Introduction to Taxonomy

Diversity is the presence of different organisms in the same ecosystem or geographical location.
Diversity gives a chance for a more balanced ecosystem.

Classification: is the grouping of different living organisms on the basis of the similarities and differences
in their characteristics.

Importance of classification:

1. It enables us to study different kinds of organisms in an easier way.

2. It makes the taxonomy and nomenclature of the organisms in more systematic way.
3. It makes the understanding of the evolution of organisms.
4. We can learn about both primitive and advanced organisms.

Evolution is the slow process by which organisms change according to their needs to survive the
environment around them. Evolution leads to the formation of new organisms and more diversity in the
ecosystem.

Charles Darwin was an English biologist and a naturalist and he proposed the theory of evolution in his
book “On the Origin of Species” in 1859. He explained that natural selection is the basic mechanism of
evolution which became famous for modern evolutionary studies.

‘Primitive’ or ‘older’ or ‘lower’ organisms- organisms which have more simple body structure and
function.

Advanced’ or ‘higher’ or ‘younger’ organisms- Organisms have more complex body as it has evolved
more than the primitive organisms.

Taxonomy is the branch of science that deals with the classification of organisms.

Taxonomical Hierarchy

Taxonomical hierarchy refers to the classification of living organisms into different groups or taxons.
Kingdom is ranked at the highest level of the hierarchy and species is at the lowest rank, which is the
basic unit of classification.

Hierarchy of Classification

• Organisms are arranged into groups/levels according to their similarities.

Kingdom is the highest level of classification which consists of a number of phyla or divisions (in case of
plants) with similar characteristics.

Phylum/Division is a level of classification which consists of a number of classes with similar

characteristics.

Class is the level of classification which consists of a number of orders with similar characteristics.
Order is the level of classification which consists of a number of families with similar characteristics.

Family is the level of classification which consists of a number of Genus with similar characteristics.

Genus is the level of classification which consists of a number of species with similar characteristics.

Species is the level of classification which consists of a number of organisms with similar characteristics
and can interbreed to give rise to a fertile offspring.

Nomenclature

Carolus Linnaeus is called the ‘Father of taxonomy’ and introduced the Binomial nomenclature and
which paved way for modern taxonomy.

Binomial Nomenclature

• Binomial Nomenclature was introduced by Linnaeus as a method of naming organisms in

taxonomy. It consists of two parts.
• The first part is the Genus name which is written in capital.
• The second part is the species name, which is not capitalized.
• Example: Homo sapiens

Five Kingdom Classification

5 Kingdom classification

• 5 Kingdom classification is the most accepted system of classification given by R.H.Whittaker.

• This classification solved most of the issues in taxonomy related to the placement of bacteria and
fungi.
• The 5 kingdoms are Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

1. Kingdom Monera

Monera

• All the prokaryotic organisms are placed in this Kingdom.

• Bacteria and their ancient cousin, archaebacteria are the
organisms that makeup Kingdom Monera.
• These are prokaryotic, unicellular, autotrophic/heterotrophic
organisms.
• Some of them have cell walls while some do not.
• Bacteria have a cell wall made up of polysaccharides.
• This group includes bacteria, blue-green algae or cyanobacteria,
and mycoplasma.
 2. Kingdom Protista

Protista

• Kingdom Protista is made up of all the eukaryotic unicellular

organisms except yeast.
• Some of these organisms use appendages, such as hair-like cilia
or whip-like flagella for moving around.
• Their mode of nutrition can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
Examples are unicellular algae, diatoms and protozoans.

3. Kingdom Fungi

Fungi

• The organisms of Kingdom Fungi are heterotrophs and

mostly saprotrophs.
• Saprotrophs depend their food on dead and decaying
organic materials.
• Some of them have symbiotic relationship with blue green
algae or cyanobacteria , therefore symbiotic life forms are
called lichens.
• It is the only Kingdom which has the multicellular and
unicellular organisms.
• Majority of them have a cell wall made up of chitin.

