a br. Prem Pandey, Ecosystems (Commonwealth Fellow) . “Assistant Professor, Introduction Department of Life Sciences School of Natural Sciences PARTI SHIV NADAR UNIVERSITY Suv Nvban UNIVERSITY | Ecosystems: Concept, Structure, Function of ecosystems Types-Forests, wetland, deserts.... Biogeochemical Cycles | Sty NADAR UNIVERSIDY:Ecology and Ecosytem 0 Ecology (from the Greek oikes, meaning “household,” “home, or “place to live) is the study of relationship between organisms and its environment. ‘© Coined by the German zoologist Ernst Haeckel, who applied the term oekologie to the “relation of the animal born to its organic as well as its inorganic environment." © ecology deals with the organism and its environment. © Three types of ecology- © landscape ecology. © population ecology. and © behavioral ecology Ecosystem- is a place, such as dlesert, forest, ocean, grassland, where interactions of living and non living occurs. Ecosystem An Ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the non-living ‘components of their ‘environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interaEcosystems The term ecosystem was initially framed in 1930 by Roy Clapham, to denote the physical and biological components of an environment considered in relation to each other as a unit. Roy first used the term but it wasAG Tansley, who coined the term & fully defined the concept of ecosystem Arthur George Tansley, coined the term in 1935, Ecosystem (an oxford ecologist and phytologist) RD Mishra- Father of Ecology in INDIA. An Ecosystems isa natural unit consisting ofall plants, animals and micro-organisms(biatic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment. Ecosystems oBritish ecologist Arthur G. Tansley later refined the term, describing it as "The whole system,...including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment".Ecosystems Eugene Odum, one of the founders of the science of ecology, stated: o “Any unit that includes all of the organisms (i.e., the “community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to Clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (i.e., exchange of materials between living and non- living parts) within the system ". o The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain/ food web. Ecosystems Classification Ecosystems have become particularly important politically, since the Convention on Diological Diversity(CBD) - ratified by more than 175 countries - ratified the resolution “the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the ‘maintenance of viable populations of species in natural surroundings| as one of the binding commitments of the ratifying countries.An Ecosystem oThis has created the political necessity to spatially identify ecosystems and somehow distinguish among them. oThe CBD defines an “ecosystem” as a “dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit" ‘An Ecosystem ‘© Smith (1966) has summarized common characteristics of most of the ecosystems as follows: © 1. the ecosystem is a major structural and functional unit of ecology. © 2. the structure of an ecosystem is related to its species diversity in the sense that complex ecosystem have high species diversity. © 3. the function of ecosystem is related to energy flow and material cycles within and outside the system. ‘© 4, The relative amount of energy needed to maintain an ecosystem depends on its structure. Complex ecosystems needed less energy to maintain themselves.An Ecosystem ‘© 5, Young ecosystems develop and change from less complex to more complex ecosystems, through the process called succession. © 6. Each ecosystem has its own energy budget, which cannot be exceeded © 7, Adaptation to local environmental conditions is the important feature of the biotic components of an ecosystem, failing which they might perish. © 8. The function of every ecosystem involves a series of cycles, e.g., water cycle, nitrogen cycle, oxygen cycle, etc. these cycles are driven by energy. A continuation or existence of ecosystem demands exchange of materials/nutrients to and from the different components. x Prom FANOE An Ecosystem Provide Ecosystem services 0 Ecosystem services are “fundamental life- support services upon which human civilization depends,” and can be direct or indirect services. © Example of direct ecosystem services are: pollination, wood, erosion prevention etc. © Indirect services could be considered climate moderation, nutrient cycles, detoxifying natural substances and many morea Paya } Y Re odo noes Erte ea Rei Pee 8 Climatographs are combination line/bar graphs that show trends in temperature and precipitation over a typical year in a biome. Average monthly precipitation: Bar graph Average monthly temperature: Line graph g 3 Average Precipitation (nm) 8 Dr. Prem PANDEY Average Temperature ('C)© Climatographs tell you: if temperatures are seasonal or consistent If procipitation is seasonal or consistent Ifthe climate is helow freezing part of the year, © You can infer: Latitude and geography of the ecosystem. Northern or southern hemisphere, What type of ecosystem is present. 