an angle  at the centre of the flywheel.
Volume of the small element  A  R  
 Mass of the small element,
dm  V olume  Density dF
t
 A  R        A  R   
and centrifugal force on the element, X Y
2 2 R
dF  dm    R    A  R      R

   A  R 2   2   P P

Vertical component of dF Fig.4.35. Cross - Section

of a Flyw h eel.
 dF  sin 

   A  R 2   2   sin 
4.148 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Total vertical bursting force across the rim diameter X  Y,



AR  2 2
 sin  d
0

   A  R 2   2 [  cos ]0  2  A  R 2   2

This vertical force is resisted by a force of 2P, such that

2P  2t  A

From equations (i) and (ii), we have

2A  R 2   2  2t  A

V2 
 t    R 2  2    V 2 or
g . .
  . V    R

where  is in kg/m3 and V is in m/s, then  t will be in N/m 2 or Pa.

(PSG D.B of 7.120)

: Specific weight

Note: From the above expression, the mean diameter D of the flywheel may be
obtained by using the relation,

DN
V
60

2. Tensile bending stress caused by restraint of the arms

Assuming that each portion of the rim between a pair of arms behaves like a
beam fixed at both ends and uniformly loaded, as shown in Fig. 4.36, such that length
between fixed ends,

 D 2 R
l  , where n  Number of arms
n n

The uniformly distributed load w per metre length will be equal to the
centrifugal force between a pair of arms.

 w  b  h    2  R N/m
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.149

We know that maximum bending moment, D

l=
n
2 X
w  l2 b  h     2  R  2 R 
M   n 
12 12  
b
X
1 w
and section modulus, Z  b  h2 h
6
R Section X -X
 Bending stress, Fig.4.36.

2 2
M b  h  p    R  2 R  6  V2  2R  2
b    n   
Z 12   b  h2 n2 h

 V2  D   2 2 V2 D V
b  or
n2 h n2 g h ...(Substituting   V/R)

(PSG DB Pg.No. 7.120) 2R  D

Now total stress in the rim,

  t  b

If the arms of a flywheel do not stretch at all and are placed very close together,
then centrifugal force will not set up stress in the rim. In other words, t will be
zero. On the other hand, if the arms are stretched enough to allow free expansion of
the rim due to centrifugal action, there will be no restraint due to the arms, i.e. b
will be zero.

Scientist G. Lanza showed that the total stress in the rim,

3 1
tot  t   b (PSG DB Pg.No. 7.120)
4 4

4.19.9 Stress in Flywheel Arms

Stresses induced in flywheel arms are

1. Tensile stress due to centrifugal force acting on rim

2. Bending stress due to force transmitted from rim to shaft & vice versa

3. Shrinkage stress
4.150 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1. Tensile stress due to the centrifugal force

Due to the centrifugal force acting on the rim, the arms will be subjected to
direct tensile stress whose magnitude is same as discussed in the section 4.19.8

 Tensile stress in the arms,

2
3 3 3 V
t1   t    V 2 or
4 4 4 g

2. Bending stress due to the torque transmitted

Due to the torque transmitted from the rim to the shaft or vice versa, the arms
will be subjected to bending, because they are required to carry the full torque load.
Arms may be assumed as a cantilever beam fixed at the hub and carrying a
concentrated load at the free end of the rim as shown in Fig. 4.37.

Let M t  Maximum torque transmitted by the shaft, H ub R im

A rm Mt
R  Mean radius of the rim; Rn

D  Mean diameter of rim

n  Number of arms, and r R -r

Z  Section modulus for the cross-section of arms. R

Fig. 4.37
We know that the load at the mean radius of the rim,

Mt
F
R

Mt
 Load on each arm 
Rn
and maximum bending moment which lies on the arm at the hub,
Mt M t D  d
M R  r or
Rn Dn

 Bending stress in arms,

M Mt M t D  d
b1   R  r or (PSG DB Pg No. 7.120)
Z RnZ DnZ
 Total tensile stress in the arms at the hub end,
  t1  b1  []
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.151

Notes
1. The total stress on the arms should not exceed the allowable permissible stress.
2. If the flywheel is used as a belt pulley, then the arms are also subjected to
bending due to net belt tension T 1  T2, where T1 and T2 are the tensions
in the tight side and slack side of the belt respectively. Therefore the bending
stress due to the belt tensions,
T 1  T2 R  r T 1  T2 D  d
b2  or (PSG DB Pg.No. 7.121)
n 2 nZ
Z
2

. .
( . Only half the number of arms are considered to be effective in transmitting
the belt tensions)

 Total bending stress in the arms at the hub end,

b   b1  b2

and the total tensile stress in the arms at the hub end,

  t1  b1   b2 (Refer PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.121)

4.19.10 Design of Flywheel Arms

The cross-section of the arms is usually elliptical with major axis as twice the
minor axis, as shown in Fig. 4.38, and it is designed for the maximum bending stress.

a  Major axis, and c

c  Minor axis
a
a
and c  generally
2
F ig .4.38. E llip tical
 Section modulus, c ross section
o f arm s.

  a3
Z  c  a2 
32 64



3
64 Z yy
or a (PSG DB Pg. No. 7.120)


We know that maximum bending moment,

4.152 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Mt M t D  d
M R  r or
Rn Dn

 Maximum bending stress,

M T M t D  d
b   R  r or
Z RnZ DnZ

4.19.11 Design of Shaft, Hub and Key

The diameter of shaft for flywheel is obtained from the maximum torque
transmitted. We know that the maximum torque transmitted,


Tmax    d13
16

where d1  Diameter of the shaft, and

  Allowa ble shear stress for the material of the shaft

The hub is designed as a hollow shaft, for the maximum torque transmitted.
We know that the maximum torque transmitted,

  d4  d4 
1
Tmax   
16  d 
where d  Outer diam eter of hub, and

d1  Inner diameter of hub or diameter of shaft

The diameter of hub is usually taken as twice the diameter of shaft and length
from 2 to 2.5 times the shaft diameter. It is generally taken equal to width of the
rim.

A standard sunk key is used for the shaft and hub. The length of key is obtained
by considering the failure of key in shearing. We know that torque transmitted by
shaft,

d1
Tmax  L  w   
2

where L  Length of the key,

  Shear stress for the key ma teria l, a nd

d1  Diameter of shaft
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.153

Problem 4.52: An engine runs at a constant load at a speed of 480 rpm. The crank effort
diagram is drawn to a scale 1 mm = 250 Nm torque and 1 mm  3.6 crank angle. The
areas of the diagram above and below the mean torque line in sq. mm are in the following
order:  110,  132,  153,  166,  197,  162. Design the flywheel if the total fluctuation of
speed is not to exceed 10 rpm and the centrifugal stress in the rim is not to exceed 5 MPa.
Assume that the rim breadth is approx. 2.5 times the rim thickness and 90% of the moment
of inertia is due to rim. The density of material of flywheel is 7250 kg/m3. Make the sketch
of the flywheel giving the dimensions of rim, the mean diameter of rim and other estimated
dimensions of spoke, hub etc. (Anna Univ, ME 2303, May 2012) (Anna Univ, ME 2303,
Dec 2011 and May 2011)

Solution
2  480
Given: N  480 r.p.m r;    50.26 rad/s;   7250 kg/m 3; t  5 MPa
60
 5  10 6 N /m 2

Moment of inertia of the flywheel

Let I  Moment of inertia of the flywheel.

First of all, let us find the maximum fluctuation of energy. The turning moment
diagram is shown below:

110 153 197 M ean

T urning m om ent

. ... .
...................
.
. B C D F G
torque line
A H (A )
.
132 166 162

Crank angle

Since the scale for the turning moment is 1 mm = 250 N-m and the scale for

the crank angle is 1 mm  3.6  3.6 
180

1 mm 2 on the turning moment diagram


 250   3.6  15.71 Nm
180
4.154 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Let the total energy at A  E . Therefore from Fig., we find that

Energy at B  E  110

Energy at C  E  110  132  E  22

Energy at D  E  22  153  E  131

Energy at F  E  131  166  E  35

Energy at G  E  35  197  E  162

Energy at H  E  162  162  E  Energy at A

From above, we find the energy is maximum at G and minimum at F .

 Maximum energy  E  162

and Minimum energy  E  35

We know that the maximum fluctuation of energy,

 E  Maximum energy  Minimum energy

 E  162  E  35  197 mm 2  197  15.71  3095 Nm

Since the total fluctuation of speed is 10 rpm (given)

N 1  N 2  10

and coefficient of fluctuation of speed,

N1  N2 10
CS    0.02
N 480

We know that the maximum fluctuation of energy  E,

3095  I   2  C S  I 50.26 2 0.02  50.52 I

3095
 I  61.26 kgm 2
50.52

Dimensions of a flywheel rim

Let t  Thickness of the flywheel rim in metres, and

b  Breadth of the flywheel rim in metres  2.5t ...(Given)

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.155

First of all let us find the peripheral velocity V and mean diameter D of the
flywheel.

We know that tensile stress  t, (PSB D.B Pg No. 7.120)

5  10 6    V 2  7250  V 2

5  10 6
 V2   689.7 or V  26.26 m/s
7250

We also know that peripheral velocity V ,

 D  N  D  480
26.26    25.13D
60 60

26.26
 D  1.05 m  1050 mm
25.23

Now let us find the mass of the flywheel rim. Since the rim contributes 90% of
the flywheel effect, therefore the energy of the flywheel rim E rim will be 0.9 times
the total energy of the flywheel E . We know that maximum fluctuation of energy
 E,

3095  E  2C S  E  2  0.02  0.04 E

3095
 E  77375 Nm
0.04

and energy of the flywheel rim,

E rim  0.9  77375  69637 Nm

Let m  M ass of the flywheel rim

We know that energy of the flywheel rim E rim,

1 1
69637   m  V 2   m 26.262  344.8 m
2 2

69637
 m  202 kg
344.8

We also know that mass of the flywheel rim m,

202  b  t   D    2t  t    1.050  7250  47831 t2

4.156 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

202
t2   0.004223
47831

t  0.0650 m  65 mm

and b  2t  2  65  130 mm [For diagram Refer PSG DB Pg.No. 7.120]

Example 4.53: Design and draw a cast iron flywheel used for a four stroke I.C engine
developing 180 kW and 240 r.p.m. The hoop or centrifugal stress developed in the flywheel
is 5.2 MPa, the total fluctuation of speed is to be limited to 3% of the mean speed. The
work done during the power stroke is 1/3 more than the average work done during the
whole cycle. The maximum torque on the shaft is twice the mean torque. The density of
cast iron is 7220 kg/m3. (Anna Univ, ME 2303, Dec 2012)

Solution
Given: P  180 kW  180  103 W; N  240 r.p.m; t  5.2 MPa  5.2  10 6 N /m 2;

N 1  N 2  3% N;   7220 kg/m 3

First of all, left us find the maximum fluctuation energy  E. The turning
moment diagram of a four stroke engine is shown in Fig.

M a x. Torqu e B

E
T orqu e

M ean Torque
D G E

A F C
 2 3 4

Suction Power or Exhau st

working
Crank angle ( )

We know that mean torque transmitted by the flywheel,

P  60 180  10 3  60
Tmean    7161 Nm
2 N 2  240

and workdone per cycle  Tmean    7161  4  90,000 N m

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.157

Since the workdone during the power stroke is 1/3 more than the average
workdone during the whole cycle, therefore,

Workdone during the power (or working) stroke

1
 90,000   90,000  1,20,000 Nm ...(i)
3

The w o rkdo ne during the po w er stro ke is sho w n by a triangle ABC in Fig. in

which the base AC   radians and height BF  Tmax.

1
 Workdone during power stroke     T max ...(ii)
2
From equations (i) and (ii), we have
1
   T max  1,20,000
2
1,20,000  2
 T max   76,384 Nm

Height above the mean torque line,
BG  BF  FG  Tmax  Tm ean  76,384  7,161  69,223 Nm

Since the area BDE shown shaded in Fig. above the mean torque line represents
the maximum fluctuation of energy  E,therefo refro mgeo metric alrelatio n,

Area of  BDE BG2

 , we have
Area of  ABC BF 2

Maximum fluctuation of energy (i.e. area of  BDE),

2 2
 BG   69,223 
 E  Area of  ABC     1,20,000  76,384   98,555 Nm
 BF   

1. Diameter of the flywheel rim

Let D  Diameter of the flywheel rim in m etres, and
and V  Peripheral velocity of the flyw heel rim in m/s
We know that the hoop stress developed in the flywheel rim  t,

5.2  10 6    V 2  7220  V2

5.2  10 6
 V2   720 or V  26.8 m/s
7220
4.158 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

We also know that peripheral velocity V ,

 D  N  D  240
26.8    12.57 D
60 60

26.8
  2.132 m
12.57

2. Mass of the flywheel rim

Let m  Mass of the flywheel rim in kg.

We know that angular speed of the flywheel rim,

2 N 2  240
   25.14 rad/s
60 60

and coefficient of fluctuation of speed,

N1  N 2
CS   0.03
N

We know that maximum fluctuation of energy  E,

2
 2.132 
98,555  m  R 2   2  C S  m  2
 25.14  0.03  21.54m
 2 
98,555
 m  4575 kg
21.54

3. Cross-sectional dimensions of the rim

Let t  Depth or thickness of the rim in metres, and

b  Width of the rim in metres  2 t  (Assume)

 Cross-sectional area of the rim,

A  b  t  2t  t  2t2

We know that mass of the flywheel rim m,

4575  A  D    2t2    2.132  7220  96730t2

4575
 t2   0.0473 or t  0.217 say 0.22m  220 mm
96730

and b  2t  2  220  440 mm

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.159

4. Diameter and length of hub

Let d  Diameter of the hub,

d1  Diam eter of the shaft, and

l  L ength of the hub

Since the maximum torque on the shaft is twice the mean torque, therefore
maximum torque acting on the shaft,

Tmax  2  T mean  2  7161  14322 Nm  14322  10 3 Nmm

We know that the maximum torque acting on the shaft Tmax,

 
14322  10 3    d13   40 d13  7.855 d13
16 16

 T aking   40 MPa  40 N/mm 2

14322  10 3
 d13   1823  10 3
7.855

or d1  122 sa y 125 mm.

The diameter of the hub is made equal to twice the diameter of shaft and length
of hub is equal to width of the rim.

 d  2d1  2  125  250 mm  0.25 m

andl  b  470 mm  0.47 m

5. Cross-sectional dimensions of the elliptical rim

Let a  Major axis,

c  Minor axis  0.5 a  (Assume)

n  Number of arms  6  (Assume)

b  Bending stress for the material of arms  20 MPa  20 N/mm2  (Assume)

We know that the maximum bending moment in the arm at the hub end, (PSG
DB Pg. 7.120)
4.160 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Mt 14,322
M D  d  2.132  0.25  N m
Dn 2.132  6

 2107 Nm  2107  10 3 Nmm

and section modulus for the cross-section of the arm,

 
Z  c a2   0.5 a a2  0.05 a3
32 32

We know that the bending stress  b,

3
M 2107  10 42140  10 3
20   
Z 0.05 a3 a3

42,140  10 3
3 
a  2107  10 3 or a  128.2 say 130 mm
20

and b  0.5 a  0.5  130  65 mm

6. Dimensions of key
The standard dimensions of rectangular sunk key for a shaft of diameter 125
mm are as follows: (PSG DB Pg.No. 5.16)

Width of key, w  32 mm

and thickness of key  18 mm

The length of key L is obtained by considering the failure of key in shearing.

We know that the maximum torque transmitted by the shaft T max,)

d1 125
14,322  10 3  L  w     L  32  40   80  10 3 L
2 2

14.322  10 3
 L  179 say 180 mm
80  10 3

Let us now check the total stress in the rim which should not be greater than
20 MPa. We know that total stress in the rim,
2 2
3 1 3 1  V D  
t   t  b  [V 2]   
4 4 4 4
 n2 t  [PSG DB Pg.No. 7.120]
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.161

 4.935 R 
    V2  0.75  
 n2  t 

 4.935 2.132 /2  2

 7220 26.8 2  0.75  2  N/m
 6  0.22 

  5.2  10 6 0.75  0.664  7.35  10 6 N/m 2  7.35 MPa

Since it is less than 20 MPa, therefore the design is safe.

Problem 4.54: Design and draw suitable flywheel for a four stroke four cylinder 133 kW
engine running at 375 rpm. Due to space restriction the flywheel diameter should not
exceed 1.2 m. (Anna Univ, ME 2303, Dec
2010)

Given data
n  4; P  133 kW;D  1.2 m  1200 mm ;   7200 kg/m 3;  375 rpm; R  600 mm

1. Mass of the flywheel rim

2 N 2  375  N
w   39.27 rad/s n 2 
60 60  
P  60 133  10 3  60
Workdone/cycle    3990 Nm
n 42

W .D/cycle 3990
W.D in one stroke    997.5 N m
4 4

W.D
Maximum fluctuation of energy   W.D in one stroke
cycle

 3990  997.5  2992.5

 E  2992.5 Nm

Maximum fluctuation of energy  E  m R2  2 C s

Assume C s  2%   0.02

 E  mR 2  2 C s

2992.5  m  600 2  39.27 2  0.02

m  269.51 kg
4.162 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2. Cross section of the flywheel rim

Abt

b  width of rim  2t

A  2t  t  2t2

We know that mass of the flywheel rim m  A  2 R  

269.51  2t2  2  0.6  7200

t  0.0704 m

t  70.4 mm say 71 mm

Width b  2t  2  71  141 mm

Problem 4.55: A punching press pierces 25 holes per minute in a plate using 14 kN-m
of energy per hole during each revolution. Each piercing takes 30 per cent of the time
needed to make one revolution. The punch receives power through a gear reduction unit
which in turn is fed by a motor driven belt pulley 850 mm diameter and turning at 200
r.p.m. Find the power of the electric motor if overall efficiency of the transmission unit is
85 percent. Design a cast iron flywheel to be used with the punching machine for a
coefficient of steadiness of 6, if the space considerations limit the maximum diameter to
1.5 m.

Allowable shear stress in the shaft material  60 MPa

Allowable tensile stress for cast iron  5 MPa

Density of cast iron  7200 kg/m 3

Solution
Given: No. of holes = 25 per min; Energy per hole = 14 kN-m = 14,000 N-m;
d = 850 mm = 0.85 m; N = 200 r.p.m;   85% = 0.85; 1/C S  6 or
C S  1/ 6  0.167; D max  1.5 m;   60 MPa  60 N/mm 2; t  5 MPa  5 N/mm 2;
  7200 kg/m 3

(i) Power of the electric motor

We know that energy used for piercing holes per minute

 No. of holes pierced  Energy used per hole

Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.163

 25  14,000  3,50,000 Nm/min

 Power needed for the electric motor,

E nergy used per minute 3,50,000

P   6863 W  6.863 kW
60   60  0.85

(ii) Design of cast iron flywheel

Maximum fluctuation of energy

Since the overall efficiency of the transmission unit is 80%, therefore total energy
to be supplied during each revolution,

14,000
ET   16,471 N m
0.85

We know that velocity of the belt,

V   d  N    0.85  200  534 m/min

 Net tension or pull acting on the belt

P  60 6863  60
   771.1 N
V 534

Since each piercing takes 30 percent of the time needed to make one revolution,
therefore time required to punch a hole

0.3
  0.012 min
25

and the distance moved by the belt during punching a hole

 Velocity of the belt  Time required to punch a hole

 534  0.012  6.41 m

 Energy supplied by the belt during punching a hole,

E B  Net tension  Distance travelled by belt

 771.1  6.41  4943 Nm

Thus energy to be supplied by the flywheel for punching during each revolution
or maximum fluctuation of energy,

 E  ET  E B  16471  4943  11528 Nm

4.164 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(iii) Mass of the flywheel

Let m  Mass of the flywheel rim.
Since space considerations limit the maximum diameter of the flywheel as 1.5
m; therefore let us take the mean diameter of the flywheel,
D  1.4 m or R  0.7 m
We know that angular velocity
2  N 2  200
   20.94 rad/s
60 60
We also know that the maximum fluctuation of energy  E,

11528  m  R 2   2  CS  m 0.72 20.94 2  0.167  35.88 m

11528
m  321.3 kg
35.88

(iv) Cross-sectional dimensions of the flywheel rim

Let t  T hickness of the flywheel rim in metres, and

b  Width of the flywheel rim in metres  2t  (Assume)

 Cross-sectional area of the rim,

A  b  t  2t  t  2t2

We know that mass of the flywheel rim m,

321.3  A   D    2t2    1.4  7200  63.3  10 3 t2

321.3
 t2   0.00507
63.3  10 3

or t  0.071 m say 72 mm

and width b  2t  2  72  144 mm

(v) Diameter and length of hub

Let d  Diameter of the hub, d1  Diam eter of the shaft, and l  L ength of the hub .

First of all, let us find the diameter of the shaft d1. We know that the mean
torque transmitted by the shaft,
Design of Energy Storing Elements - Springs and Flywheels 4.165

P  60 6863  60
T mean    327.7 N m
2 N 2  200

Assuming that the maximum to rque transmitted by the shaft is tw ic e the mean
to rque, therefo re maximum to rque transmitted by the shaft,

Tmax  2  T mean  2  327.7  655 Nm  655  10 3 Nmm

We know that maximum torque transmitted by the shaft Tmax,

 
655  10 3    d13   60 d13  11.78 d13
16 16

655  10 3
 d31   55.6  10 3
11.78

or d1  38.17 mm say 40 mm

The diameter of the hub d is twice the diameter of the shaft d1 and length
of hub l is equal to the width of the rim b .

 d  2d1  2  40  80 mm  0.08 m and l  b  144 mm

(vi) Cross-sectional dimensions of the elliptical cast iron arms

Let a  Major axis,

c  Minor axis  0.5 a  (Assume)

n  Number of arms  6  (Assume)

We know that the maximum bending moment in the arm at the hub end, which
is assumed as cantilever is given by

Mt 655
M D  d  1.4  0.08  Nm
Dn 1.4  6

 102.928 Nm  102928 Nmm

and section modulus for the cross-section of the arms,

 
Z  c a2   0.5 a a2  0.05 a3
32 32
4.166 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

We know that bending stress t,

M 102928 2058  10 3
5  
Z 0.05 a3 a3

2058  10 3
  a 3   411.6  10 3 or a  74.38 mm say 75 mm
5

and c  0.5a  0.5  75  37.5 mm

(vii) Dimensions of key

The standard dimensions of rectangular sunk key for a shaft of diameter 40
mm are as follows: (PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.16)

Width of key, w  12 mm
and thickness of key  18 mm
The length of key L is obtained by considering the failure of key in shearing.
We know that maximum torque transmitted by the shaft Tmax,

d1 40
655  10 3  L  w     L  12  60   14.4  10 3 L
2 2

655  10 3
 L  45.5 say 46 mm
14.4  10 3
Check the total stress in the rim which should not be greater than 5 MPa.
We know that the velocity of the rim,
 D  N   1.4  200
V   14.66 m/s
60 60

 Total stress in the rim,

3 1  2 D 
tot  t   b   V 2  0.75  2  (PSG D.B Pg.No. 7.120)
4 4
 n t 

 4.935 R  2 4.935  0.7 

    V2  0.75  2   7200 14.66  0.75  2 
 n t   6  0.072 

 3.22  10 6 N/m 2  3.22 MPa

Since it is less than 5 MPa, therefore the design is safe.
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.1

CHAPTER 5

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements

Fixed B alls or
5.1 INTRODUCTION Rollers
ele me nt
Bearing is a mechanical element permitting relative
motion between two parts, such as the shaft and the
housing, with minimum friction. The following are the
functions of the bearing:
(i) The bearing ensures free rotation of the shaft or the M oving
axle with minimum friction. ele me nt
Fig.5.1.Rolling contact
(ii) The bearing supports the shaft or the axle and holds bearings.
it in the correct position.
(iii) The bearing takes up the forces that act on the shaft B earing
or the axle and transmits them to the frame or the
foundation.
++
A bearing is a machine element which supports
another rotating machine element known as Journal. The
bearing permits a relative motion between the contact jou rn al
(a) F ull jou rnal
surfaces of the members, while carrying the load. Due to bearing
the relative motion between the contact surfaces, some
amount of power is wasted in overcoming the frictional ++
resistance which causes the wear. In order to reduce the
frictional resistance and wear, a layer of fluid called o
120
lubricant may be provided.
(b) P artial journal
bearing
5.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BEARINGS

I. Depending upon the direction of load to be +

+
supported:
(a) Radial bearings: Support load that acts o
120
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
(c)Fitted jo urnal
moving element. bearing
(b) Thrust bearings: Support load that acts along the Fig.5.2.Sliding an d rolling
co ntact bearings.
axis of rotation.
5.2 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

II. Depending upon the nature of contact:

(a) Sliding contact bearing: Sliding takes place along the surfaces of contact
between the moving element and the fixed element.
Ex: Journal bearing.

