Physics for Engineers 1015

Laboratory Experiment No. 1:

Kinematics :( Average vs. Instantaneous Velocities)
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. Determine the average velocity between any two particular times.
2. Identify speed as the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity.
3. Determine the instantaneous velocity for any particular time.
Time to Complete: 3 Hours
Equipment Needed:
 Dynamics Cart (ME-9430)
 Metric tape (SE-8712)
 Stopwatch (SE-8702)

Figure 1.1: Dynamics Cart

Introduction
In this lab, the Dynamics Cart (Figure 1.1) will be used to investigate one dimensional accelerated
motion. The cart will be launched over the floor using the built-in spring plunger. The cart will
“decelerate” over the floor under the combined action of rolling friction and floor slope. You will be able
to establish whether or not the acceleration of the cart is constant. This will be done by initially assuming
a constant acceleration and then by examining the results to see if they are consistent with this
assumption.

Theory
The cart will be allowed to roll to a stop. The distance covered D and the total elapsed time T from launch
to stop will be measured and recorded. The average velocity over this interval is given by:
D
v av = (1)
T

If the acceleration of the cart is constant as it rolls to a stop over the floor, then the initial instantaneous
velocity of the cart at the final moment of launch is given by:
2D
v 0=2 v av = (2)
T

And the value of the acceleration would be given by:

v 0−v 0 2 D
a= = = 2 (3)
t T T

If the acceleration and v 0 are known, then the time t 1 required to cover the distance d to some
intermediate point (i.e. short of the final stopping point!) can be calculated by applying the quadratic
formula to:
1 2
d=v 0 t 1 + a t 1 (4)
2

Calculated values of t1 will be compared with directly measured values. The extent to which the
calculated values agree with the directly measured values is an indication of the constancy of the
acceleration of the cart.

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Note your theoretical values in Table 1.1.

Procedure
1. Once you have roughly determined the range of the cart, clearly mark a distance d that is about half
way out from the start. Measure this distance and record it at the top of Table 1.1.
2. Using a stopwatch with a lap timer and metric tape, it is possible to determine t1, T and D for each
launch. Practice this step a few times before you start recording data.

Note: In order to eliminate reaction time errors, it is very important to have the person who launches the
cart also be the timer!
3. Launch the cart and record the data described in the previous step for six trials. To cock the spring
plunger, push the plunger in, and then push the plunger upward slightly to allow one of the notches on
the plunger bar to “catch” on the edge of the small metal bar at the top of the hole. (Don’t count the
trials in which the timer feels that a distraction interfered with the measurement.) Record your best
trials in Table 1.1.
4. Using the equations described in the theory section and the data recorded in the table, then do the
calculations needed to complete the table.

Data Analysis
d = AAAAcm

Table 1.1: Summary of Average and Instantaneous Velocity

TRIAL EXPERIMENT THEORY % Diff
T1 (sec) T (sec) D (cm) v 0 (cm/s) a (cm/s2) t 1(sec)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Table 1.1
Questions
1. Is there a systematic difference between the experimental and calculated values of t1? If so, suggest
possible factors that would account for this difference.
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_______
2. Can you think of a simple follow-up experiment that would allow you to determine how much the
cart’s “deceleration” was affected by floor slope?
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_________________________________________________________________________________
_______

Observations/Conclusion :

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Laboratory Experiment No. 2

Horizontally Launched Projectile
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. Use the physics of projectile motion to predict the distance a horizontally launched projectile will
travel before hitting the ground
2. To determine the relationship between initial velocity and range for a horizontally launched
projectile

Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Equipment Needed:
 Dynamics Ramp (ME-9430)
 Metric tape (SE-8712)
 Stopwatch (SE-8702)
 Marbles

Theory

Projectile motion is an example of motion with constant acceleration when air resistance is ignored. An
object becomes a projectile at the very instant it is released (fired, kicked) and is influenced only by
gravity.

The x and y components of a projectile are independent, connected only by time of flight, t . Consider two
objects at the same initial elevation. One object is launched at an angle ϴ=0° at the same moment the
second object is dropped. Two objects will land at the same time. This allows the two dimensions to be
considered separately.

To predict where a projectile will land, one must know the object’s starting position, initial velocity and
the acceleration it experiences. Position as a function of time is the described as:

1 2
s ( t )=s 0 + v 0 t + a t (1)
2

Eq.1 is a vector equation; it can be resolved into x and y components:

1 2
x=x 0 + v 0 x t + a x t (2)
2

1 2
y=s 0+ v 0 y t+ a y t (3)
2

Velocity changes constantly in projectile motion. While horizontal acceleration is zero for the purposes of
this experiment, the vertical component of a projectile’s velocity can be described as follows, with the
vertical acceleration due to gravity.
v y =v 0 y + a y t (4)
These are the kinematic equations for constant acceleration. Taken together, they describe the motion of
projectiles and other constant-acceleration systems.

Discussion

If you know the height of a table, you can calculate the time required for a ball to fall from a table to the
floor. If you know the velocity of the ball as it leaves the table, you can calculate the distance from the

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table at which the ball will hit the floor. You can find the velocity of the ball if you know the time it takes
to roll a measured distance on the table.

In this lab, you will measure the initial velocity of a projectile and the vertical distance that it will fall.
From this, you can calculate the distance from the table (the range, R ) that the projectile will land.
It is easy to record the location where the projectile lands on the floor by placing a meter stick. You can
measure the horizontal range of the projectile and compare this to the calculated distance.

Figure 2.1:

Procedure

1. Position the ramp so that the end of the ramp is about 1 meter from the edge of the table.
2. Find a starting point on the ramp that gives the ball a reasonable velocity. Carefully measure the
distance from the end of the ramp to the table edge. Record this distance. This is distance “d” in
the diagram above. The distance that you use needs to be a compromise.
 If the distance is too short, you will not be able to get an accurate time for the ball to
cover the distance, and your velocity will not be accurate.
 If the distance is too long, friction will slow the ball appreciably by the time it reaches the
edge of the table, and your calculated speed will not be actual speed that the ball has
when it leaves the table.
3. Carefully measure the vertical distance from the top of the lab table to the floor. Record this
distance. This is “h” in the diagram above.
4. Launch the projectile several times by rolling the ball down the ramp and across the table top. For
each launch, measure the time it takes the ball to roll the measured horizontal distance on the
table from the bottom of the ramp to the edge of the table, and record the rolling time
(t ¿¿ roll) . ¿ Pay attention to units!
5. Locate the point on the floor directly below the edge of the table top where the ball leaves the
table. Measure the distance from this point the first landing position. This is the range of the
projectile. (“R” in the diagram above). And measure the time it takes from when the ball leaves
the table until its first landing spot and record the falling time (t ¿¿ fall ). ¿
6. Change the starting point on the ramp so that you projectile is launched at a different speed and
repeat. Take 3 sets of starting point and make 5 trials each.

Results:

1. Calculate the average rolling time (t ¿¿ roll) ¿ for your projectile to travel the measured
horizontal distance (d).
2. Calculate the speed, v x , of the projectile as it rolls across the table , ¿ ¿). This should be the speed
that the projectile has when it leaves the table. Derived from the rectilinear motion of a uniform
motion. (d =vt ).
3. Calculate the time (the falling time, t fall) it will take the ball to fall vertically from the table top to
1 2
the target. (h= g t fall ) Note: g=9.81 m/ s2 for accuracy.
2
4. Calculate the horizontal distance that the ball will go during the time it takes to fall to the target.
(R=v x t fall )
5. A good measure of comparison (between the measured and calculated ranges) is the “percent of
difference”.