3 8 3 3 ‘Average Temperature (°C) ‘Average Precipitation (mm) ° 3 TFMAMJ JAS OND ‘Month Dr. Prem PANDEY a The two most significant abiotic factors in biomes are temperature and precipitation, which are influenced by: © Latitude © antuae © Prevailing winds Nearby mountains jWet_Dr. Prem PANDEYNorth Pole © Latitudes near the equator receive more direct sunlight and a greater amount of warming. As latitude increases, temperature and primary productivity tend to decrease due to the changing sun angle. “Temperature Deciduous Forest Latitudinal Zonation2. Structure of EcosystemThe Ecosystem + The co-existence of various species is a highly ordered, dynamic and complex system. + The interaction between living organisms and their environment is a two-way process- organisms affect their surrounding and the surroundings affect the organisms. The ecosystem is initially divided in two components + Abiotic (non-living) + Biotic (living) Pi Biotic vs. Abiotic Factors = pe Living é Non-Living Examples Examples 5 Plants o Water = Animals = Sunlight © Fungi © Soil = Bacterid™ o Air a a Prom PANOEAbiotic components eer Sosa cs mc Co arccs eed Co saimuce Ceres Biotic components 1, Producers > Autotrophs 2. Consumers -> Heterotrophs Herbivores/ camivoresoh Feed on a ince + ¥Feed on Autotrophs * Prem PANDEY Biotic components « Producers or autotrophs Organisms like plants, certain bacteria, algae that can synthesize their own food in the presence of sunlight (photosynthesis). Also, chemosynthetic bacteria that are found in deep ocean waters (no sunlight) and derive energy by the process of chemosynthesis from the hydrogen sulphide. + Consumers or heterotrophs Organisms that cannot make their own food and depend on plants and/or animals. Consumers are of two types: Q Macro-consumers Q Micro-consumersMacro-consumers Macro-consumers are of three types: @) Primary consumers: they feed mainly on plants (herbivores) b) Secondary consumers: carnivores that feed on primary consumers c) Tertiary consumers: carnivores that feed on secondary consumers Organisms that consume both plants and animals ‘are called omnivores (human beings). Micro-consumers Bacteria or fungi are microorganisms that derive their energy and nutrients by decomposing dead organic substances (detritus) of plants and animals. Earthworms and some soil organisms (nematodes, arthropods- termites) are also detritus feeders and take part in the decomposition of organic matter. The role of decomposers and microorganisms is very important in nutrients cycling. The by- products of their activity are water, C02, phosphates, and organic compounds that are released in the environment and recycled. Dr. Prem PANDEY3. Functions of Ecosystem t Energy flow in ecosystems OPEN srs = tll Energy flow in the ecosystem © The two fundamental requirements for any life-supporting system are 1. Flow of energy — Functions of energy — Pathways through which it flows . Continual recycling of chemical elementsEnergy Flows Energy moves continuously through ecosystems, like a stream. The flow of energy in ecosystems obeys two Laws of Thermodynamics: 1. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, It only changes form. 2. During every transformation, some cnergy is given off as heat. Ecosystem processes (function) Energy Flows By definition, all ecosystems cycle matter and use energy, and the processes define the fundamental ecosystem functions as well.Ecosystem processes (function) Always the energy doesn’t cycle and ecosystems need a continuous inflow of high-quality energy in order to maintain their function and structure. For this reason, ecosystems are “open systems” needing a net inflow of energy to Ecosystem processes (function) Energy inputs to ecosystems drive the flow of matter -within organisms and their environment in a process called Bio-geochemical cycle. Our biosphere gives a good example of this process, as it exchanges matter with and interacts with the lithosphere) atmosphere and ei 2 it a i °Rule #1: Energy transforms + Food chains show the flow of energy through one trophic level of organisms to another. jam we my Producers Primary ‘Secondary Tertiary ‘Absorb Consumers Consumers Consumers Predator energy from _Herbivores; Ingest frimary Ingest secondary Top of the the sun ingest ‘consumers. ‘consumers food chain; producers are not prey to other organisms, Decomposers consume dead and cecaying matter trom all trophic levels. The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain/ food web. Rule #2: Heat loss Most of that energy is lost as heat as the The total amount of energy producers capture from the 7 Plant performs ceil sun's called Gross respiration (R) to Primary Productivity maintain itset. (GPP). wat ‘The remaining output of ——s energy eared a6 leaves, fruit, stems, oF roots is Net Primary NPP =GPP-R Productivity (NPP). Rule #2: With each energy transformation some is lost as heat. ‘The 10% rule estimates that only 10% of energy from ‘one trephia level is incorporated into the next, nae =Rule #2: With each energy transformat heat. n some is lost as| ‘The 10% rule etimates tat ody = 10% of energy from. 7 one trophictevelis| kas reorermteg to he \ T Erevay stored Food Chain Food Web (just 1 path of energy) {all possible energy paths) ‘Semumert 51 trophic level E< SR BEM) cmronmcieve oe on = SBR om vepicet = re Food web- Complex food chain