(b) Rolling contact bearing: (Anti-friction bearing) Steel balls (or) rollers are placed
between the moving and fixed elements. The balls or rollers offer rolling
friction.
Ex: Ball and roller bearings.

5.1.2 Common Types of Sliding Contact Bearings

5.1.2.1 Slider Bearing (or) Slipper (or) Guide Bearings

In this type of bearing, two contact surfaces are flat and relative motion is
translation. It carries a radial load (perpendicular to bearing surface).

5.1.2.2 Journal Bearing (or) Sleeve Bearings

In this type of bearings, the sliding action is along the circumference of a circle
or an arc of a circle and carrying radial loads.

(a) Full Journal Bearing

When the angle of contact of the bearing with the journal is 360, then the
bearing is called full journal bearing.

This type of bearing is commonly used in industrial machinery to accommodate

bearing loads in any radial direction.

(b) Partial Journal Bearing

When the angle of contact of the bearing with the journal is 120, then the
bearing is called partial journal bearing. This type of bearing has less friction than
full Journal bearing. It can be used only where the load is always in one direction.

All Journal and Partial Journal bearings are also called as clearance bearings,
because the diameter of the Journal is less than that of bearing.

(c) Fitted Journal Bearing

When the partial journal bearing has no clearance, then the bearing is called
fitted journal bearing.
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.3

In this type of bearing, the diameter of the Journal and the diameter of the
bearing are equal.

5.1.2.3 Thrust Bearing

When the load acting on the bearing is axial, then the type of bearing is called
thrust bearing.

 The sliding contact bearings, according to the thickness of layer of the

lubricant between the bearing and the Journal, may also be classified as:

(a) Thick film bearings: In this type of bearings, the working surfaces are
completely separated from each other by the lubricant.
(b) Thin film bearings: In this type of bearings, even though the lubricant is
present, the working surfaces partially contact each other, atleast part of the
time. Such type of bearings are also called as Boundary Lubricated
bearings.
(c) Zero film bearings: In this type, the bearings are operated without any
lubricant.
Thick film lubrication is further divided into two groups: hydrodynamic and
hydrostatic lubrication. Hydrodynamic lubrication is defined as a system of lubrication
in which the load-supporting fluid film is created by the shape and relative motion
of the sliding surfaces.

Hydrostatic lubricated bearing: These bearings can support steady loads without
any relative motion between the Journal and the bearing. This can be done by forcing
externally pressurized lubricant between the members.

Comparison of Hydrodynamic & Hydrostatic bearings

 In hydrodynamic bearing, until the speed necessary for pressure build up is
reached, there will be metal to metal contact. Therefore, there will be starting
and stopping friction due to rubbing of surfaces.

 In hydrostatic bearing, an external pressure source supplies the pressurized

lubricant the bearing to support the load. Therefore, even at zero-speed, the
shaft can be made to float avoiding metal to metal contact.

 Hydrostatic bearings are used in heavily loaded slow moving equipments like
- heavy machine tools, rolling mills etc.
5.4 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 In case of rolling mills - hydrostatic bearing is used during starting and

stopping. During normal running, speed will be sufficient for developing
pressure and hence hydrodynamic bearing is used.
 In machine tool spindles, since the workpiece accuracy is important and
therefore hydrostatic bearings are preferred to hydrodynamic bearings.

5.1.2.4 Non-Metallic bearings

(a) Carbon-Graphite - (slow speed)

(b) Rubber

i Nylon
(c) Wood and Plastics
ii Teflon

5.1.3 Properties required for Bearing materials

1. The bearing material should have high compressive strength.
2. The bearing material should have sufficient strength so that it can withstand
repeated loads without developing surface fatigue cracks.
3. Comformability: It is the ability of the bearing material to accommodate
shaft deflections and bearing inaccuracies by plastic deformation without
excessive wear and heating.
4. Embeddability: It is the ability of bearing material to accommodate small
particles of dust, sand and metal particles (may be introduced into the bearing
with the lubricant or ventilating air), without scoring the material of the
Journal, which causes wear.
If the bearing lining is soft, the particles are completely embedded.
5. Bonding: The bearing material should bond readily and permanently with
steel or bronze, for long bearing life.
6. Corrosion Resistance: The bearing material should have corrosive
resistance, under the action of lubricating oil.
7. Thermal conductivity: The bearing material should have high thermal
conductivity so as to permit the rapid removal of the heat generated by friction.

5.1.4 Materials used for sliding contact bearings

1. Babbit metal
2. Bronze
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.5

3. Cast iron
4. Silver

5.1.5 Lubricants
Lubricants are used in bearings to reduce friction between the rubbing surfaces
and to carry away the heat generated by friction. It also prevents the bearing against
corrosion.

5.1.6 Properties of Lubricants

1. Viscosity
2. Density
3. Flash point
4. Fire point
5. Pour point (or) Freezing point.

5.1.6.1 Viscosity:
It is defined as the internal resistance offered by a fluid to change its shape or
relative motion of its parts.

Absolute viscosityZ  unit is centipoise CP - (MKS)

simply viscosity

1CP  0.001 kg/msec in mass units (SI) or

sec 2 1CP  0.001 N

sec
(SI)
N
kg m N  sec m2
 
m sec m  sec m2

Kinematic viscosity   
Z
;   density kg /m 3

kg
m  sec

kg
m3

kg m3
 
m  sec kg

 m 2/sec . (Stokes)
5.6 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

 Viscosity decreases with increase in temperature for lubricating oils.
 Viscosity increases with increase in temperature for air.

5.1.7 Hydrostatic Lubrication

Hydrostatic lubrication is defined as a system of lubrication in which the load
supporting fluid film separats the two surfaces by using an external source, like a
pump, supplying sufficient fluid under pressure. Since the lubricant is supplied under
pressure, this type of bearing is called externally pressurised bearing.

Initially the shaft rests on bearing surface. As the pump starts, the high pressure
fluid is admitted in the clearance space, forcing the surfaces of bearing and journal
to separate out.

These bearings are used in vertical turbo generators.

5.1.8 Principle of Hydrodynamic Lubrication in Journal bearings

(a) Initially the shaft is at rest ( Fig 5.3(a)) and it sinks to the bottom of the
clearance space under the action of load W. The surfaces of the journal and
the bearing touch during ‘rest’.
(b) As the journal starts to rotate, it will climb the bearing surface ( Fig. 5.3(b))
and as the speed is further increased, it will force the fluid into the
wedge-shaped region (Fig.5.3(c)).
Since more and more fluid is forced into the wedge-shaped clearance-space,
pressure is generated with in the system. The pressure generated in the clearance
space supports the external load W.

This mode of Lubrication is observed in bearings mounted on engines and

centrifugal pumps.

5.2 HYDRODYNAMIC JOURNAL BEARINGS

 Hydrodynamic bearings are
– Simple in construction

– Easy to maintain

– Lower initial cost

– Lower Maintenance cost

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.7

D +C
D 
C learance B earing O il in
…
…… … ........ ............... . .
S pace ...... .
..........
... .. …
...............
.… .. .......
. ..............
O il .. ....
................ .......................................
. ..
....... .. .
........ .................. ............
.
.....
. . ...... .............. ...... o
..... . . ....... ...... ..... ·

e
..... o ·
..... ... o
.......... .... o
·
+o .. +
... ... ........ +o .
... w
.. w .. . .....
.
w
Journal . .. O il
.. ho
flow
w
w w
(a) Journal at rest (a) Journal starts to rotate (c) Journal at full speed
Fig.5.3. M echanism of Lubrication.

 Hydrostatic bearings have the following advantages

1. High load carrying capacity even at low speeds
2. No starting friction
3. No rubbing action in any operating speed or load.

5.2.1 DESIGN PROCEDURE

Terms Used in Design of Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing (P.No.7.33)
D  J ournal diameter, cm

C  Diametera l clearance cm

R  Radial clearance cm Lin e o f
Centres
+C
ho  Minimum film thickness, cm
x

D
ma

D
h

Journal
  attitude, dimensionless number  h g
b
O ·

a
e

  attitude, angle O
h m ax
·

w Lea ding
L  Length of bearing, cm Trailing
Edge
Edge
W  Load, kg f or N .
ng
h a ri
mi
n= x Be
P  bearing pressure on projected are a h
o p m ax w
2 2 B
k gf/cm or N/m
Fig.5.4. G eom etric relation for any
e  eccentricity, cm Journal bearing.
5.8 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

n  speed of journal, rpm

Z  ab solute viscosity of the oil centipoise

1 CP  0.001 k g/msec

C
 Clearance ratio 
D ... (1)

C
 Eccentricity  e   ho
2 ... (2)

2e 2ho
 Eccentricity factor (or) attitude    1
C C ... (3)

C
 From equvation (3) ho  [1  ]
2 ... (4)

Refer databook, P.No.7.34

2
 ZN   D  0.010
Sommerfold Number     
 P  C 
Dimensionless parameter k

ZN 0.005
Bearing Characteristic No.
P

Z  absolute viscos ity  C.P. MKS 

0 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0
1 CP  0.001  kg/m.sec L
D
Where,

P  kg/c m2 Z 
Z
Z  Absolute 9.81  10 7
Viscosity (Unit
kgf sec/cm 2

Z  Centipoise CP kgf sec/cm 2

N  rpm

D  cm

C  cm
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.9

 Coefficient of friction: 

33.25  Z n   D  Z  CP
Mckee’s Equation:      K
1010  P   C 

when S  0.15 n  rpm

P  kg /cm 2

D  cm

C  cm

K  co nsta nt
obtained from graph

 For all situations, refer Raimondi - Bodo charts Page No. (7.40)
1 00
80 0 -8
For L =1 For L =1
2h


C

60


D 0 -7 D
M inim u m film th ickne ss va riable
D
2= C


40 



 




0 -6
 




C oe fficie n t of frictio n va riable


20



0 -5



 
10   0 -4
8
6
 0 -3
4 0 -2

2 0 -1

1 0 -01 0 -02 0 -04 0 -06 0 -08 0 -1 0 -2 0 -4 0 -6 0 -8 1 -0 2 -0 4 -0 6 -0 8 -01 0

0 -01 0 -02 0 -04 0 -06 0 -08 0 -1 0 -2 0 -4 0 -6 0 -8 1 -0 2 -0 4 -0 6 -0 8 -01 0
2
2 Bearing characteristic num ber S = Z ·n · D
Bearing characteristic num ber S = Z ·n · D
P C
P C M inim um film thickness variable vs
Coefficient of friction variable vs
Som merfeld num ber S Som merfeld num ber S

Dimensionless Performance Parameters (Tables, refer Page No. 7.36 to 7.39)

Refer (P. No. 7.35)
D
Coefficient of friction variable  from graph P.No. 7.40 (if Bearing
C
characteristic number is known)
4q L
Flow variable or from tables according to and S values.
DC nL D
n  speed of journal in (rps  revolution per sec).
5.10 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

qs
Flow ratio
q
Pressure ratio  p/pmax .
 c to
Temperature rise variable 
p
 c from data book.
to  temperature raise of oil C
 Assume initial oil temp  60 to 95 C

Outlet oil temperature  t2  t1  to

to
Average oil film temperature  t1 
2

From tables: (7.36) to (7.39) (or) From (Graph) P.NO. 7.40

L
For S  Calculated value ; 1;   360 (full journal bearing)
D

S-Sommer Field Number

D 4q qs  cto
Take the values from table  , , , and p/pmax and then
C DCnL q p
calculate, , q, q s, to and pmax .

At t2 temperature from page No. 7.41 (Chart) identify the SAE No. at required
Z (absolute viscosity) value in CP.

Problem 5.1: A 80 mm diameter full journal bearing supports a radial load of 600 kgf.
The length of the bearing = 80 mm. The speed of the shaft = 600 rpm. The oilfilm thickness
= 0.03 mm. The diametral clearance = 0.170 mm. Design the bearing.

Solution
Given Data:

D  80 mm  8 cm ; L  80 mm  8 cm

W  600 kg f ; h0  0.03 mm  3  10  3 cm

C  0.170 mm  0.017 cm ; n  N  600 rpm

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.11

n 600
n    10 rps
60 60

Step 1

Calculation of Absolute Viscosity

2ho 2  3  10  3
Calculate,   0.3529
C 0.017

 0.35

Since, the given bearing is full journal bearing,   360

L
Refer data book, page No. 7.40. From the graph at  1,
D

2h0
  360 and  0.35 , find the value of S from graph.
C

Bearing characteristic number = S = 0.095

2
Zn  D  W 600
But S   0.095 , P   9.375 kgf/cm 2
P  C  L.D 8  8
2
Z   10  8 
 0.095
9.375  0.017 

Z  4.021  10  7 kgf sec/cm 2

Z
But Z 
9.81  10 7

Z  4.021  10  7  9.81  10 7

Absolute viscosity  Z  39.44 CP

Step 2
Calculation of coefficient of friction 

L
Refer page No 7.40 (from graph) at S  0.095,  1 and   360 
D

D D
Take the value of ; From the graph,   2.8
C C
5.12 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2.8  0.017
   Coefficient of friction 
8

  5.95  10  3

Step 3

Calculate heat generated (Hg) and power loss due to friction (P)

Refer databook P.No: 7.34

Heat generated  H g   W v v  Surface speed of Journal

H g  5.95  10  3  600  150.79   DN m/min

 583.3203 kg f m/min 80
  600
Power lost due to friction 1000
538.3203  150.79 m/min
  0.1196 HP
4500

Step 4:
Refer databook, Page No. 7.36

L
Refer table 1, full journal bearing, S  .095 and 1
D

Read the following

4q qs  c to p
(a) (b) (c) (d)
DCnL q p pmax

4q
(a)
DCnL

By interpolation, find the value of q (oil flow through bearings)

at S  0.095 0.0950
0.121  4.33  0.0446
0.0446  4.62 0.0504
 0.0764   0.29  0.0504    0.29 
0.0504  ? 0.0764
  0.1913

at 0.0446  4.622
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.13

0.0504   0.1913

0.095  4.428

4q
 S  0.095, the value of  4.428
DCnL

4.428  DCn L
Oil flow through bearings q 
4

4.428  8  0.017  10  8

4

q  12.044 cm 3/sec .

qs
(b) where qs  axial flo w o f o il in cm 3/sec.
q

0.121  0.680 0.0950

0.0446  0.842 0.0446
 

0.0764   0.162 0.0504
0.0504    0.162 
0.0504  ? 0.0764
  0.1068 

at 0.0446  0.842
0.0504   0.1068

0.095  0.7352

qs
 At S  0.095, the value of  0.7352
q

Axial flow of oil  qs  q  0.7352  12.046  0.7352

 8.856 c m3/sec

 cto
(c)
p

to  temperature increase of the oil in C

5.14 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

0.121  14.2 0.095

0.0446  8.0  
0.0446

0.0764  6.2 0.0504
0.0504  6.2
0.0504  ? 0.0764
 4.09

at 0.0446  8.00
0.0504  4.09

0.095  12.09

 c  14.2 kg f/cm2C

 cto
at S  0.095,  12.09
P

14.2  to
  12.09
9.375

temperatureinc reaseo fo il

12.09  9.375
to   7.98C
14.2

p
(d) where, pmax  maximum pressure kg f/cm 2
pmax

0.121  0.415

0.0446  0.313

0.0764  0.102

0.0504  ?

0.0504  0.102
 0.0672
0.0674

at 0.0446  0.313

0.0504  0.0672

0.095  0.3802
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.15

p
At S  0.95 ,  0.3802
pmax

Pressure 9.375
 pmax    24.65 kg f/cm 2
0.3802 0.3802

Step 5:
Refer databook page no. 7.34
2
 t  18  L.D
Heat dissipated H d  kg fm/min
K

t  Increase in bearing surface temperature from ambient temp.

(Refer page No. 7.35)

K = constant for heat dissipation where t0  operating temperature of oil

 437 for heavy construction  60 to 95
 775 for light construction ta  ambient temperature  30C

Take K  437
2
 22.5  18   8  8
 Hd  kgfm/min
437

 240.21 kgf/min

240.21
  0.0533 hp
4500

H g  H d , Hence artificial cooling is required to reduce the bearing temperature.

Step 6:
Selection of SAE lubricant

Trail 1: t1  70C

 t0
Oil film average temperature  t1 
2

7.98
 70   73.99 C  74C
2
5.16 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Refer databook page No. 7.41 (Graph-Z Vs temperature C ), at 74C the viscosity
of SAE60 is 45 CP which is greater than required value of viscosity

Trail 2:
Reduce oil temperature,
Take t1  65 

4.14
 O i l f il m av e r a g e te m p e r atu r e  65 
2
 67.07  67C
At 76C, the absolute viscosity of SAE 50 is 55 CP

which is greater than required value of viscosity.

If oil film temperature is 70  select SAE 60 lubricant

(or) If oil film temperature is 67, then select SAE 50 lubricant

Problem 5.2: A full Journal bearing 18 cms long, 12 cm diameter supports a radial load
of 3000 kg. The speed of the Journal is 300 rpm; and the radial clearance 0.0045 cm.
Determine the value of the viscosity of oil and power loss due to friction. If the minimum
oil film thickness is to be limited to 0.0025 cm, use the following equation.
2
ZN  R  7 2  1  2

Sommerfied Number   49.25  10 2    and coefficient of friction
P  C  2 
33 ZN  R 
    0.002; where   Eccentricity ratio. (Oct. ’97, MU, Apr 2007 -
1010 P  C 
AU)

Solution
Given Data:

Length of Journal  L  18 cms

Dia. of Journal  D  12 cms  Radius of Journal r  5 cm

W 3000
Radial Load on bearing  W  3000 kg; P   13.88 kgf  cm 2
L.D 18  12

Radial clearance  C  0.0045 cm; diametral clearance C  9  10  3 cm

Min. Oil film thickness  h0  0.0025 cm

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.17

h0
Eccentricity ratio   1  2
C

2  0.0025
1
9  10  3

  0.444
2
ZN  R  
 1  0.444 2
 49.25  10 7  2  0.444 2
P  C    2  0.444

ZN 
 1  0.444 2
 49.25  10 7 [2  0.444 2] 2
P   0.444
2
3 
ZN  9  10
   0.22  10 9  495
P  6 
495  13.88
Z
300

 22.902 CP  23 CP

33 ZN  R 
Coefficient of friction      0.02
10 10 P  C 

33  23  300   6 
 10  13.88  
 0.002
3 
10    9  10 

 3.0936  10  3
Heat generated   .W.v

 3.0936  10  3  3000  113.09

 1049.56 kgf  m  min

Power lost due to  1049.56


frictio n  4500

 v  Surface Speed of Journal


 0.233 HP
 v   dN
    0.12  300

  113.09 m /min

5.18 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 5.3: A Journal bearing is to be designed for a centrifugal pump for the following
data. Diameter of Journal 7.5 mm
Load on the Journal  12 kN
Speed  1440 rpm
Atmospheric temperature  16C
Operating temperature of oil  60C
Absolute viscosity of oil at 60C  23 centipoise (AU, May/June 2012)

Solution
Dia of Journal  D  75 mm  7.5 cm

Load on the Journal  W  12 kN  12000 N

 1200 kgf

Speed  N  1440 rpm

ta  16C

t0  60C

L
Let  1.0 to .20 (Length of Journal)  L  dia of the Journal D
D

L
From databook (P.No.7.31)  Take 1
D

Z  23 CP

Refer databook, Page No. 7.32,

Since V m  160 m  min.

Take diameterial clearance

C  75 to 113 microns  Surfa ce speed of journal 

 V m   DN

 75  10  6 m to 113  10  6 m  75
   1440
1000
 75  10  3 mm to 113  10  3 mm

  339.29 m/min

Select C  100  10  3 mm

 0.1 mm  0.01 cm
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.19

2
Zn  D 
Sommerfeld Number S 
p  C 

1440
n   24 r.p.s
60

W 1200
P   21.33 kgf  cm 2
L.D 7.5  7.5

2
Z   24  7.5 
S
21.33  0.01 

Z  absolute viscos ity  23 CP

Z 23
Z  7
  2.34  10  7 kgf sec  c m2
9.81  10 9.81  10 7

2
Sommerfled  2.34  10  7  24  7.5 
 S  0.01 
Number  21.33  
 0.1481

 To find coefficient of friction 

Refer table page No. 7.40

 D L
Graph between    Vs S at  1; and   360
 C  D

D  C  0.01 cm
At S  0.1481  0.15 , the value of   3.8  D  7.5 c m
C 
Coefficient of  3.8  0.01
    5.06  10  3
friction  7.5

Refer P.No. (7.34) W  1200 kgf

Heat generated  Hg  WV 75

V  dN     1440
1000

 H g  5.06  10  3  1200  339.29  339.29 m  min

 2060.16 kg f m,  min

2060.16
Power lost due to friction   0.4578 HP
4500
5.20 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

t  18 2  1 
H eat dissipated  H d  LD  t  2  60  16   22 C 
K  

K  775 for light construction

K  437 for heavy construction

22  182 Select K  437

Hd   7.5  7.5
437
 205.9496 kgf.m  min.
 0.0457 HP

Since, H d  Hg Design is not safe. Extra cooling is necessary.

Provide extra cooling system around the bearing.