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Data Analysis

Table 2.1: Data on the 1st position on the ramp (d = )

Trial EXPERIMENT THEORY % Diff
troll d (cm) tfall h (cm) R (cm) Vx tfall R (cm) %Diff %Diff
(sec) (sec) (cm/s) (sec) (tfall) (R)
1
2
3
ave

Table 2.2: Data on the 2nd position on the ramp (d = )

Trial EXPERIMENT THEORY % Diff
troll d (cm) tfall h (cm) R (cm) Vx tfall R (cm) %Diff %Diff
(sec) (sec) (cm/s) (sec) (tfall) (R)
1
2
3
ave

Table 2.3: Data on the 3rd position on the ramp (d = )

Trial EXPERIMENT THEORY % Diff
troll d (cm) tfall h (cm) R (cm) Vx tfall R (cm) %Diff %Diff
(sec) (sec) (cm/s) (sec) (tfall) (R)
1
2
3
ave

Questions:
1. Is there a systematic difference between the experimental and calculated values of R and tfall? If
so, suggest possible factors that would account for this difference.
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______
2. People who have not studied physics sometime question whether the horizontal and vertical
motions of a projectile really are independent. Does this lab give you evidence to support this
concept? Support your answer.
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______
3. Imagine that we increased the height of the ramp to 20 cm, making the ramp a much steeper
slope:
a. How would this affect the horizontal velocity of the ball off the end of the table?
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AA___
b. How would it affect the drop time of the ball?
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AA___
c. How would it affect the distance the ball flies?

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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AA___
4. Imagine that we increased the height of the table from the floor:
a. How would this affect the horizontal velocity of the ball off the end of the table?
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AA___
b. How would it affect the drop time of the ball?
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AA___
c. How would it affect the distance the ball flies?
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AA___

Solutions and Observations/Conclusion:

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Laboratory Experiment No. 3

Coefficient of Friction
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. Distinguish between friction in a static situation and kinetic situation.
2. Apply friction concepts in real life situation.

Time to Complete 3 Hours

Equipment Needed:
 Dynamics Cart (ME-9430)
 Metric tape (SE-8712)
 Stopwatch (SE-8702)

Purpose
In this lab, the Dynamics Cart will be launched over the floor using the on-board spring launcher. The
cart will “decelerate” over the floor under the combined action of rolling friction and the average floor
slope. In order to determine both the coefficient of rolling friction μr and q, the small angle at which the
floor is inclined, two separate experiments must be done. (Recall that to determine the value of two
unknowns you must have two equations.)

Figure 3.1: Dynamics Cart

Theory

The cart will be launched several times in one direction and then it will be launched several times along
the same course but in the opposite direction. For example, if the first few runs are toward the east then
the next few runs will be toward the west. See Figure 3.1. In the direction which is slightly down-slope
the acceleration of the cart is given by:

a 1=+ g sinθ−μr g : ( since cos θ 1 ) (1 )

And the acceleration in the direction that is slightly up-slope will be:

a 2=−g sin θ−μr g(2)

Numerical values for these accelerations can be determined by measuring both the distance d that the cart
rolls before stopping and the corresponding time t. Given these values the acceleration can be determined
from:
2d
a= 2
(3)
t

Having obtained numerical values for a 1anda 2, (1) and (2) can be solved simultaneously for μr and Ɵ .

Procedure
1. Place the cart in its starting position and then launch it. To cock the spring plunger, push the
plunger in, and then push the plunger upward slightly to allow one of the notches on the plunger
bar to “catch” on the edge of the small metal bar at the top of the hole. Using a stopwatch and
metric tape, determine the range d and the total time spent rolling t. Record these in Table 3.1
2. Repeat step 1 six times for each direction and enter your results in Table 3.2.

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3. Using (3), compute the accelerations corresponding to your data and an average acceleration for
each of the two directions.
4. Using the results of step 3 determine μr, and ϴ by solving for the two unknowns algebraically.

Table 3.1: Data on First Direction Table 3.2: Data on Second Direction
Trial Second
First Direction
d(cm) t(sec) a(cm/s2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Trial
d(cm) t(sec) a(cm/s2)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Average acceleration cm/s2 Average acceleration cm/s2

Data Analysis

Coefficient of rolling friction = Floor Angle =

Questions
1. Can you think of another way to determine the acceleration of the cart? If you have time try it!
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2. How large is the effect of floor slope compared to that of rolling friction?
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Laboratory Experiment No. 4

Newton’s First Law
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. State Newton's first law of motion and to describe several examples of the law in
operation.
2. Define inertia and to identify the variables that affect and do not affect the amount of
inertia an object possesses.
3. Understand that force is an interaction between objects and to be able to recognize the
presence and absence of specific force types.
4. Refute the misconceptions that (a) forces are required to sustain the motion of an object,
(b) an object moving in a given direction must be experiencing a force in that direction,
and (c) that contact forces persist even after the contact ceases.

Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Driving Questions
What factors affect the motion of objects? Aristotle (384 BC to 322 BC) believed that the natural
state of an object was to be at rest and therefore that all objects in motion will eventually come to
a stop. Is this view correct? What are the causes of changes in motion? What are the "rules"
underlying an object's motion.

Introduction
There was much argument between early philosophers and scientists regarding the motion of
objects. In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton formalized his three laws of motion. The first law
of motion: An object will maintain its state of rest or uniform motion unless acted upon by an
external unbalanced force. This became known as the law of inertia.
Newton's first Law indicates that an object traveling with constant velocity will maintain that
constant velocity unless otherwise acted upon by a net force. In addition, objects at rest (zero
velocity) will stay at rest unless otherwise acted upon by a net force.
In other words, if the net force on an object is zero, its acceleration is also zero. We will
investigate this concept by exploring the measured velocities associated with several different
types of motion of a cart.

Materials and Equipment

For each student or group:
 Data collection system  Dynamics cart
 Dynamics track end stop  Super pulley with clamp
 Motion sensor  Dynamics track with feet
 Mass and hanger set  String, ~1 m

Safety
Add this important safety precaution to your normal laboratory procedures:
 Keep water away from any sensitive electronic equipment.

Sequencing Challenge

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The steps shown on Figure 4.1 are part of the Procedure for this lab activity. They are not in the
right order. Determine the proper order and write numbers in the circles that put the steps in the
correct sequence.

Measure the Measure the Use velocity data Setup the

velocity of a cart as velocity of a cart at to determine if any dynamics track
a hanging mass rest on a flat track net forces are with super pulley
acts on the cart before setting the acting on the cart at one end and the
cart in motion motion detector at
the opposite end

Figure 4.1: Wrong sequence of laboratory procedure

Procedure
1. Start a new experiment with your data collection system.
2. Connect the motion sensor to the data collection system
3. Display Velocity on the y-axis of a graph with Time on the x-axis.
4. Set the dynamics track on the lab table with one end of the track aligned with the edge of
the lab table (or slightly hanging over the edge).
5. Attach the end stop and then the super pulley with clamp to the end of the track near the
edge of the table.
6. Attach the motion sensor to the opposite end of the track with the face of the sensor
pointed toward the super pulley. Be sure the switch on the sensor is set to the
cart position.

Figure 4.2: Dynamics Cart

7. Connect the motion sensor to your data collection system.

8. Set the cart onto the track, and then adjust the level of the track using its adjustable feet
so that the cart remains stationary when left at rest.
9. Cut a piece of string approximately 1 m long in preparation for data collection.
10. What will happen to an object at rest if no force is applied?
11. What is required for an object to maintain motion at a constant velocity?
12. What will happen to an object if there is a constant net force applied to it

Collect Data
1. With the cart stationary in the middle of the track, start data recording.
2. After approximately 5 seconds, stop data recording.
3. Now place the dynamics cart on the track approximately 15 cm in front of the motion
sensor.
4. Start data recording.
5. Give the cart a soft push towards the super pulley, then catch the cart just before it hits
the super pulley at the end of the track
6. Stop data recording.
7. For the final data run, tie one end of your 1 m piece of string to the front of the dynamics
cart, and tie the other end to the mass hanger.
8. Run the string over the pulley with the mass hanger hanging freely below the pulley.

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9. Hold the cart in place approximately 15 cm in front of the motion sensor, and then attach
20 g of mass to the hanger. Continue to hold the cart.
10. Start data recording.
11. Release the cart, and allow it to freely roll down the track.
12. Catch the cart just before it hits the super pulley at the end of the track.
13. Stop data recording.

Analyze Data
1. Sketch your graph of Velocity versus Time in the Data Analysis section, and label
each run.
Data Analysis

Analysis Question
1. How was the velocity of the cart in Run 1 changing? Was there a net force acting on the
cart? If yes, what is that force caused by?
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2. Explain how you could tell how the cart's position was changing from a Velocity versus
Time graph rather than directly from a Position versus Time graph.
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3. How was the velocity of the cart in Run 2 changing? Was there a net force acting on the
cart? If yes, what was that force caused by?
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4. How was the velocity of the cart in Run 3 changing? Was there a net force acting on the
cart? If yes, what was that force caused by?
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5. What evidence from the Velocity versus Time graph for Run #3 indicated there was a net
force acting on the cart?
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Synthesis Questions
Use available resources to help you answer the following questions.