FEE) tnomcime Gre known os Food wes re Dr. Prem PANDEY Food chain- Path of flow of energy land nutrients in ecosystemsEnergy flow in the ecosystem ° Sinema PgDUCEESEENP CONSUMER ° NUTRIENT POOL IDECOMPOSERS IN SOIL o The basic function of energy is to make the production of organic mafter possible © The total amount of organic matter in any parficular ecosystem Is the biomass © Biomass increases as a result of biological production, the transformation of energy into matter by biological processesEnergy flow in the ecosystem Plants convert solar energy into chemical via photosynthesis. This is the reaction of CO2 and H20 with the presence of chlorophyll. ‘Mg (magnesium) is essential element for photosynthesis, it is part of Chloroplast which prepare food for plant. Green plants are grazed by animals. The chemical energy is transferred to herbivores (carbohydrates, fats, proteins). The same energy transfer process- continues to carnivores. The initial solar energy trapped by the plants and stored as chemical energy incurs loss along the whole chain. Dr. Prem PANDEY Energy flow in the ecosystem Photosynthesis oln addition to oxygen. photosynthesis produces carbohydrates, which build the body mass of autotrophs o Primary production oHeterotrophs build body mass by eating other organisms o Secondary productionINERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS o All organisms require energy, for growth, maintenance, reproduction, locomotion, etc. o Hence, for all organisms there must be: © A source of energy © A loss of usable energy Types of energy oHeat energy omechanical energy (+gravitational energy, etc.) ochemical energy = energy stored in molecular bonds Dr. Prem PANDEYTransformations of energy oSolar energy is converted to chemical energy by primary producers. oThe transformations of energy from solar radiation to chemical energy and mechanical energy and finally back to heat are a traditional topic of Ecosystem Ecology. Dr. Prem PANDEY Primary productivity oPrimary productivity is the rate of energy capture by producers. 0 = the amount of new biomass of producers, per unit time and spaceEnergy flow in the ecosystem Primary producers convert energy and inorganic compounds into biomass 1st: autotrophic organism produces organic matter in its body 2nd: uses this organic matter as fuel in metabolism and respiration, releasing heat 3rd: stores some of the organic matter for future use Dr. Prem PANDEY | Suv NAbAn UNIVERSITY: Ecosystems Types of Ecosystems DroBcom.PANDEY ‘Suv Navan UNIVERSIDY‘Late - river, stream or spring, — Leni - ake, pond or swamp Dr. Prem PANDEY ypes of Ecosyste + There are many types of ecosystems or earth. + Major classes of relatively contained ecosystems are called Biomes. + There are 3 Major classes of ecosystens 1, Terrestrial Ecosystems 2, Ocean Ecosystems 3. Freshwater Ecosystems Freshwater ecosystem: Relatively small in area ~ 18% of earth's surface ‘Support many species of life including fish, amphibians, insects and plants. Base of food-neb is found in freshwater Plankton (small microscgbig eanpey ‘organisims) ——1. Aquatic Ecosystems Freshwater 2.5% freshwater” 12%ELT) UE Lute a coll minerals (Ce VelTu-TiTe) ees uy Slsi Y e Se ic MMR EDIE e lee ate eRe molecules. Pe Sec e a aac o Bae WPT RR te Core CR URCper mL of water. Highest in cold, turbulent water. Lowest in warm, stagnant water. PH is a measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of water. 9 10 11 12 13 14 Acids Neutral Bases pH below 7 PH is exactly / pH above 7 Rainwater: .6 due to mixing Pure water. (Ocean Water: 8.1 due to with CO2, carbonate (CO3*) ions. Acid rain: <4.5 due to mixing with sulfur. a Dr. Prem PANDEYthis clip Caio Ecosystems The global Ocean- Marine by Parc dr Global Oceans n-About 75% oF £4 i Oceans were mostly in plage by ~4 billion years ago. Ocean Ecosystems: . Very large amount of Earth is covered by ocean (~75%) . 40% of all photosynthesis occurs in oceans- source of Blue Carbon.Marine ecosystems oMarine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth. oeSuch places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice versa. Ocean Waters + Where did our oceans come from? ~ Early Earth was a hostile, hot mass of nearly molten rock = Violent volcanic eruptions put gases, including water vapor, into the air - As Earth cooled this water vapor condensed into liquid water - The more the planet cooled, the more water could collect in hollows ("baby” oceans that grew into our present oceans) - Although the water in the oceans has been around for ~4 billion years, the present ocean basin configuration is the result of plate tectonics, and no ocean basin is older than about 200 million years old (Formation of Oceans oThe ocean formed billions of years ago. Over vast periods of time, our primitive oceans formed. oWater remained a gas until the Earth cooled below 212 degrees Fahrenheit (ca 100 degree centigrade). ‘ie Mton ea as agiSummery -Features of marine = ocean ecosystem 1. Salinity: Is firly constant (3.5% on average). The main salt is NaCl (27%), and the rest are Ca, K, Mg salt. 2. Light: It penetrates to a certain extent and is responsible for production of ‘organics (photosynthesis) 3. Temperature: Remains fairly constant, sanging from about -2C to 2C in polar seas to 32 Cin wopics, 4. ‘Nutrients: Nutrients concentration is low; major limiting fctor in determining the size of marine population. 