To carry out the heat generated, provide pressure feeding

Let temperature raise in the oil is 4C

and specific heat of oil  17100 kg f.c m/kg f C (given in the databook)

 171 kg.m  kg f C

H g  H d  m  specific heat of oil  temperature raise

 Hg  H d 2060.16  205.9496
m 
Sp. heat of oil  temp raise 171  4

m  mass of coolant required  2.7108 kg/min

Problem 5.4: Design a journal bearing for a centrifugal pump running at 1440 rpm:
Diameter of the Journal is 10 cm. and the load on each bearing is 2000 kg. The factor
ZN
 2800 for centrifugal bearing Assume.
P
Atmospheric temp.  30C
Operating temp.  75 C
 1 
Energy dissipation coefficient  0.00125  
K
C L
ratio  0.001;  1.5 (Apr. ’98, MU, Oct 2006, AU)
R D
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.21

Given Data:

Speed  1440 rpm  N

D ia of journal  D  10 cm  R  5cm

L
 1.5
D

 Length of bearing  L  1.5  10  15 cm

Load on bearing W  2000 kg

ZN
Bearing modulus   2000
p

ta  30 C

1/K  0.00125

C
 0.001
R

Radial clearance  C  0.001  5  0.005 c m

Diametral clearance  0.005  2

 0.010 cm

I. To find Absolute viscosity Z 

W
p  bearing pressure on projected area 
LD

2000
  13.33 kg f  cm 2
15  10

ZN
Bearing modulus   2800 p  kgf  cm 2
p
N  rpm
2800  13.33
Absolute viscosity  Z   25.919
1440 Z  CP
 26 CP

II. To Find Coefficient of Friction 

33.25  ZN   D 
Coefficient of friction      K
10 10  p   C 
5.22 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

33.25  26  1440   10 
     0.002
10 10  13.33   0.01 

Coefficient of friction   0.01133

III. Calculate Heat Generated H g

v  dN
H g  heat generated   W v kg f.m  min
10
  1440
 0.01133  2000  452.38  10250.93 kgf.m  min 100

 452.38 m  min.
10250.93
  2.27 HP
4500

IV. Calculate Heat Dissipated H d

t  182 L.D.

Hd 
K

1
 0.00125
K

 1
H d  22.5  182  15  10  0.00125  307.546 kgf.m  min  t  t0  ta
 2
 1
 H d  307.546 kgf  m  min   2 75  30

307.546 
  0.068 HP   22.5 C
4500 

Hg  H d

Therefore artificial cooling is needed; To


find the Mass flow rate m 
 Hg  H d  [Specific heat of oil  171 kg.m  kgC ]

m  Specific heat of oil  rise in oil te mperature.

To find m

10250.93  307.546   m  e  to

9943.38  m  171  4 Let t0  4

 165.72  m  171  4
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.23


mass flow rate = m  0.2422 kg/sec H g  H d  9943.38 kg.m /min
9943.38
  165.72 kg.m /sec
60
Problem 5.5: A full journal bearing operating under a steady load has the following
specifications.
Journal dia  60 mm; Bearing length  60 mm;
Type of oil  SAE 30; Load on bearing  3.46 kN;Journal speed  1020 rpm
Radial clearance  45 microns.  0.045 mm. Inlet temperature of oil  40C
Calculate (a) Power lost in friction: (b) Max. oil pressure (c) Temperature. raise.
(Oct.’98, MU, Apr 2000-AU)

Given data
D  60 mm; L  60 mm; Type of oil  SAE 30 ;W  3.46 kN  3460 N ;N  1020 rp m

Inlet te mperature of oil  40C

Dia metral clearance C  2  radial clearance 1 CP  0.001 kg  m.sec .

 Z  kg.m  sec.
C  2  0.045  0.09 mm 
 N  rps
 p  N  m2
Step 1  D  mm
Calculation (S): Sommerfied Number 
 C  mm
2
ZN  D 
S
p  C 

For SAE 30 and. temperature. of oil  40C

From databook P.No. 7.41

The absolute viscosity 1 CP  0.001 kg  m.sec

 Z  86 CP for 86 CP  ?
2  86  0.001 kg/m.sec
ZN  D 
S
p  C   86  10  3 kg  m.sec
 Z  86  10  3 kg  m.sec
5.24 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2 1020
86  10  3  17  60  N   17 rp s
S   60
0.96  10 6  0.09 
W
p
LD

Sommexfeld  3460
S  0.6768   0.96 N  mm2
Number  60  60
 0.96  10 6 N  m 2

Step 2
Calculation of coefficient of friction  dN
v
60
From charts: (Page No. 7.40)
60 1020
At S  0.6768 and   360   
1000 60
 0.7  3.204 m  sec
D
  15
C

Co efficient of  0.09
  15 
friction.  60
 0.0225
Step 3
m
Heat generated  Wv N
sec
Nm
H g  0.0225  3460  3.204
sec
Power lost due to 
 249.43 N.m  sec. or
friction 
Power lost in friction  249.43 wa tts

Step 4

Max. oil pressure pmax  By Interpolation,

From data book P.No. 7.36.

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.25

L 1.33  0.540 

at S  0.6768 ;  1;   360  0.0458  0.11
D   0.529
0.631  
 0.699
p 0.699  0.011   7.2  10  3
 0.5362 
pmax 0.0458  ?

p 0.96  10 6 0.631  0.529
 pmax  
0.5362 0.5362 0.0458 7.2  10  3
  
 1.79  10 6 N/m 2 0.6768  0.5362

Step 5: Temperature. Raise to

 c t0   c  14.2  10 5 N  m 2 C
 55.6316  2
P
pNm

55.6316  0.96  10 6 1.33  106 

to   0.0458  53.9
  
0.631 52.1 
14.2  10 5  0.699
0.699  53.9   3.5316
 37.6C 
0.0458  ?

0.631  52.1
  
0.0458 3.5316

0.6768  55.6316

Problem 5.6: A bearing diameter of 100 mm and radial clearance 0.125 mm. operating
at 250 rpm with oil of abs. visocisty  60 CP at pressure of 12 kg  cm2 operates
satisfactorily. If the speed is to be changed to 400 rpm. at what pressure should the bearing
operate?

Solution

Note
For Bearings to operate satisfactorily, the Bearing Characteristic number
2
ZN  R 
should remain same.
p  C 

2
ZN  R 
 Calculate  bearing characteristic number
p  C 
5.26 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(i) Given: Z  60 CP

N  250 rpm ; D  100 mm ; R  50 mm ; C  0.125 mm ; p  12 kg  cm 2

Find bearing pressure at N 2  400 rpm

2 2
Z1 N1  R 1  Z2 N 2  R2 
    
p1 p2
 C 1   C2  

Z 1  Z2;  R 1  R 2; C 1  C 2.

N1 N2
 
p1 p2

N2 400
 p2   p1   12  19.2 kg  cm 2
N1 250

Problem 5.7: Design a suitable Journal bearing for a centrifugal pump of speed
1440 rpm. Load on bearing is 12 kN. Journal diameter is 80 mm. (Apr. 2001-AU)

Solution
From data book, P.No. 7.31 for centrifugal pump,

Zn
 2844.5
p

W  12 kN

12  10 3
  1223.24 kg f ; n  1440 rpm
9.81

Be ar i n g 2844.5  P
p  P re ssu re o n Z  ab so lu te v i sc o sity 
n
P r o je c te d a r e a
W 2844.5  19.11
 
LD 1440
Assume L  D  80 mm  8 cm  37.75 CP
1223.24 Absolute viscosity Z  38 CP
 p
88

 19.11 kg f  cm 2
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.27

Page No. 7.34

2
Z n  D 
Sommerfeld number s 
p  C 

C  diameteral clearance (is not given in the problem)

Refer P.No.7.32

Since V  160 m  min ; shaft dia  80 mm

take C  75 to 113 microns

1 m ic ro n  10  3 mm

D 80
   800
C 100  10  3

2
Z n  D 
 Sommer number S
p  C 

Z 3.8  10  7  24
Z  7  8002
9.81  10 19.11
38 S  0.305
 7
 3.8  10 7 kg f . sec  cm 2
9.81  10
1440
n   24rps
60

From page No. 7.34

McKees equation

33.25  Z n   D 
Coefficient of friction    K
1010  p   C 

From graph K  1.875  10 3 Approx .

33.25  38  1440  3
 10   800  1.875  10
10  19.11 

  9.49  10 3

Heat generated  H g   Wv
5.28 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Surface speed of journal  v

0.010
v  DN
k
80
  1440
1000 0.005
 361.91 m  min

H g  9.49  10  3  1223.24  361.91

0 0.5 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0
 4201.25 kgf.m  min L
D
Hg 4201.25
Power lost due to friction    0.933 HP
4500 4500

t  182 L.D .

Heat dissipated  H d  kg f.m  min
K

From graph (P.No. 7.41) the value of Z  38 CP , the design oil

temperature.  60  95 C

 Select SAE No . corresponding to Z  38 ;

t0  temp  63 C ; assume ta  20 C

1 1
t  t  ta  63  20  21.6 C
2 0 2

t  182  L.D.

 Heat dissipated  H d 
K

K  constant for heat dissipation  775 assum e

21.6  182  8  8

775

Hd  129.49 kg f.m  min.

Since heat generated (Hg) > Heat dissipated, hence artificial cooling is required.

Trail 2
SAE 70; t0  85C

1
t 85  20  32.5C
2
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.29

32.5  18 2  8  8
 Hd   210.6 kg f.m  min
775

Selection of SAE 70 also requires artificial cooling (because H g  H d

Problem 5.8: A 75 mm long full Journal bearing of diameter 74 mm supports a load of

D
12 kN on a Journal rotating at 1500 rpm. Assuming.   ratio of 1000; and oil viscosity
C
0.01 kg/m, at the operating temperature. Determine the heat generated at the bearing. Also
determine the probable surface temperature of the bearing assuming that the heat generated
is equal to all heat dissipated in still air at 20C.

Note: The problem given is in SI units. Convert all parameter into MKS units.

Z  kg/m. sec  10 3SI unit  CP MKS  [CP.  kg/msec  10 3]

Given Data:

L  75 mm  7.5 c m ; D  75 mm  7.5 c m

12  10 3
W  12 kN   1223.24 kgf/cm 2
9.81

D
 1000
C

Z  0.01 kg/m.sec  10 3  10 CP t0  t a
t 
2
ta  20C ; n  N  1500 rpm ; n  25 rps.
60  25
W 1223.24 
Pressure p    21.7464 kg f/c m2 2
LD 7.5  7.5
 17.5  C
According to Mckee’s Eq. (P.No.7.34)
Coefficient of friction
33.25  Z n   D 
   K
10 10  p   C 

33.25  10  1500 
   21.7464  1000  0.002
10 10  
 0.00429
5.30 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Hg  H eat generated  WV V   DN

75
 0.00429  1223.24  353.429   1500
1000
 1854.69 kg f m/min  353.429 m/min

1854.69
Power lost due to friction   0.412 HP
4500

Given: Hg  H d

t  182
H d  Heat dissipate d   7.5  7.5
775 [K  775]

t  18  159.85 ;  t  159.85  18  141.85 C

But t  tb  ta  141.85

tb  141.85  20  161.85C

Surface bearing temperature is very high.  Artificial cooling is necessary.

Problem 5.9: A Journal bearing is to be designed for a centrifugal pump for the following
data:
Load on the Journal  12 kN ; Diameter of the Journal  75 mm ; Speed
 1440 rpm ; Atmospheric temperature  16C; Operating oil temperature  60C;
D
 1000; Absolute viscosity of oil at 60C  23 CP.
C

Solution
Given Data:

12  10 3
D  75 mm  7.5 cm ; W  12 kN   1223.24 kgf
9.81

N  n  1440 rpm ; n  24 r.p.s ; ta  16C ; to  60C ; Z  23 CP.

For centrifugal pump, refer data book, P.No. 7.31

L L
 1 to 2 ; Select 1
D D

Since the diametral clearance C is not given, select the value of C from
databook (P.No. 7.32) according to V m
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.31

Where Vm  Surface speed of Journal m/min.

75
Vm   D N     1440  339.29 m/min.
1000

Upto shaft dia 90 mm, V m  160 m/min, the value o f diametral c learanc e

C  75 to 113 microns

 Select C  100 microns W 1223.24

p   21.74 kg f/cm 2
 0.1 mm L.D 7.5  7.5
L  7.5 cm ;D  7.5 cm ;  C  0.01 c m
Diametral clearance
McKee’s equation (P.No: 7.34) C  0.01 cm
K from graph  0.002

33.25  Zn   D 
Co effic ient o f fric tio n      K
10 10  p   C 

33.25  23  1440   7.5 

      0.002
10 10  21.74   0.01 

  0.005799 t0  60C
Coefficient of friction   0.005799 ta  16C

Heat generated   Wv take

 0.005799  1223.24  339.29 K  437

 2406.776 kg fm /min L  7.5 cm

2406.776 D  7.5 cm
Power lost due to friction   0.5348 HP
4500

t  182
Heat dissipated  H d  kg f m/min
K

t  increase in bearing surface temperature from ambient temperature C

to  60C
to  rise in oil temp.

s  sp. heat of oil

1
 [t  ta]
2 o  171 kgm/kgC
5.32 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1
 [60  16]  22
2

22  182  7.5  7.5

Hd  kg f.m/min
437

205.949
 205.949 kgf.m/min  HP
4500

 0.045 HP

Since H g  H d; therefore artificial cooling is necessary by supplying extra cooling

system around the bearing

H g  H d  m o  s  to

To find to, Refer P.No. 7.36

Based on value of Sommefeld number ‘S’

 cto
Take the value of (by interpolation)
p
2
Zn  D 
Sommerfeld number  S 
P  C 

23
Z  7
 2.344  10  7
9.81  10 D  7.5 cm

1440
n  rps  24 rps
60 C  0.01 cm

p  21.74 kgf  cm2

2
2.344  10  7  24  7.5 
S    0.1455
21.74  0.01 

From table, 7.38

By interpolating the values,

 c to
P
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.33

0.264
0.264  24.3

0.1455
 14.2

0.121
0.1185
0.143  10.1
0.1185  ?
0.264  24.3
 8.369

0.1185  8.369
 cto
at S  0.1455 , the value of  15.931.  
0.1455  15.931
p
(P.No. 7.36)  to  24.3 
p  21.74 kg f  cm 2

 c  14.2 kgf  cm 2

Excess heat generated  m os to

2406.829  205.94   m o  171  24.3 

Mass of coolant required  m o  0.529 kg/min.

Problem 5.10: Design a Journal bearing for a centrifugal pump to the following
specification. Diameter of Journal  75 mm. Speed  1440 rpm; Load  12 kN; Working
temperature  60 C; Ambient temperature  25 C. (Oct. 2001, AU and Apr. ’97 MU)

Journal bearing for a centrifugal pump:

D  75 mm  7.5 cm ; n  1440 rpm; W  12 kN  12000 N

1440
{W  1200 kg ; to  60 C ; ta  25 C ; n   24 rps
60

Refer data book (page No.7.31)

ZN L
For centrifugal pump, take the value of and
p D

L Where Z  absolute viscosity in centi poise

Take  1; L  D  7.5 c m
D
ZN N  speed in rpm
 2844.5 (for Centrifugal pump)
p

p
W

1200
 21.33 kg f  cm 2 p  pressure, kg f  cm2
L  D 7.5  7.55
5.34 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

ZN
Substitute the values of p and n, in the above equation  2844.5
p

2844.5  21.33
Absolute viscosity Z   42.14 CP
1440

Refer databook Page No.7.41 at Z  42.14 CP and t  60 C

Select SAE 40 Lubricant.

To find coefficient of friction, refer databook Page No.7.34

33.25  ZN   D  L
Coefficient of friction    10  p   C 
 k at  1, k  1.875  10  3
10    D

To find diametral clearance C , Refer databook Page No.7.32

Surface spe ed of    7.5  1440

 v  DN   339.29 m  min.
Journal  100

Since, V m  160 m  min and d  75 mm.

Take the value of C as 75 to 113 microns

Select C  100 microns

 100  10  3 mm (or)

C  0.01 cm

33.25  42.14  1440   7.5  3

Coefficient of friction   10  21.33 
0.01   1.875  10
10   

 7.0944  10  3  1.875  10  3

  8.969  10  3

Heat generated  H g   Wv (refer page No.7.34)

 8.969  10  3  1200  339.29

H g  3651.71 kg f  m  min

3651.71
Power lost due to friction   0.8114 HP
4500
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.35

t  182 L.D

Heat dissipated  H d  (refer P.No.7.34)
k
t o  ta
Take k  437 (P.No.7.35) t
2
2
17.5  18   7.5  7.5 60  25
 
437 2
 162.217 kg f m  min  17.8 C

Since H d  H g artificial cooling is required to cool the bearing.


To find mass of coolant required m 
 
H g  H s  m sto where m  mass of coolant required

s  sp. heat of oil

to  rise in oil temperature.

To Find to

 Z 
 7   24
 9.81  10 
2 2
ZN  D  D
S 
p  C  21.33 C
 
 42.14 
 7 
 24
 9.81  10 
2
 7.5 

21.33  0.01   0.2718
 
Refer databook Page No. 7.36

L  cto
At S  0.2718 and  1; take the value of
D p

 cto
By interpolation,  25.381
p

25.381  21.33
to   38 C
14.2

H g  H d  m sto [s  Specific heat of oil]

3651.71  162.217  m  171  38
5.36 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements


m  0.5370 kg/min

 Mass of the coolant required  m  8.95  10  3 kg/sec

Problem 5.11: The load on a Journal bearing is 15,000 kg due to turbine shaft of 30
cm. diameter running at 1800 rpm. Determine the following
(i) Length of the bearing if the allowable bearing pressure is 16 kg  cm2.
(ii) Amount of heat to be removed by the lubricant per minuet if the bearing temperature
is 60C and the viscosity of the oil at 60C is 20 centipoise and the bearing clearance is
0.025 cm. (Apr. 2000, MU),(AU, Nov/Dec 2011)

W  15000 kg; D  30 cm ; N  1800 rpm ;

p  16 kg  cm 2; t0  60 C ; Z  20 CP ;

C  0.025 cm

To find Length of the bearing

L  Length of the bearing in cm.

W 15000
p  16 
LD L  30

 L  31.25 cm

To find amount of heat to be removed by the lubricant, Refer databook

Page No. 7.34.

Heat generated  H g   Wv

Where   Coefficient of friction

W  Loa d on the bearing in kg

v  Surface speed of journa l in m  min

To find coefficient of friction:  Refer databook Page No. 7.34

Coefficient of  33.25  ZN   D  K from (Graph)  1.75  10  3

  K
friction  
10 10  p   C  data book P.No.7.34
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.37

33.25   20  1800   30   3 L 31.25

      1.75  10  at 
10 10   16 D 30
  0.025  
 1.041
 8.9775  10  3  1.75  10  3
  0.01072 K value is  1.75  10  3 (approx)

30
Surface speed of Journal  v  D n     1800
100

 1696.46 m  min

 Heat generated  H g    W  v  0.01072  15,000  1696.46

 272790.7733 kg f  m  min

Hg 272790.7733
Power lost due to friction  HP   60.62 HP
4500 4500

T  182 L.D

Heat dissipated  H d
K (refer databook page No.7.34)

1 1 to  60 C given
Where T  t  ta   60  25   17.5 C
2 0 2
ta  ambient temperature

17.5  182  31.25  30  25C (assume)

 Heat dissipated H d 
437
 2703.6255 kg f  m  min Let K = 437 (heavy construction,
well ventilated)

Amount of heat to be removed  H g  H d

 272790.7733  2703.6255

 270087.498 kg f  m  min

Problem 5.12: Design a journal bearing for a centrifugal pump from the following data:
Load on the journal  20000 N; Speed of the journal  900 rpm; Type of oil is SAE
10, for which the absolute viscosity at 55C  0.017 kg/m  s; Ambient temperature of oil
 15.5C; Maximum bearing pressure for the pump  1.5 N/mm2. (AU Apr/May 2011)

Given:

W  20,000 N ; n  900 rpm

5.38 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Type of oil is SAE 10 , for which the absolute viscosity at

55  C  0.017 kg /m  s
Ambient temp of oil ta  155

Maximum bearing pressure for the Pump p  1.5 N/mm 2

To design a journal bearing

Solution:
W
Step 1: Pressure developed p   p  1.5 N/mm 2; W  20,000 N
LD

20,000
1.5 
LD
LD  13333.33 mm 2

LD  A  13333.33 mm2
L
ratio from data book P  7.31 for Centingugcel pump
D
L
 1  5  L  1.5 D
D
LD  A

LD  13333.33

1.5 D  D  13333.33

; D  94.28 ~
 100 mm D  100 mm

Step 2: Length of journal

L  1.5  D

 1.5  100  150

L  150 mm

Step 3: Diameter clearance C :

Assume as 150 microns P  7.32

D 100

C 150  10.3

 C  666.67
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.39

Step 4:

Coefficient  33.25  Zn   D 
   K
of friction  10 10  p   C 

L L
 1.5 K  0.002 for 0.75   2.8
D D

33.25  17  900 
    666.67  0.002
10 10  15 
  0.00426

Step 5: Heat generated

H g  Wv

 DN   0.1  900
v   4.71 m/s
60 60

H g  0.00426  20000  4.71

H g  401.29 w atts
5.40 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

5.3 DESIGN OF BALL AND ROLLER BEARINGS

Ball and roller bearings are also known as rolling contact bearings or rolling
element beam bearings These bearings are also called as “Anti-friction bearings”. The
starting friction in ball and roller bearings is lower than that in an equivalent journal
bearing in which metal to metal rubbing takes place at the time of starting.
In case of ball bearing, the type of kinematic contact is point. In case of roller
bearing, the type of kinematic contact is line. Therefore, the roller contact bearings
are used for large bearing loads. The main disadvantage of roller bearing is the
variation of pressure along the line of contact, due to deflections of shafts and
mountings.

+ + + + + + +

(a) Single row (b)Fillin g (c)An gular (d)D oub le (e)S elf-
dee p gro ove notch contact row aligning
Fig.5.5. Types of radial ball bearings.

Ball W R (or) F R
O u ter race
WA
R etain er (or)
WA
Inner race FA
WR
(a) (b) (c.) (d)
(a) Ball (b)R oller (c)R adial ball (d)Th rust ball
bea ring. bea ring. bea ring. bea ring.
Fig.5.6. Ball and ro ller bearings.

5.3.1 Advantages of Ball and roller bearing

(i) Friction is low except at high speed.
(ii) These bearings require less lubricant and maintenance.
(iii) These bearings occupy less axial space but larger diametral space than journal
bearing.
(iv) It is possible to carry both radial and axial loads in some types of bearing.
(v) Replacement is easy
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.41

(vi) Selection of bearing from manufacturer’s catalogue is relatively simple.

5.3.2 Disadvantages
(i) These are noisier than Journal bearings.
(ii) More expensive
(iii) Failure of bearing can occur without warning and cause change to the
machinery.

5.3.3 RADIAL BEARINGS

Design Procedure

Selection of bearings

The data required for the selection of bearings are

(a) Radial load: (F x

(b) Thrust Load: F a (or) axial load.

(c) Shaft speed:

(d) Desired life of bearings in hours (or) Millon revolutions (MR)

 steady load
(e) Type of loading - 
 impact load
(f) Dynamic load capacity

(g) Designation of bearing and its application (refer databook Pg No. 4.1)

5.3.3.1 Design of Ball and roller bearings

Equivalent Load where
P  XF r  YF a  S P  Equivalent load in, kg f ; X  radial factor

Fr  radial load, Fa  axial load, (or) Thrust in kg ;

f

Y  Thrust factor; S= Service factor

For values X and Y, refer table, page No.4.4

(a) For deep groove ball bearings. (4.12 to 4.15)

Fa
Calculate
Co
5.42 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

C o : basic static capacity in k g  (for a particular bearing from catalogue ) (from

f

P.No. 4.12 to 4.22)

Fa Fa
Find ; Check the factor and e. According to the table
Fr Fr
take X and Y values.
Fa Fa
e e
Fr Fr
x  1; Y  0 X  0.56
and Y value based on F a/C o - (ie., Y value varies)

Note
If the bearing is subjected to only radial load Fr

Take X  1 ; Y  0(w itho utreferringdatabo o k)

If the bearing is subjec ted to o nly axial lo ad F a. Take X  0; Y  1 (without

referring databook)

Service factor S depends on carrying geared shafts (P.No. 4.2)

Rotary M/c  1.1. - 1.5

Reciprocating M/c  1.3 - 1.9
M/c with impact  1.6 - 4

5.3.3.2 Dynamic Capacity

Ball and roller bearings have finite service life and it is required to determine
the load corresponding to the desired service life.