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1. What happens to the velocity of an object if it never experiences an unbalanced force?

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2. How do forces affect the motion of objects? (Think of a force as a push or pull acting on
an object.)
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3. Is it possible for an object to experience a net force without physically touching another
object? If yes, give an example.
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4. An object's resistance to change in motion is called “inertia”. What property of matter
gives object inertia? Give an example of something with a relatively large amount of
inertia, and something else with a relatively small amount.
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5. What would happen to a ball if you threw it in deep space where there were no forces
acting on it? Describe its motion during the time you are in contact with it and then after
you release it.
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Multiple Choice Questions

Select the best answer or completion to each of the questions or incomplete statements
below.
1. You slide a box across the floor at a constant velocity. Which of the following statements
is true?
A. Your pushing force exactly equals the resisting force of friction.
B. Your pushing force must be greater than the force of friction.
C. Your pushing force is less than the force of friction.
D. Once you let go of the box, it will immediately come to a stop.
2. If you continue to push with the same force after the box slides onto a surface with less
friction, which of the following statements is true?
A. The box will speed up until it reaches a faster velocity and then continue at that
velocity.
B. The box will speed up continuously as long as you continue to push with the same
force.
C. The box will continue to slide at its original speed.
D. If you let go of the box it, will continue to move indefinitely.
3. If an object experiences a constant net, it will have a constant. However, if no force
interacts with an object, that object will maintain a constant indefinitely.
A. Acceleration, force, velocity.
B. Velocity, acceleration, force
C. Force, acceleration, velocity
D. Force, velocity, acceleration

Key Term Challenge

Fill in the blanks from the list of randomly ordered words in the Key Term Challenge Word
Bank.
1. _________________ is a term that refers to an object’s resistance to a change in motion.
Objects that are more _________________ are harder to accelerate. If an object experiences a

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constant net _________________, it will have a constant _________________. However, if

nothing interacts with an object, it will maintain a constant _________________ indefinitely.
_________________ is required for an object to maintain a constant speed in a straight line.

Key Term Challenge Word Bank Paragraph 1

Velocity Massive Acceleration Momentum

Force Energy Nothing Inertia Displacement

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Laboratory Experiment No. 5

Cart Calibration (Measuring the Spring Constant)
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. To calculate the spring constant by using and observing Hooke’s Law and the law of conservation
of energy.
2. Identify the relationship between the distance and initial velocity to the value of the spring
constant.

Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Equipment Needed:
 Dynamics Cart (ME-9430)  Pan for holding masses
 Stopwatch (SE-8702)  Metric Measuring Tape
 Metric tape (SE-8731)  Metric Ruler
 Mass Set  Balance

Purpose

The PAScar has a spring plunger, which can be used for producing relatively elastic collisions and
providing a reproducible launch velocity.

Theory
For this and the following experiments, it will be necessary to find the spring constant k of the car’s
spring plunger. As compressional forces F are applied to the spring, the spring will compress a distance x,
which is measured with respect to its uncompressed equilibrium position. If F is plotted versus x on graph
paper, the spring constant is given by the slope of the graph as:
∆F
k= (1)
∆x

Once k is known, it is possible to predict the launch velocity v o by using conservation of energy, since the
elastic potential energy stored in the spring is converted into kinetic energy at the time of launch. The
launch velocity can be found from:
1 2 1 2
m v 0= k x 0 (2)
2 2

Which leads to:

v 0=x 0
√ k
m
(3)

This predicted launch velocity can be experimentally checked by measuring the total rolling distance
d on a horizontal surface and the corresponding time t for given launch conditions. This leads to:
d
v 0=2 (4)
t

It is assumed that the acceleration of the PAScar is constant, so that the initial velocity of the PAScar at
the moment of launch is twice the average velocity of the PAScar over its whole run.

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Figure 5.1: PAScar

Procedure

1. Stand the PAScar on its end so that the spring plunger is aimed up, as shown in Figure 5.1. Using
masking tape or rubber bands.
2. Fix a ruler to the car and adjust it so that the 0 cm mark on the ruler lines up with the upper
surface of the plunger. Take care to avoid parallax errors!
3. Tape down the Plunger Trigger. Carefully add enough mass to the top of the plunger so that it is
nearly fully depressed. Record this mass and the corresponding compression x (initial position) of
the spring in Table 5.1.
4. Remove approximately one quarter of the mass used in step 2. Record the new mass and x values
in the table below
5. Repeat step 3 until no mass remains on the plunger.
6. Plot a graph of F versus x using your data and determine the slope of the best line through your
data points. This slope is the spring constant for your car. Show your slope calculations on the
graph and record k below.
7. Determine the mass of the car using a mass balance and record this value below.
8. Using equation (3) and your values for m, x o (i.e. the compression of the cocked spring) and k,
predict the launch velocity of your car and record this below.
9. Cock the spring plunger to the value of x o that you have chosen, then place the car in its starting
position and launch it. Using a stopwatch and a meter stick, determine the average range d and
the average total time spent rolling t. Record these below.

NOTE: To avoid reaction time errors, the person who launches the car should also time the car’s motion.

10. Using equation (4), determine the observed value of v o and compare it with the predicted value.

Data and Analysis

Mass of car = kg
k=
Xo = m
Predicted value of launch velocity v 0= m/s
Average d = m
Average t = s
Observed value of the launch velocity v 0 = m/s
Percent difference (% Diff) between observed and expected values of v 0 =

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Table 5.1: Data on the PAScar

Trial m (kg) F = mg (N) x (m)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

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Laboratory Experiment No. 6

Newton's Second Law: Predicting Accelerations
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. Identify the forces acting upon an object if given a physical description of motion.
2. Identify the relationship between acceleration, net force and mass.
3. Apply the relationship (Newton’s second law) between the net force on an object, the
mass of the object, and the acceleration produced by the net force

Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Equipment Needed:
 Dynamics Cart (ME-9430)  String
 Pulley and pulley clamp (ME-9448)  Paper clips
 Mass set (SE-8704)  Block (to act as bumper)
 Stopwatch (SE-8702)  Balance (SE-8723 or equiv.)

Figure 6.1: Dynamic Cart Tabletop

Introduction
In this lab, a small mass m will be connected to the Dynamics Cart by a string as shown in Figure 6.1.
The string will pass over a pulley at the table’s edge so that as the mass falls the cart will be accelerated
over the table’s surface. As long as the string is not too elastic and there is no slack in it, both the falling
mass and the dynamics cart will have the same acceleration. The resulting acceleration of this system will
be determined experimentally and this value will be compared to the acceleration predicted by Newton’s
Second Law.

Theory
The cart will be released from rest and allowed to accelerate over a distance d. using a stopwatch, you
will determine how long it takes, on average, for the cart to move through the distance d. An experimental
value for the cart’s acceleration a can be determined from:

1 2 2d
d= a t which leads to: a= 2 (experimental value)
2 t

Assuming that the tabletop is truly horizontal (i.e. level), Newton’s Second Law (F = ma) predicts that
the acceleration of this system will be:

a=
F net
M TOTAL
or a= (m
M TOTAL )
g (theoretical value)

Procedure

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1. Set up the pulley, cart, and a bumper of some sort to prevent the cart from hitting the pulley at the
end of its run. Add the following masses to the bed of the cart: 10 g, 50 g, 500 g and two 20gram
masses.
2. Carefully level the table until the cart has no particular tendency to drift or accelerate in either
direction along its run.
3. Put a loop in one end of the string and place this loop over the spring-release trigger on the
Dynamics Cart. Drape the string over the pulley. Adjust the pulley so the string is level.
4. Adjust the length of the string so that the longest arrangement of masses that you intend t0 use
will not hit the floor before the cart has reached the end of its run. Put a loop in this end of the
string.

NOTE: The cart’s acceleration falls to zero when the falling mass hits the floor.

