16.

001 Unified Engineering

Materials and Structures

Breguet Range Equation

Instructor: Raúl Radovitzky

Teaching Assistants: Grégoire Chomette, Michelle Xu,
and Daniel Pickard

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Department of Aeronautics & Astronautics

1
Outline

1 Estimation of powered aircraft maximum range: Breguet Range Equation

Learning Objectives
Some operational data
Historical note about the “Breguet” Range Equation
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation
More practical and operational data

2
Learning Objectives

At the end of this lecture, you will be able to answer the following questions:
How far can an airplane fly?
How do the disciplines of structures & materials, aerodynamics and
propulsion jointly set the performance of aircraft, and what are the
important performance parameters?
Estimate the performance of aircraft using empirical data and thus begin to
develop intuition regarding important aerodynamic, structural and
propulsion system performance parameters

3
Some operational data I

A340-500 Flight Data: JFK to Abu Dhabi:

Altitude
15000

10000
altitude (m)

5000

Climb Cruise Descent

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
time (s) #10 4

4
Some operational data II

A340-500 Flight Data: JFK to Abu Dhabi:

5
Weight
#10
3.5

2.5
Aircraft mass (kg)

1.5

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
time (s) #10 4

5
Some operational data III

A340-500 Flight Data: JFK to Abu Dhabi:

700
Thrust

600

500
Thrust (kN)

400

300

200

100

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
time (s) #10
4

6
Some operational data IV

A340-500 Flight Data: JFK to Abu Dhabi:

!f
Fuel flow rate m
8

fuel flow rate (kg/s) 6

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
time (s) #10 4

7
Historical note about the “Breguet” Range Equation

According to the book Introduction to Flight, John Anderson, 2nd ed.,

McGraw-Hill, 1985, p.334), the earliest derivation of the range equation is
found in a paper by J.G. Coÿn, “A Study of Airplane Ranges and Useful
Loads,” NACA Report No. 69, 1919, with no reference to Breguet. It
concludes that the reason for the association of the Range Equation with
the name Breguet “...is historically obscure.”

8
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation I

Equilibrium or momentum conservation: During level flight, the aircraft

travels at a constant ground speed V (m s−1 ) and altitude, see figure:

Under these conditions, the propulsive force or thrust T (N) equals the
aerodynamic drag force (D), and the aerodynamic lift force L (N) equals
the total weight W (N):

T = D , L = W , (N) (1)

You will study in Fluids in the spring that the drag and lift are related and
that in level flight, the ratio of the two can be considered constant. This

9
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation II

allows us to relate the vertical and horizontal equilibrium equations, and

thus the thrust and the weight as follows:

L L L
W =L= D = T , W = T , (N) (2)
D D D

Note that L/D is a measure of the aerodynamic eÿciency of the aircraft.

Mass balance: At any point during flight, the total weight of the aircraft
(W ) is the addition of the weight of the structure (Ws ), the weight of the
payload (Wp ), and the weight of the fuel (Wf ):

W = Ws + Wp + Wf , (N) (3)

The maximum total weight of the aircraft when the fuel tanks are full and
under full payload is typically referred to with the acronym MTOW, or
maximum take-o˙ weight. Also, during flight, the total weight W changes
as the fuel mass is expended. So the total aircraft weight as well as the fuel

10
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation III
weight can be thought of as functions of time t or also distance traveled R.
The change can be written mathematically as follows:

dW dWf
= = −ṁf g , (N s−1 ) (4)
dt dt

where ṁf (kg s−1 ) is the fluid mass flow rate assumed constant in level
flight, and g ∼ 9.81 m s−2 is the acceleration of gravity on earth (also
assumed constant).
Energy balance: The main consideration here is that the fuel energy is
expended in producing the thrust which is necessary to counterbalance the
drag. The propulsive power Pp is:

Pp = T × V , (N m s−1 = J s−1 = Watt) (5)

The power is provided by the combustion of the fuel, which has an amount
of energy per unit mass hf (J kg−1 ), and could in principle provide a fuel
power Pf :
Pf = ṁf × hf , (kg s−1 × J  −1
kg = Watt) (6)
11
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation IV

However, and as you will study in detail in Thermodynamics and Propulsion,

a number of losses occur in the process of converting the chemical energy
available in the fuel to the final propulsive power. We refer to the fraction
of the fuel power e˙ectively contributing to propulsive power as the total
eÿciency η0 :
Pp
η0 = (7)
Pf

and our energy balance principle can be written as:

Pp = η0 Pf , or TV = η0 ṁf hf , (Watt) (8)

12
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation V

We note that mass conservation Equation (4) gives us information on how the
weight W changes over time t, not distance traveled R. However, distance
traveled and time are related by: dR
dt
= V , and we can use the chain rule to write:

dW dW dR dW
= = V = −ṁf g (9)
dt dR dt dR | {z }
from(4)

This expression can be combined with energy balance Equation (8), as follows:

ṁf T
from (8): = (10)
V η0 hf
dW ṁf
from (9): = −g (11)
dR V
dW T
combining: = −g (12)
dR η0 hf