5. Dissolved gases: Oceans are great reservoirs of 02 and CO2 6. Alkalinity: Sea water is alkaline with p of about 8.2 7. Pressure: Pressure changes from aim (at surface) 10 1000 aum at the greatest depth. Effect on the distribution of life ss ga water is always moving, The currents are driven either by wind, Ocean Waters: Temperatures Temperature varies according to latitude and depth : as Ocean temperatures insolation (powe per unit orea received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation -Ocean currents hest where solar energysrisrem panneSee aa nee ery CCR ace om ue creek uke oss © The EI-Nifio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle is a periodic warming and cooling of the central/eastern Pacific Ocean caused by shifts in trade winds. © EINino- Warm phase of the ENSO oycle, High SST develops at ECEP. © La Nina — Periodic cooling of SST et East Central Equatorial Pacific a Cold water along ~ coast of South America © EINino and La Nino are the Warm and Cool Phase of a Recurring climate pattern across the Tropical Pacific. Dr. Prem PANDEY) During an El Nifio year, warm waters shift to the coast of South America, fueling more rainfall in the Western U.S. \» It refers to Above average SST develop at east-central 4 ‘al paci a ial pacific, x Pacific Ocean Warmer winter 5, Equatorial , ae © During Normal year (La Nina year), the warmest waters gather in the western Pacific, fueling rainfall throughout southeast Asia. bene 3 gl PU oe Cold water along ~ coast of South AmericaNormal Year-The Earth system in action > Pacific ocean waters heated » Trade winds blow ‘warm water west off coast of SA © Upwelling is a process in which deep, cold water rises toward the surface. Westerly winds diminish Warm water remains in Pacific Heavy rains occur in SA Surface salinity decreases, reducing upwelling Droughts in western Pacific, Asia, India Dr. Prem PANDEY La Nina Year Cold conditions dominate Droughts in SA, western US Severe weather in western Pacific, Good rains in India4. Marine / Ocean ecosystemsCoastal Zones Intertidal Zone Photic ZoneIntertidal Zone Ecosystems Rocky Shores Sandy Shores Substrate is hard and Substrate is shifting stable and unstable Erosion is slow Erosion is rapid Color depends on Common Types of Sand Black Brown White Volcanic rock eeMarine Ecosystem Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include oceans, salt marsh and intertidal zones, estuaries and _ lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs, the deep sea and the sea floor. Marine waters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Marine Ecosystem Marine ecosystems are very important for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial environments. Marine ecosystems usually have a large biodiversity. According to the World Resource Center, coastal habitats alone account for approximately 1/3 of all marine biological productivity, and s._(i.€., salt marshes, seaCoral reefs are Eanes ai Oop uw orc) ele eelmeelt lf elem Semeur NN CUT MA LILA Cs ars: «Coral is a symbiotic relationship between aS ee two organism tein build the oh) Iola) Algae, which photosynthesize most of the coral’s food «Calcium carbonate is an important sink in the carbon cycle and helps to maintain ocean pH.es Coral reef- Great Barrier Reef, Australia (Low tide) Dr. Prem PANDEY SiV NAD AR UNIVERSITY gs ee | Coral reef- Great Barrier Reef, Australia (High tide)Open Ocean Zones Intertidal ZoneOcean Light Zones | | Bie dareliersoi eon teri sunlight; enough to perform photosynth: Ta atmo) 111Many aphotic zone species UMC) alae) can produce and emit light. CeeEre nee ot men ale orate Su) le LFTs he light can help to find prey ol ie eg The abyssal plain receives Tate l(e)alemr-lale lel) food webs are based around scavenging and folTofelnnyoxe=111(0) 0 sxaay) ee PE TMeicce Reo CUle Cyto Seem from ES eee EN A Coastal ecosystemsMarine ecosystems Marine ecosystems are among the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. Examples include © salt marshes, Intertidal zones, © estuaries, © lagoons, © mangroves, © coral reefs, ta i deep sea, and the sea floor. ey can be contrasted with is, i Nig Tidal flats are saltwater wetland areas that are continually covered and uncovered by the tides. ® Coastal lagoons are saltwater pools that are separated from the ocean by sandbanks or coral reefs. ‘Estuaries are partially-enclosed bodies of water where river water mixes with sea water, forming brackish water. © Deltas are landfonns al river muullis formed by Uepusited sediment, ( Estuary Tidal flats Detta Dr. Prem PANDEY|® As rivers reach the ocean, their current slows. | Slow-moving waters cannot carry as much sediment. Ocean | Eventually the sediment expands the coastline and forms large landmasses. an) Dr. Prem PANDEYDeu ee usc Ree UCR Reel ® Mangrove forests provide coastal protection by dissipating up to 90% of wave energy.a Enema ee ko Mena oN ols Ee cena A ea PATE EcosystemsFresh Wajegtaetystem = ‘© Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosyst © They include lakes and ponds, rvers, streams, sprin, "© © They can be contrasted with marine ecosystems, larger salt content. © Freshwater plays a fundamental role in support of the e society and the economy. 