5.3.3.3 Dynamic load rating

The Load carrying capacity of a given type and size of bearing for 10 6 revolution
is 1 million revolution with 10% failures or (90% survivals) is called the basic dynamic
load rating.
1
k L 10  life of bearing for 90% survival at 1mr
 L 
C p
L  (mr  million revolution)
 10 
L  required life of the bearing in million revolutions.
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.43

10
 Ro ller bearing
3

P  Equivalent load in kg f

5.3.3.4 Bearing Life Expectancy

When a large number of identical bearings are tested for the same load, the
failure curve is obtained (i.e, % of bearings tested vs life)

90 c
P ercenta ge of bea rings tested

N B = 2N A
N A = 5N C
50 A

B
10

NC NA NB
Fig.5.7. Life bearing e xp ectan cy

Let (A) Represents the average life of the entire group.

(B) Represents the 10% of the bearings tested that have life about twice
that of average.
NB  2NA

(c) represents the 90% of the bearings tested that have a (minimum
1
life of N c) life about of that of average life
5
1
Nc  NA
5

Rating life  1
   A verage life
i.e., life for 90% survival  5
5.44 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Note
To Find Average life:

Average life = 5  Rated life (life fo r 90% survival)

Reliability greater than 90%

The bearings selected from tables are 10% failure (or) 90% survival. The
reliability of any bearing is 0.9 or 90%.

Example: If a machine is assembled with six such bearings, the reliability of all the
bearings in the assembly. is,

R 6 : 0.96  0.531

i.e, the reliability of the entire assembly is much reduced.

Selection of bearings having reliabilities greater than 90% (Probability of

survival - (P.No.4.2) )

l 1b
 ln   
 P 
L  

L 10   
  To find life in hours
 ln  1  
 P  million revolutions mr
 10 
 hrs
rpm  60
P  Probability of survival
10 6  revolutions
P 10  Probability of survival for 90%  hrs
rpm  60
or 0.9
To find life in hrs to mr
b  1.34 for deep groove ball bearing
 hr  60  rpm  revolutions
b  1.17 other types of bearings.
(revolutions represented in 10 6 format
required life of bearing is known as mr )
L
in million revolutions.

 Rating 
   60  rpm.
 life 
 m.r.

1
Rating life  Avg. life
5
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.45

L 10  Calculated life of selected bearing for the given load for 90% Survival

 l   1 
ln    ln    0.01053
P10   0.9 
 

Problem 5.13: Select a ball bearing for 60 mm shaft rotating at 1200 rpm for 750 hrs.
It is subjected to a radial load of 700 kg and axial load of 900 kg.
Take X  0.56 and Y  1.2

Solution:
Given data:

Radial  F r  700 kg ; Axial load  F a  900 kg ; Diameter of shaft = 60 mm

Speed = 1200 rpm; Life required = L = 750 hrs.;

L  750  60  1200 L  54  10 6 revolutions  54 mr

Refer data book, Page No. 4.2

Equivalent load where S  service factor

 P  XF r  YF a S  1.5 (Assuming reciprocating machine)

0.56  700  1.2  900 1.5 2208 kg f X  0.56 

given
Y  1.2 
1
 L K
Dynamic capacity  C   P,
L 10 
 

where L  required life  54  10 6 revolutions  54mr ,

K  3 for ba ll be aring,

L 10  1 mr ,

1
 54  3
 C  2208  8345.7 kgf,
 1 

From data book, Page No. 4.15 select deep groove ball bearing 6412 which is
having a dynamic capacity of 8450 kg f.
5.46 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 5.14: For the same data (Refer problem 5.13), what is the rated life with a
reliability of 98%. Take b=1.34 for deep groove ball bearing.

From Problem 5.13, Life required  L  54 mr

Refer data book, Page No. 4.2

1
  1  b
 ln  P  
L
Probability of survival     
L 10   1  
 ln  
 P  
  10  
1  1   1 
ln    ln  
 1  1.34 P 10   0.9 
 ln   
54 0.98 
   0.1053
L 10

0.1053 
from data book P.No. 4.2
1
54  0.0202  1.34

L 10  0.1053 

 0.1918 1/1.34  0.2916

L 10   185.185 mr (or)

185.185  10 6
L 10    2572 hrs.
1200  60

Problem 5.15: Select a suitable deep groove ball bearing for a drilling machine spindle
of 40 mm diameter and suggest necessary tolerances on the shaft and housing. Radial load
is 2.0 kN. Thurst is 1.5 kN. Spindle speed is 3000 rpm. Desired life 3000 hrs.
(October 2000-MU, April 2007 - AU)

Given data:

Diameter of spindle  40 mm ; Radial load  F r  2.0 kN  2  10 3 N ; Thrust load

 Fa  1.5 kN  1.5  10 3 N ; Speed of the spindle  N  3000 rpm

Desired life  L  3000 hrs  3000  3000  60  540  10 6 revolutions

L  540 million revolutions

According to the given shaft diameter (40 mm), select deep groove ball bearing
by trail and error method.
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.47

The following bearings are available for a shaft dia. of 40 mm. Refer data book
page Nos. 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 4.15.

(a) 6008 (b) 6208 (c) 6308 (d) 6408 and (e) 208

Trail 1:
Select 6008 bearing and find out the following values from data book page No
4.12
C 0  Basic static capacity  980 kg f  9800 N

C  Basic dynamic Capacity  1320 kg f  13,200 N

d = Shaft diameter = 40 mm
3
Fa 1.5  10
Calculate   0.153
Co 9800
Refer Data bo o k Page No 4.4
Find the value o f e c o rrespo nding to 0.153
By interpo latio n

Fa/Co  e Fa /Co – e
0.25  0.37 0.13  0.31

  
0.13 0.31   
0.023 0.0115

0.12  0.06 0.153  0.3215

0.023  0.06
0.023 - ?   0.0115
0.12
Fa
 at  0.153 , the value of e  0.3215
Co
3
Fa 1.5  10 Fa
But  3
 0.75 ; Since e
Fr 2  10 Fr

Take X  0.56; and find Y value by interpolation

e  Y e  Y
0.37  12 0.31  1.4
0.31  1.4
 0.0115   0.0383 

0.0115    0.2 
0.06   0.2  0.3215 

1.3617
0.06
0.0115  ?
  0.0383 
5.48 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 Value of Y  1.3617
Refer data book page. 4.2
Equivalent load P   X F r  YFa S

 0.56  2  10 3  1.3617  1.5  10 3 1.5  4743 N

where S  service factor
 1.5 (assume from data book)
1/k 1/3
 L   540 
Dynamic capacity  C   P   4743.8
L   1 
 10 
 38629.96 N K  3 fo r ball bearing

But the selec ted bearing 6008 has the dynamic c apac ity o f 13,200 N; Henc e no t
satisfac to ry

Trail 2:
Instead of trying the bearing No. 6208; try 6308 bearing. Select 6308 bearing,
read the following values from data book page No. 4.14,

Co  B asic static capacity  2200 kgf  22000 N

C  Basic dynamic capacity  3200 kg f  32000 N

d  shaft dia meter  40 mm

D  outer diameter  90 mm
3
Fa 1.5  10
  0.0681  0.07 (approximately)
Co 22000
Fa
at  0.07 , the value of e  0.27
Co
3
Fa 1.5  10 Fa
 3
 0.75 ; since  e,
Fr 2  10 Fr

Therefore X  0.56 and Y  1.6

Equivalent load  P  XF r  YF a S (Take, S  1.5

 0.56  2  10 3  1.6  1.5  10 3  1.5

 5280 N
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.49

1 1
 L k  540  3
Dynamic capacity  C   P 5280
L 10 
 1 
  Take, K  3
for ball bearing

 42996.37 N

But the selected bearing 6308 has the dynamic capacity of 32,000 N. Hence not
satisfactory.

Trail 3:
Select 6408 bearing, refer Page No. 4.15
Co  3800 kgf  38,000 N ; C  50,000 N ; d  40 mm ; D  110 mm

Fa 1.5  10 3
  0.03 ; By interpolation find ‘e’ value
Co 50000
Fa
at  0.03 , the value of e  0.23
Co

Fa 1.5  10 3 Fa
 3
 0.75 ; since e ;
Fr 2  10 Fr

 X  056 and Y  1.9 by interpolation

Equivalent load  P  XF r  YF a S (Take S = 1.5)

  0.56  2  10 3  1.9  1.5  10 3  1.5

 
 5955 N

1 1
 L k  540  3
Dynamic capacity C
L 10 
P   5955  48,493N
   1 

Since the dynamic capacity of 6408 bearing is greater than the required dynamic
capacity, hence the selection of bearing No.6408 is satisfactory.

Selection of fit
Refer page No 4.8 and 4.9

Shaft seating for radial bearing:

5.50 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

For machine tools (Light and variable load condition) for diameters 18 to 100
mm; the tolerance is j6

Similarly, housing seating for radial bearings

Solid housing – (Accurate and silent running condition) - for machine tool spindle
is K6

For standard bearing (in microns)

– 12
Tolerance on inner race – Bore
 100

 100
Tolerance on outer race – outside diameter
 13

Problem 5.16: Select a suitable ball bearing for an axial flow compressor to carry a
radial load of 250 Kg and a thrust of 150 kg. The bearing will be in use for 40 hours/week
for five years. The speed of the shaft is 1000 rpm. The diameter of the shaft is 50 mm.

Solution
Since along with radial load, the axial load is also present, select double row
angular contact bearing (or) taper roller bearing.

Angular contact bearings are cheaper than taper roller bearing;

Hence, select double row angular contact bearing (Page No. 4.20)

Data Given:

Shaft dia  50 mm ; Radial load  Fr  250 kg; Axia l load  Fa  150 kg

Rating life  40 hr/week for 5 years at 1000 rpm;

hr
 R equired life of the bearing   week  no . o f years  60  rpm
week

 40  52  5  60  1000

 624  10 6 revolutions

 624 m  r

Equivalent load on the bearing  P  X F r  Y F aS

Select Bearing No. 3310 (double row angular contact bearing) P.No. 4.20 refer
databook, page no. 4.20
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.51

To find X, Y
Fa Fa 150 Fa
Calculate    0.6 Since proportional to e
Fr Fr 250 Fr

Fa
For angular contact bearing for  0.86
Fr

X  1 ; Y  0.73

Select service factor  S  1.3 to 1.9  Reciprocating Machine

 1.1 to 1.5  Rotary m/c

Select S  1.5

 P  X  F r  Y  F a  S

 1  250  0.73  150 1.5  539.25 kg

1/k
 L 
Dynamic Capac ity  C   P
L  [K  3 For ball bearing]
 10 
1/3
 624 
   539.25
 1 
 4608.06 kg

From Catalogue, Double row angular contact bearing

Bearing No. 3310 - has dynamic capacity C  8150 Kg.

But the required dynamic c apac ity is 4608.06 Kg.

 The selection of bearing is satisfactory.

Problem 5.17: Design a single row deep groove ball bearing which is to be selected for
a radial load of 4 kN and a thrust of 5 kN; operating speed is 1600 rpm. Average life of
bearing is 5 years at 10 hours/day.

Solution
Given Data:

F r  4 kN  4  10 3 N; F a  5 kN  5  10 3 N

Operating Speed  N  1600 rpm

5.52 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Average life  5 years at 10 hr/day.

hr
 rpm  60   days  year
day

Average life  1600  60  10  365  5

 1752  10 6 revolutions  1752 mr

 Take X  0.56 ; Y  1.0

Equivalent lo ad  P  [X  F r  Y  F a]  S , take S  1.1

 [0.56  4  10 3  1  5  10 3] 1.1

 7964 N

1/k
 L 
Dynamic load capacity  C   P
L 
 10 
L  re quired life in m  r, L 10  1 mr

K  3 for ball bearing

1/3
 1752 
C   7964  96,008.41 N
 1 
Dynamic Capacity  96,008.41 N or

 9600.841 Kg

Refer data book, deep groove ball bearing, catalogue; (P.No. 4.12 to 4.15)

Verify which Bearing No. is having the required dynamic capacity. (Nearly equal)
(or) slightly above.

Select from the following:

1. From databook, (Page No. 4.12) - Bearing No. 6030 has a dynamic capacity of
9800 kg f with a shaft dia of 150 mm.

2. From databook, (Page No. 4.13) - Bearing No 6220 has a dynamic capacity of
9650 kg f, with a shaft dia. of 100 mm.

3. From databook, (Page No. 4.14) - Bearing No. 6316 has a dynamic capacity of
9659 kg f, with a shaft dia of 80 mm.
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.53

4. From databook, (Page No. 4.15). Bearing No. 6414 has a dynamic capacity of
10,000 kg f with a shaft dia. of 70 mm.

Select any one bearing from the above.

Note 1
* If only F r - radial load is acting means, F a  0 take X  1 ; Y  0; then
P  X F r S .

* If only F a  thrust lo ad is acting means , F r  0  take X  0.56 Y  1; then

P  Y  F a  S

Problem 5.17: A single row deep groove ball bearing No. 6021is subjected to an axial
thrust load of 1000 N and a radial load of 3300 N. Find the expected life that 50% of
the bearings will complete under this condition. (AU Nov/Dec 2010)

Given data
F a  1000 N;F r  3300 N

Solution
Fa 1000
  0.303
Fr 3300

From Data book we find

X  1; Y  0

Take rotational factor V  1

Dynamic equivalent load P  X  V  F r  Y  F a

 1  1  3300  0  1000

 3300 N

From table, we find the service factor for light shock load

S  1.5

 P  1.5  3300  4950 N

From DB for single row

C  5590
5.54 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

1/K
 L 
C P
L 
 10 
K 3
C  5590  6
Rating life of bearing L     106     10
P
   4950 
 1736.74 [L 10  10 6 rev  1 mr ]

5.3.3.5 Design for Variable Loading

If the magnitude of the load varies with time, calculate cubic mean load.
Refer P.No. 4.2
Cubic mean load (either F a or Fr  F m axial or radial
1/3
 F 3 n  F3n  F 3n  ...... 
1 1 2 2 3 3
Fm   
 n 
F 1, F 2, F 3... are loads (either radial, or axial (thrust) loads,

n1, n2, n3.... are the corresponding revolutions.

Problem 5.18: A deep groove ball bearing SKF 6309 is to operate according to the
following cycle.
(i) Radial load of 4000 N at 150 rpm for 20% of time
(ii) Radial load of 6000 N at 300 rpm for 30% of time
(iii) Radial load of 8000 N at 450 rpm for 50% of time
Find the rating life of this bearing in hours

Solution:
Given data:
Deep groove ball bearing – SKF 6309

Radial load: F 1  4000 N ; F 2  6000 N ; F 3  8000 N

Consider the cycle of operation in one minute.

Speed during corresponding time,
n1  150 rpm 20% of time

 150  0.2  30 revolutions

n2  300 rpm 30% of time
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.55

 300  0.3  90 revolutions

n3  450 rpm of 50% of time

 450  0.5  225 revo lutions

 n  30  90  225

 345 revolutions /minute

Refer databook, Page No. 4.2

Cubic Mean Load (radial) =

1/3
 F3 n  F3 n  F3 n 
1 1 2 2 3 3
Fm   
 n  (revolutions varying)
1/3
 4000 3  30  6000 3  90  8000 3  225 
   7342.34 N
 345 
Equivalent load P  X F r  Y F a S

 P  X F r S

 X F m S

 1  7342.34  1.2

 8810.81 Newtons

(Refer databook page no. 4.14)

The basic dynamic capacity of SKF 6309 bearing is 4150 kg or 41500 N

Refer page no. 4.2

1/k
 L 
Dynamic capacity  C   P
L 
 10 
1/3
L
41,500     8810.81
 1 
41,500
L1/3   4.710
8810.81

L  4.710 3  104.49 mr
5.56 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Rating life of bearing = L  104.49  10 6 revolutions

Lin revolutions 104.49  10 6

Rating life of bearing in hours  
60   n 60  345
L  5047.8 hours

Problem 5.19: Select a roller contact bearing for the spindle of a drilling machine with
journal diameter of 60 mm carrying an axial load of 9000 N at an angular speed of 30
rad/sec. The bearing life may be taken as 10,000 hrs. And also calculate the rated life of
the bearing.

Solution
Given Data:

Roller Contact bearing

Journal diameter  60 mm

Axial load  F a  9000 N

  angular speed  30 rad/sec

2 N

60

60    60  30 
N    286.47 rpm
2  2 
Take N  287 rpm

Life required  L  hrs  60  rpm

 10,000  60  287

 172.2  10 6 revolutions

 172.2 million revolutions

From P.No. 4.32

Select a spherical roller bearing

222 12 C  Static capacity  C o  8,500 kg f  85,000 N

Dynamic capacity C  10,000 kg f  1,00,000 N

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.57

Check dynamic capacity

Equivalent load  P  XF r  Y F a S

 1  9000  1.1  9900 N S  1.1 (Rotary M/c)

1/k
 L 
Dynamic capacity  C   P
L 
 10  10
K ; L 10  1 mr
3

1
 172.2  10 /3
   9900
 1 

 172.2 0.3  9900

 46392.2 N

The required dynamic capacity is 46,392.2 N

But the bearing No. 222 12 C has the dynamic capacity of 1,00,000 N.

 The selection of bearing number is satisfactory;

At the dynamic capacity of 1,00,000 kg f

The rated life of bearing can be calculated as below

1/k
 L 
C P L 10  1 mr
L 
 10 
1
L
1,00,000    10/3  9900
 1 
1
L  10.10 3/10  10.10 1/0.3 mr  2227.8 mr

2227.8  10 6
(or) 
60  287

 1,29,372.8 hrs

The rated life of bearing No. 222 12 C has 1,29,372.8 hrs.

5.58 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Problem 5.20: A 30 seconds work cycle consists of the following two parts.

Part I Part II
Duration (seconds) 10 sec 20 sec
Radial load 45 kN 15 kN
Axial load 12.5 kN 6.25 kN
Speed 720 rpm 1440 rpm
For this application the static and dynamic load capacities of a single-row deep groove
ball bearing are 50 kN and 68 kN respectively. Calculate the life of the bearing in hours.

Given Data:

Part I

F a  12.5 kN ; F r  45 kN

Speed  720 rpm ; duration  10 sec .

sec
 min
60

Solution:
Static load capacity C o  50 kN . Dynamic load capacity C  68 kN

Fa Fa
Calculate and to find X and Y values.
Co Fr

Fa 12.5
  0.25
Co 50

Fa 12.5
  0.277
Fr 45

From databook, (P.No. 4.4)

Fa
At  0.25 , the value of e  0.37
Co

Fa Fa
 value is less than e ie., e
Fr Fr

 Take X  1, Y  0 ; and serivce factor = S  1.1

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.59

Equivalent load  P 1  X F r  Y F a S

 1  45  0 1.1  49.5 kN

P 1  F 1  49,500 N

10
n1  N 1   720  120 revolutions .
60

For PART II F a  6.25 kN

Fa Fa F r  15 kN
Calculate and
Co Fr
Fa
 e
Fa Co
6.25
  0.125
Co 50 0.13  0.31

Fa 6.25 0.07  0.27 

0.07  0.27

  0.4166
Fr 15 0.13  0.31 0.06  0.04

By interpolation calculate X 0.055  ?

 e  0.3066
 0.07  0.27
Fa
 e 0.055 – 0.0366
Fr
0.0125 – 0.3066
 Take X  0.56

By interpolation calculate Y
e  Y e  Y
0.0366  ?
0.31  1.4 0.27   1.6
 Y  1.417 0.27  1.6   
0.3066 
0.183
Equilvalent load 0.04   0.2 0.0366   1.417 

 P 2  X F r  Y F a S  0.183 

 0.56  15  1.417  6.25 1.1

take S  1.1

 18.981 kN

P 2  F 2  18981 N
5.60 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

20
n2  N 2   1440  480 revolution.
60

n  n1  n2  120  480  600 revolutions

1/3
 F 3n  F 3n 
1 1 2 2
Cubic Mean Load  Fm   
 n1  n2 
1/3
 49500 3  120  189813  480 
 
 600 
 30978 N
1/k
 L 
Dynamic Capacity C  Fm   68  10 3
L 
 10 
1/3
L
30978    68  10 3
 1 
L 10  1 millio n revol.

 1  10 6 revol.  1 mr
3
 68  10 3 
Required life L     10.57 million re volution.
 30978 

5.4 GASKETS
A gasket is a device used to create and maintain a barrier against the transfer
of fluid across the mating surfaces of a mechanical assembly. It is used in static
joints, such as cylinder block and cylinder head. There are two types of gaskets -
metallic and non-metallic. Metallic gaskets consist of sheets of lead, copper or
aluminium. Non-metallic gaskets are made of asbestos, cork, rubber or plastics.
Metallic gaskets are used for high-temperature and high-pressure applications. They
can have corrugated construction or they can be made in the form of plain sheets.
The limiting temperatures of metallic gaskets are as follows.

Lead 90C
Copper/brass 250C
Aluminium 400C
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.61

The metallic gasket takes a permanent set when compressed in assembly and
there is no recovery to compensate for separation of contact faces. They are also
susceptible to corrosion and chemical atmosphere. Their performance also depends
upon surface finish of the contacting surfaces.
Asbestos gaskets have excellent resistance
to crushing loads and cutting action due to
sharp edges of the flanges. Dimensional
stability is another advantage. They are used
in cylinder heads, water and steam-pipe fittings
and manifold connections. Vulcanized
compounds of rubber and cork are employed as
gaskets in steam lines, combustion chambers
and chemical environment. They are used for
applications involving irregular surfaces. They
are of low cost, but are affected by fungus and
alkalis. Rubber compounds have excellent
impermeability and ability to flow into joint Fig.5.8. Shapes of gasket.
imperfections when compressed. Asbestos
gaskets can be used up to 250C , while other d
non-metallic gaskets have a limiting temperature of 70C .
Different shapes of gasket for cylinder head are
illustrated in Fig. 5.8. Pl l

5.4.1 Gasketed Joint Pi

A bolted assembly of cylinder, cylinder head and

gasket is shown in Fig. 5.9. Initially, the bolt is
tightened by means of a spanner to induce a preload
P 1. The stiffness or spring constant k of a machine
A rea under
element is the load required to produce unit
grip
deflection. It is given by the ratio of the load to the
deflection produced by that load. When machine
member is loaded in tension or compression,
the stiffness of the bolt is derived by. 3d

Pl

AE
Fig.5.9. B olted A ss em bly.
5.62 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

P AE
kb  
 l

 E
kb   d2 
4  I
Where kb  Stiffness of the bolt (N/mm)
d Nominal diameter of the bolt (mm)
l Total thickness of the parts held together by the bolt (mm)
E Modulus of elasticity of bolt material N/mm 2

There are three members in the grip of the bolt cylinder cover, cylinder flange
and gasket. They act as three compression springs in series. Their combined stiffness
k c is given by

l l l l
  
kc k 1 k2 k g

where k1 and k2 are the stiffness for the cylinder cover and the cylinder flange
respectively and kg is the stiffness of the gasket. It is difficult to predict the area of
flanges compressed by the bolt. As shown in Fig. 5.9, it is assumed that a hollow
circular area of (3d) and (d) as outer and inner diameters respectively is under the
grip of the bolt.