13
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation VI

The final step is to now recognize that we haven’t used our equilibrum (or
momentum balance) Equation (2), which gives: T = WL . Combining this with
(D )
Equation (12), we get:

dW gW
=− (13)
dR η0 hf DL

This equation has the form:

g
W 0 (R) = aW (R), where the constant coeÿcient : a = − L
(14)
η0 hf D

It constitutes a first-order ordinary di˙erential equation with constant coeÿcients

and governs the evolution of the weight of the aircraft W as a function of
distance traveled R. It can be easily integrated by noting that:
1 0
(ln f (x))0 = f (x) (15)
f (x)

14
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation VII
and therefore Equation (14) can be written as:

W 0 (R)
= (ln W (R))0 = a (16)
W (R)
integrating: ln W (R) = aR + C (17)

Now comes the important step of applying the initial condition, or known point
in the solution W (R). What we know, is that at the beginning of the flight
(distance traveled R = 0), the weight of the aircraft is the total weight with full
fuel tanks:
W (R = 0) = Winit = W0 + Wfuel (18)
Evaluating Equation (17) at the known solution point:

ln W (R = 0) = a0 + C , → C = ln Winit (19)

Replacing in Equation (17):

 
1 W
ln W (R) − ln Winit = aR, → R(W ) = ln (20)
a Winit
15
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation VIII

Replacing the value of a from Equation (14):

L  
η0 hf D W
R(W ) = − ln (21)
g Winit
 
hf L Winit
R(W ) = η0 ln (22)
g D W

the factor hgf should define the dimension of the right hand side as all other
factors are non-dimensional. Let’s check this using SI units: hf has units of
energy per unit mass, or in SI: J kg−1 = kg m s−2 m kg−1
= m2 s−2 , g has
units of length per time squared, or in SI: m s−2 . Then, the ratio hf /g in SI
2 −2
has units: m  s

m  = m. We conclude that this factor has dimensions of
s−2
length and gives the dimension of the right hand side.


Physically, this factor represents the eÿciency of the fuel in terms of the
energy density per unit mass. Clearly, a fuel with a higher value of hf would
increase the range, ceteris paribus. Typical values of hf for jet fuel is around
16
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation IX

40MJkg−1 . The equation also tells us that gravity a˙ects the range in an
inversely-proportional manner.
The factor η0 has already been discussed and represents the propulsive
eÿciency of the engine. Typical values for modern propulsion systems are
around 0.2 − 0.4.
the factor DL is non-dimensional and represents the aerodynamic eÿciency
of the aircraft design. Typical values of DL in modern aircraft are around
15 − 20.
the factor inside the logarithm WWinit represents the ratio of the sum of the
structural Ws , payload Wp , and initial fuel Wf weights to the current total
weight.
The maximum range Rmax for a given aircraft is obtained from Equation
(22) when the initial weight Winit = MTOW, and all the fuel weight has
been expended Wf = 0, in which case W = W0 = OEW
 
hf L MTOW
Rmax = η0 ln (23)
g D OEW

17
Derivation of the Breguet Range Equation X

Clearly, MTOW
OEW
plays the role of a structural eÿciency of the aircraft design,
and calls for lighter and lighter aircraft where as much as possible of the
weight is devoted to the fuel. Typical values of MTOW
OEW
∼ 2.

18
 THE BREGUET RANGE EQUATION

Or equivalently,

Speed of sound Mach number

M = V/a

a M L D ! Winit $
Range = ln # &
g TSFC " Wfinal %

Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption

TSFC = mass flow rate of fuel per unit thrust

Warning: Watch units of TSFC which are typically kg/s/N or lbm/hr/lbf

19
 FUEL ENERGY/UNIT MASS

© MIT Press. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/

(from The Simple Science of Flight, by H. Tennekes)

20
 WEIGHT & GEOMETRY

F = L /D

(from The Simple Science of Flight, by H. Tennekes)

21
© MIT Press. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/
 AERODYNAMIC EFFICIENCY TRENDS

Babikian, Raffi, The Historical Fuel Efficiency Characteristics of Regional Aircraft From Technological,
Operational, and Cost Perspectives, SM Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 2001
22
© MIT. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/
OVERALL PROPULSION SYSTEM EFFICIENCY

Source: NASA/public domain

(After Koff, 1991)

23
 ENGINE EFFICIENCY TRENDS
Turboprops, Regional Jets, Large Aircraft

Babikian, Raffi, The Historical Fuel Efficiency Characteristics of Regional Aircraft From Technological,
Operational, and Cost Perspectives, SM Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 2001
24
© MIT. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license. For more information,
see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/
 STRUCTURAL EFFICIENCY TRENDS
Turboprops, Regional Jets, Large Aircraft

Babikian, Raffi, The Historical Fuel Efficiency Characteristics of Regional Aircraft From Technological,
Operational, and Cost Perspectives, SM Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, June 2001
25
© MIT. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commons license. For more information, see
https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/
MIT OpenCourseWare
https://ocw.mit.edu/

16.001 Unified Engineering: Materials and Structures

Fall 2021

For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: https://ocw.mit.edu/terms.

26