5. Hang enough paper clips onto the dangling loop in the string until the cart will just continue to
move without apparent acceleration when barely nudged. This small added mass will compensate
for friction in the system and will be ignored in the following calculations. The paper clips will
remain attached to the loop throughout the experiment!
6. Move a 10 gram mass from the bed of the cart to the hanging loop and pull the cart back to a
clearly marked starting point. Determine the distance d that the cart will move from the starting
point to the bumper block and record this distance at the top of Table 3.1.

NOTE: The total mass of the system will remain constant throughout the experiment.

7. Practice releasing the cart being careful not to give it any push or pull as you does. The best way
to do this is to press your finger into the table in front of the cart thereby blocking its movement.
Quickly pull your finger away in the direction that the cart wants to move. At the instant you pull
your finger away, start your stopwatch. Stop your stopwatch at the instant the cart arrives at the
bumper. To eliminate reaction time errors it is best that the person who releases the cart also does
the timing!
8. Determine the average time for the cart to move through the distance d having been released from
rest. Record the average of the four time trials in which you have the most confidence in Table
3.1. Repeat for all of the masses given in the data table.
9. Excluding the pulley, determine the total mass of your system, M Total(cart, added masses, and
string) and record at the top of Table 6.1. (It will be close to 1100 grams, but you might want to
check it on a balance.)
10. Fill-in the table using your data and the equations given in the Theory section.

Data Analysis
d= cm MTOTAL = grams

Table 6.1: Data on the experimental and theoretical value

Trial m(gram Average time a exp(cm/s2) a th (cm/s2) %
s) (sec) Diff
1 10
2 20
3 30
4 40
5 50
6 60
7 70
8 80

Questions
1. Think of any systematic errors that would affect your results? Explain how each would sketch
your results.
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Laboratory Experiment No. 7

Sliding Friction and Conservation of Energy
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. Describe the advantage as well as disadvantages of frictional force in relation to our daily
life activities.
2. Identify that the mechanical energy of the system is the sum of the kinetic energies and
potential energies of those objects.

Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Equipment Needed:
 Dynamics Cart (ME-9430)  Long board that can be used as a ramp
 Stopwatch (SE-8702)  Friction block (003-04708)
 Metric tape (SE-8731)  Protractor
 Brick or block of wood

Purpose

In this lab, the Dynamics Cart will be launched down a ramp, as shown in Figure 7.1, while riding on a
friction block. The initial elastic potential energy and gravitational potential energy of the cart are
converted to thermal energy as the cart slides to a stop. The thermal energy generated on the surfaces is
the same as the work done against sliding friction.

Figure 7.1: Setup for the Dynamics Cart

Theory
Using the principle of conservation of energy, we can equate the initial energy of the system with the final
(i.e. thermal) energy of the system. This leads to:

1 2
k x + mgD sin θ=μmgD cos θ (1)
2
(Elastic P.E) + (Gravitational P.E.) = (work done against friction)

where k is the spring constant of the plunger (from Experiment 5), x is the distance that the plunger is
pushed in, m is the mass of the cart plus the friction block, D is the distance that the block slides after the
cart’s plunger is released, Ɵ is the angle of the ramp to the horizontal, and μ k is the coefficient of kinetic
or “sliding” friction.

In this experiment you will use the principle of the conservation of energy to predict D given
certain measurements you will make and the value of k determined in Experiment 5. First you will need
to determine the coefficient of kinetic or “sliding” friction for the friction block.

Determining μ k : If the angle of the ramp is high enough, the friction block will slide down the
ramp with uniform acceleration due to a net force on the block. The net force on the block is the
difference between the component of the gravitational force (mg sin θ) that is parallel to the surface of the
ramp and the friction force (- μ kmg cos θ ) that retards the motion. The angle θ is the angle of the ramp

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when the block slides down the ramp with uniform acceleration. The acceleration down the ramp is given
by:

a=mg sin θ−μ k mg cos θ (2)

The average acceleration down the ramp is given by:

2d
a= 2 (3)
t

Where d is the total distance the block slides and t is the time required to slide through that distance. If the
acceleration is uniform, equation (2) equals equation (3). You can use the measured values of the angle θ
(the angle of uniform acceleration), the distance d , and the time t to calculate the kinetic coefficient of
friction μk .

Procedure

NOTE: To get consistent results in this experiment, you must insure that the ramp you will be using is
both straight and clean. Wipe the surface of the ramp and the friction block with a rag.

Determining coefficient of kinetic or “sliding” friction:

1. Place the cart with the friction block on the ramp. Set up the ramp at a relatively low angle (one
that does not cause the friction block to begin sliding down the ramp by itself).
2. Increase the angle of the ramp until the block will begin to slide down the ramp on its own, but
only after you “release” it by slapping the table (or tapping the ramp very lightly). Now increase
the angle of the ramp by a few more degrees so that the block will slide down the ramp with a
uniform acceleration when you release it with a “slap” or tap. The angle of the ramp must be low
enough so that the block does not begin to slide on its own - only when you release it. Measure
the angle of the ramp with the protractor and record it as the angle of uniform acceleration (ø) in
the data table.
3. Release the block from the grasp of static friction as described in the previous step and measure
the time of the cart’s descent down the ramp. Record this time as t in data table 7.1. Measure the
distance d that the block slides down the ramp and record this in data table 6.1. Repeat the
measurements four times. Use equation (3) to compute the accelerations of the block and enter
the values in data table 7.1. Determine the average value of acceleration and enter it below data
table 7.1.
4. Use equation (2) to calculate the coefficient of kinetic or “sliding” friction. Enter it below the data
table.

Figure 7.2: Dynamics Cart at half of the slip angle

Prediction of D and Measurement of D:

5. Now reduce the angle of the ramp slightly until the block will just barely slide down the ramp
with a uniform speed when you release it with a slap or tap. Measure this “slip” angle. Reduce the
angle of the ramp to about one half of the “slip” angle. Measure this new angle and record its
value in data table 7.2 as q . Secure a brick or block at the upper end of the ramp as shown in
Figure 7.2.

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6. It is time to make a prediction – using equation (1) and the information that you have recorded,
predict D , the distance that the cart will slide down the ramp after being launched. Assume that
the plunger on the cart is fully cocked at the position of maximum spring compression. Record
your prediction at the top of Table 7.2.
7. After double checking your work in the previous step, launch the cart down the ramp by placing
it in the ramp with its cocked plunger against the secured brick. Then tap the spring-release
trigger with a rod or stick using a flat edge.

NOTE: This will help to insure that you do not give the cart an initial velocity other than that
supplied by the spring plunger.

8. For six trials, measure the distance D that the cart slides and record these in Table 7.2.

NOTE: Sometimes the cart will twist a bit as it descends so use the midpoint of the back edge of
your cart as a reference point for measuring D .

9. Compare your results with your prediction. Compute the percent difference between these two
values and enter it below Table 7.2.

Data and Analysis

θ= Spring constant, k =

Table 7.1: Average value of acceleration

Trial t(sec) d(cm) a(cm/s2)
1
2
3
4

Average acceleration = coefficient of sliding friction =

θ= Predicted value of D = cm

Table 7.2: Prediction of D

Trial D (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Average of measured value of D = cm Percent of difference = %

Questions
1. In analyzing this system, has the energy been fully accounted for? Discuss.
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2. How do your results agree with your prediction? Discuss.

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3. What if you launched the cart up the same ramp? How far up would it go?
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Laboratory Experiment No. 8

Specific Heat of Solids
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. To determine the specific heat of solid metals using the method of mixtures.

Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Equipment needed:
 Calorimeter set  Thread
 Samples of aluminum, copper, and lead  Thermometer
 Steam Generator  Weighing scale

Introduction
Heat is energy transferred from one body to another due to the difference in their temperatures. The unit
of energy used in the metric (mks) system is the joule. However, the calorie, which is equivalent to 4.184
J, is perhaps more commonly used. The calorie is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of
one gram of water by 1°C, for example, from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.