'o Ecosystems such as wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes are E indispensable for life on our planet.River Ecosystem oThe ecosystem of a river is the river viewed as a system operating in its natural environment, and includes biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions. River Ecosystem © River ecosystems are prime examples of lotic ecosystems. © Lotic refers to flowing water, from the Latin lotus, washed. © Lotic waters range from springs only a few centimeters wide fo major rivers kilometers in width. (Brahmaputra river in Assam- 20 km wide; average depth of the river is 38 m and maximum depth: 120m). © Lotic ecosystems can be contrasted with lentic ecosystems, which involve relatively still terrestrial waters such as lakes and ponds. 0 Together, these two fields form the more ponera! study area of freshwater or aquatic ecology.Ganges River in the Making | hes ae SU NADI UNIVERSITY and BHAGIRATHI rivers meet and DEVPRAYAG: Alaknanda- eI GANGES in RISHIKESH SN SLY NADAL UNLRiver Ecosystem The following unifying characteristics make the ecology of running waters unique from that of other aquatic habitats. Flow is unidirectional. Ihere is a state of continuous physical change. . There is a high degree of spatial and temporal heterogeneity at all scales (microhabitats). . Variability between lotic systems is quite high. . The biota is specialized to live with flow conditions. Rivers © Flowing-water environments (Lotic): rivers 0 Vary dramatically from source to mouth (physical, chemical, biological) ‘© From small, cold and swift to wide, deep, cloudy, and warmer © Change seasonally ‘© Organisms are adapted to survive in strong currents. 0 Flora and fauna depend on river's clarity, flow and oxygenHumans and River The history of the Nile and Indus rivers, where the primary human habitation started, illustrates how organisms in the vicinity of a stream can be placed under considerable stress when significant changes occur in stream systems. We tend to take streams/rivers for granted, but they perform many positive functions in today’s society: >- Bring water to irrigate crops >- Provide drinking water >- Supply coolant for power plants >- Transportation (barges, boats) >- Provide ecosystems for wildlife >- Recreation sites, > Recharge ground water erine Ecosyste Riverine ecosystem, also called lotic ecosystem, any spring, stream, or river viewed as an ecosystem. The waters are flowing (lotic) and exhibit a longitudinal radation in temperatures, concentration of issolved matenal, turbidity, and atmospheric gases, from the source to the mouth. Blotic Factors: © Bacteria: Bacteria are present in large numbers in lotic waters. Free-living forms are associated with decomposing ‘organic material, biofilm on the surfaces of rocks and vegetation (Slime), in between particles that compose the substrate, and suspended in the water column. © Bacteria play a large role in energy recycling, which willbe discussed in the Trophic Relationships section.Riverine Ecosystem o Primary producers: Algae, consisting of phytoplankton and Periphyton, are the most significant sources of primary production in most streams and rivers. © Phytoplankton (microscopic marine algae) float freely in the water column and thus are unable to maintain populations in fast flowing streams. They can, however, develop sizable populations in slow moving rivers and backwaters. Riverine Ecosyste Phy lankton are the autotrophic components of the planktons community and a key part of oceans. seas and freshwater basin ecosvstems. 0 Periphyton are typically filamentous and tufted algae that can attach themselves to objects to avoid being washed away by fast current. In places where flow rates are negligible or absent, o Periphyton may form a gelatinous, unanchored floating mat.Riverine Ecosystem- Biotic Factors: Periphyton and Water Hyacinth © Periphyton is a complex mixture of algae, cyanobacteria, heterotrophic microbes and detritus that is attached to submerged surfaces in most aquatic ecosystems. © It serves as an important food source for aquatic insects, frog | tadpoles, and some fish, Chalakudy River- Adhirapally Waterfalls, Trissur Keralao Insects and other invertebrates o Fish and other vertebrates iseteP WRG iaseetsLake ecosystem-Lentic The ecosystem of a lake includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions. o Lake ecosystems are a prime examples of lentic ecosystems. Lentic refers to standing or relatively still water, from the Latin lentus, which means sluggish. o Lentic waters range from ponds to lakes to wetlands, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general. This small lake or mountain pool, together with ils environment, can be regarded as forming a lake or lentic ecosystem.Lake ecosystem © Lentic systems are diverse, ranging from a small, temporary rainwater pool a few inches deep to Lake Baikal, which has a maximum depth of 1740 m. © The general distinction between pools/ponds and lakes is vague, but one of the scientist Brown states that ponds and pools have their entire bottom surfaces exposed to light, while lakes do not. © Lake Baikal (Russia) is the largest freshwater lake by volume in the world, containing 22-23% of the world's fresh surface water. © With 23,615.39 km? (5,670 cu mi) of fresh water.LAKE ECOSYSTEM Ponds and pools have three regions: © the littoral zone, © pelagic/limnetic open water zone, and © the benthic zone, which comprises the bottom and shore regions. 