A [3d2  d2]  2  d2
4
2
AE 2  d E
and k 
l l

2  d2 E
 k
l

Where l is the thickness of the member under compression. When the gasket is
very soft relative to the flanges, it is the gasket that is compressed during the
tightening of the bolt. In such cases, the flanges are neglected and the stiffness of
the gasket is considered to be k c.
When the bolt is tightened with a preload P 1, the bolt is elongated by an
amount b and the two flanges with the gasket are compressed by an amount c.
When the stresses are within the elastic limit,
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.63

P1
b 
kb (a)
P1
c 
kc (b)
The load
 deflection diagram is shown in Fig.
5.10. Line OA 
 represents elongation of the bolt, P i
while line CA indicates the compression
 of the P m a x
M
flanges. The slope of the line CA is negative P
because it indicates compression. A B
Pl
Pi
When the cylinder is assembled and put into
service, it is further subjected to an external load

L oad
D
P i operating inside the vessel. The effect of P i is
as follows.
 
G
(i) The bolts are further elongated by an
0 b c C
amount   and there is a corresponding
Deflection
increase in the bolt load which is denoted
 Fig. 5.10 Deflection d iagram fo r
by  P i. This is represented by line AB . bolted assem bly

(ii) The compression of two flanges and the

gasket is relieved by a magnitude   and there is a corresponding reduction
in load. The reduction in load is P i   P i which is represented by the line AD .

Since,

 Pi
kb 
 ...(c)

P i   P i
and kc 
 ...(d)

Dividing Equation (c) by (d),

 kb 
 Pi  P i  
 b c
k k

The resultant load on the bolt is given by,

P  P 1   Pi
5.64 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

The effect of the gasket on the bolted assembly can be explained with the help
of the above equations, which can be expressed in the following manner.

 1 
P  P1  Pi  
1  k 
c 
  
k
  b

When there is no gasket, the flanges are more rigid than the steel bolt, or
kc  k b

When K c is extremely large compared to kb, the expression within bracket

has a limiting value of zero, and
P  P1

which indicates that almost all of the external loads P i is borne by the flanges
to relieve their initial compression. This may lead to leakage between two flanges.
When there is a gasket of elastic material,
kb  k c

When k b is too large compared with kc, the expression within bracket has a
limiting value of one, and
P  P1  Pi

which indicates that a major portion of the external load is borne by the bolt.
This is desirable for leakproof joints.
 Referring to Fig. 5.10 the elongation of the bolt will continue along the line
OA as the operating pressure is gradually increased. The limiting point is M, where
the compression of flanges becomes zero and the joint is on the verge of opening. The
corresponding load P max indicates the capacity of the cylinder to bear the load.
 OAG and  OMC are similar triangles. From the geometry of similar triangles.
 
AG MC
 

OG OC

P1 P max

b b  c

 b  c 
P max  P 1  
 b 
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.65

Substituting expressions (a) and (b).

 kb  k c 
P max  P 1  
 kc 
Problem 5.21: The cover of a cylindrical pressure vessel made of cast iron is shown in
Fig. 5.11. The inner diameter of the cylinder is 500 mm and the internal pressure is
limited to 2 MPa. The cover is fixed to the cylinder by means of 16 bolts with a nominal
diameter of 20 mm. Each bolt is initially tightened with a preload of 20 kN. The bolts
are made of steel FeE 250 yt  250 N/mm2. Assume.

E for steel  207 kN/mm2; E for cast iron  100 kN/mm2 ; E for zinc  90 kN/mm2
Determine the factor of safety for bolts considering the effect of the gasket.

Solution

Given
16 M 20 bolts
For cylinder, D i  500 mm; P i  2 MPa. Zinc gasket

P i  Internal Pressure of Cylinder. 25

5
For bolts, d  20 mm n  16 bolts 25

yt  250 N/mm 2, P 1  20 kN 500

Step I Stiffness of bolt Fig.5.11

kb  Stiffness of bolt

l  Length of bolt

 25  25  5  55 mm

 E   207
kb   d2    202   1182.38 kN/mm
4  l 4  55

Step II Combined stiffness of flanges and gasket.

For cast iron flanges.

2  d2 E 2  202 100 
k1  k 2    10053.10 kN/mm
l 25

For a zinc gasket,

5.66 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

2  d2 E 2  922 90 
kg    45238.93 kN /mm
t 5
From Equation
1 1 1 1 2 1
      4523.9
kc k 1 k2 kg 10053.10 45238.93

 kc  4523.9 kN/mm

Step III Resultant bolt load

 kb 
Resultant bolt load P  P 1  P i  
 kb  k c 
 kb  1182.38
   0.2072
k
 b  k c  1182.38  4523.90

P1  20 kN  20000 N

 l
Pi Per bolt  D i2  P i 
4 n
  1 
P i per bolt  500 2 2    24543.69 N
4  16 
The resultant load on the bolt is given by
 kb 
P  P1  Pi  
 kb  k c 

 20000  24543.69 0.2072 

 25085.45 N

Step V Factor of safety

The resultant tensile stress in the bolt is given by,
P 25085.45
t    79.85 N/mm2
 2  2 
 d   20  
 4   4 

yield stress
Factor of Safety n 
tensile stress
 yt 250
Fac to r o f safety    3.13
t 79.85
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.67

5.5 DESIGN OF CONNECTING ROD

 Connecting rod is used to transmit motion from the reciprocating piston to
the rotating crank.
 I-section is most common for high speed engine connecting rods. Lightness
is essential in order to keep the inertia forces as small as possible.
 The I-section fulfills the most desirable conditions for connecting rod, i.e.,
the adequate strength and stiffness with minimum weight.
 The connecting rods of internal combustion engines are mostly manufactured
by drop forging.

 The length of the connecting rod l varies from 4 to 5 times of the crank
radius.

Length o f stro ke L l
Crank radius  r   and  4 to 5
2 2 r

 The stresses in the connecting rod are set up due to the following forces
acting on it.
(a) direct load on piston due to gas pressure and inertia of the reciprocating parts.
(b) load due to inertia of reciprocating parts.
(c) friction of the piston pin bearing and the crankpin bearing.
(d) friction of the piston rings and of the piston.

5.5.1 DESIGN PROCEDURE

STEP - I

Material selection Databook Page No. 1.17

Stress values No. 1.13

Connecting rod material y N/mm 2 u  N/mm 2

35 Mn 2 Mo 28 (or) 540 N/mm 2 700  850 N/mm 2

35 Mn 2 Mo 45 600 N/mm 2 800  950 N/mm 2

5.68 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Bolt material y N/mm 2 u N/mm 2

40 Ni 2 Cr 1 MO 28 600 N/mm 2 800  900 N/mm 2

or
31 Ni 3 Cr 65 MO 55 700 N/mm 2 900  1050 N/mm 2

STEP - II
Selection of factor of safety

FOS = 3 to 6 from databook Page No. 7.122

Calculate []bolt and [b]CR

ybolt 1
[  ]bolt  permissible shear stress in the bolt  
2 FOS ... (2.1)

 yCR
[ b ]C.R  permissible bending stress in the connecting rod 
FOS ... (2.2)

[CR  c o n n e c tin g ro d ]

STEP - III
Databook (Page No. 7.122)

 2
Load due to gas (or) steam pressure  F G  d p
4 1 max ... (3.1)

where d1  piston diameter (or) cylinder bore (mm)

pmax  maximum explosion pressure N/m m 2

STEP - IV
Assume, I - section (diagram databook P.No. 7.122)

a  C.S. area  11t2 Standard I-section ... (4.1)

419 4
Ixx  t
12 ... (4.2)



Ixx
k xx 
a
... (4.3)
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.69

kxx  1.78 t ... (4.4)

where Ixx  moment of inertia about xx

kxx  radius of gyration about x x

Z xx  Section modulus

Ixx

y ... (4.5)
5t
y
2

419t4
12 419 3
 Z xx   Zxx  t ... (4.6)
5t 30
2
For circular cross-section t

 2  4
a d and Ixx  d
4 64
t 5t

 
 
Ixx 4
  64 d d
kxx   2

A   4 d 4

 4
Ixx d t
64  3
Z xx    d
y d 32
4t
2

STEP - V
Refer Databook, Page No.7.122
According to Johnsons formula,
2
FG y  y  L o  

 1   
a n  4 2E  k   ... (5.1)
 
F G  load due to gas or steam pressure - N

a  C.S. area  11t2; n  Factor of safety

5.70 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

y  yield stress for connecting rod, material - N/m m2

E  Young’s modulus (From P.No. 1.1) - N/m m2

L o  l  length of connecting rod - mm

k  k xx  radius of Gyration - mm  1.78t

From the above equation, Calculate t

Substitute the value of t in equation 4.1, 4.2 and 4.6

and Calculate a, Ixx and Z xx

STEP - VI
Refer databook Page No. 7.122

 a l22r
b  bending stress due to inertia force 
93 gZ xx

N
  Specific weight (P.No. 1.1) (Convert into N/mm 3)
cc

[ N/cc  10  3  N/mm 3 ] r  radius of crank

g  9810 mm/sec
a  C.S. area
Z xx  section modulus in mm 3
l  length of connecting rod

2N

60

STEP - VII
(a) Design of BIG end bearing (crankpin)
Design databook, (P.No. 7.31)

L1
Take ; and [ pb ] allowable bearing pressure.
D1

F G  L 1D 1[ p b ] L 1  length of big end bearing

Calculate L 1 and D 1 D 1  Dia. of big end bearing

(b) Design of SMALL end bearing (wrist pin) (Pg.No.7.31)

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.71

l1
Take and [ pb ] allowable bearing pressure.
d1

F G  l1d1[ pb ] l1  length of small end bearing

Calculate l1 and d1 d1  Dia. of small end bearing

STEP - VIII
Design of bolt

Refer Databook (Page No.7.122)

Inertia force due to reciprocating parts

 c o s 2 
F i  m 2r  cos   
 l 
 r  ... (8.1)
 
F i is max, at   0

Put   0 in above equation. (8.1)

Calculate F imax in Newton m  mass of reciprocating parts - kg

2N
 rad. /sec
60

r  radius of crank in meters

Assume No. of bolts are two.

The bolts are subjected to shear stress.

 
F imax  2  d2c  [  ]bolt
4  ... (8.2)

where dc  core dia. of the bolt.

Calculate dc

dc
d  major dia. of the bolt 
0.84 ... (8.3)
5.72 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

Calculate d

And from P.No. 5.42

Select standard size of bolt and represent in terms of METRIC.

Ex: M20 M stands for Metric.

20 stands for major dia. of bolt.

Design of Connecting Rod: (Databook Page No. 7.122)

Problem 5.22: Design a suitable connecting rod for the following:
Piston dia.  68 mm; Stroke  75 mm; Length of connecting rod  150 mm; Compression
ratio  8 : 1; Maximum explosion pressure  3.5 N/mm2; Engine speed  4400 r.p.m;Weight
of reciprocating parts/cylinder  25 N Assume any relevant data required.
(Oct.’96,MU, Apr 2005, AU)

Given data
Piston dia. (or) Cylinder dia. d1  68 mm

L 75
Stroke L  75 mm ;  radius of crank  r    37.5 mm
2 2
Length of connecting rod  l  150 mm

C.R = compression ratio (8 : 1) - (Excess data)

Max. explosion pressure  pmax  3.5 N/mm2; Engine speed  N  4400 r.p.m

Weight of reciprocating parts W 25 N

W 25
Mass of reciprocating parts m    2.548 kg
g 9.81

STEP - 1: SELECTION OF MATERIAL

From databook, Page No. 1.17 - Select material.

Take values of y, u from Page No. 1.13

Material of connecting rod - 35 Mn 2 Mo 45 -

y  600 N/mm 2; u  800  950 N/m m2

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.73

Material for the bolt - 40 Ni 2 Cr 1 Mo 28 -

y  700 N/mm 2; u  900  1050 N/m m2

STEP - 2: SELECTION OF FACTOR OF SAFETY

From Page No. (7.122)

[ y ]C.R 600
[ b ]C.R    120 N /m m2
FO S 5

FOS  3 to 6
Select FOS  5
y 1 700 1
[  ]bolt      70 N /mm2
2 FOS 2 5

STEP - 3
From P.No. 7.122


Load due to gas or steam pressure  F G   d21  pmax
4


  68 2  3.5  12.71  10 3N
4

STEP - 4
Assume I-section Refer databook, P.No.7.122 for diagram

419 4
a  area of C.S.  11t2; Ixx  t
12

k2xx  3.18t2 ; (or) k xx  1.78 t

Ixx 419 4 1  5t 
Z xx   t  y 2 
y 12 5t  
2

419 3
Zxx  t
30
5.74 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

STEP - 5
Refer Databook, Page No.7.122

According to Johnson’s formula,

2
FG y  y  L o  

 1   
a n  42E  K  
 
FG  12.71  10 3N ; a  11 t2;  y  600 N/mm 2; n  5 ;

E  Yo ung’s modulus from P.No. 1.1  2.06  10 5N/m m2 (Refer Page No.1.1.)

L o  l  150 mm ; k  kxx  1.78 t

2
12.71  10 3 600  600  150 

 1 2 5  1.78t 

11t2 5  4  2.06  10   
1155.45  0.5239  62.868
2
 120  1  2   120 
t  t  t2

1218.318
 120
t2

t  3.18 mm

t  thickness of web  3.18 m m

 a  11t2  11  3.18 2  111.23 mm 2

419 4 419
Ixx  t   3.18 4  3570.6 mm 4
12 12

kxx  1.78 t  1.78  3.18  5.6604 mm

419 3 419
Z xx  t   3.18 3  449.132 mm 3
30 30

STEP - 6
Refer data book, Page No.7.122

  a  l2 2r
b  bending stress due to inertia force 
93 gZ xx
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.75

  Sp. weight = (From P.No. 1.1) = 0.0784 N/cc (Convert into N/mm 3)

  0.0784  10 3N/mm 3 ; a  111.23 mm 2;

l  150 mm

2N 2  4400
   460.76 rad./sec
60 60

r  37.5 m m ; g  9810 m m/sec ; Z xx  449.132 mm 3

0.0784  10  3  111.23  150 2  460.76 2  37.5

b 
9 3  9810  449.132

b  22.74 N /mm 2  [ b ]C.R

 The design is safe.

STEP - 7

(a) Design of BIG end bearing: (Crankpin)

From databook, (P.No. 7.31)

Consider 4-stroke engine

L1
 0.6  1.5 ;
D1

[ pb ]  108  126 kg f/cm 2 or 10.8 N/mm 2  12.6 N/mm 2 (convert into N/mm 2)

L1
Select 1
D1

and [ pb ]  12 N/mm 2; F G  12.71  10 3N

But F G  L 1D 1[ pb ] Where D 1  Diameter of big end bearing

L 1  Length of big end bearing
12.71  10 3  D 1  D 112

ie., D 21  1059.1667

 D1  32.54 mm

Hence L1  32.54 mm
5.76 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

(b) Design of SMALL end bearing (Wrist pin)

From databook (P.No. 7.31)

l1
 1.5 to 2.0; [ pb ]  125  154 kgf/cm 2 - convert into N/mm 2
d1

 12.5 N/m m2  15.4 N/mm 2

l1
 Select  2;
d1
Where d1  diam eter of small end bearing
and [ pb ]  15 N/mm 2
l1  length of small end bearing
F G  l1d 1[ p b ]

12.71  10 3  2d1  d1  15

ie., d21  423.667

Hence,  d1  20.5 mm 20.58 mm 

l1  2d1

 2  2058

 41.16 mm

STEP - 8: DESIGN OF BOLT

Refer databook Page No.7.122

Inertia force due to reciprocating parts

 cos 2 
F i  m   2r  cos    ; F i is maximum, at   0
 l 
 r 
 
 1  r
 F imax  m 2r  1    m 2r  1   [r - radius of crank in meters.]
 l   l 
 r 
 

37.5  37.5  [ m  2.548 kg ]

F imax  2.548  460.65 2   1
1000  150 
 X
d
Sm all en d be aring

X
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements

Big en d bearin g

t
5t

4t
S ection at X X
5.77
5.78 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 25.35  10 3N   460.76 rad. /sec

assume no. of bolts are 2.   37.5 mm  0.0375 m

l  150 mm

The bolts are subjected to shear stress.

 
 F imax  2  d2c  [  ]bolt where dc  core dia. of bolt.
 4 

[  ]bolt  70 N /m m2]

 
25.35  10 3  2  d2c  70
4 

d2c  230.547

dc  15.18 mm

dc 15.18
d  major dia. of the bolt    18.07 mm
0.84 0.84

From databook, Page No. 5.42

Select M20 bolt.

Problem 5.23: A connecting rod is required to be designed for a high speed, four stroke
I.C engine. The following data are available. Diameter of piston  88 mm ; Mass of
reciprocating parts  1.6 kg ; Stroke length  125 mm ; Length of connecting rod
 300 mm ; rpm  2200 (when developing 50 kW); Compression ratio  6.8 : 1 (approx)
Probable maximum explosion pressure  3.5 N/mm2 (AU May/June 2012)

Solution

Given:
Piston dia (or) cylinder dia d1  88 mm ; Stroke L  125 mm ; Length of
L 125
connecting rod  l  300 mm ;  radius of crank r   62.5 mm ; C.R
2 2
(compression ratio)  6.8 : 1 ; Maximum explosion pressure pmax  3.5 N/mm 2

Engine speed N  2200 rpm ; Mass of reciprocating parts  1.6 kg

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.79

Step 1: Selection of material

From databook Pg No. 1.17, select material. Take values of y, u from Pg.
No.1.13. Material of connecting rod  35 MnZ Mo 45 ;y  600 N/mm 2,
u  800  950 N/mm 2, Material of the bolt  40 NiZ Cr 1Mo28 .

 y  700 N/mm2, u  900  1050 N/mm 2

Step 2: Selection of factor of safety

From Pg. No.7.122, F.O.S  3 to 6 ; Select F.O.S  5

[y]C.R 600
[b]C.R    120 N /mm 2
F.O.S 5

y 1 700 1
[]bolt      70 N/mm2
2 F.O.S 2 5

Step 3:
From Pg. No. 7.122


Load due to gas or steam pressure F G  d21 P max
4


  88 2  3.5  21.28  103 N
4

Step 4:
Assume I-Section. Refer databook Pg.No.7.122

a  cross  sectional area  11t2

419 4
Ixx  t
12

k 2xx  3.18 t2

or k xx  1.78 t

1
Ixx419 4 5t  5t 
Z xx   t  y 2 
y 12 2  
5.80 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

419 3
Zxx  t
30

Step 5:
Refer databook, Pg. No.7.122

according to Johnson’s formula,

2
FG y  y  L o  

 1   
a n  4 2E  K  
 
FG  21.28  10 3 N ; a  11t2

y  600 N/mm 2 ;

F.O.S ‘n’ = 5

E  Yo ung’s modulus P.No. 1.1  2.06  10 5 N/mm 2

L o  l  300 mm ;  K xx  1.78t

2
21.28  10 3 600  600  300 

  1 5  1.78 t 

11t2 5  2
4   2.06  10   
1934.54  2.0597 
2
 120  1  
t  t2 
1934.54 251.484
2
 120 
t t2

2186.024
  120  t2  18.2168   t  4.268 mm
t2

 t  thickness of web  4.27 mm

 a  11 t2  11  4.27 2  200.56 mm 2

419 4 419
Ixx  t   4.27 4  11607.65 mm 4
12 12

kxx  1.78 t  1.78  4.27  7.6 mm

419 3 419
Z xx  t   4.27 3  1087.36 mm 3
30 30
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.81

Step 6:
Refer databook Pg.No. 7.122

  a  l2  2  r
b  bending stress due to inertia force 
9 3 g Z xx

  sp. weight  0.0784 N/c c  0.0784  10  3 N/mm 3 [From Pg.No.1.1]

a  200.56 mm 2 ; l  300 mm

2  N 2    2200
   230.38 rad/s
60 60

r  62.5 mm ; g  9810 mm /s ; Z xx  1087.36

0.0784  10  3  200.56  300 2  230.38 2  62.5

b 
93  9810  1087.36

 28.23 N/mm 2  [ b]C.R

 The design is safe.

Step 7:

(a) Design of Big end bearing (crankpin):

From databook, Pg.No.7.31  Where D 1  dia of big end bearing
Consider 4 stroke engine.  L 1  Length of big end b earing

L1
 0.6  1.5
D1

[pb]  108  126 kgf/cm2 or 10.8 N/mm 2  12.6 N/mm 2

L1
Select  1 and [pb]  12 N/mm2
D1

FG  21.28  10 3 N

But Fg  L 1 D 1 [P b]

21.28  10 3  D1  D 1  12
5.82 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

 D 21  1773.33

D 1  42.11 mm ; Hence L 1  42.11 mm

(b) Design of small end bearing (wrist pin)

From databook Pg. No.7.31

l1
 1.5 to 2.0 ; [PB ]  125  154 kg f/cm 2  12.5 to 15.4 N/mm 2
d1

l1  Where
Select  2 and [pb]  15 N /mm 2 
d1
 l1  length of sm all end bearing
F G  l1 d1 [pb]  d  dia of smal end bearing
 1

21.28  10 3  d1  d1  15  d22  1418.667  d1  37.66 mm

Hence l1  2d1  2  37.66  75.32 mm

Step 8: Design of bolt

Refer data book Pg.No.7.122

Inertia force due to reciprocating parts

 cos 2  
F i  m   2  r  cos   , F i is maximum at   0
 l/ r 
 1   r
 F imax  m 2 r  1  l   m  2 r  1  
 r   l 

r  radius of crank in metres.

62.5  62.5 
F imax  1.6  230.382  1  6.413  103 N
1000  300 

Assume No. of bolts  2

The bolts are subjected to shear stress


 F imax  2  d2c bolt
4

Where dc  core dia of bolt ; []bolt  70 N/mm2

Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.83


{ 6.413  10 3  2   d2c  70 
4

 d2c  58.3235  dc  7.637 mm

dc 7.637
d  major dia of bolt    9.09 mm
0.84 0.84

From databook Pg 5.42, select M10 bolt.

Problem 5.24: The connecting rod of a petrol engine is to be designed for the following
data.Piston diameter 80 mm; Stroke 120 mm; Weight of the reciprocating parts 15 N;
Length of connecting rod; 240 mm; Max speed 2800 rpm; Explosion pressure corresponding
to 10 of crank angle is 3 MPa.; Factor of safety 6.

If the connecting rod is to be made of 40 Cr Steel, find the dimensions of the I-section
connecting rod.