One property of a material that composes a body is known as specific heat capacity, often abbreviated to
specific heat. Specific heat, usually indicated by the symbol c, is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of the substance by one degree Celsius. From the definition of the calorie, it can
be seen that the specific heat of water is 1 cal/g-°C The amount of heat, Q, needed by an object that is
made of material with specific heat equal to c in order to raise the temperature of that object by an amount
ΔT is:

Q= ( mass of object ) ( c ) (∆T ) (1)

In this experiment, metal samples, such as aluminum, copper, and lead will be heated thoroughly and
placed in a calorimeter containing cold water. By applying the principle energy gained = energy lost
principle, we would have

heat gained by water =heat lost by metal sample

This expression can be written as

( mwater )( c water ) ( ∆T water )=( msample ) ( c sample ) ( ∆ T sample ) (2)

Solving for the specific heat of the metal sample, we have

(mwater c water )∆T water

c sample = (3)
msample ∆ T sample

Where m water is the mass of the water, m sample is the mass of the metal sample, c water is the specific heat of
water, ∆ T water is the temperature change of water, and ∆ T sample is the temperature change of the metal
sample.

Procedure:

1. Fill the electric steam generator to about half-way with water and start to heat it.
2. Measure the mass of the calorimeter m cal . The calorimeter should be empty and dry.
3. Measure the mass of the metal sample m sample . Record your measurements.

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4. Attach a thread to the metal sample and suspend it in boiling water. Allow a few minutes for the
sample to heat thoroughly.
5. Fill one-half of the calorimeter with cold water. Use enough water to cover the metal sample.
6. Measure the initial temperature of the cold water, T cold, and record.
7. Immediately after measuring the temperature of cold water, remove the metal sample from the
boiling water, quickly wipe it dry, and then suspend it in cold water in the calorimeter. The
sample should be completely immersed, but it should not touch the bottom of the calorimeter.
8. Slowly and carefully stir the water with the thermometer and note the highest temperature
attained by the water as it comes into thermal equilibrium with the metal sample.
9. Record this as T final. After taking the temperature, measure and record, the total mass of the
calorimeter with water and metal sample m total. Subtract the mass of calorimeter, m cal and the
mass of sample, m sample , from m total to get the mass of water, m water .

mwater =mtotal−(mcal+ msample ) (4)

10. Compute for the change in temperature of the water,∆ T water , when it came into contact with each
metal sample and the change in temperature of the metal sample, ∆ T sample ,, using equations 5 and
6 below. Record your results.

∆ T water =T final−T cold (5)

∆ T sample =100 ℃−T final (6)

11. Repeat instructions 1 to 10 for the other two metal samples.

12. Using equation 3 and your collected data, calculate the specific heats of aluminum, copper, and
lead. Record your results.
13. Compare your results with the standard value by calculating the percent difference.

Data sheet

Questions:

1. How do the specific heats of the samples compare with the specific heat of water?

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2. What does it mean when a certain material has a high or low specific heat capacity?
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3. Do substances that heat up quickly normally have high or low specific heat capacity?
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4. Discuss any unwanted heat loss or gain that might have affected your results.
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5. If the metal specimens placed in the calorimeter containing cold water was wet, how would the
value obtained for specific heat be affected? Why?
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Laboratory Experiment No. 9

Heat of Fusion
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. To determine the amount of heat associated with a change of phase of water by

measuring the heat of fusion using the method of mixtures. (How much heat is needed to
melt I gram of ice?)
Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Equipment needed:
 Calorimeter set  Weighing scale
 Ice in water (at melting point)  Thermometer

Introduction

Just as steam has a higher internal energy content than water, so water has higher internal energy content
than ice. It takes a certain amount of energy for the water molecules to break free of the forces that hold
them together in the crystalline formation of ice. This same amount of energy is released when the water
molecules come together and bond to form the ice crystal.

In this experiment, you will measure the difference in internal energy between one gram of ice at 0°C and
one gram of water at 0°C. This difference in energy is called the latent heat of fusion of water.

Procedure:

1. Measure T rm, the room temperature.

2. Determine M cal, the mass of the empty, dry calorimeter.
3. Fill the calorimeter approximately 1/2 full of warm water about 15°C above room temperature.
4. Measure M cal+ water, the mass of the calorimeter and water.
5. Measure T initial, the initial temperature of the warm water.
6. Add small chunks of ice to the warm water, wiping the excess water from each piece of ice
immediately before adding. Add the ice slowly, stirring continuously with the thermometer until
each chunk melts.
7. When the temperature of the mixture is as much below room temperature as the warm water was
initially above room temperature and all the ice is melted, measure the final temperature of the
water (T final).
8. Immediately after measuring T final, weigh the calorimeter and water to determine M final .

Data sheet

Obtain the following measurements:

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Calculations

According to the principle of the conservation of energy, the quantity of heat absorbed by the ice as it
melts and then heats up to the final equilibrium temperature must equal the quantity of heat released by
the warm water as it cools down to the final equilibrium temperature.

Mathematically:

( cal
) ( cal
)
( M ice )( H 1 ) + ( M ice ) 1 g K ( T final−0 ℃ ) =( M water ) 1 g K ( T initial −T final )
M ice =M final−M cal+ water=¿

Use your data and the above information to determine the latent heat of fusion per gram of water.
H 1= the latent heat of fusion per gram of water =

Questions:

1. What advantage might the commercially packaged coolant material have over ice other than that it
produces less mess?
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2. What properties would a material need in order to be a better coolant than ice?
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3. Design an experiment to determine which of two substances (for instance, ice and packaged coolant)
will keep an insulated food cooler
a. cool for the longest time, and
b. at a lower temperature.
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4. What does it mean when a certain material has a high specific heat?
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5. What does it mean when a certain material has a low specific heat?
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6. How does the quantity of heat transferred depend on specific heat, mass, and initial temperature of
the sample? Assuming the mass of cold water is the same for each trial.
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Laboratory Experiment No. 10

Measuring the Coefficient of Linear Expansion
For Aluminum, Brass, and Copper
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. To calculate and compare to the expected values the thermal expansion of the different
materials.
2. To determine the relationship between the elongation and temperature of the different
materials experimentally.

Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Equipment needed:
 Thermal Expansion Apparatus  Container (to catch water)
 Steam Generator  Meter Stick or Measuring Tape

Introduction
Most materials expand somewhat when heated through a temperature range that does not produce a
change in phase. The added heat increases the average amplitude of vibration of the atoms in the material
which increases the average separation between the atoms. Suppose an object of length L undergoes a
temperature change of magnitude ΔT . If ΔT is reasonably small, the change in length, ΔL , is generally
proportional to L and ΔT . Stated mathematically:
∆ L=αL ∆ T

Where α is called the coefficient of linear expansion for the material.

For materials that are not isotropic, such as an asymmetric crystal for example, α can have a different
value depending on the axis along which the expansion is measured. The coefficient α can also vary
somewhat with temperature so that the degree of expansion depends not only on the magnitude of the
temperature change, but on the absolute temperature as well.

In this experiment, you will measure α for aluminum, brass, and copper. These metals are isotropic so that
a need only be measured along one dimension. Also, within the limits of this experiment, a does not vary
with temperature.

Procedure

1. Measure L, the length of the aluminum tube at room temperature. Measure from the inner edge of
the larger circular disk on one end to the inner edge of the smaller circular disk at the other end
(see Figure 10.1).
2. Record your results in Table 10.1.

Figure 10.1

3. Mount the aluminum tube in the apparatus frame as shown in Figure 10.2. The smaller circular
disk on the tube fits into a slot on the “high” end frame. The larger circular disk on the tube
presses against the tip of the spring arm of the dial indicator.

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Figure 10.2

4. Turn the metal tube so that the thermistor lug under the foam insulation is on top. Connect the
phone plug on the end of the thermistor cable into the phone port on the “high” end frame, or into
the phone jack on a compatible PASDCO sensor.
5. Tighten the thumbscrew in the “high” end frame against the tube until it can no longer be moved.
6. Make sure that the foam insulator is centered over the thermistor lug.
7. If you are used an ohmmeter (or multimeter), plug the leads of your ohmmeter into the banana
plug connectors on the “high” end frame just under the phone plug port.
8. Measure and record Rrm , the resistance of the thermistor at room temperature. Record this value in
the table.
9. Attach the tubing adapter of the rubber tubing to the end of the aluminum tube. (Attach it to the
end farthest from the digital indicator.) Connect the other end of the tubing to the steam
generator.
10. Place a container under the other end of the tube to catch the draining water that condenses in the
tube.
11. Press the ON/OFF button on the digital indicator to turn it on. Press the ZERO button to set the
initial digital reading to zero. As the tube expands, the spring pin of the digital indicator will stay
in contact with the larger circular disk on the tube.
12. Turn on the steam generator. As steam begins to flow, watch the digital display and the resistance
reading on the ohmmeter (or computing device). When the thermistor resistance stabilizes, record
the resistance ( Rhot ) in Table 1. Also record the expansion of the tube length (ΔL) as indicated by
the display on the digital indicator.