0 Since lakes have deep bottom regions not exposed to light, these systems have an additional zone, the profundal. © These three areas can have very different abiotic conditions and, hence, host species that are specifically adapted to live there. Compensation Depth ~ Depth where photosynthesis is equal to Respiration,Lakes and Wetlan Standing water (Lentic): lakes, ponds and wetlands © Occupies a depression in the land, filled with freshwater © Lakes contain several zones defined by depth, temperature, and distance from the shore © Warmer zones tend to be more biologically productive is ¢ [Large Lakes ofthe Worl] iiler's Projection) Lakes in India © Andhra Pradesh-5 © Assam -9 © Bihar -1 ‘© Chandigarh (UT) -1 © Gujarat -7 © Haryana -8 © Himachal Pradesh -18 ‘© Jammu and Kashmir -11 © Karnataka -14 © Kerala -11 © Madhya Pradesh -3 © Maharashtra -16 © Manipur -1 © Meghalaya -1 © Mizoram.2 © Odisha -4 © Puducherry -3 © Punjab -3 ‘© Rajasthan -21 (Udaipur-4) © Sikkim -5 © Tamil Nady -11 © Telangana -11 © Uttar Pradesh -9 © Uttarakhand -5 © West Bengal -7 _, prom PANDEY]! LAKES IN INDIA. | Vembanad (Vembanad Kayal or Vembanad Kol) It is the longest lake in India, and the largest lake in the state of Kerala. It is also counted as one of the largest lakes in India, © The Vembanad wetland system covers an area of over 2033.02 km? thereby making it the second largest wetland system in India (after sundervan). © Of this, an area of 398.12 km? is located below the MSL and a total of 763.23 km? area is located below 1 m MSL. © Kuttanad, form the southern most part of — the Vembanad.Chilka Lake, Orissa- a Ramsar Site la” Motary Tangi borg Puri Biahmagirio— > (Cha Lake:ae Cree oie gieneesk es ees ee eee eee ee ie oe eae) Cee Tne lake Basin was formed as a result of tectonic ener acca oes ps ete ue ae square miles (30 to 260 square kilometers).Loktak Lake is the largest freshwater lake in north-| eastern India, located in Manipur Jt.is.also.called the only floating lake in the world due! 25the-figating phumdis (series of floating islands)Gurudongmar Lake Kangchenjunga range Sikkim. |Wetland Ecos) vi BEAM + Awetlandis a distinct ecosystem that is flooded by water, either permanently or seasonally, where oxygen-free processes prevail (an aerobic processes} The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants, adapted to the unique hydric soil. Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems Sty NADAR UNIVERSIDY:What is a wetland? Facts About WetlandsWetlands Wetlands must meet the following criteria: 1. Hydrologic conditions - water present on land surface, or soils in root zone must be saturated during growing season or longer. . Hydrophytic vegetation - specific plants that are water-tolerant and grow under wet conditions (e.g. cattails, wild rice. willows, sawgrass) must be present . Hydric soils — poorly drained soils that exhibit anaerobic conditions during growing seasonKuttanad Wetlands, the ‘Rice Bowl of Kerala’ © Kuttanad, the ‘Rice Bowl of Kerala’, lies at the very heart of the backwaters in Alappuzha district. © Its wealth of paddy crops is what got it this unique nickname. Based in the inner regions of the district, itis a huge area of reclaimed land, separated by dikes from water which is higher than it appears. olt has been speculated that it is perhaps the only place in the world where farming is done up to 2 meters below sea level. 0 The area is serviced by 4 major rivers: Pampa, Meenachil, Achankovil and Manimala.Kuttanad is a region covering the Alappuzha and Kottayam Districts, in the state of Kerala, India, The region has the lowest altitude in India, and is one} of the few places in the world where farming is carried around 1.2 to 3.0 metres (4 to 10 ft) below sea level. Farmers of Kuttanad are famous for Biosaline Farming. Biosaline farming is a relatively new way of| dealing with salinity in agriculture. It develops crops tolerant to saline environments in combination with the use of saline soil- and water- resources and improved soil and water management. FAO has declared the Kuttanad Farming System as a Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS).Some important suacer= wena tw) wetlands entanet(tend in India atm | SRT eeImportance of wetlands Wetlands Why should we care? Wetlands perform many positive functions in the environment such as “improving water quality in rivers by filtering out sediments and contaminants, “providing breeding grounds for fish and shellfish which supports commercial fishing, * providing ecological habitats for migrating birds, modifying the effects of flooding by slowing runoff, and “providing food and recreation for humans.a Wetlands help rain sodimonts Sand increase toll fertility Mangroves can protect shorelines from strong winds and can reduce the impact of