Given data
d  80 mm ; R  15 N ; L  240 mm

n  2800 rpm

120
stroke length 2r  120 mm; crank radius r   60 mm
2

FOS  6 ; p  3 MPa

2 n 2  2800
   293.2 rad/s
60 60

1. To find load due to gas pressure

 2 
FG  d p   80 2  3
4 4

F G  15079.65 N

2. To find inertia force due to reciprocating parts

  90; Lr  240 mm; r  60 mm

 Lr   1  240 
  tan  1    tan  60 
 r   
  75.96 
5.84 www.airwalkpublications.com - Design of Machine Elements

R 2  cos 2 
Fi   r  cos   
g  Lr/r 

 c o s 2 75.96 
 15  293.2 2  60   cos 75.96   
 4 

 77.37  10 6  [0.0220 ]

 1.7  10 6 N

3. To find out axial load on the connecting rod

F F G  Fi
Fa  

 
 
2 2
 sin    sin  
1  1 
 Lr/r   Lr/r 

15079.65  1.7  10 6 1.715  10 6

 




2 0.9411
 sin 75.96 
1 
 240 /60 

F a  1.768  10 6 N

4. To find out dimensions of the connecting rod

a  11 t2 ; k 2xx  3.18 t2 ; kxx  Radius of gyration

FOS  6 ; Assume C60 steel ; E  2.04  10 5 N/mm 2 ; y  42 kgf/mm 2

Assume both ends of connecting rod are fixed

L  Lo ; k  kxy

2
a y  y  Lo  
Fa  1   
n  4 2E  k  
Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements 5.85

11 t2  42  42 240 2 
1.768  10 6  1  
4
 42  2  10 5 3.18 t2 

 0.096 
 115.5 t2  1  
 t2 

 t2  0.096 
 115.5 t2  2
2
  115.5 t  115.5  0.096 
 t 

1.768  10 6  115.5 t2  11.088

t  123.72 mm  t  124 mm

Height  5t  5  124  620 mm

Width  4t  4  124  496 mm

Short Questions and Answers 6.1

SHORT QUESTION & ANSWERS

Chapter 1: Steady Stresses and Variable Stresses in Machine Members

FUNDAMENTALS OF DESIGN AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES

1.1. What is meant by Design?

Design is defined as the process of system to accomplish a specific task optimally by solving
various constraints with the help of various creative ideas and principles obtained from science and
technology. It also involves careful planning of how the thing designed will be manufactured and
how it will be used to benefit the mankind.
1.2. What factors should be considered in machine design?
During the design of machine elements, the following factors should be considered.
1. Type of loading - Static, Dynamic, Simple, Complicated
2. Size of object - Simple, complicated, small, large.
3. Environment conditions - Pure atmosphere
4. Material properties - Hard, soft, rigid, elastic, tough etc.
5. Place of employment - Hazardous place, safe place, on road, on water, in air etc.
6. Human safety - Foolproof arrangement should be considered.
7. Cost - The design is in such way that the product should be
manufactured in lower cost.
1.3. Briefly explain about prefered numbers
Preferred number is the name given to various series proposed for general use. The idea of
preferred numbers is to provide a master series from which, suitable terms can be chosen to suit
any need.
The concept of preferred numbers is adopted for the selection of shaft sizes, machine-tool
spindle speeds and so on. This series is also called as R series. like R 5, R10, R20 series etc. R
stands for Charles Reward who first formulated the above series.
The step ratio,  for R5 series is 5 
10  1.58 and R10 series is 10 
10  1.26 and so on. In
all the above series, the basic number is 1 and the successive numbers are obtained by multiplying
the previous number by its step ratio, also called as geometric progression ratio.
For example: R5 series 1.00, 1.60, 2,50,4,00 and so on.
1.4. What are the classifications of materials? Give examples.
Materials

Metals Non-Metals

Ferrous metals Non-ferrous metals Organics Ceramics

Eg: Cast iron,, Eg: Copper, Gold Eg: Plastics, Eg: Brick
Steel, Wrought iron Zinc and so on Rubber, Wood and Sand Cement
so on and so on.
6.2 Design of Machine Elements

1.5. What is meant by mechanical properties? Give examples.

(Anna Univ, June 2012 - MESOU)
The properties of machine elements which undergo any changes in shape and structure during
the application of force on these elements are called as mechanical properties. For example, if a
rod is subjected to a tensile load, its length can be increased and so on.
Some of the mechanical properties are elasticity, plasticity, ductility, malleability, hardness,
toughness, brittleness etc.
1.6. What are the factors to be considered in the selection of materials for the machine
members?
1. Properties of materials such as
(a) Mechanical properties
(b) Electrical properties
(c) Physical properties
(d) Chemical properties
(e) Magnetic properties
(f) Thermal properties
(g) Acoustic properties
(h) Optical properties
(i) Metallurgical properties etc.
2. Easy availability of materials.
3. Cost
4. Non-hazardous to human being
1.7. What are mechanical properties?
The mechanical properties (related to strength) are 1. Elasticity, 2. Plasticity, 3. Ductility 3.
Malleability 4. Toughness, 5. Brittleness, 6. Hardness, 7. Creep and 8. Fatigue etc.
1.8. How carbon content influences the properties of steel?
Steel is the ferrous metal in which the carbon content varies from 0.08% to 2%. Comparing
to cast iron, steel is more ductile, but based on the percentage of carbon content in steel, it is
classified into three categories in which the ductility is varied from each other. Three types of steel
are.
1. Low carbon steel (Mild Steel) - 0.08 to 0.2% C-Most ductile
2. Medium carbon steel - 0.2 to 0.5% C- Less ductile
3. High carbon steel - 0.5 to 2% C-Brittle
1.9. What is elasticity?
Elasticity is the property of material in which the increased length or any dimension by the
application of load vanishes when the load is removed and the object regains its initial shape.
1.10. What is meant by plasticity?
If any material is applied by some load, its actual dimensions can be changed. When the
applied load is removed and if the material is in the elongated state without regaining its original
dimensions, the material is said to be in plastic state.
1.11. Define ductility.
Ductlity is the property of material by which the material can deform to its maximum extent
under tensile load without rupture. The wire formation is the good example for ductile property.
Short Questions and Answers 6.3

1.12. What is meant by malleability?

Malleability is the property of material by which the material can deform to its maximum
level under compressive load without rupture. The sheet formation is the notable example for
malleable property.
1.13. What is meant by toughness?
Toughness is the property of material by which the material can resist bending or torsional
load.
1.14. What is meant by creep?
It is the long time deformation under steady load. Sometimes the high temperature
deformation may also be called as creep.
1.15. Describe the following terms.
(a) Load
(b) Stress
(c) Strain
(a) Load: It is an external agent which when applied on a machine part changes or tends
to change the shape and structure of the machine parts. Depending upon the nature of application,
load can be divided into 1. Steady load (Amount of load ie. magnitude of the load is constant
throughout the working period)
2. Variable load (load value changes time to time)
3. Impact load (load is applied suddenly)
Some times, the steady load is called as static load and the variable load & impact loads
are called as dynamic loads. The unit for representing the load is Newton (N).
(b) Stress: It is the amount of load applied per unit area of the machine element. It is
also called as induced stress. Usually any machine element resists the applied load by its
self-strength. This strength is called as internal resisting stress of the element. Based on the type
of loading and area of resistance, the stress is quoted by different names as tensile stress,
compressive stress, shear stress, bending stress, blanking stress and so on. The stress is usually
denoted by the unit, Pascals P, i.e. N  m2
Strain: If an object (say a rod) is subjected to a load, for example tensile load, its length increases.
The ratio of difference of lengths, after and before loading, to its original length (i.e, length before
loading) is called as strain ie., linear strain.

For example: let l1 - original length before loading

l2 - Final length after loading

Then
l2  l1
e 
l1
There is another strain, called as lateral strain, which is ratio of difference of cross-sectional
areas to its original area of the rod, when it is applied by a tensile load. Here, the area decreases,
due to applied load and also in the direction perpendicular to applied load. The ratio between lateral
strain to its linear strain is known as poisson’s ratio.
If the strain occurs due to shearing load, then that strain is known as shear strain.
6.4 Design of Machine Elements

1.16. Define the following terms.

(a) Proportional limit
(b) Elastic limit
(c) Yield point
(d) Ultimate limit
(a) Proportional limit is the amount of stress upto which, the strain rate is linearly (or) directly
proportional to the stress applied on the metal specimen.
(b) Elastic limit is the amount of stress, upto which, if the applied load is removed, the elongation
produced due to load will be vanished and thus the specimen will regain its original length.
(c) Yield point is the amount of stress, at which the specimen will enter into plastic nature from
elastic nature i.e. after yield point even through the applied load is removed, the elongation will
remain and the specimen will not get its original length. For most of the materials, the elastic limit
and yield point are one and the same.
(d) The ultimate limit is the amount of stress which is the maximum value of stress ie. load
sustained by the metal specimen. Beyond that, the strained specimen will be broken into two pieces.
1.17. What is factor of safety? Enumerate its features.
Factor of safety is the ratio of maximum load, which a machine part can sustain, to its
working load, which is an advisable load to be applied usually.
Maximum load or maximum stress
i.e: Factor of safety 
Working load or working stress
The working stress is sometimes called as design stress. The factor of safety is always greater than
one. That is, the working stress should always be less than maximum stress. The value of actual
factor stress should always be less than maximum stress. The value of factor of safety is varied
from 1.25 to 8, sometimes upto 10. Depending upon the nature of applications like type of loading,
place of operation, the factor of safety values are decided. That is the working load for crane should
be at the maximum of 20% of its maximum lifting capacity, (ie., maximum load that a crane can
lift). Here, the factor of safety is 5, Similarly the machine parts working in poor environment like
high temperature region, salty areas etc require high factor of safety than the same machine parts
working in proper environments.
1.18. What is eccentric loading and list out some applications of eccentric loading?
If any external load is acting on, a machine part whose line of action does not coincide with the
axis of machine part, it is said to be eccentric loading. Due to this eccentric loading, the induced stresses
acting on the entire component may not be equal. The portion of machine part nearer to the loading
will be more stressed than the opposite side which is away from the axis.
This type of loading may be found in C-clamp, punching machine, offset connecting link and so
on.
1.19. What are the various theories of failures?
1. Rankine’s theory or Maximum principle stress theory.
2. Guest’s theory or Maximum shear stress theory.
3. Saint Venant’s theory or Maximum principle strain theory.
4. Haigh’s theory or Maximum strain energy theory.
5. Hencky and Mises theory or Maximum distortions energy theory.
Short Questions and Answers 6.5

1.20. Discuss about maximum principal stress theory.

According to thin theory, failure occurs whenever the maximum principle stress induced in
the machine component becomes equal to the strength. Generally, the limiting strength for ductile
material is yield stress and for brittle material, it is the ultimate stress.
ie., For ductile materials, failure occurs whenever
1  u (yielding in the failure)
For brittle materials, failure occurs whenever, 1  u (fracture is the failure).
Sy  Yield stress
Su  Ultimate stress
1.21. Briefly explain about Maximum shear stress theory
According to this theory, the failure occurs whenever the maximum shear stress induced in
the component becomes equal to the maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen when the
specimen begins to yield.
y y
1  2  (or) 1  3 
n n
This theory is best suited for ductile materials.
1.22. Describe about maximum principal strain theory.
According to this theory, failure occurs whenever the maximum strain in the component
becomes equal to the strain in the tension test specimen when yielding begins.
1   2  3 (OR) 2   3  1 (OR) 3   1  2 which ever is max  y
where   Poisson’s ratio
For Design,
y
1   2  3 (or) 2   3  1 (or) 3   1  2 which ever is maximum 
n
1.23. Explain about maximum strain energy theory.
According to this theory failure occurs when the strain energy stored per unit volume of the
stressed element becomes equal to the strain energy stored per unit volume in the tension test
specimen at the yield point.
21  22  23  2 1 2  2 3  3 1  2y
1.24. State maximum distortion energy theory.
According to this theory, failure will occur when the strain energy of distortion per unit
volume of the component becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion per unit volume of the
tension test specimen.
1.25. What is meant by endurance limit on fatigue testing machine for different amounts
of stresses.
For each loading, the life of specimen, ie. the number of cycles for failure is noted. Usually,
if the stress value is reduced, the number of cycles for failure will increase. In this way, if we go
on reducing the stress value, at a particular value of stress, the specimen will not fail even at
infinite number of cycles. That stress limit is known as endurance limit. In otherwords, the
endurance limit is defined as the fatigue stress below which the specimen will not fail for infinite
number of cycles. (Usually 107 cycles)
1.26. Define variable load and give some applications.
If the magnitude of load at any point of a machine member vary time to time, then that
kind of load is known as variable load. This variable load is also called as fluctuating load or fatigue
6.6 Design of Machine Elements

load. Some of the machine members which are subjected to variable loading are axis, shafts,
crankshafts, connecting rods, piston rods, springs, gear teeth etc.
1.27. What are the factors affecting endurance limit?
Endurance limit is affected by the following factors.
1. Load factor
2. Surface finish factor
3. Size factor
4. Temperature factor
5. Impact factor
6. Reliability factor
1.28. Briefly explain about surface finish factor.
Surface finish factor is a type of safety factor, which is considered, during fatigue loading of
a specimen. Let e be the endurance limit of a standard specimen. Depending upon the outer surface
finish, this endurance limit can be changed. For example, rough surface specimen will have lower
endurance limit than polished specimen and so on. Hence some values are allotted to various types
of surfaces as surface finish factors.
ie. Ksr  Surface finish factor
 1 for mirror polished specimen
 1 for rough specimens
1.29. What are the various methods for reducing fatigue failure.
In order to reduce failure due to fatigue, some precautionary steps may be taken. That is,
the maximum load to be applied on a machine member should be far less than its endurance limit.
The critical section which is subjected to fatigue loading should not have any surface defect and it
should be well smoothened. Working temperature should be properly maintained. Whatever be the
fatigue load, The member should not be operated continuously.
1.30. Briefly discuss about stress - concentration
(Anna Univ ME504 - June 2012)
Whenever a machine component of uniform cross-section is subjected to a static tensile or
compressive load, the stress distribution throughout the cross-section is uniform. If the machine
component is having different cross-sections or any notch (ie., any imperfection in the shape or
surface of part such as a shoulder, V-groove or hole etc.) some extra amount of stress is accumulated
in the place of notch or change of sections. This accumulation of stress in the place of notch or
fillet is called as stress-concentration.
The concentration of the stress will cause failure more quickly. Hence this stress concentration
should be reduced to its maximum level.
1.31. By what methods, stress concentration can be reduced? (JNTU, Dec 2011 - Set 1)
Even though the stress concentration can not be avoided fully, it can be reduced to some
extent by making some modifications in their structures such as by changing the sharp corners
into curved corners, V-notch into semi-circular notch and by smoothening the surfaces of the machine
components and so on.
1.32. Write short notes on the types of variable stresses.
Variable stresses are classified in two ways such as
1. According to applications
2. According to stress magnitudes in both directions of mean stress.
Short Questions and Answers 6.7

According to applications, variable stresses are divided as (a) Variable bending stress, (b)
Variable axial stress, (c) Variable torsional stress.
According to stress magnitude, it is classified as (a) Completely reversed stress, (b) Repeated
stress, (c) Fluctuating stress etc.
In a reversed cyclic stress, the stresses of opposite nature are equal in magnitude and in
fluctuating stress they are different. But in repeated stress, any one stress (tensile or compressive)
will be zero.
1.33 Classify design?
1. Adaptive design 2. Developed design 3. New design.
1.34 Define stiffness of an axially loaded member. (JNTU: Dec 2011 - Set 2)
Axial force required for unit deflection (elongation) of a member is called stiffness.
Load N
Stiffness  in N/mm
deflection mm
1.35 What is adaptive design? Where it is used? Give examples.
(Anna Univ Dec 2012 - ME 504)
Adaptive design is one in which designers work is concerned with the adaption of the existing
design requiring no special skills and knowledge. Examples are bicycles and IC engines where
development has practically ceased except for certain minor modification and alterations.
1.36 Define allowance?
It is the difference between the basic dimensions of the making parts. When the shaft size
is less than the hole size, then the allowance is positive and when the shaft size is greater than
the hole size, then the allowance is negative.
1.37 Define tolerance?
Tolerance is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a dimension.
1.38 What is fit? What are types of fit.
Fit of a mating parts is defined as the degree of tightness or looseness between them. It
depends upon the clearance or interference between the two mating parts. Types of fits, are
Clearance fit, Interference fit and Transition fit.
1.39 What are the types of limit systems.
There are two types of limit system.
(a) Hole basis system (b) Shaft basis system.
1.40 State the difference between straight beams and curved beams.
(Anna Univ, Dec (2012 - ME504))

Straight beams Curved beams

1. In straight beams, all the layers are either in In curved beams, layers above the neutral
tension or compression. axis are in tension and layers below neutral
axis are in compression.
2. In straight beams, the neutral axis passes In curved beams, neutral axis is different
through the centroidal axis. from the centroidal axis
3. Stress distribution in straight beams is linear. Stress distribution in curved beams is
nonlinear (hyperbolic).
6.8 Design of Machine Elements

CHAPTER 2: Design of Shafts, Keys and Couplings

2.1 What are the different failure modes of machine component?

1. Tensile failure
2. Compressive failure
3. Shear failure
4. Edge fracture
5. Failure due to corrosion
6. Failure due to sudden loading
2.2 What is a shaft?
A shaft is a rotating or stationary member, usually of circular cross-section having mounted upon
it such elements as gears, pulleys, flywheels, cranks, sprockets and other power transmitting elements
and the shaft may be subjected to bending, tensile, compressive and torsional loads acting separately
or combined.
2.3 Distinguish between shaft, axle and spindle from the design point of view.
Basically shafts, axles and spindles are used as power transmitting elements. But they are differed
slightly in their structure and functions. Shaft is usually of circular bar (or rod) mainly employed for
power transmission. Shafts are subjected to load also by pulleys, gears etc, which are mounted on shafts.
Axle is a non rotating member which suports the rotating component of machine. Spindle is a short
rotating shaft that imparts motion to workpiece of tool.
2.4 By what materials, the shafts can be made of?
Usually, the shafts and axles are made of mild steel of various grades. For heavily loaded
shafts alloy steels such as nickel, nickel chromium and chrome vanadium steels are adopted as
shaft materials
2.5 What is the significance of ‘slenderness ratio’ in shaft design?
Slenderness ratio is the ratio between the length of shaft and its least radius of gyration.
L Length of shaft
ie., slenderness ratio  
K Least radius of gryation
This ratio value should be limited based on the type and amount of load. For example, if
the nature of loading is tensile, the slenderness ratio will not have much effect. That is there will
not be any bending or buckling due to this tensile load. At the same time if the loading is
compressive and the slenderness ratio is more, (ie., for the thin rod of long length), the shaft will
buckle, which is also a functional failure and hence this buckling should be avoided. For most of
shafts of compressive loading the slenderness ratio should be less than 80. For better safe, it should
be less than 40.
2.6 Enumerate the type of stresses induced in shafts.
Based on the type of loading, different kinds of stresses are induced in shafts, such as
torsional shear stress, bending stress and axial stresses like tensile stress and compressive stress
etc separately or in combined form.
2.7. Briefly explain about torsional stiffness of the shaft.
Stiffness is the material property of a machine part, say shaft. It is defined as the resisting
strength to bending or torsion. Torsional stiffness of the shaft is its resisting strength to torsional
load. That is, when the shaft is subjected to power transmission, and if the shaft is less stiff then
because of the poor resistance the shaft will not transmit power properly and sometimes the shaft
may fail very quickly by twisting. Hence shafts should be made of such material having required
Short Questions and Answers 6.9

torsional stiffness for poper power transmission. Usually the torsional deflection for machine shaft
is limited to 0.25 to 3 per metre length.
2.8 What is saline shaft? Give example for its application.
Saline shaft is a shaft in which one or more rectangular projections, similar to sunk keys
are made integral with the shaft, partly or throughout its length. The main aim of using saline
shaft is to make its mating part sliding on to it.
This kind of saline shafts are mostly employed in gear box of automobiles.
2.9 What is a key?
Key is a type of fastener which is used to connect gears, pulleys, sprockets, cam, flywheels,
cam, etc. to the shaft in order to transmit the power from one member to another member.
2.10 In what basis keys are selected?
Keys are selected based on the magnitude of torque transmitted, type of loading such as
steady, variable or oscillatory, fit required, limited shaft stress and cost etc.
2.11 Specify the types of key?
Keys are classified as follows"
1. Sunk Keys
(a) Plain key; (b) Gib head key
2. Feather key
3. Wood ruff key
4. Splines
5. Tanjent and Round Key
2.12 By what material keys are made?
Mild Steel
2.13 What are the standing dimensions of sunk key with respect to the shaft diameter?
Let d  diameter of shaft
l  length of sunk key
w  width of key
t  thickness of key
Then w  d  4; t  d  6 and l  1.6 d
The above dimensions are usually preferred as the parameters of sunk keys.
2.14 What is a coupling?
Coupling is a machine member, employed to connect two power transmitting shafts through keys.
2.15 What are the types of couplings?
Coupling are classified as follows:
I. Permanent couplings
(a) Rigid couplings
(i) Muff or sleeve couplings
(ii) Flange couplings
(b) Flexible Couplings
(i) Flange couplings
(ii) Universal couplings
6.10 Design of Machine Elements

II. Temporary couplings

(i) Disc clutches
(ii) Cone clutches
2.16 What are the agreeable dimensions of muff-coupling?
Let d  diameter of shaft
Then
(i) Outside diameter of sleeve D  2d
(ii) Length of sleeve L  3d
(iii) Length of key 1  1.5 d
(iv) Number of keys required 2
2.17 What are the agreeable dimensions of rigid flange coupling?
Let d  diameter of shaft
Then

(i) Outside diameter of hub D1  2d

(ii) Pitch circle diameter of bolts D2  3d
(iii) Outside diameter of flange D3  4d
(iv) Length of hub L  1.5 d
(v) Thickness of flange tf  0.5 d
(vi) Thickness of protected flange tp  0.25d
(vii) Length of key l  1.5 d
(viii) Width of key w  0.25 d
(ix) Thickness of key t  d6
(x) Number of keys requried  2

2.18 Why are flexible couplings preferred?

Flexible flange couplings are preferred in order to reduce the effect of shock and impact loads
between the power transmitting shafts when there is a slight misalignment in between them. (ie.,
the axes of shafts are non-colinear)
2.19 Name the flexible coupling connected with propeller shaft of automobile vehicle.
Ans: Universal coupling
2.20 Fill in the blanks of the following:
(a) The couplings are made of .........
(b) The shafts and keys are made of .........
(c) The allowable value of shear stress of mild steel is .......
(d) The allowable value of shear stress of cast-iron is .........
Ans: (a) cast iron, (b) Mild-steel, (c) 40 to 50 N/mm2, (d) 8 to 15 N/mm2
2.21 In what way clutches are differed from flange couplings?
1. Flange couplings are used as permanent connecting between two power transmitting
elements whereas clutches are used as temporary connecting elements and hence periodical
engagement is possible in clutch connection.
Short Questions and Answers 6.11

2. Flange couplings are having less number of parts such as flanges, bolts, keys etc. whereas
the clutches consists comparatively of large number of parts such as friction discs, springs, bolts,
keys, supporting plates and so on.
2.22 What is the use of crankshaft?
Crankshaft is used to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into rotary motion of
the wheel as in case of locomotive engine or rotary motion of flywheel as in case of IC engine.
2.23 What are the types of crankshaft?
(i) Overhung crankshaft (side crankshaft)
(ii) Centre crankshaft
Depending upon throw
(i) Single throw crankshaft
(ii) Multi throw crankshaft
2.24 Define critical speed of shaft.
The centre of gravity of a loaded shafts will be displaced from the axis of rotation due to
the one or more of the following reason
(a) Eccentric mounting of rotors,
(b) Lack of straightness of shaft,
(c) Bending under action of gravity
(d) Unbalanced magnetic pull etc
Shaft deflection is a function of shaft speed and it reaches maximum at a particular speed
known as critical speed.
2.25 What are the failure modes of key?
(i) Failure due to shear stress
T  w  l  s  d/2
(ii) Failure due to crushing stress
T  t/2  l  c  d/2
2.26 List any two advantages of splines over keys.
(1) The splined shafts are relatively stronger than single key
(2) Power transmission loss is very less in case of splines
(3) With spline, axial movement and positive drive is possible.
2.27 Why hollow shaft is preferred over solid shaft.
(1) Hollow shaft reduces weight and cost.
(2) For same cross-section area, hollow shafts are stronger and more rigid than solid shaft.
2.28 Distinguish between keys and splines (Anna Univ., ME2303, Dec 2011)
(i) Key is a single element in the shaft while multiple keys are called splines.
(ii) Axial and positive drive is possible with splines only
2.29 At what angle of crank the twisting moment is maximum in the crankshaft?
(Anna Univ., ME2303, Dec 2011)
Crank Angle is 25 to 40
2.30 Name the stresses induced in the shaft. (Anna Univ., ME2303, May 2011)
(i) Bending stress due to bending moment on the shaft.
(ii) Shear stress due to torsional moment on the shaft.
2.31 What are different types of rigid couplings? (Anna Univ., ME2303, May 2011)
6.12 Design of Machine Elements

1. Muff coupling 2. Clamp coupling 3. Flange coupling

2.32 What do you mean by stiffness and rigidity with reference to shafts?
(Anna Univ., ME2303, Dec 2010)
Stiffness is the resistance of the shaft to the deformation by an applied force along given
degree of freedom. Rigidity of the shaft is the property to resist deformation.
2.33 Suggest suitable coupling for (a) shaft with parallel misalignment (b) shaft with
angular misalignment of 10, (c) shaft in perfect alignment.
(a) Oldhams coupling (b) Universal coupling (c) Flange coupling
2.34 What is equivalent bending moment? (Anna Univ., ME2303, June 2012)
Equivalent bending moment is defined as the moment which when acting alone produces the
same tensile and compressive bending stress as that acting bending moment.
1

Me  [M  M2  T2 ]
2
M : bending moment
T : Twisting moment
2.35 Under what circumstances flexible couplings are used?
(Anna Univ., ME2303, Dec 2012)
(i) When there is misalignment between the two shafts
(ii) When the shafts are aligned at angular position.
Short Questions and Answers 6.13

CHAPTER 3: Design of Temporary and Permanent Joints - Design of

Fasteners

3.1. What is cotter joint?

A cotter joint is a temporary joint where two co-axial bars, subjected to axial forces which
may be tensile or compressive are connected by a fastener called cotter. The cotter is a rectangular
strip, tapered to one side and is made of mild steel
3.2. What are the types of cotter joint?
1. Socket and spigot cotter joint
2. Sleeve and cotter joint
3. Gib and cotter joint
3.3. State some applications of cotter joints?
1. Cross-head of steam engine.
2. Pump and reciprocating engine etc.
3.4. What is knuckle joint?
Knuckle joint is a temporary joint similar to cottor joint, in which two rods under the action
of tensile loads (or) compressive loads are connected. The knuckle joint is differed from cotter joint
such that the joint is tight in cotter joint where as the joint is flexible in knuckle joint and hence
the axes of rods to be connected need not be colinear.
3.5. In what way temporary joint is better than permanent joints?
Most of machine parts require periodic maintenance and repair during damage. If the joint
is permanent detachment of machine parts are not possible and hence they are joined by some
temporary joints like threaded fasteners.
3.6. Give some examples for permanent and temporary joints.
1. Permanent joints - Riveted joints, welded joints, adhesive joints
2. Temporary joints - Threaded joints, cotter joints, knuckle joints, coupling joints etc.
3.7. What are the types of threaded fasteners?
Screws, bolts, nuts and studs etc.
3.8. What kind of stresses are induced in threaded fasteners?
1. Axial tensile stress and
2. Torsional shear stress.
3.9. Differentiate screw, bolt, stud and nut in their structures.
Basically all threaded fasteners are made by cutting helical grooves on the cylindrical areas.
In screw or bolt, a single helical groove is made from one end to the other end, but the screw is
tapered from one end to other end where as the bolt is having constant diameter throughout its
length. In stud, helical grooves are made in two different directions, leaving the centre portion
unscrewed. In a nut, helical grooves are made in the innerside of a sleeve.
Screws and Bolts are having heads, but studs are not having heads.
3.10. By what materials threaded fasteners are made?
Steel is the material of which most of the fasteners are made. For improving their properties
alloy steels like nickel-steel, nickel-chromium steel, chromium-vanadium steel are preferred. For
special purpose, threaded fasteners are made of aluminium, brass, copper nickel and plastics etc.
6.14 Design of Machine Elements

3.11. Define the following terms.

(a) Major diameter, or nominal diameter
(b) Minor diameter or root diameter
(c) Pitch
(d) Lead
(a) Major diameter or nominal diameter: It is the diameter of a co-axial cylinder that would
just touch the crest of the external thread as in the case of bolt or root of an internal thread as
in the case of nut. It is the maximum diameter, also called as outside diameter of thread.
(b) Minor diameter or root diameter: It is the diameter of a co-axial cylinder that would just
touch the root of an external thread (ie., bolt) and crest of as internal thread (nut). This is the
minimum diameter of screw. It is also called as core diameter.
(c) Pitch: It is defined as the distance, measured parallel to the axis, between corresponding
points of adjacent threads in the same axial plane.
(d) Lead: It is distance in the axial direction moved by a screw during one revolution of the screw.
It is nothing but the distance between two corresponding points in the same helix. In the multi-start
thread, lead is equal to the product of pitch and the number of starts ie., Lead  n  pitch where
n is the number of starts.
3.12. How are screw-threads classified?
Screw threads are classified based on
1. Usage as
(a) Fastening threads
(b) Power threads
2. Shape of threads
(a) Vee-shaped threads such as metric threads
(b) Trapezoidal threads of Acme threads.
(c) Buttress threads
(d) Rounded threads or knuckle threads
(e) Taper threads.
3.13. Define thread angle.
It is the angle included between the sides of the thread measured in an axial plane. It varies
for different kinds of screw threads.
3.14. Fill in the blanks of the following:
(a) Thread angle for metric thread is ________ .
(b) Thread angle for Acme thread is ________ .
Ans: (a) 60 (b) 30
3.15. What are the types of Inch threads ?
(a) B.S.W. (British standard whitworth) thread
(b) B.S.F. (British standard Fine) thread
(c) B.A. (British Association) thread.
3.16. How is a screw thread designated ?
In India, metric threads are adopted as standard threads. There are two types of metric
threads namely coarse and fine threads. Coarse thread is designated by the capital letter M followed
by the major diameter of the thread in mm. For example M10. The pitch is additionally indicated
for fine thread. For example M10  1.25.
Short Questions and Answers 6.15

3.17. What is a turn-buckle and where is it used ?

A turn-buckle is a type of connecting element for connecting two tie-rods. In this type of
joint, one of tie-rods is having right hand threads and the other is having left hand threads. These
rods are screwed into the threaded hole of the turn-buckle. It is also called as couplernut.
3.18. What is meant by single start and multi-start threads ?
If the thread is having only one helical groove, then it is called single-start thread, where
as having more than one helical grooves, (upto four grooves) is called as mutli-start threads. If the
number of starts is two, then it is known as double start thread and so on.
3.19. What are the merits and demerits of screw joints ?
Merits:
1. Screw joints are highly reliable in operation.
2. Simple manufacture with the possibility of maintaining high accuracy.
3. They can be made in any convenient shape and small size.
4. In addition to fastening, screws and nuts are used as power screws.
Demerits:
1. Stress concentrations is available in threaded portions and hence lowering of their life.
2. Self-loosening properties and hence air-tight joints can not be maintained, unless providing
some locking devices.
3.20. What is meant by temporary joint and permanent joint. Give examples.
If the machine parts can be dismantled, without damaging or destroying the connecting
elements for maintenance or repair, then that joint is called as temporary joint such as screw joint.
When the machine parts can not be dismantled without destroying the connecting elements these
joints are called as permanent joints. For example riveted joints and welded joints and so on.
3.21. Specify the types of rivets.
The rivets are specified based on their types of heads. Some of them are rivets of (i) snap
head, (ii) pan head, (iii) mushroom head, (iv) countersunk head, (v) conical head etc.
3.22. Define Unwin’s formula.
If the plates to be joined is having the thickness, t mm, then the diameter of the rivet,
d6
t
The length of rivet shank should be I  t  a
where t  total thickness of the members being riveted.
a  length of tail part of shank required to form the closing head.
 0.7 to 1.3d depending upon the shape of rivet heads.
3.23. What is lap riveted joint?
In this type of joint, two plates are kept one over the other at their ends (i.e, overlapping)
and riveted. Here the covering plates are not required as required for butt joints.
3.24. What is Butt-riveted joint ?
In this joint, the main plates are kept in alignment touching each other by their ends and
a coverplate is placed on one side or on both sides of the main plates and then they are riveted.
3.25. What is the difference between chain riveting and zig-zag riveting ?
In a riveted joint, according to requirement there can be one or more rows of rivets. When
the rivets in the various rows are straight-opposite to each other, the joint is said to be chain
riveted. On the other hand, if the rivets in the adjacent rows are placed such that each rivet of
6.16 Design of Machine Elements

one row is in the middle line of adjacent row, then this joint is said to be diamond riveted or
zig-zag riveted.
3.26. What are various arrangement of rivets in the riveted joint ?
Based on rows :
1. Single riveted
2. Multiple riveted such as
(a) Double riveted
(b) Triple riveted
(c) Quadraple riveted
Based on positions of rivets:
1. Chain riveted
2. Zig-Zag riveted
3.27. By what material, the rivets are made ?
Rivets are made of tough and ductile low carbon steel or nickel steel.
3.28. What kinds of failures will occur in a riveted joint and how can they be rectified?
Four types of failure will occur in a riveted joint which are
1. Tearing the edge of plate near the rivet hole.
2. Tearing of the plate at the section weakened by the holes.
3. Shearing of rivets
4. Crushing of rivets.
The first failure will be rectified by providing a proper margin. The second failure will be
rectified by providing a proper pitch length. The third and fourth failures will be prevented by
selecting rivets having sufficient shearing and crushing strengths.
3.29. How is the efficiency of riveted joint calculated ?
The efficiency of riveted joint is calculated by dividing the least strength of joint against various
failures such as tearing of plate, shearing and crushing of rivets etc., by the solid strength of plate per
pitch length.
That is, for one pitch length
Let Fr  Tearing strength of plate
Fs  Shearing strength of rivets
Fc  Crushing strength of rivets
F  Solid strength of plate (i.e. when there is no riveted hole)
Least of Fr, Fs and Fc
Then Efficiency of joint 
F
3.30. Enunciate the importance of diamond joint. Where are they employed ?
In diamond joint, two flat bars are connected by lap joint or butt joint and in this tie-bar
design, the rivets are arranged in such a way that the number of rivets increases from one in the
outermost row to any number in the other rows preforably in the increasing order so that to form
a diamond shape. By this method, the efficienty can be increased.
This kind of tie-bar joints are found in bridges and roofs etc.
3.31. What is meant by eccentric riveted joint ?
In boiler and tie-bar joints, the line of action of applied force passes through the centre of
gravity of the rivet group. In some places, the line of action of applied force will not pass through
the centre of gravity of the rivet group and this kind of joint is called as eccentric riveted joint.
Short Questions and Answers 6.17

For example : Structural joint.

3.32. What is welding and where are they employed ?
Welding is the method of joining two parts, by fusing their ends and pressing them together
or by a molten filler metal.
Welding processes are employed in the manufacture of machine frames, automobile bodies,
aircraft structural work, ship building, railway wagons etc.
3.33. How is welding classified ?
Welding is classified as
(a) Fission welding
(b) Fusion welding.
All resistance welding such as spot welding, seam welding etc are fission welding processes.
Arc welding and gas welding are the examples for fusion welding processes.
3.34. What are the various types of welded joints?
1. Lap joint or fillet joints
(a) Transverse fillet joint
(b) Parallel fillet joint
(c) Circular fillet joint
2. Butt joint
(a) Square butt joint
(b) V-type butt joint
(c) U-type butt joint
3. Corner joint
4. Edge joint
5. T-joint
3.35. What is meant by throat-thickness ?
In the fillet welded joint, the section of the fillet is assumed as a right angled triangle ABC
with hypotenuse AC, making equal angles with other two sides AB and BC. The throat thickness
is the perpendicular distance of hypotenuse (AC) from the intersecting point of AB and BC, called
as legs.
3.36. How welded joint differs from riveted joint ?
For riveted joint, the metal plates are to be drilled and then they are joined by rivets where
as in welded joint, drilling work can be eliminated and the plates are directly welded.
For riveted butt joint we may require covering plates but they are not required for welding.
3.37. What is a pressure vessel ? Give examples.
Pressure vessel is an equipment to store the fluids under high pressure. It is used as fluid
container.
Examples : Boilers and tanks.
3.38. Specify the types of pipe joints.
1. Socket or coupler joint
2. Nipple joint
3. Union joint
4. Spigot and socket joint
5. Expansion joint
6.18 Design of Machine Elements

6. Flanged joint
(a) Circular flanged joint
(b) Oval flanged joint
3.39. Define strength of a riveted joint (P):
The strength of a riveted joint may be defined as the maximum force, which it can transmit,
without causing it to fail.
3.40. Define Efficiency of a riveted joint.
The efficiency of a riveted joint is defined as the ratio of the strength of riveted joint to the
strength of the un-riveted (or) solid plate.
Least of Pt, Ps and Pc

P
3.41. Explain lozenge joint (Diamond riveting).
It is used for roof, bridge work or grids etc. In diamond riveting the number of rivets increases
as we proceed from the outermost row to the innermost row. Diamond riveting is employed so that
the joint is made of uniform strength.
3.42. Explain eccentric loaded riveted joint
When the line of action of the load does not pass through the centroid of the rivet system
and thus all the rivets are not equally loaded, then the joint is said to be an eccentrically loaded
riveted joint.
3.43. What are the advantages of welded joints?
(a) The welded structures are usually lighter than riveted structures.
(b) The welded joints provide maximum efficiency.
(c) Alterations and additions can be easily made in the existing structures.
(d) The process of welding takes less time than the riveting.
3.44. What are the disadvantages of welded joints?
(a) It requires a highly skilled labour and supervisors,
(b) The inspections of welding work is more difficult than riveting work,
(c) Since there is an uneven heating and cooling fabrication, therefore the members may be
distorted or additional stresses may develop.
3.45. What are the types of Riveted Joints?
(a) Lap joint; (b) Butt joint:
1. Single strap butt joint ; 2. Double strap butt joint.
In addition to the above, the following are the types of riveted joints depending upon the
number of rows of the rivets.
(a) Single riveted joint; (b) Double riveted joint
3.46. Explain caulking and fullering in a riveted joint.
In order to make the joints leak proof or fluid tight in pressure vessels like steam boilers,
air receivers and tanks etc, a process known as caulking is employed. In this process a narrow
blunt tool called caulking tool, about 5 mm thick and 38 mm in breadth tool is used. The tool edge
is grounded to an angle of 80.
In case of fullering, a fullering tool with a thickness at the end equal to that of the plate is
used in such a way that the greatest pressure due to the blows occurs near the joint giving a clean
finish.
Short Questions and Answers 6.19

3.47. Name the various types of pipe joints:

(a) socket or coupler joint
(b) union joint
(c) spigot and socket joint
(d) expansion joint
(e) Flanged joint.
3.48. What are the stresses induced in a screwed fastening?
Stresses in screw fastening.
(a) internal stresses due to screwing up forces,
(b) stresses due to external forces,
(c) stresses due to combination of stresses of a and b.
(a) Internal stresses due to screwing up forces
1. internal stresses due to stretching of bolt
2. torsion shear stress caused by the frictional resistance of the threads during its tightening
3. shear stress across the threads
4. compression or crushing stress on threads
5. Bending stress, if the surfaces under the head or nut are not perfectly parallel to the bolt
axis.
(b) Stresses due to external forces:
The following stresses are induced in a bolt when it is subjected to an external load
1. tensile stress
2. shear stress
3. Combined torsion and shear.
(c) Stresses due to combination of stresses of a and b.
The resultant axial load on a bolt depends upon the following factors.
1. initial tension due to tightening of the bolt
2. the external load
3. The relative elastic yielding of the bolt and the connected members.
3.49. What are the stresses induced in a pipe subjected to internal pressure?
The stresses in the pipes due to internal fluid pressure are determined by lame’s equation.
According to the lame’s equation,
1. tangential stress at any radius x:
pr2i  r2o 
ft  t  2 
1 2 
r2o
 ri  x 
where p  internal fluid pressure
ri  inner radius of the pipe
ro  outer radius of the pipe
Tangential stress is maximum at the inner surface (i.e. when x  ri
6.20 Design of Machine Elements

2. radial stress at any radius x,

pr2i  r2o 
fr  r  2  1  
ro  r2i  x2 
Radial stress is maximum at inner surface, and zero at the outer surface of the pipe.
3.50. Differentiate between a cotter joint and a knuckle joint.
A cotter joint is a temporary fastening, used to connect two co-axial rods rigidly, which are
subjected to axial or compressive forces.
A knuckle joint is used to connect two rods, which are subjected to tensile forces. If the joint
is properly guided, it may support a compressive load.
3.51. Why are welded joints preferred over riveted joints?
1. Welded joints are permanent joints.
2. Welded joints are stronger than riveted joints.
3. Welded joints are tight and leakproof.
4. Welding process can be automated.
3.52. Differentiate with a neat sketch the fillet welds subjected to parallel loading and
transverse loading.
The parallel fillet welded joints are designed for shear strength where as, the transverse fillet
welded joints are designed for tensile strength.

XXXXXX
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
XXXXXX

      

3.53. Give the examples of detachable joints.
1. Nut and bolted joints
2. Cotter joints
3. Knuckle joints
3.54. What is Knuckle Joint?
Knuckle joint is used to connect two rods which are under the action of tensile loads. If the
joint is guided properly, the rods may support a compressive load. This joint permits a small amount
of flexibility or angular movement if necessary.
It’s use may be found in the link of a cycle chairs, tie rod joint for roof trusses, levers and
rod connections etc. In a Knuckle Joint one end of one of the rods is made into an eye. The end
of the other rod is formed into a fork, with an eye in each of the fork leg. The Knuckle pin passes
through the both eye holes. Materials used for the joint may be mild steel or wrought iron.
3.55. What is cotter joints?
A Cotter is a flat wedge-shaped piece of rectangular cross section and its width is tapered
from one end to another for easy adjustment. The taper varies from 1 in 48 to 1 in 24. It is usually
made of mild steel or wrought iron. A Cotter Joint is a temporary fastening and it is used to
connect rigidly two co-axial rods or bars, which are subjected to axial tensile or compressive forces.
Ex: The connection of piston rod to the cross head of an engine.
Short Questions and Answers 6.21

3.56. What is sleeve and cotter joint?

 It is used to connect two round rods or bars
 In this type of Joint, a sleeve or muff is used over the two rods and then two cotters
are driven in the holes.
 The taper of cotter is usually 1 in 24
 The taper sides of the two cotters should face each other.
3.57. Explain about boiler joints
 Boiler has a longitudinal joint as well as circumfrential joint.
 The longitudinal joint is used to join the ends of the plate to get the required diameter
of a boiler.
(Butt joint with two unequal cover plates is used)
 The circumfrential joint is used to get the required length of the boiler.
(Lap joint with one longitudinal joint overlapping the other.)
3.58. What is welded joints and its advantages?
Welding is a process of joining metals in which the parent metals are fused together to form
a single piece. Welding is used
1. As substitutes for castings and forgings.
2. As a fabrication technique to join parts permanently.
3. As a joining medium to replace fasteners such as rivets and bolts.
4. As a repair medium to replace broken and wornout sections of a member.
When compared to riveting, welded joints are
(a) light in weight.
(b) stronger than riveting.
(c) involve less labour.
(d) welding can be made automatic.
3.59. Write classification of welding

Welding

Forge welding Electric resistance welding Fusion welding

(Pressure welding) (Non-pressure)

Manual Machine
forge forge
Direct current Alternating current

Gas welding Electric arc Thermal welding

welding
6.22 Design of Machine Elements

3.60. What are types of welded joints

1. Butt welds
2. Fillet welds
3. Edge welds
4. Tack welds - (used for holding metal parts in positions)
3.61. Define the term self-locking of power screws.
If the friction angle  is greater than helix angle of the power screw, the torque required
to lower the load will be positive, indicating that an effort is applied to lower the load. The efficiency
of the self-locking screw is less than 50%.
3.62. What are the possible modes of failure in riveted joint?
1. Shearing failure, 2. Tensile failure 3. Crushing failure
3.63. What are the different modes of failure of a riveted joint?
(a) Tearing of plate at the Edge
(b) Tearing of plate between rivets
(c) Shearing of the rivets
(d) Crushing of rivets
3.64. State three conditions where tap bolts are used.
1. One of the parts is thick enough to accommodate a threaded hole.
2. It has sufficient strength to ensure durable threads.
3. There is no place to accommodate the nut.
3.65. What are the reasons of replacing riveted joint by welded joint in modern equipment?
(i) Welded joints provide maximum efficiency.
(ii) Alterations can be easily made.
(iii) It has good strength.
(iv) Provides very rigid joint.
3.66. What do you understand by the single start and double start threads?
Single start thread: Heaving single thread wrapped around the cylinder.
Double start thread: Having two threads wrapped around the cylinder.
3.67. Classify the rivet heads according to IS specifications.
Classification of rivet heads

(a) Sn ap Head (b) P an H ead (c) Flat Head (d) Flat Cou nter
S un k H ead
Short Questions and Answers 6.23

CHAPTER 4: Design of Energy Storing Elements – Springs and

Flywheels

4.1 What is a spring and where it is employed?

A spring is an elastic body, which distorts when loaded and recovers its original shape when
the load is removed. It finds applications in many places such as automobiles, railway wagons,
brakes, clutches, spring balance, watches, toys and so on.
4.2 What are the types of springs? (Anna Univ ME 2303 - June 2012)

1. Helical springs
(a) Straight helical spring
(i) Compression spring
(ii) Tension spring
(b) Conical compression spring
(c) Volute compression spring

2. Torsion springs
(a) Helical Torsion spring
(b) Spiral Torsion spring

3. Leaf or laminated springs

4. Disc or bellevile springs

4.3 What are the material used to make springs?
Springs are made of oil-tempered carbon steel containing 0.6 to 0.7% carbon and 0.6 to 1.0%
manganese. Music wire, phospher bronze, monel metal, beryllium copper etc are used for special
purpose springs.
4.4 What factors should be considered for the design of springs?
The design of spring is mainly based on its deflection criterion. A spring can be allowed to
take the external force over a considerable distance without losing its elasticity. Other factors are
(a) Material strength properties. (b) Service environment (c) Desired life and (d) Manufacturing
cost and so on.
4.5 Define the following terms? (a) Spring Index (b) Spring rate.
(Anna University M.E 2802, Dec 2011)
(a) Spring index is defined as the ratio of mean diameters of the coil to wire diameter.
Spring index C  D/d
D  Mean coil diameter, d  Wire diameter
(b) Spring rate is defined as the load required per unit deflection. It is also called as the
stiffness of the spring.
4.6 What is meant by the following (a) Pitch (b) Solid length (c) Free length.
(Anna Univ, ME 230 May 2011)
(a) Pitch is the axial distance between the corresponding points of the adjacent coils when the
spring is in the free state.
(b) Solid length is the total length of spring when it is fully compressed so that the coils are
touching each other and there is no gap or clearance between the adjacent coils.
6.24 Design of Machine Elements

(c) Free length is the length of spring when it is free from load, in unloaded conditions. It is
equal to solid length plus total clearance between all the coils.
4.7 Give four examples of applications for the following springs.
(a) Helical springs (b) Leaf springs (c) Torsional springs (d) Disc springs
(a) Brake lever, spring balance, automobiles and toys.
(b) Heavy vehicles like bus, lorry, tractor and rickshaws etc.
(c) Toys, watches, clips and clocks.
(d) Clutches, pressure relief valves, shock absorbers, buffer springs and so on.
4.8 What is Wahl’s stress factor?
When the helical springs is subjected to an axial load, three types of stresses are induced in
the spring which are
(a) Torsional shear stress
(b) Direct shear stress
(c) Stress due to curvature
Considering all these three stresses, A.M. Wahl derived an expression, which relates the total
induced stress and axial load as,
K  8PD K  8PC
s  3

d  d2
Where K  Wahl’s shear stress factor
4C  1 0.615
 
4C  4 C
4.9. How can the load be made to act concentric with spring axis in helical springs.
By making the two ends of springs as squared and ground ends, the load can be made to
act concentric with spring axis.
4.10. What is nip and express its importance in lead springs?
Nip is the initial gap which is provided in between the full length leaf, and graduated leaves
of the leaf spring. If all these leaves are joined by the bolt, then the nip can be vanished. With
this setup, when the leaf spring is subjected to load, all the leaves (full length and graduated leaves)
are equally stressed by the load and hence they may have equal life (Refer fig 4.28).
4.11 What is meant by active coils and inactive coils?
In case of Helical compression spring, for making the load to act along with its axis, the top
and bottom coils are squared and ground. By doing so, these two coils loose their cushioning effect
and hence called as inactive coils and the remaining coils which are not loosing their cushioning
effect (i.e spring action), they are called as active coils.
4.12 What are the purpose of mechanical springs?
(a) To cushion, absorb or control the energy either due to shock or vibration (ex) springs in
railway wagon, automobile, shock absorbers, flexible coupling etc.
(b) To exert force
(Ex) Spring loaded safety valve, Magnetic brakes, clutches etc.
(c) To Measure forces
(Ex) Measuring instruments, gauges,engine indicators,spring balance etc.
(d) To store energy
(Ex) Clocks, Kick starters, etc
Short Questions and Answers 6.25

4.13 Advantages of Helical spring

(a) They are simple and easy to Manufacture.
(b) Wide range of availability and are reliable.
(c) Their characteristics can be varied by varying its dimensions.
(d) Their performance can be predicted more accurately.
4.14 Give applications of helical torsional springs.
(a) Door hinges (b) Automobile starters (c) Door locks (d) Brush holder in electric motors
etc.
4.15 What are Disc spring or Belleville spring?
These springs consist of a number of conical discs held together against slipping by a central
bolt. These springs occupy small spaces but give high rates. Parallel arrangement of discs gives a
higher load carrying for the given deflection. Series arrangement of discs gives a larger deflection
for the given load. The major stresses produced in Disc or Belleville springs are tensile and
compressive stresses.
4.16 What is initial tension in helical springs (extension springs)?
Extension springs are wound with some initial tension so that an initial force is required
before extension begins. Initial tension is induced during winding by twisting the wire as it is wound
on the mandrel, with coils in contact with one another when the spring is wound and removed from
the mandrel, the initial tension is locked in because the spring cannot become any shorter.
4.17 How will you find whether the given helical spring is a compression spring or tension
spring?
In a compression spring, the spring wire is coiled in such a way that there is a gap between
two consecutive turns.
In a tension spring, the spring wire is coiled so close without any gap.
4.18 When two concentric springs of stiffness 100 N/mm and 50 N/mm respectively are
subjected to an axial load of 750 N, What will be the deflection in each spring?
Let y1 & y2 be deflection in spring 1, 2.
750 750
Stiffness of 1st spring   100 (or) y1   7.5 mm
y1 100
750 750
Stiffness of 2nd spring   50 (or) y2   15 mm
y2 50
4.19 Give equivalent stiffness of two springs with stiffness k1 & k 2 are connected in (i)
series (ii) parallel.
(i) Series
Equivalent stiffness k
1 1 1
 
k k1 k2

(ii) Parallel
Equivalent stiffness k
k  k1  k2
4.20 Define surging in springs.
If the load applied is of fluctuating type, which results in a very large deflection, it causes
spring failure. This phenomenon is called surging.
6.26 Design of Machine Elements

4.21 What is the effect of increase in wire diameter on the allowable stress value?
(Anna Univ, ME 3303, Dec 2010)
When the wire diameter increases, the allowable stress increases.
KS  8PC 1
Shear stress   2
So   2
d d
So with increase in d, the  reduces.
4.22 Write the formula of natural frequency of spring. (Anna Univ, ME 2303, Dec 2012)

8

d Gg
Natural frequency f  2
D n
Where
d  Wire diameter ; D  Mean coil diameter ; n  No. of active coils
G  Modulus of rigidity ;   Specific weight of spring
g  Acceleration due to gravity
4.23 What is the main function of flywheel? (Anna Univ, ME 203, Dec 2011, June 2012)
A flywheel is a device which serves as a reservoir which stores energy during the period
when the supply of energy is more than the requirement and releases it during period when the
requirement of energy is more than the supply, there by controlling the engine speed.
4.24 Give two difference between the Flywheel and Governor. (Anna Univ,ME 2303, Dec 2012)

Flywheel Governor
1. The function of flywheel is to decrease the Function of governor is to keep the speed of the
variation of speed due to difference in input and prime mover constant.
output.
2. Flywheel stress up energy and gives up A Governor regulates the speed by regulating the
energy whenever required during a cycle. quantity of working fluid.
3. Flywheel has no control over the quantity (or) Governor takes care of change of quality and
quality of working fluid. quantity of the working fluid.

4.25 Define coefficient of fluctuation of speed.

The ratio of maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is called coefficient of fluctuation
of speed CS.
N1  N2 1  2
CS  or
N 
N1 or 1  Max speed
N2 or 2  Min speed
N or   Mean speed
4.26 Define coefficient of the steadiness?
It is the reciprocal of the coefficient of fluctuation of speed CS and is denoted by m.
1  N
m  or
CS 1  2 N1  N2
Short Questions and Answers 6.27

4.27 Define coefficient of fluctuation of energy.

It is defined as the ratio of maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle.
Maximum fluctation of energy
CE 
Work done per cycle
4.28 Give expression for maximum fluctuation of energy.
Maximum fluctuation of energy  E  2ECS
E  Mean kinetic energy o f flyw heel
CS  Coefficient of fluctuation of speed
4.29 What are the stresses induced in flywheel rim? (Anna University, ME 2303, Dec 2010)
(i) Tensile stress due to centrifugal force.
(ii) Tensile bending stress caused by the restraints of arms.
(iii) Shrinkage stress due to solidification.
6.28 Design of Machine Elements

CHAPTER 5: Design of Bearings and Miscellaneous Elements

5.1. What are the functions of bearings?

(i) The bearing ensures free rotation of the shaft or the axle with minimum friction.
(ii) The bearing supports the shaft or the axle and holds it in the correct position.
(iii) The bearing takes up the forces that act on the shaft or the axle and transmits them to
the frame or the foundation.
5.2. What is a bearing?
A bearing is a machine element which supports another rotating machine element known as
Journal. The bearing permits a relative motion between the contact surfaces of the members, while
carrying the load. Due to the relative motion between the contact surfaces, some amount of power
is wasted in overcoming the frictional resistance which causes the wear. In order to reduce the
frictional resistance and wear, a layer of fluid called lubricant may be provided.
5.3. How bearings are classified?
I. Depending upon the direction of load to be supported:
(a) Radial bearings: Support load that acts perpendicular to the direction of motion of the
moving element.
(b) Thrust bearings: Support load that acts along the axis of rotation.
II. Depending upon the nature of contact:
(a) Sliding contact bearing: Sliding takes place along the surfaces of contact between the
moving element and the fixed element.
Ex: Journal bearing.
(b) Rolling contact bearing: (Anti-friction bearing) Steel balls (or) rollers are placed between the
moving and fixed elements. The balls or rollers offer rolling friction.
Ex: Ball and roller bearings.
5.4. What is full journal bearing?
When the angle of contact of the bearing with the journal is 360, then the bearing is called
full journal bearing.
This type of bearing is commonly used in industrial machinery to accommodate bearing loads
in any radial direction.
5.5. What is partial journal bearing?
When the angle of contact of the bearing with the journal is 120, then the bearing is called
partial journal bearing. This type of bearing has less friction than full Journal bearing. It can be
used only where the load is always in one direction.
5.6. What is thrust bearing?
When the load acting on the bearing is axial, then the type of bearing is called thrust bearing.
5.7. What is hydrostatic lubricated bearing?
These bearings can support steady loads without any relative motion between the Journal
and the bearing. This can be done by forcing externally pressurized lubricant between the members.
5.8. Compare of Hydrodynamic and Hydrostatic bearings.
Comparison of Hydrodynamic & Hydrostatic bearings
 In hydrodynamic bearing, until the speed necessary for pressure build up is reached,
there will be metal to metal contact. Therefore, there will be starting and stopping friction
due to rubbing of surfaces.
Short Questions and Answers 6.29

 In hydrostatic bearing, an external pressure source supplies the pressurized lubricant the
bearing to support the load. Therefore, even at zero-speed, the shaft can be made to float
avoiding metal to metal contact.
 Hydrostatic bearings are used in heavily loaded slow moving equipments like - heavy
machine tools, rolling mills etc.
 In case of rolling mills - hydrostatic bearing is used during starting and stopping. During
normal running, speed will be sufficient for developing pressure and hence hydrodynamic
bearing is used.
 In machine tool spindles, since the workpiece accuracy is important and therefore
hydrostatic bearings are preferred to hydrodynamic bearings.
5.9. What are the non-metallic bearings?
(a) Carbon-Graphite - (slow speed)
(b) Rubber
i Nylon
(c) Wood and Plastics
ii Teflon
5.10. What are the materials used for sliding contact bearings?
1. Babbit metal
2. Bronze
3. Cast iron
4. Silver
5.11. What are the Properties of Lubricants?
1. Viscosity
2. Density
3. Flash point
4. Fire point
5. Pour point (or) Freezing point.
5.12. What are the Effect of Temperature on Viscosity?
 Viscosity decreases with increase in temperature for lubricating oils.
 Viscosity increases with increase in temperature for air.
5.13. What is meant by Hydrostatic Lubrication?
Hydrostatic lubrication is defined as a system of lubrication in which the load supporting
fluid film separats the two surfaces by using an external source, like a pump, supplying sufficient
fluid under pressure. Since the lubricant is supplied under pressure, this type of bearing is called
externally pressurised bearing.
5.14. What are the advantages of hydrodynamic journal bearings and hydrostatic bearing?
 Hydrodynamic bearings are
– Simple in construction
– Easy to maintain
– Lower initial cost
– Lower Maintenance cost
 Hydrostatic bearings have the following advantages
1. High load carrying capacity even at low speeds
2. No starting friction
3. No rubbing action in any operating speed or load.
6.30 Design of Machine Elements

5.15. Explain ball and roller bearings

Ball and roller bearings are also known as rolling contact bearings or rolling element beam
bearings. These bearings are also called as “Anti-friction bearings”. The starting friction in ball and
roller bearings is lower than that in an equivalent journal bearing in which metal to metal rubbing
takes place at the time of starting.
In case of ball bearing, the type of kinematic contact is point. In case of roller bearing, the
type of kinematic contact is line. Therefore, the roller contact bearings are used for large bearing
loads. The main disadvantage of roller bearing is the variation of pressure along the line of contact,
due to deflections of shafts and mountings.
5.16. What are the Advantages of Ball and roller bearing?
(i) Friction is low except at high speed.
(ii) These bearings require less lubricant and maintenance.
(iii) These bearings occupy less axial space but larger diametral space than journal bearing.
(iv) It is possible to carry both radial and axial loads in some types of bearing.
(v) Replacement is easy
(vi) Selection of bearing from manufacturer’s catalogue is relatively simple.
5.17. What are the Disadvantages of Ball and roller bearing?
(i) These are noisier than Journal bearings.
(ii) More expensive
(iii) Failure of bearing can occur without warning and cause change to the machinery.
5.18. Explain Gaskets
A gasket is a device used to create and maintain a barrier against the transfer of fluid across
the mating surfaces of a mechanical assembly. It is used in static joints, such as cylinder block and
cylinder head. There are two types of gaskets - metallic and non-metallic. Metallic gaskets consist
of sheets of lead, copper or aluminium. Non-metallic gaskets are made of asbestos, cork, rubber or
plastics. Metallic gaskets are used for high-temperature and high-pressure applications. They can
have corrugated construction or they can be made in the form of plain sheets.
5.19 Explain about asbestos gaskets.
Asbestos gaskets have excellent resistance to crushing loads and cutting action due to sharp
edges of the flanges. Dimensional stability is another advantage. They are used in cylinder heads,
water and steam-pipe fittings and manifold connections.
Asbestos gaskets can be used up to 250C, while other non-metallic gaskets have a limiting
temperature of 70C.
5.20. What are the forces acting on connecting rod?
(a) direct load on piston due to gas pressure and inertia of the reciprocating parts.
(b) load due to inertia of reciprocating parts.
(c) friction of the piston pin bearing and the crankpin bearing.
(d) friction of the piston rings and of the piston.
5.21. What is the use of piston rod and connecting rod ?
The piston rod and connecting rods are employed for converting the reciprocating motion into
rotary motion as in the case of steam engine and internal combustion engine, and vice-versa in the
case of reciprocating compressors, power hammers and so on.
5.22. Specify the materials by which the piston rod and connecting rods are made of ?
The piston rod and connecting rods are made of carbon steel or alloy steels of molybdenum
and chromium with high tensile and compressive strength.
Short Questions and Answers 6.31

5.23. What is meant by crippling load ? Explain briefly their importance.

The piston rod and connecting rod are designed mainly based on compressive failure load,
Since the length of rods are more, they can buckle during compression, which is also considered as
functional failure/ That is the compressive load which causes buckling of the piston rod or connecting
rod is called as buckling load or crippling load. For proper functioning without buckling, the piston
rod or connecting rod should be subjected to a compressive load with is less than crippling load.
5.24. Why is I-Section preferred for connecting rod ?
In the case of connecting rod, there are chances for buckling about x-axis and y-axis. Since
the both ends of connecting rod are assumed as hinged about x-axis and fixed about y-axis, the
area moment of inertia about x-axis and y-axis is having the relations as lxx  4Iyy. Some times the
slight buckling about x axis is allowed whereas the buckling about y-axis will not be allowed.
Since the required condition (ie; Ixx  4 Iyy) is satisfied by I-Section it is preferred.
5.25. What are stresses set up in an I.C. engine connecting rod?
Connecting rod is subjected to compressive loads due to the fluid pressure on the piston.
Connecting rod is also subjected to fatigue due to alternating of fluctuating loads.
5.26. Explain the term Dynamic load carrying capacities of rolling contact bearing.
Dynamic load rating is defined as the radial load in radial bearings (or thrust load in thrust
bearings) that carried for a minimum life of one million revolutions.
5.27. What type of external force act on connecting rod?
Compressive force, Shear force and Crushing force.
5.28. Name the materials used for sliding contact bearings.
Cast iron, Aluminium brass alloy, carbon steel
5.29. What are the loads to be considered for designing a ball bearing?
State load & dynamic load.
Index 1

INDEX
Comparison of Hydrodynamic & Hydrostatic
A bearings 5.3

Adaptive design 1.3 Concentric Springs 4.84

Alloy steel 1.10 Conical and Volute Springs 4.93

Aluminium and its alloys 1.12 Constructional Details 4.94

Angle of thread 3.3 Cotter Joints 3.33

Applications of the springs 4.2 Crest 3.2

B Cumulative Fatigue Damage 1.146

Bearing Life Expectancy 5.43 Curvature effect 4.8

Bolt of uniform strength 3.5 D

Box (or) Sleeve (or) Muff Coupling 2.91 Depth of thread 3.3

Buckling of Compression Springs 4.10 Design of Gib and Cotter Joint 3.53

Bushed pin flexible coupling 2.108 Design of Sleeve and Cotter Joint 3.48

Butt Joint 3.60 Design of Bushed - Pin Flexible Coupling: 2.108

C Design of Shafts 2.2

Cap screws 3.4 Design of sleeve: 2.91

Carbon tool steel 1.11 Design of Shaft Based on Strength 2.3

Carbon steel 1.10 Design of Shaft Based on Torsional Rigidity 2.7

Cast steel 1.9 Design Principles 1.90

Cast Iron 1.8 Design of Flywheel 4.123

Caulking and Fullering 3.61 Design for Finite Life 1.146

Clamp (or) Compression (or) Split Sleeve Design of Flywheel Arms 4.151
Coupling 2.100 Design of Universal coupling 2.131
Classification of Bearings 5.1 Design of Curved Beams 1.77
Classification of Design 1.3 Design Procedure of a Overhung Crankshaft 2.134
Classification of Welding 3.79 Design of bolts for cylinder cover 3.7
Clearance fit 1.18 Design of Circumferential Joint 3.72
Close-Coiled Helical Spring 4.5 Design of Ball and Roller Bearings 5.40
Coaxial springs 4.86 Design of HUB 2.105
Coefficient of fluctuation of Energy 4.121 Design of Longitudinal Butt Joint for a Boiler 3.69
Coefficient of Fluctuation of speed 4.119 Design of Connecting Rod 5.67
Common types of screw fastening 3.3 Design of Key: 2.94
Common modes of failure: 1.90 Design of Boiler Joints 3.69
2 Design of Machine Elements

Design Based on Critical Speed 2.10 Flat Spiral Spring 4.61

Design of Centre Crankshaft 2.144 Flexible Coupling 2.90, 2.108
Designation of a fit 1.22 Fluctuation of Energy 4.119
Designation of screw threads 3.6 Forces Acting on a Key 2.83
Designation of Steels 1.11 G
Developed design 1.3 Gasketed Joint 5.61
Direct Shear Stress 1.38 Gaskets 5.60
Direct, Bending and Torsional stresses 1.35 Gib Head Tapered Key 2.80
Disc Springs Or Belleville Springs 4.64 Goodman Method for Combination of Stresses 1.139
Disc or bellevile springs 4.3 H
Duralumin 1.13 Helical torsion springs 4.2
Dynamic load rating 5.42 Helical Compression Springs Subjected to
Dynamic Capacity 5.42 Axial Loading: 4.5

E Helical Springs 4.4

Eccentric load on welded joints 3.93 Helical Tension springs (Extension springs) 4.11

Eccentric Loading of Springs 4.10 Helical Compression (or) Extension Springs 4.2

Effect of Temperature on Viscosity 5.6 Helical Torsion Springs 4.58

Effects of Keyways 2.86 Hole basis system 1.19

Efficiency of a Riveted Joint 3.65 Hydrodynamic Journal Bearings 5.6

End connections for helical springs: 4.9 Hydrostatic Lubrication 5.6

Endurance Limit 1.136 I

Energy stored in a flywheel 4.122 Impact Stress 1.44

F Important types of Springs 4.2

Factor of safety 1.40 Initial gap (c) 4.100
Factor of Safety (FOS) 1.91 Initial Pre-load: Pi 4.102
Failure Theories 1.91 Interference fit 1.19
Failures of a Riveted Joint 3.61 J
Fatigue Failure 1.119 Journal Bearings (or) Sleeve Bearings 5.2
Fatigue Loading of Helical Springs 4.55 K
Feather Key 2.81 Knuckle Joint 3.27
Features of shaft coupling 2.90 L
Fits 1.18 Lap Joint 3.59
Flange Coupling 2.103 Lead 3.2
Flank 3.3 Leaf spring material 4.104
Index 3

Leaf spring 4.3, 4.93 Root 3.2

Limit system and interchangeability 1.15 Round Key 2.82
Lubricants 5.5 S
M Saddle Key 2.79
Major diameter or Nominal diameter d 3.1 Selection of Materials 1.7
Marine Type Flange Coupling (Fig. 12.9) 2.107 Set screws 3.4
Material selection 1.2 Shaft basis system 1.19

Material of Spring 4.1 Shear Stresses 1.38

Materials used for sliding contact bearings 5.4 Sleeve and Cotter Joint 3.47

Materials 1.8 Slider Bearing (or) Slipper (or) Guide

Bearings 5.2
Maximum flunctutation of energy 4.120
Slope of the thread 3.3
Method of indication of Weld Symbols 3.82
Soderberg and Goodman Diagrams 1.137
Minor diameter or core diameter or root
diameter dc 3.1 Soderberg Method for Combination of Stresses
1.141
Modified Goodman’s Diagram 1.142
Special purpose springs 4.3
N
Spiral springs 4.2
New design 1.3
Splined Fitting 2.82
Nipping of Leaf Springs 4.99
Spring Surge 4.12
Nomenclature of screw threads 3.1
Springs in Parallel 4.57
Non-metallic materials 1.13
Springs in Series 4.56
Non-Metallic bearings 5.4
Standard Shaft Diameters 2.2
O
Standard diameter of rivet and rivet hole
Oldham Coupling 2.130 diameter 3.64
Open-Coiled Helical Spring 4.5 Static Loading 1.91
P Steel 1.8
Pitch diameter or Effective diameter dp 3.2 Strength of a Riveted Joint 3.65
Pitch p 3.2 Strength of Fillet Weld 3.80
Preferred Numbers 1.13 Stress in Flywheel Arms 4.149
Principal Stresses 1.46 Stress in Shafts 2.2
Problems 3.74 to 3.78 Stress Concentration 1.119
Properties of Lubricants 5.5 Stress Concentration Factors 1.122
R Stress-strain diagram 1.39
Radial Bearings 5.41 Stress 1.34
Rigid Coupling 2.90 Stresses in a Flywheel Rim 4.146
4 Design of Machine Elements

Stresses in the Eye: 3.30 Transition fit 1.19

Stresses in the fork: 3.32 Types of the Load 1.34
Studs 3.4 Types of Riveted Joints 3.59
Sunk Keys 2.80 Types of Welded Joints 3.80
Synthesis 1.2 Types of flexible couplings 2.108
T Types of keys 2.79
Tap bolts 3.3 Types of Shafts 2.1
Terminology used for Helical springs 4.4 Types of Ends for Extension Springs 4.11
Terms used in riveted joints 3.60 U
Threaded Fasteners 3.1 Universal or Hooke’s Coupling 2.131
Through bolt 3.3 V
Thrust Bearing 5.3 Viscosity: 5.5
Torque Diagrams 2.12 W
Torsional stress 1.37 Welded Joints 3.79
Torsional Shear: s 1.38 Woodruff Key 2.82