4. Kingdom Plantae

Plantae

• All of them are autotrophic with chlorophyll present in chloroplast of the cell.
• Their cell wall is made up of cellulose.
• The plant kingdom is classified into two major divisions as Cryptogams and Phanerogams.
• The first level of classification depends on whether the plant body has well differentiated parts.
• The next level of classification is based on whether the differentiated plant body has special
tissues for the transport of water and other substances.
• Further classification looks at the ability to bear seeds and whether the seeds are enclosed within
fruits.
Cryptogamae

• Cryptogams literally mean ‘plants with hidden reproductive parts’ that produce spores to
reproduce instead of seeds.
• These plants do not have flowers or fruits.
• Cryptogams are further classified as thallophytes, bryophytes and pteridophytes.

Thallophyta

• Thallophyta is the first division of the plant kingdom.

• They do not have well differentiated structure and are called algae.
• These plants are predominantly aquatic.
• Examples are Spirogyra, Ulothrix, Cladophora, Ulva and Chara.

Bryophyta

• Bryophyta is the 2nd division of the plant kingdom.

• These are called the amphibians of the plant kingdom.
• The plant body is commonly differentiated to form stem and leaf-like
structures.
• There is no vascular tissue for the transport of water and minerals.
• Examples are Funaria and Marchantia.

Pteridophyta

• Pteridophyta is the 3rd division of the plant kingdom.

• These plants have proper differentiation of roots, stems and leaves.
• Plant body has specialized tissue for the conduction of water and other
substances from one part of the plant body to another.
• Examples of pteridophytes are Marsilea, ferns and horsetails.

Phanerogamae

• Phanerogams are plants that produce seeds for reproduction. It has well differentiated
reproductive parts.
• Some of them do not produce flowers, while the others produce flowers.
• Seeds are the result of sexual reproduction process. They consist of the embryo along with stored
food, which assists for the initial growth of the embryo during germination.
• Phanerogams are further classified as gymnosperms and.

Gymnosperms

• Gymnosperm stands for naked seed as they don’t come enclosed in fruits.
• Usually perennial, evergreen and woody.
• Examples are pines and deodar, cycas, etc.
Angiosperms (covered seeds)

• Angiosperm is the last division of the plant kingdom and is the most evolved organism on the
planet.
• They bear flowers and fruits, inside which the seeds are found. They are called flowering plants.
• The seeds develop inside an ovary which is modified to become a fruit. Plant embryos in seeds
have structures called cotyledons.
• Cotyledons are structures present in seeds for nutrition during germination when leaves are not
yet developed. These are also known as seed leaves.

Dicots and Monocots

• When seeds have two cotyledons, they are called dicots.

• Dicots have a tap root system and reticulate venation.
Examples: Mango, Pea, Beans, etc.
• If seeds have only one cotyledon, they become monocots.
• Monocots show a fibrous root system and parallel venation.
• Examples: all grains like wheat, maize, rice etc.
Kingdom Animalia

Animalia

• Kingdom Animalia is made up of eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic organisms.

• Mode of nutrition is holozoic and they are either herbivores or carnivores.
• Most animals are motile, they can move independently in search of food, shelter or mate.

1. Phylum Porifera

They are mostly found in marine habitats and are non-motile. It is attached
to some solid support.

• There are holes or ‘pores’, all over the body. Therefore, these
animals are known as sponges.
• These lead to a canal system that helps in circulating water
throughout the body to bring in food and oxygen.
• These animals are covered with a hard outside layer or skeleton.
The body design involves very minimal differentiation and division
into tissues.
• Eg- Sycon and Spongilla

2. Phylum Coelenterata

• These animals are aquatic, mostly marine.

• Cells are organized into tissues (tissue grade of the organization).
• Animals are diploblastic, outer layer and inner layer.
• Some of these species live in colonies (corals), while others have a
solitary like–span (Hydra).
• Examples: Hydra, Jellyfish, Corals, Sea-anemone.

3. Phylum Platyhelminthes

• This phylum consists of the organisms that are

bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and flattened.
• The body is flattened dorsoventrally (meaning from
top to bottom), which is why these animals are called
flatworms.
• Acoelomate i.e No body cavity.
• The digestive system is incomplete or absent.
• Mostly parasites, a few are free living.
• Examples: Liver fluke, Tapeworm.
4. Phylum Nemotoda

• These organisms have bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and cylindrical body.

• Pseudocoelom is present as no real organs are present.
• Have a tubular digestive system with openings at both the ends.
• They are endoparasites. These are parasitic and causes diseases like elephantiasis.
• Examples: Ascaris, hookworm, filarial worm, etc.

5. Phylum Annelida

• These organisms have bilateral symmetry and

triploblastic.
• They are mostly aquatic, few are terrestrial.
• They have a true body cavity. This allows true
organs to be packaged in the body structure or
coelomate. There is extensive organ
differentiation.
• This differentiation occurs in a segmental fashion, with the segments lined up one after the other
from head to tail
• Examples: leech, earthworm, etc.

6. Phylum Arthropoda

• Animals with jointed appendages (in Greek Arthron: jointed, poda: legs).
• The body has three segments/regions as head, thorax and abdomen.
• Body is covered by an exoskeleton made of chitin.
• They are bilaterally symmetrical and have an open circulatory system i.e there is no well-defined
blood vessels.
• Examples: insects, scorpions, spiders, millipedes, centipedes, crabs, lobsters, etc

7. Phylum Mollusca

• They are bilaterally symmetrical, with a reduced coelomic cavity and little segmentation.
• They have an open circulatory system and kidney like organs for excretion.
• Body is soft and usually enclosed in a shell. The shell may be external or internal.
• They show the presence of Foot, Mantle and Mantle cavity.
• Examples: pearl oysters, bivalves, sepia, octopus, snail, slug, etc

8. Phylum Echinodermata

• They are spiny-skinned and free-living, exclusively marine.

• The animals are usually pentamerous.
• They are triploblastic and have a coelomic cavity.
• They have a water-driven tube system for moving forward.
• Examples: starfish, sea urchin, sea cucumber, sea lily, etc.
9. Phylum protochordata

• Protochordate is bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.

• In addition to these, they have a notochord that runs along the back of the animal and separates
the nervous tissue from the gut.
• They are marine animals and bridge non-chordates to chordates.
• Porifera to Echinodermata are non-chordates/invertebrates.
• Example: Balanoglossus, also called acorn worm.

10. Phylum Chordata/Vertebrata

• Vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic, coelomic and segmented, with complex
differentiation of body tissues and organs.
• All chordates possess the following features:
• (i) have a notochord (ii) have a dorsal nerve cord (iii) are triploblastic (iv) have paired gill
pouches (v) are coelomate.
• Organ-system level of organization.
• Presence of ventral heart and hepatic portal system.
• Presence of well-developed endocrine glands
• Except for a few primitive forms, the animals have a vertebral column instead of a notochord.
These animals are called vertebrates.

(a) Cyclostomes
• Cyclostomes are jawless vertebrates.
• They are characterized by having an elongated eel-like body, circular mouth, slimy skin and are
scaleless.
• They are ectoparasites or borers of other vertebrates.
• Example: Petromyzon (Lamprey) and Myxine (Hagfish).

(b) Pisces

• Class Pisces include all bony and cartilaginous fishes.

• They have scales or plates along with gills.
• They are exclusively aquatic.
• Body is streamlined with paired and unpaired fins.
• These are cold-blooded vertebrates.
• Heart is two-chambered.
• Examples: Sharks, Rays, Rohu, Mrigal, Green carp, etc

(c) Amphibia

• Amphibians live both, on land and in water and lay their eggs in water.
• Respiration is through gills in the larval stage and through the lungs in adults.
• They are cold-blooded animals.
• They have a three-chambered heart.
• Examples: frog, toads, salamander, etc
(d) Reptilia

• These are the first completely land animals.

• Reptiles are cold-blooded and breathe through their lungs.
• They have a three-chambered heart (except crocodile) and lay eggs with tough coverings.
• Body is covered with scales, scutes or hard plates.
• Examples: snakes, crocodiles, turtles, lizards etc.

(e) Aves

• All birds belong to this class.

• They are warm-blooded, have a four-chambered heart and breathe through lungs.
• They have their forelimbs modified into wings which help in flight.
• Jaws are modified into beaks.
• Bones are hollow and most of them are fused to reduce body weight.
• An exoskeleton is in the form of feathers.

(f) Mammalia

• They are warm-blooded, breath through their lungs and have a four-chambered heart.
• Presence of hair on their body, sweat and oil glands are exclusive characters of mammals.
• Presence of pinna i.e external ear is also seen only in mammals.
• They also have mammary glands to feed their young ones.
• They usually give birth to live young ones.
• Examples of mammals: humans, cattle, whales, horses, bats, rats, etc