hurricanes and tsunamisUses of wetlands - Threats to wetlands (RawThreats to wetlands \Acial rain i) UNIVERSITY Ramsar convention Pi ‘Tne Convention on Wetlands ~ calle the "Ramsar Convention’ - was sined in Ramsar, ran, in 1971 ‘An intergovernmental treaty - embodies the commitments ots member courites to plan forthe "wise use", or susiainable use, o al ofthe wetlands in their trois Ramsar Convention: A ealy,intended to. ~. Peaks Catan mete ca Mee Mem ed oA ce [onesWetlands Ramsar Convention: To be a wetland an area must be saturated with water} and have poorly drained soils and specific types of plants. Two types: coastal and freshwater Ramsar Sites in | ~~ 75 Ramsar sites as of 15'" August 2022 | Ashtamudi Wetland, Kerala © 14, Nalsarovar Rird Sanctuary 2. Bhitarkanika Mangroves, Odisha Gujarat 3. Bhoj Wetland, MP 15, Point Calimere Wildlife and Bird 4. Chandra Taal, HP peecinaey lame 5. Chilika Lake, Odisha 6; Foss Dam Lake HE, 6. Deepor Beet, Assam 17, Rennka Lake, HP 7. East Calcutta Wetlands, West 18. Ropar_Wetland, Punjab Bengal 19, Rudrasagar Lake, Tripura 8. Harike Wetland, Punjab 20, Sambhar Lake, Rajasthan 9, Hokera Wetland, J & K 21, Sasthamkotta Lake, Kerala 10, Kanjli Wetland, Punjab 22, Suringar-Mansar Lakes, J & K 11, Keoladeo National Park, 23. Vembanad-Kol Wetland, Kerala Rajasthan 24, Wular Lake, J & K (© 12.Kolleru Lake, Andhra Pradesh 13. Loktak Lake, ManipurCn Punjab ‘ena shone Beary 28" January 2020- added 10 more fo make it ~ (37 ) 26 July 2022- Number increused lo 54 horn 49- Karikil Bird Sanctuary, Pallikcranai Marsh Reserve Forest, Pichavaram Mangrove in Tamil Nadu. ‘Sakhya Sagar in Madhya Pradesh and Pala Wetland in Mizoram have made it to the coveted list. 10 more added on 3 August, pad Ramsar sites 11 wetlands are again added to ithe list on 14% August 2022 making it total 75 Ramsar sites. INDIA,Ecosystems: Forests Consistent moderate-to-high precipitation that supports tree growth. Warm or seasonal temperatures. High net primary productivity across multiple layers.Forest is a large area of land covered with trees or other woody vegelalion. » Hanson (1962) defines forest as “a stand of trees growing close together with associated plants of various kinds”. According to United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO): * “forest is a land area of more than 0.5 ha, with a canopy cover of more than 10%, which is not primarily tree under agricultural or other specific non-forest land”. A forest is can also be defined as “an Ecosystem or assemblage of ecosystems dominated by trees and other woody vegetation.” Forest Canopy In forest ecology, canopy refers to Uie upper layer oF habitat zone, foriried by mature tee crowns and neluding other biological organisms (epiphytes, lianas, arboreal animals, etc.) ‘Sometimes the tarm canopy is also used to refer to the extant of the auter layer of leaves of an individual tree or group of trees. root ep am ——ee at The emergent layer is the uppermost layer in a forest. Receives the most direct sunlight, Few plants reach this high The canopy is ne highe: Seg ran and eo Muestan re micueeulCLiS Highest net primary productivity aréa of ahy forest. OR ONC a uN aT culate ye PR eer Romar tated teecs OMe ee re ues Nem Ree Er aera ReeseBroadleaf Trees Wide, flat leaves that maximize sun absorption. Prone to moisture loss via transpiration. Coniferous Trees Shed in winters or prolonged Narrow, wax-coated leaves. dty seasons. ‘Absorb less sunlight but transpire less water. Not shed during cold or dry seasons. 179 Dr. Prem PANDEY Open and Closed Forests open Forests Open forests are mixtures of trees, shrubs and grasses. ‘Tree canopies do not form continuous closed cover. cour in savanna environments in the semi- Closed Forests arid, sub-humid and humid topics. A Closed forests a forest with a tree canopy coverage Shed in winters or prolonged of 60 to 100% dry seasons. ‘Absorb less sunlight but transpire less water. 10 Dr Prem PANDEY Not shed during cold or dryOpen and Closed Forests ‘Open forests- Mudumalai and Sandipur Wildlife Sanctuaries Tropical forests with closed canopy A Closed forest is a forest with a tree canopy coverage of 60 to 100%. Dr. Prem PANDEY Forest types Elevation High Coniferous forest. Temperate deciduous forest eters Alpine variations of terrestrial biomesEarth's Forest Zones Temperate rainforests also receive high rainfall but have seasonal temperature changes. Broadleaf or coniferous trees.Fail PECAN TAT seasonal rainfall ‘Small coniferous trees and oath 2 =e 8 £ 8 ‘erage Temperatve ©) @ Climate plays an important role in the development of biomes. @ Robert Whittaker, an American ecologist, plotted rainfall vs. temperature for points all over the globe on a single graph. 