• Repeat the experiment for the other two metal tubes.

Data and Calculations

Table 10.1: Results

1. Use the Conversion Table at the end of this manual, or the one attached to the frame tube of the
apparatus, to convert your thermistor resistance measurements, Rrm and Rhot , into temperature
measurements, T rm and T hot . Record your results in the table.
2. Calculate ΔT = T hot - T rm. Record the result in the table.
3. Using the equation, calculate α for aluminum, brass, and copper.

• Aluminum =
• Brass =
• Copper =

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Questions

1. Look up the accepted values for the linear expansion coefficient for aluminum, brass, and copper.
Compare these values with your experimental values.
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2. What is the percentage difference in each case?
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3. Is your experimental error consistently high or low?
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4. On the basis of your answers in question 1, speculate on the possible sources of error in your
experiment. How might you improve the accuracy of the experiment?
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5. From your result, can you calculate the coefficients of volume expansion for aluminum, brass,
and copper? (i.e. ΔV = α vol V ΔT)
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Thermistor Conversion Table

Temperature versus Resistance

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Laboratory Experiment No. 11

Ohm’s Law and Resistivity - Resistance
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. To be able to determine the relationship between the voltage across a resistor and the
current through it
2. To be able to establish the relationship between current and resistance when the voltage
across a variable resistor is maintained constant
3. To be able to establish the relationship between the voltage across a variable resistor and
resistance when current is maintained constant
4. To be able to determine the resistivity of a metallic conductor wire
Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Equipment needed:

 Decade resistance box  10V-Voltmeter

 Set of wire connectors  Micrometer caliper
 Variable DC power supply  500mA-Ammeter
 Slide wire  VOM

Theory

Ohm’s Law

Georg Ohm, in 1826, observed that current I through an electrical conductor is always directly
proportional to the potential difference (or voltage) V across the conductor. Electrical conductors
that obey Ohm’s law, those that demonstrate linear relationship between I and V, are said to be
ohmic. Most metals are ohmic conductors.
It was found out that not all materials obey Ohm’s law; such materials are considered to be
nonohmic conductors. A semi conducting pn junction diode is an example of a device that does not
obey Ohm’s law.
The resistance of an electrical conductor, whether it is ohmic or nonohmic, can be determined by
measuring the current I through the device when a potential difference V is applied across it. The
resistance of the conductor is then
V
R= (1)
I

The unit of resistance is the ohm (Ω), potential difference is the volt (V), and current is the ampere
(A). Equation 1 is not a statement of Ohm’s law but a defining equation for resistance and can be
applied to all conducting devices whether they are ohmic or nonohmic. A conducting device obeys
Ohm’s law when the resistance of that device does not change when the magnitude and polarity of
an applied potential differences is varied. A resistor is an ohmic conductor with a specified
resistance R. At a constant temperature, the resistance of most metallic conductors remains
constant.

Variation of Voltage with Current

According to Ohm’s Law, there is a linear relationship between voltage V and current I when the
resistance R of a metallic conductor is considered constant.

V α I when R is constant

Thus, a graph V as a function of I should be a straight line (Figure 11.1). The slope of this line is
equal to the resistance of the conductor.
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Figure 11.1 Voltage V vs. Current I for metallic conductor

Variation of Voltage with Resistance

When the resistance R in a simple circuit is changed while maintaining current I constant, the
voltage V across the resistor changes linearly with the resistance.

V α R when I is constant

Therefore, if the voltage V across the variable resistor is graphed as a function of resistance R, we
will get a straight line (Figure 11.2). The slope of this line is equal to the current I in the circuit.

Figure 11.2: Voltage V vs. resistance R at constant current I

Variation of Current with Resistance

Consider a simple circuit in which the voltage across the variable resistor is maintained constant
while resistance R is varied. From equation 1, we can deduce that the greater the resistance of a
resistor the smaller the current I that will pass through it, assuming that the same voltage V is
applied. Thus,

1
Iα when V is constant
R

Since current is inversely proportional to resistance, the plot of current vs. resistance is a hyperbolic
graph. To linearize the current I vs. resistance R, we must plot I vs. 1/R (Figure 3). The slope of the
line is just the constant voltage V across the variable resistor.

Figure 11.3a Current I vs. Resistance R Figure 11.3b Current I vs. 1/R

Resistance and Resistivity

The resistance of a metallic conductor has been found to be directly proportional to the length L of
the conductor and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area A. The constant of
proportionality is called the resistivity ρ of the material from which the resistor is made. In equation
form,

ρL
R= (2)
A

The resistivity of a material is considered constant at a constant temperature. The SI unit for length
is meter (m); for area, square-meter (m2); and resistivity, ohm-meter (Ωm)

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Procedure

Preliminary:
1. With your VOM set to Ohmmeter function, check the continuity of all your wire connectors.
Replace all broken wires.
2. If you are provided with a variable power supply set up the circuit shown in Figure 4. Otherwise,
set up the circuit shown in Figure 5. Initially set the decade resistance box to a high resistance.
Make sure that the power supply is turned off and unplugged.
3. Have your instructor check the wiring before proceeding.

Figure 11.4: Experimental setup using variable power supply

Note: if a variable power supply is not available replace it with a fixed power supply connected
parallel to a rheostat, as shown on Figure 11.5. The output terminals are the center tap of the
rheostat (which is connected to the resistance box) and the end terminal of the rheostat (which is
connected to the ammeter). To adjust the voltage, just move the slider of the rheostat.

Figure 11.5: Alternative setup using a fixed power supply and a rheostat

I. Variation of voltage with current, resistance constant

We are verifying V=RI; that V∝I, with R as constant of proportionality.

1. Set the decade resistance box to 10Ω.
2. Plug the power supply to the convenience outlet. Turn on the power supply and slowly increase
the voltage until the ammeter reads 0.05 A (50 mA). Get the voltage reading on the voltmeter.
Log the voltage on your data sheet.
Precaution: Never turn the power source on when the decade resistance box is set to zero ohms.
Doing so will produce a strong current in the circuit, which may destroy your ammeters and the
decade resistance box itself. Thus, it is a good idea to shut off the power when changing settings
in the decade resistance box.
3. Slowly increase the voltage until the ammeter reads 0.10 amperes (100 mA). Read the voltage
and record your measurement.
4. Repeat step 3 for currents of 0.15 A, 0.20 A, and 0.25 A.
5. Turn off the power supply but do not dismantle the circuit which will be used in the next part of
the experiment.
6. Graph the voltage V (y-axis) vs. current I (x-axis).
7. Draw the best-fit line among the data points in the graph.
8. Compute for the slope of the line. This is the experimental value of resistance REXP’T.

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9. Compare the experimental value REXP’T with the theoretical value of resistance (RTHEO =
10Ω) by computing for percent error.

II. Variation of Voltage with Resistance, Current Constant

We are verifying V=IR; that V∝R, with I as constant of proportionality.

1. Make sure that the DC power supply is off.
2. Set the decade resistance box to 100Ω.
3. Turn on the DC power supply and slowly increase the voltage so that the ammeter reads 0.05
amperes (50 mA).
4. Read the voltage and record your measurement on your data sheet.
5. Turn off the power supply.
6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 for decade-box resistance of 80, 60, 40, and 20 Ω.
Precaution: Never set the decade resistance box to zero.
7. Graph the voltage V (y-axis) vs. resistance R (x-axis).
8. Draw the best-fit line among the data points in the graph.
9. Compute for the slope. This is the experimental value of current IEXP’T.
10. Compare the experimental value of current IEXP’T with the theoretical value
(ITHEO = 0.05 A) by computing for percent error.

III. Variation Of Current With Resistance, Voltage Constant

We are verifying I=V/R; that I∝1/R, with V as constant of proportionality. The reciprocal of R
(i.e., 1/R) is called conductance and is measured in mhos.
1. Make sure that the DC power supply is off.
2. Set the decade resistance box to 100 Ω.
3. Turn on the DC power supply and slowly increase the voltage to 2 V.
4. Get the ammeter reading and record the measured current on your data sheet.
5. Turn off the power supply.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for decade box resistances of 50, 30, 25, and 20 Ω.
Precaution: Never set the decade box to zero.
7. Turn off the power supply but do not dismantle the circuit, as this will be used in the next part
of the experiment.
8. Graph the current I (y-axis) vs. the reciprocal of resistance 1/R (x-axis).
9. Draw the best-fit line among the data points in the graph.
10. Compute for the slope of the line. This value is the experimental value of voltage VEXP’T.
11. Compare the experimental value VEXP’T with theoretical value of voltage
(VTHEO = 2V) by computing for percent error.

IV. Resistivity and Resistance

1. Identify the metal of the slide wire and its resistivity ρ STANDARD in Ωm. (resistivity of
nichrome = 1.50 x 10–6 Ωm).
2. Using a vernier caliper, measure the diameter of the wire.
3. Calculate the cross-sectional area of the wire.
4. Set the VOM to ohmmeter function; set the range at x1.
5. Short the probes together and using the zero-ohm adjuster, adjust the pointer to “0 ohms”
found at the right hand of the ohm-scale.
6. Place one probe tip on the slide-wire at 0 cm (exactly at the tip of the meterstick). Place the
second probe tip at 20 cm (0.2 m). Read the resistance.
7. With the first probe fixed at 0, move the second probe tip to 40 cm, 60 cm, 80cm, and 100cm,
each time measuring their respective resistances.
8. Graph resistance R (y-axis) vs. length L (x-axis) and draw the best-fit line.
9. Compute for the slope of the best-fit line.
10. Compute for the experimental value of the resistivity of the wire ρEXP’T.
ρEXPT’L = (slope)(cross-sectional area)
11. Compare the experimental value ρEXPT’L with the standard value of the resistivity of the
wire ρSTANDARD by computing for percent error.

Data Sheet

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Variation of Voltage with Current, Resistance constant

Constant Resistance, R= 10 ohms
Trial 1 2 3 4 5
I (amperes) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
V (volts)

Slope from graph V vs. I = R EXPT =¿ ohms

RTHEO =¿ 10 ohms
%error = %

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Variation of Voltage with Resistance, Current constant

Constant Current, I= .05 ampers
Trial 1 2 3 4 5
R (ohms) 100 80 60 40 20
V (volts)

Slope from graph V vs. R = I EXPT =¿ ampers

I THEO=¿ .05 amperes
%error = %

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Variation of Current with Resistance, Voltage constant

Constant Voltage, V= 2 volts
Trial 1 2 3 4 5
R (ohms) 100 50 30 25 20
1/R (mhos)
I (amperes)

Slope from graph I vs. 1/R = V EXPT =¿ volts

V THEO =¿ 2 volts
%error = %

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Questions
1. In Part I of the experiment, what happened to the voltage across the resistance box as the current
through it was increased? What is the relationship between voltage and current when resistance is
fixed?
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2. In Part II, what happened to the voltage as resistance is decreased? What is the relationship
between voltage and resistance when current is maintained constant?
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3. In Part III, what happened to current when resistance is increased? What is the relationship
between current and resistance when voltage is constant?
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4. What happens to the resistance of a wire (a) when its length is increased (at constant
temperature)? (b) when its cross-sectional area is increased?
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5. A copper wire of length L and area A has resistance R. If we double its length and radius, what
would be its new resistance?
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6. Two wires, A and B, are made of the same material, have the same diameter, and are at the same
temperature. Wire A is twice as long as wire B, and the same voltage is applied across the ends of
each wire. If the current through wire A is I, what is the current through wire B?
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Laboratory Experiment No. 12

Resistors in Series and Parallel
Name: Code: Rating:
Instructor: Schedule: Date Performed:

Objectives: After completing this activity, you will be able to:

1. To be able to distinguish between parallel and series connections of resistors

2. To be able to determine the direction of currents and the polarity of passive devices in simple DC
circuits
4. To be able to determine the relationship between the currents through each individual resistor in a
series, parallel, and series-parallel combination and verify them experimentally
5. To be able to determine the relationship between the voltages across each individual resistor in a
series, parallel, and series-parallel combination and verify them experimentally
6. To be able to calculate the equivalent resistance of a series, parallel, and series-parallel combination
of resistors theoretically and experimentally

Time to Complete: 3 Hours

Equipment needed:

 3 Decade resistance boxes

 3V-DC power supply or 3V-Battery Module or 3V-Battery Eliminator
 3V-Voltmeter
 500mA-Ammeter
 VOM
 Set of wire connectors

Theory

Resistors in Series
Figure 12.1 shows three resistors, with resistances R1, R2, and R3, connected in series to a battery.

Figure 12.1a: Three resistors in series

Figure 12.1b: Equivalent circuit of Figure 12.1a

The following are characteristics of resistors in series:

1. The same current I T flow through each resistor.
I T =I 1=I 2=I 3 (1)
2. The total applied voltage V T across the series combination is equal to the sum of the voltages
across each resistor
V T =V 1 +V 2 +V 3 (2)
3. The resistance of a conductor, whether ohmic or non-ohmic, is equal to the ratio of the voltage V
across conductor and the current I through it, R = V/I. Thus, the equivalent resistance of the series
combination is given by

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RT =V T /I T (3)
4. To determine the equivalent resistance of the series combination in terms of the individual
resistances R1, R2, and R3 we start by substituting IR’s to each of the voltage in equation 2.
I T RT =I 1 R1+ I 2 R2 + I 3 R3
5. Since the total current supplied to the circuit is equal to the current through each resistor
(equation 1), the equivalent resistance of the three resistors in series is
RT =R1 + R2 + R3 (4)

6. The equivalent resistance of a series combination of resistors is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances in series. We could replace the three resistors in series by one resistor, whose
resistance is the equivalent resistance RT in equation 4, without detecting any change in the
circuit (Figure 12.1b). This is assuming that there are no potential drops across the wires in the
circuit.

Resistors in Parallel
Figure 12.2a shows three resistors, with resistances R1, R2, and R3 , connected in parallel to a
battery. The following are characteristics of resistors in parallel:
1. The potential difference or total voltage V T applied across the parallel combination is the same as
that across each resistor.
V T =V 1=V 2=V 3 (5)
2. The total current I T is equal to the sum of the individual current through each resistor.
I T =I 1 + I 2+ I 3 (6)
3. The total current I T through the circuit may be expressed as
I T =V T / RT (7)
Where: VT is the applied voltage across the parallel combination and RT is the equivalent
resistance of the three resistors in parallel.

Figure 12.2a: Three resistors in parallel

Figure 12.2b: Equivalent circuit of 2a

To derive an expression for the equivalent resistance of the three resistors in parallel, with
resistance R1, R2, and R3, we start by substituting “V/T” to each current in equation (6). Thus,

VT V1 V2 V3
= + +
RT R1 R2 R3

Since the voltages across each resistor is equal to the total voltage across the circuit (equation 5),
the resistance is
1
1 1 1 1 RT =
= + + or 1 1 1 (8)
R T R1 R2 R3 + +
R1 R 2 R 3

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The equivalent resistance of resistors in parallel is equal to the reciprocal of the sum of the
reciprocals of the resistance of each resistor. We could replace the three resistors in parallel by
one resistor, whose resistance is the equivalent resistance RT in equation 8, without detecting any
change in the circuit, as in
Figure 12.2b. This is assuming that there are no potential drops across the wires in the circuit.

Resistors in Series and Parallel Combination

A circuit showing a simple combination of resistors in series and in parallel is given in Figure
12.3. To find the equivalent resistance of the series-parallel combination, and to determine the
relationship between the currents in each resistor and the voltages across each resistor, the
concepts discussed earlier about series and parallel connections should be applied.

Figure 12.3 Combination of resistor in series and in parallel

To determine the equivalent resistance RT of the combination, we must first get the equivalent
resistance of R2 and R3 . Since these two resistance are connected in parallel, their equivalent
resistance R23 is given by

1
R23= R2 R 3
1 1 or R23= (9)
+ R2 + R 3
R 2 R3

Since the equivalent resistance R23 is in series with R1, the equivalent resistance RT of three
resistors is

R2 R3
RT =R1 + R 23 or RT =RT + (10)
R2 + R3

To determine the currents and voltages across each resistor, let us start with resistor R1. The total
current supplied to the resistor combination enters R1, therefore
I 1=I T
Resistors R2 and R3 are in parallel, therefore their voltages V 2 and V 3 should be equal,
V 2=V 3 =V 23
and total current I 23 of the parallel combination is just the sum of the individual current through
R2 and R3:
I 23= I 2+ I 3
The parallel combination R23 is in series with R1, therefore:
I T = I 3= I 23
and total applied voltage V T across the series-parallel combination is equal to the sum of the
voltages across R1 and the parallel combination R23
V T = V 1 + V 23

Measuring Voltages and Current

In measuring the voltage across a device, first identify the positive and the negative terminals.
The positive and negative terminals of a power source are fixed: the positive terminal is usually
red and marked “+” and the negative terminal is usually black and marked “-“. A resistor exhibits
polarity only when current is flowing through it. The terminal through which the current enters
becomes the positive terminal.

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After determining the + and – terminals, simply connect the voltmeter in parallel remembering to
observe proper polarity; that is, + to + and – to – ! The voltage being measured in Figure 12.4a is
Vab, and that in Figure 12.4b is Vcd. The letters are designated arbitrarily, but what is important
is that the first letter in the subscript should refer to the positive terminal.

Figure 12.4a: The polarity of power supply is fixed

Connect the voltmeter in parallel: + to +

Figure 12.4b: Where the current enters in a resistor defines the + terminal.
Connect the voltmeter in parallel: + to +, and – to –.

The current flowing through a device (resistor, power supply, etc.) is measured by placing an
ammeter in series with the device, inserting it before or after the device, and making sure that the
current enters the ammeter through its positive terminal as shown below. In Figure 5a, the
ammeter is inserted at node a, while in Figure 5b it is inserted at node b. Both are equivalent and
should give the same current value.

Figure 12.5a Inserting the ammeter before the device Figure 12.5a Inserting the ammeter after the device

Procedure

Preliminary:
With your VOM set to Ohmmeter function, check the continuity of all your wire connectors. Replace all
broken wires.

Resistors in Series
1. Set the three decade resistance boxes to 10Ω ( R1), 20Ω ( R2), and 30Ω ( R3 ), respectively.
2. Set up the circuit as shown below. Arranging circuit elements the way you see them in the
schematic diagram allows easy identification of terminals. Let the positive terminal of the power
supply remain disconnected until your instructor has checked the circuit.

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Figure 12.6: Setup for resistor in series

3. With the aid of the diagram below indicating the nodes, measure voltages V 1 (or V ab ), V 2 (or V bc ),
V 3 (or V cd ), and V T (or V ad ) using the voltmeter.

Record the four values on your data sheet.

Figure 12.7: Setup for resistor in series indicating nodes

4. Measure the currents I 1, I 2, I 3 and I T using the ammeter. By inserting the ammeter at node a, you
can measure I 1; at node b to measure I 2; at node c to measure I 3; and at node e to measure I T . The
total current I T can also be measured by inserting the ammeter at node f. Record the four values on
your data sheet.

Note: Remember that the ammeter is inserted in such a way that the current enters the positive
terminal of the ammeter. Connecting it the opposite way will make the pointer kick to the left and
probably destroy the ammeter

5. Calculate the other required values in Part IB of your data sheet.

Resistors in Parallel
1. Set the three decade resistance boxes to 15Ω ( R1), 30Ω ( R2), and 40Ω ( R3 ), respectively.
2. Set up the circuit as shown below. Let the positive terminal of the power supply remain

Figure 12.8 Setup for resistors in parallel

3. With the aid of the diagram above (Figure 12.8) indicating the nodes, measure voltages V 1 (or V ab
), V 2 (or V cd ), V 3 (or V ef ), and V T (or V gh) using the voltmeter. Record the four values on your
data sheet.
4. Measure the currents I 1, I 2, I 3, and I T using the ammeter. By inserting the ammeter at node a, i, e,
and g, you can measure I 1, I 2, I 3, and I T respectively. The total current I T can also be measured
by inserting the ammeter at node h. Record the four values on your data sheet.
5. Calculate the other required values in Part IIB of your data sheet.

Resistors in Series and Parallel Combination

1. Set the three decade resistance boxes to 10Ω ( R1), 20Ω ( R2), and 30Ω ( R3 ), respectively.

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2. Set up the circuit as shown below. Arranging all circuit elements the way you see them in the
schematic diagram allows easy identification of terminals. Let one terminal of the power supply
remain disconnected until your instructor has checked the circuit.

Figure 12.9: Setup for resistor in series and parallel combination

3. With the aid of the diagram above (Figure 12.9) indicating the nodes, measure voltages V 1 (or V ab
), V 2 (or V cd ), V 3 (or V ef ), and V T (or V gh) using the voltmeter. Record the four values on your
data sheet.
4. Measure the currents I 1, I 2, I 3, and I T using the ammeter. By inserting the ammeter at node a, c, e,
and g, you can measure I 1, I 2, I 3, and I T respectively. IT can also be measured by inserting the
ammeter at node h. Record the four values on your data sheet.
5. Calculate the other required values in Part IIIB of your data sheet.

Data Sheet

Resistor in Series
A. Measurement
Decade Box Measured Voltages Measured Current
Resistance
R1=10 ohm V 1= I 1=
R2=20 ohm V 2= I 2=
R3=30 ohm V 3= I 3=
Measured V T = Measured I T =

B. Calculations
a. Is RT =R1 + R 2+ R3?
RT =V T /I T RT =R1 + R 2+ R3 % Difference

b. Is V T =V 1 +V 2+V 3 ?
MeasuredV T V T =V 1 +V 2+V 3 % Difference

c. Is I T =I 1 + I 2 + I 3?
Measured Total Current Measured Individual Current % Difference
I 1=
I T= I 2=
I 3=

Resistor in Parallel
A. Measurement
Decade Box Measured Voltages Measured Current
Resistance
R1=15 ohm V 1= I 1=
R2=20 ohm V 2= I 2=
R3=40 ohm V 3= I 3=
Measured V T = Measured I T =

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B. Calculations
1
RT =
a. Is 1 1 1
+ +
R1 R 2 R 3
RT =V T /I T 1 % Difference
RT =
1 1 1
+ +
R1 R 2 R 3

b. Is I T =I 1 + I 2 + I 3?
Measured I T I T =I 1 + I 2 + I 3? % Difference

c. Is V T =V 1 +V 2+V 3 ?
Measured Total Voltage Measured Individual Voltage % Difference
V 1=
V T= V 2=
V 3=

Resistor in Series – Parallel Combination

A. Measurement
Decade Box Measured Voltages Measured Current
Resistance
R1=10 ohm V 1= I 1=
R2=20 ohm V 2= I 2=
R3=30 ohm V 3= I 3=
Measured V T = Measured I T =

B. Calculations
R2 R3
a. Is RT =R1 +
R 2+ R 3
RT =V T /I T R2 R3 % Difference
RT =R1 +
R 2+ R 3

b. Is I T =I 1 + I 2 + I 3?
Measured Total Current Measured Currents I 1 and % Difference
I 2+ I 3
I 1=
I T=
I 2+ I 3 =

c. Is V T =V 1 +V 2=V 1+ V 3?
Measured Total Voltage V T =(V 1 +V 2 )∨(V 1+V 3 ) % Difference
V 1 +V 2=
V T=
V 1 +V 3=

Questions
1. Which measured quantity is the same/equal for all resistors in a series connection?
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2. Which measured quantity is the same for all resistors in a parallel connection?
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3. How should three equivalent resistors be connected to obtain the least equivalent resistance?
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4. How are electrical appliances in household circuits connected?
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5. How should an ammeter be placed in a circuit to measure the current through a device?
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6. How should a voltmeter be connected to measure the voltage across a device?
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