155 erage Temperature (©)Types of forests Tropical rainforests: near equator, > high temperature, rain are high and rather uniform (India, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil) ‘Temperate rainforests: Colder than other rainforests, > high rain and heavy fag ‘Temperate deciduous: In moderate climates, broad-teafed trees, shed their leaves in fall (north America, Europe, eastern Asia, India Australia) ‘Temperate evergreen: Mediterranean-type climate (warm, dry summers and cool] ‘moist winters) Coniferous: In strongly seasonal climates with long winters and fairly short summers (Canada, Siberia, Scandinavia, India, high altitudes) Tropical seasonal: high total rainfall, but segregated into dry and wet periods (India) Subtropical: fairly high rainfall but less temperature difference (India) Identify the type of forest present in each climatograph farm temperatures Seasonal temperatures Seasonalicold Warm temperaty Jasonal precipitation Moderate precipitation ‘temperatures High precipitaid ‘Seasonal precipitationThe tropical rainforest is a biome with a constant temperature and a high rainfall. The level of humidity and density of the vegetation give the ecosystem a unique water and nutrient cycle. Rainforests around the world are threatened by human expansion. The tropical rainforest biome has four main characteri A very high annual rainfall, high average temperatures, nutrient-poor soil, and high levels of biodiversity (species richness). >" frem PANDEY “EL il i = Pee ne CI,20-60cm/year rainfall Short growing season, cold wir Northern Asia, India, Temperate ee shri \ sr foun Temperate Coniferous Forests - Boreal forests Suy NvAR UNIVERSIDYForest types oTemperate rain forest: coniferous forest oWinters are milder than the north oPrecipitation is high, so forests are thick and tall oTemperate deciduous forest: northeast US, Europe and eastern China oCharacterized by seasonal changes oConsist of broad-leaved deciduous trees oSoils rich in organic material and well- Dr. Prem PANDEY suited to agriculture oo‘emperate Rain Forest- losses, ferns(OOO Temperate Forests Ecosystem Suv NAbAn UNIVERSITY: Temperate forests- autumn colouration | Sty NADAR UNIVERSIDY:this forest easternTROPICAL DECIDUOUS FOREST TUNDRA Rainfall: 25cm/year ‘0 Open: wind swept; dry: ground always frozen ‘© Far northern Asia: Northern North America In physical aeoaraphy. tundra is a type of biome where the tree arowth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. In tundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses, and lichens. Scattered trees grow in some tundra regions. The ecotone (or ecological boundary region) between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline. There are three types of tundra: + Arctic tundra, + alpine tundra, and + Antarctic tundra.Tundra, Boreal Forests/Taiga Tundra: occurs at high latitudes, North America © Alpine tundra occurs at high altitudes closer to the equator! © Characterized by permatrost © Winters are long, cold and harsh, summers are short and cool Boreal forest: fo the south of tundra North America and Eurasia; ‘Most of Canada and Russia © covered by coniferous trees that make up this biome. © also known as the taiga, a Russian word meaning swampy moist forest © Cold winters, short growing seasons, and low precipitation TUNDRA The term tundra comes through Russian tyHapa (tOndra) from the Kildin Sami word tindar “uplands”, ‘reeless mountain tract”. ote Intundra, the vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs, sedges and asses, mosses, and lichens.Forests are renewable resources and provide a variety of commodities to mankind- Ecosystem Services Forests play a vital role in regulating the climate Provide shelter to wildlife and help in balancing CO2 and 02 cycles Improve the water-holding capacity of the soll. regulate water cycle Forests prevent soil erosion and landslides and reduce intensity of floods and droughts. They are continuous source of firewood/ construction timber They provide raw materials to various wood industries Provide beauties and tourist attractions. Dr. Prem PANDEYForests in India o Champion (1936) recognized 13 major types of forest in India. o Champion and Seth (1968) recognized sixteen types of forest which are listed below. © The following types of forests are found in India which cover nearly 22 per cent of the total area of Indian territory. Forests of Indi © The most important factors influencing the physiognomy, species composition, phenology etc. of Indian forests are temperature, rainfall, local edaphic and biotic factors. © These factors have been used in the classification of Indian forests. ‘© Most detailed classification of Indian forests is by Champion and Seth (1967) in which 16 major types of forests have been recognized, © These 16 major types can be grouped into 5 major categories viz. moist tropical, dry tropical, montane sub- tropical, temperate and alpine forests.Himalayan coniferous Wild goats and sheep, Himalayan black beer Himalayan broad Maple, Oak leaved Evergreen (northeast, western Ghats, Andaman) Deciduous dry Deciduous moist Thom and scrub, semi-arid forests Mangrove delta Jamun, Ficus, Tiger, leopard, Dipterocarpus sambar, malabar pied hombill, frogs Teak, Ain, Tiger, chital, baring Terminaiia, deer, babies Sal Babul, Ber,Neem — Blackbuck, Avicennia ‘Snow leopard, brown beer, musk deer, wolt Pigmy hog, rhinoceros, macaque Bustard, florican Dr. Prem PANDEY Water lizard Fig. 11.2 Outine map of India showing distibution of different forest '¥PES py, prem PANDEY | “Alter Champion and Seth 1968).| Forest Types ss | Fora types tna Tropical forests Sante siropcl forest Temperate Saulpine Alpine forests ' fore Po Dr. rem PANDEY Suv NAbAn UNIVERSITY: