LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

LEARNING MODULE

IN

EM 5- MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE

Prepared by

CARMELIN P. MOSA, PhD

Associate Professor IV

EM 5 – Mythology and Folklore 1

Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Title : Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE

Topic : 1.1 What is Folklore

1.2 What is Mythology
1.3 The Mythology of the Greeks
1.4 The Greek and Roman Writers of Mythology
1.5 Introduction to Norse Mythology

Time Frame : 4 hours

Introduction :
Since the beginning of time, people have gathered around fires to tell stories of
angry gods, harrowing journeys, cunning animals, horrible beasts, and the mighty
heroes who vanquished them. Mythology and folklore have provided a way for these
colorful stories to spring to life for thousands of years and helped humans make sense
of the world. Explore how these compelling tales continue to shape society even today.

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you shall have:
1. Explain the nature of Mythology and Folklore
2. Remember and the distinguish the different concepts on mythology and
folklore.
3. Share prior knowledge on the different mythologies and folklore.

Pre – Test:
Gather your ideas associated with folklore and mythology in a semantic web
and write as many words or phrases as you can. Afterwards, construct your one-
sentence definition of the terms by putting together the words you used in the semantic
web. Rewrite this part in yellow/white long sheets.

Folklore

Folklore is
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______.

EM 5 – Mythology and Folklore 2

Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Mythology

Mythology
is_______________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_______.

Learning Activities:

Activity 1: Read-by-my-Own
Independently read and comprehend the following inputs written below
relative to classical mythology and folklore.

Folklore
Folklore does not only include what is passed orally from one generation to another rather it
encompasses everything including the cultural norms, behavioral codes, individual identities,
feelings and emotions, religious beliefs, and experiences of not only a particular race or nationality
but also of each individual living through it.

One of the best definitions for the term “folklore” can be found in Alan Dundes essay, “Who Are
the Folk?”. Dundes rejects the notion that folk belongs only to the rural folk or peasants. He argues
that in the 19th century many folklorists assumed ‘folk’ to be the rural folk or peasant class who fall
somewhere in between primitive or pre-literate and civilized literate classes. Therefore, the folklore
emerging out of such a category which is not as savage as that of primitive people, but is also not
as educated as the urban masses, is assumed to be the reproducer of folklore. Such a group of
people sharing common customs, beliefs, ideologies, mannerisms, and rituals etc. are the bearers
of folklore. According to his definition of ‘folk’: The term ‘folk’ can refer to any group of people

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

whatsoever who share at least one common factor. It does not matter what the linking factor is—it
could be a common occupation, language, or religion—but what is important is that a group formed
for whatever reason will have some traditions which it calls its own.
According to Ralph Steele Boggs, “Folklore refers to a body of materials, to the science which
studies these materials, and to the art which applies these materials and scientific conclusions about
them to practical ends”. Tracing out its origin, Boggs further adds that: The word “folklore” was first
proposed, more or less in its present sense, by William John Thoms in the Athenaeum of August
22, 1846, and has been widely adopted into Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French, and other
languages, notably of the Romance group. Of wider concept, the Germans use Volkskunde. As a
body of materials, folklore is the lore, erudition, knowledge, or teachings, of a folk, large social unit,
kindred group, tribe, race, or nation, primitive or civilized, throughout its history. It is the whole body
of traditional culture, or conventional modes of human thought and action. It is created informally in
a group of persons for themselves, but has been accepted widely enough to have attained
considerable currency, and over a sufficient period of time to have acquired traditional traits, such
as anonymity of authorship and historic geographic patterns of variants of basic forms.

Barbro Klein defines folklore through four basic meanings. He says: First, it denotes oral
narration, rituals, crafts, and other forms of vernacular expressive culture. Second, folklore or
‘folkloristics, names an academic discipline devoted to the study of such phenomenon. Third, in
everyday usage, folklore sometimes describes colorful ‘folkloric’ phenomenon linked to the music,
tourist and fashion industries. Fourth, like myth folklore can mean falsehood.

In the words of Jan Brunvand: Folklore comprises the unrecorded traditions of a people; it
includes both the form and content of these traditions and their style or technique of communication
from person to person. Folklore is the traditional, unofficial, non-institutional part of culture. It
encompasses all knowledge, understandings, values, attitudes, assumptions, feelings, and beliefs
transmitted in traditional forms by word of mouth or by customary examples.

While commenting upon ‘folklore’ in the context of India, Trilochan Pande argues: The term
Folklore has always remained a debatable subject since its coinage by Thoms in 1846 among the
European and American scholars, and in India and Pakistan the situation is not much different.
Indian folkloristics have been using for a long time another term Lok Varta parallel to the term
Folklore, but as regards its exact scope and meaning the state is still more confusing than in the

EM 5 – Mythology and Folklore 4

Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

western countries (105). Pande equates the term Folklore to Lok Varta when he says: Lok Varta
Folk ‘Lore’ OR ‘Wisdom of Common People’

Areas of Folklore
• Richard M. Dorson
o Oral literature: Sometimes called verbal art: "Under this rubric fall spoken, sung, and
voiced forms of traditional utterance that show repetitive patterns,
o Physical folklife: generally called material culture : It covers “ the visible rather than the
aural aspects of folk behavior that existed prior to and continue alongside mechanized
industry.
o Social folk custom: This is an area of traditional life which lies in between oral literature
and material culture. Social folk customs are often closely bound up with deeply held
folk beliefs, and they cover the fields of festivals and ceremonies, folk religion and folk
medicine and
o Performing folk arts which encompass primarily traditional music, dance and drama."

• Mazarul Islam
o Folk literature :(What is called oral literature or verbal art by Dorson.)
o Folk-practices (They are neither literature, nor art):
▪ Day to day practices (some are occasional): Folk beliefs, customs,
superstitions, rites and rituals, folk festivals, some of the religious practices of
the folk, traditional procedures
▪ Occasional: Folk games, folk sports, fighting competitions of animals and birds.
o Folk arts of artistic folklore:
▪ Performing: Folk dances, folk dramas (they are also literature), rhyming and
rope-jumping, folk caricature, folk gestures (in all these three elements, there
are arts, sometimes prominent, sometimes very minor)
▪ Non-performing: Folk paintings, sculptures, arts and crafts, embroidered quilt,
doll-making, images of gods and goddesses, alpana (drawing on the ground or
door-steps drawn using rice-powder mixed with water) designs on cakes, on
furniture, body paintings ornaments, archery, costumes (colorful), traditional
swastika emblems.
o Folk science and technology:
▪ Folk Science: Folk treatment, medicine, arithmetic, churning milk for
preparation of butter, butter oil, curd food recipes, preparation of drinks from

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

rice, palm juice. Chemical used for coloring cloth, dye, use of fertilizer,
preservative of plants, crops and trees by the folk in a manner different from
botanist or agricultural scientists. Some of the items of this group like treatment
by chants and charms, folk arithmetic belongs to the non-material group of
folklore, they are basically oral.
▪ Folk technology: Folk architecture (tools made of iron, wood and bamboo are
used in day-to-day life), houses, fences, barns, nets for fishing, carts,
palanquin,' duli' barks, knots, armaments, smoking pipes, pottery, bags,
cooking (preparation of cakes and other foods with design from rice and other
materials. These items may even belong to folk science), hot cross bums (cited
by Taylor), mode of stacking hay or straw, weaving and so on.

GROWTH OF FOLKLORE STUDIES

Through the concept of folklore as an

academic discipline was introduced in the
middle of the 19m century A.D. as the study
of ancient observances and customs, the
notions, beliefs, traditions, superstitions and
prejudices of the common people, the study of
folklore (Folkloristics) gradually generates its
momentum from a mere antiquarian hobby to
a major discipline.

• HISTORICAL-GEOGRAPHICAL THEORY: The Historical-Geographical theory of folklore is

known as Finnish school and comparative methodology too. In fact, it is a method than a
theory. A comparative folklorist wants to reconstruct a complex myth, tale or folksong
historically and geographically.

• THE THEQRY OF POLYGENESIS: According to this theory, a cultural artefact of an element

of folklore could have originated at two or more different unrelated places independently at
the same time or at different time, but under the same circumstances and same favorable
environment. It is sometimes call as anthropological school. The followers of anthropological
school or polygenesis theory believe that, as all men evolve in on evolutionary path through
absolutely identical stages of savagery, barbarism and civilization, so creation of a cultural

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
artifact in two or more different culture independently is not unnatural. On the other hand,
'The theory of polygenesis is often quoted in support of the concept of the psychic unity of
man by those who believe that because of the psychological uniformity of man, folklore
created in different culture can be the same.'

• THE THEORY OF DIFFUSIONISM: THEORY OF BORROWING: The followers of this

theory believe that, cultural traits were born in one place or probably in a very few places and
they were transmitted to other places through diffusion. This theory is a combination of
monogenesis and diffusion. Theodore Benfey, a German Indologist was the profounder of
the theory and he termed some nations of the world as borrowers of folklore, and some
suppliers, some are manufacturers and some consumers. lt is not possible to decide and
pinpoint such positions in fact, 'Folklore travels, but does not travel up to the extent as to
destroy the independent birth of folklore in other areas where they travel. The elements are
transmitted and diffused, they also exert influence over the other, one variant is mixed up in
a peculiar way with the other variant of another country, near or far away, which has given
folklore an international character; but in spite of these factors which are true, every culture
gives birth to its folklore according to its own requirement and characteristics.''

• STRUCTURALISM: SYNTAGMATIC AND PARADIGMATIC APPROACH: Structuralism is

an influential and attractive method in the folklore studies as well as in linguistics and
literature. Though, the real father of this method is Vladimir Propp, a Russian folklorist, and
structural approach appeared in his famous book Morfoloaivaskazki (Morphology of the
folktale) published in 1928, this method entered to the American folkloristics in the sixties
only when Alan Dundes used the Propp’s method in The Morphology of North American
Indian Folktales. After the pioneering work of Propp, western scholars such as Claude Levi
Strauss, Alan Dundes, E.Kongas Maranda, P, Maranda and William O. Hendricks have
attained a remarkable level of sophistication in structural analysis of various folk genre, The
structuralists believe that, folk-narratives change in subject matter and theme, but its
structure remains almost unaffected. Propp observes that:
o "Function is understood as an act of a character, defined from the point of view of its
significance for the course of the action."
o "Functions of the characters serve as stable constant elements in a tale, independent
of how and by whom they are fulfilled. They constitute the fundamental components
of the tale."
o "The number of functions known to the (fairy) tale is limited."

EM 5 – Mythology and Folklore 7

Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

• CONTEXTUAL THEORY. The followers of this theory believe that, folkloristics is not only
the study of folklore text. As Malinowski says, * The text, of course, is extremely important,
but without the context it remains lifeless. Therefore, the contextualists insist that the concept
of folklore apply not to a text but to an event in which a tradition is performed or
communicated. Hence, they stressed to record not only the text but the whole circumstance
(even gestures) in which the text is delivered by the narrator and received by the audience.
Roger Abrahams, Dan-Ben Amos, Alan Dundes, Robert Georges, Kenneth Goldstein etc.
followed this method.

• FUNCTIONAL THEORY. The main object of functionalists is to determine properly the

functions of folklore element in the society. According to Bascom, there are four functions of
folklore:
o (a) Amusement is, obviously, one of the function of folklore, but folklore, also reveals
man's attempts to escape in fantasy from the conditions of his geographical
environment and from his own biological limitations as a member of the genus and
species Homo sapiens.
o (b) Folklore plays in validating culture, in justifying its rituals and institutions to those
who perform and observe them.
o (c) Folklore plays in education, particularly but not exclusively, in non-literate societies,
o (d) Folklore fulfils the important but often overlooked function of maintaining
conformity to the accepted patterns of behavior.

• PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: This theory was introduced after Sigmund Freud's

psychoanalysis. According to Freud, myths, folktales, and other forms of folklore looked like
dreams and the myths and tales are nothing but sex symbols. 'Many folklorists following
Freudian principles believed that the "dream is the myth of the individual" some even
declared that myth is the dream of a culture; and therefore the same psychological
mechanisms operated in dreams and myths and were subject to the same interpretations.

B. Mythology

Myths are humanity’s earliest imaginative attempt to explain the universe, its creation, and
its writing. The study of the mythology of a particular culture reveals the way of life and thought of
that culture. Also, literature is filled with allusions to gods and goddesses. Myths are a reflection of

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

the culture that gave rise to them. Myths are generally stories that have been handed down for
generations and are popular tales that embody a collective knowledge.

Functions Of Mythology
The reasons for myth making vary, but the four primary functions of myths are as follows;

1. To entertain. Storytelling was a valuable skill. Myths are stories and stories get told. Stories
that are passed down from one generation to the next are stories told in the oral tradition. In
places and times where people don’t use written language, oral tradition is a way of
preserving knowledge.

2. To morally instruct. Myths can explain the correct form of behavior, explain customs and
traditions, codes, or laws to follow. If a person did not follow the law, he or she would be
punished. The gods looked favorably on the faithful and rewarded them accordingly. Many
myths have a didactic purpose (just like some stories in the Bible).

3. To explain the unexplainable. The Greeks attempted to provide an aetiology (the study of first
causes, origins) for everything in nature. A lot of these occurrences in nature are answered
by science today, but we can understand how they baffled the Greeks. The Greeks sought
to answer not just the small questions, but the big ones as well. Ex. Where did we come from
(a universal phenomenon, or cultural question)? How was the world created, etc…

4. To reveal our deepest hopes and fears as a society/culture. Fairy tales, fables usually
address our hopes and desires as a culture. Ex. Cinderella motif. Urban legends address our
fears as a culture.

Categories of Myths
• Myths of creation: these explain the beginning of time, space, and man
• Myths of explanation: these explain the great questions of the universe
• myths of morality: these teach lessons and reinforce cultural morality

Evolution Of Myths

The evolution of myth and religion differ from people to people. An ancient Greek writer,
Euhemerus (300 B.C.) believed that the ancient gods were patterned after heroes who actually lived
at one time.

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

A second theory was made by philologists or people who study the growth of language. This
study claims that man repeating things their ancestors said, understood them in a different sense
and because of that, misunderstanding created myths.

The third theory was made by anthropologists or people who study the history of the human
race. They tried to explain the cause of natural phenomenon.

The fourth theory according to French sociologist, Emile Durkheim, explained that myths
came from society as a whole. He believed that people got so excited during their tribal festivities
that they thought that a great power came to them from an object in their camp. This object became
a sacred emblem to the tribe.

The Mythology of the Greeks

Greek mythology is the body of myths originally

told by the ancient Greeks, and a genre of Ancient
Greek folklore. These stories concern the origin
and nature of the world, the lives and activities of
deities, heroes, and mythological creatures, and
the origins and significance of the ancient Greeks'
own cult and ritual practices. Modern scholars
study the myths to shed light on the religious and
political institutions of ancient Greece, and to better
understand the nature of myth-making itself.

The Greek myths were initially propagated in an oral-poetic tradition most likely by Minoan
and Mycenaean singers starting in the 18th century BC; eventually the myths of the heroes of the
Trojan War and its aftermath became part of the oral tradition of Homer's epic poems, the Iliad and
the Odyssey. Two poems by Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the Theogony and the Works and
Days, contain accounts of the genesis of the world, the succession of divine rulers, the succession
of human ages, the origin of human woes, and the origin of sacrificial practices. Myths are also
preserved in the Homeric Hymns, in fragments of epic poems of the Epic Cycle, in lyric poems, in
the works of the tragedians and comedians of the fifth century BC, in writings of scholars and poets
of the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the time of the Roman Empire by writers such as Plutarch
and Pausanias.

EM 5 – Mythology and Folklore 10

Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Aside from this narrative deposit in ancient Greek literature, pictorial representations of gods,
heroes, and mythic episodes featured prominently in ancient vase paintings and the decoration of
votive gifts and many other artifacts. Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth century BC depict
scenes from the Trojan cycle as well as the adventures of Heracles. In the succeeding Archaic,
Classical, and Hellenistic periods, Homeric and various other mythological scenes appear,
supplementing the existing literary evidence.
Greek mythology has had an extensive influence on the culture, arts, and literature of
Western civilization and remains part of Western heritage and language. Poets and artists from
ancient times to the present have derived inspiration from Greek mythology and have discovered
contemporary significance and relevance in the themes.

The Norse Mythology

Norse or Scandinavian mythology is the

body of myths of the North Germanic peoples,
stemming from Norse paganism and continuing
after the Christianization of Scandinavia, and into
the Scandinavian folklore of the modern period. The
northernmost extension of Germanic mythology
and stemming from Proto-Germanic folklore, Norse
mythology consists of tales of various deities,
beings, and heroes derived from numerous sources
from both before and after the pagan period,
including medieval manuscripts, archaeological
representations, and folk tradition.

The source texts mention numerous gods, such as the hammer-wielding, humanity-protecting
thunder-god Thor, who relentlessly fights his foes; the one-eyed, raven-flanked god Odin, who
craftily pursues knowledge throughout the worlds and bestowed among humanity the runic alphabet;
the beautiful, seiðr-working, feathered cloak-clad goddess Freyja who rides to battle to choose
among the slain; the vengeful, skiing goddess Skaði, who prefers the wolf howls of the winter
mountains to the seashore; the powerful god Njörðr, who may calm both sea and fire and grant
wealth and land; the god Freyr, whose weather and farming associations bring peace and pleasure

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
to humanity; the goddess Iðunn, who keeps apples that grant eternal youthfulness; the
mysterious god Heimdallr, who is born of nine mothers, can hear grass grow, has gold teeth, and
possesses a resounding horn; the jötunn's son, the god Loki, who brings tragedy to the gods by
engineering the death of the goddess Frigg's beautiful son Baldr; and numerous other deities.

Most of the surviving mythology centers on the plights of the gods and their interaction with
several other beings, such as humanity and the jötnar, beings who may be friends, lovers, foes, or
family members of the gods. The cosmos in Norse mythology consists of Nine Worlds that flank a
central sacred tree, Yggdrasil. Units of time and elements of cosmology are personified as deities
or beings. Various forms of a creation myth are recounted, where the world is created from the flesh
of the primordial being Ymir, and the first two humans are Ask and Embla. These worlds are foretold
to be reborn after the events of Ragnarök when an immense battle occurs between the gods and
their enemies, and the world is enveloped in flames, only to be reborn anew. There the surviving
gods will meet, and the land will be fertile and green, and two humans will repopulate the world.

Norse mythology has been the subject of

scholarly discourse since the 17th century, when
key texts attracted the attention of the intellectual
circles of Europe. By way of comparative
mythology and historical linguistics, scholars
have identified elements of Germanic mythology
reaching as far back as Proto-Indo-European
mythology. During the modern period, the
Romanticist Viking revival re-awoke an interest in
the subject matter, and references to Norse
mythology may now be found throughout modern
popular culture. The myths have further been
revived in a religious context among adherents of
Germanic Neopaganism.

The Greek and Roman Writers of Mythology

It is common knowledge that the foundation of western society derives from ancient Greece and more
specifically from scripts of the ancient Greek scientist and philosophers whose writings have survived more
or less complete. Listed below are the prominent Greek and Roman writers whose works have had a huge
impact on modern society and culture worldwide.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Homer (8th century BC)

He is mainly known for Iliad and Odyssey, the most famous epic poems. The Iliad is the oldest work
of western literature. In ancient Greece, people considered themselves uneducated if they had not read both
the Iliad and the Odyssey. What is odd is that there is no knowledge of Homer’s life to such an extent that
historians dispute his existence.

Sophocles (496-406 BC)

Sophocles was one of the three great tragedians of ancient Greece along with Aeschylus and
Euripides. He wrote 123 tragedies during his life, but only seven of which have completely survived including
Antigone, Oedipus the King and Electra. He is known to have developed the art of theatre by introducing
initiatives such as the addition of a third actor and scenography.

Herodotus (484-425 BC)

Herodotus is considered by many the father of history. He was the first to approach history as a
science. It is worth mentioning that the word history itself comes from his book Histories which in Greek
means “stories.”

Euripides (480-406 BC)

Euripides was a tragedian who wrote 95 plays. Only eighteen plays have survived in entity. His most
known plays were Alcestis, Medea and Helen. His work was very modern for his time as he portrays strong
women and wise slaves.

Aristophanes (446-386 BC)

Aristophanes was a comic playwright who wrote 40 plays. Only eleven of which have survived entirely.
His most famous works were the Ecclesiazusae, the Frogs and Lysistrata. His plays have provided historians
with information about life in Athens of that era.

Ovid (March 43 BC – 17/18 AD)

Publius Ovidius Nāso known in English as Ovid was a Roman poet who lived during the reign of
Augustus. He was a contemporary of the older Virgil and Horace, with whom he is often ranked as one of the
three canonical poets of Latin literature. The Imperial scholar Quintilian considered him the last of the Latin
love elegists.[2] Although Ovid enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime, the emperor Augustus
banished him to a remote province on the Black Sea, where he remained a decade until his death.
The first major Roman poet to begin his career during the reign of Augustus,[3] Ovid is today best
known for the Metamorphoses, a 15-book continuous mythological narrative written in the meter of epic, and
for works in elegiac couplets such as Ars Amatoria ("The Art of Love") and Fasti. His poetry was much imitated
during Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, and greatly influenced Western art and literature. The
Metamorphoses remains one of the most important sources of classical mythology.

EM 5 – Mythology and Folklore 13

Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Virgil (15 October 70 – 21 September 19 BC)

Publius Vergilius Maro usually called Virgil or Vergil in English was an ancient Roman poet of the
Augustan period. He composed three of the most famous poems in Latin literature: the Eclogues (or
Bucolics), the Georgics, and the epic Aeneid. A number of minor poems, collected in the Appendix Vergiliana,
were attributed to him in ancient times, but modern scholars consider his authorship of these poems as
dubious. Virgil's work has had wide and deep influence on Western literature, most notably Dante's Divine
Comedy, in which Virgil appears as the author's guide through Hell and Purgatory. Virgil has been traditionally
ranked as one of Rome's greatest poets. His Aeneid is also considered a national epic of ancient Rome, a
title held since composition.

Activity 2: The Archeologist in Me

Research on the social practices and artifacts exclusive to your community.

Give at least two for each and provide descriptions and photos to prove your claim.
Write your output on short bond papers. Do this task by group and make sure you
belong to the same locality. Take note of the rubric that below as the basis for grading
the activity;

Criteria Rating Scale

• Content (Relevance, • 5 (Outstanding)
comprehensiveness, originality, • 4 (Very Good)
insights) • 3 (Good)
• Organization (Clarity of thoughts, • 2 (Satisfactory)
creativity, unity and consistency) • 1 (Needs Improvement)
• Mechanics (Punctuation, spelling,
capitalization, grammar)

Activity 3: The Artist in Me

Make a self-music video singing a folksong from your locality at the

same time showcasing your community. Be guided with the rubric below as
basis for grading the activity;

Criteria Rating Scale

• Content/Organization • 5 (Outstanding)
• Video Continuity/Editing • 4 (Very Good)
• Audio Editing • 3 (Good)
• Camera TEchniques • 2 (Satisfactory)
• 1 (Needs Improvement)

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Self-evaluation:
Having realized and understood folklore and mythology, write below your learnings
and reflection taken from this chapter.

_____________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

__________________________________.

Review of Concepts:

Read over again and remember the following concepts on mythology and folklore;

1. Myths are generally stories that have been handed down for generations
and are popular tales that embody a collective knowledge.
2. Folklore refers to a body of materials, to the science which studies these
materials, and to the art which applies these materials and scientific
conclusions about them to practical ends.
3. Folkloristics is an academic discipline devoted to the study of such
phenomenon.

Post Test:
As wrap up to learning on this chapter, discuss why you need to know/study
mythology and folklore?

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Reference:

Spence, Lewis. (1921). Introduction to Mythology. Moffat Yard & Company. Pages 11-39

Aquino, B. Audencio V. (1992) Philippine Myths and Legends (Values Oriented). National
Book Store.

Schuman, Michael A. (2001). Mayan and Aztec Mythology. Enslow Publishers, Inc.

Roberts, Jeremy (2004). Chinese Mythology. Chelsea House.

Wilkins, W.J. (2009). Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic. W. Thacker & Co

Remler, Pat (2010). Egyptian Mythology. Chelsea House.

Mortenses, Karl. (1913) A Handbook of Norse Mythology. Thomas Y. Crowell Co.

Daly, Kathleen N. (2009) Greek and Roman Mythology. Chelsea House

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Title : Chapter 2: CREATION MYTHS

Topic : 3.1 Gaea (Greek and Roman Mythology)

3.2 Yggdrasil (Norse Mythology)
3.3 Izanagi & Izanami (Japanese Mythology)
3.4 Dragon and the Egg (Chinese Mythology)
3.5 Malakas at Maganda (Filipino Myrhology)

Time Frame : 9 hours

Introduction :
Creation myths often share a number of features. They often are considered
sacred accounts and can be found in nearly all known religious traditions. They are all
stories with a plot and characters who are either deities, human-like figures, or
animals, who often speak and transform easily. They are often set in a dim and
nonspecific past that historian of religion Mircea Eliade termed in illo tempore ('at that
time').

Creation myths address questions deeply meaningful to the society that shares
them, revealing their central worldview and the framework for the self-identity of the
culture and individual in a universal context.

One purpose of literature is to hold up a mirror to the society that created it, a
related purpose is to reflect upon the act of creation itself. A significant portion of the
earliest literature from a variety of cultures tells some version of a creation story.

Creation will be the theme of this chapter and our point of departure will be as
close to “the beginning” of literary history as possible.

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to;
1. Discuss and differentiate the creation myths around the world.
2. Conduct a local-based survey on the creation myth believed by the
community.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Pre – Test:

O the following chart, tick whether you agree or disagree:

MYTHS AGREE DISAGREE

1. A myth is a story that is not factual.
2. A myth is a story about princes, princesses,
and witches.
3. A myth is an adventure story about a real
person.
4. A myth may explain how things began.
5. Most myth heroes are male.
6. Many groups of people have myths about a
flood.
7. Myth stories are about ordinary people.
8. Myth explains how life started, or explains
natural events.
9. Myth involves some supernatural power.
10. Myth is a story that s not about a real event.

Learning Activities:

Activity 1: Read-by-my-Own

Independently read and comprehend the following inputs written below

relative to creation myths around the world.

Gaea (Greek & Roman Myth)

GAIA (Gaea) was the goddess of the earth.

She was one of the primordial elemental deities
(protogenoi) born at the dawn of creation. Gaia was
Commented [U1]:
the great mother of all creation--the heavenly gods
were descended from her through her union with
Ouranos (Uranus) (Sky), the sea-gods from her union
with Pontos (Sea), the Gigantes (Giants) from her
mating with Tartaros (the Pit), and mortal creatures
born directly from her earthy flesh.

Gaia was the chief antagonist of the heavenly gods. First she rebelled against her husband
Ouranos (Sky) who had imprisoned several of her giant-sons within her womb. Later when her son
Kronos (Cronus) defied her by imprisoning these same sons, she sided with Zeus in his rebellion.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Finally she came into conflict with Zeus for she was angered by his binding of her Titan-sons in
Tartaros. She birthed a tribe of Gigantes (Giants) and later the monster Typhoeus to overthrow him,
but both failed in their attempts.

In the ancient Greek cosmology earth was conceived of

as a flat disk encirced by the river Okeanos (Oceanus), and
encompassed above by the solid dome of heaven and below
by the great pit (or inverse dome) of Tartaros. Earth supported
the seas and mountains upon her breast.

In Greek vase painting Gaia was depicted as a buxom,

matronly woman rising from the earth, inseparable from her
native element. In mosaic art, she appears as a full-figured
woman, reclining on the earth, often clothed in green, and
sometimes accompanied by troops of Karpoi (Carpi, Fruits)
and Horai (Horae, Seasons).

Yggdrasil (Norse Mythology)

Trees have profound roles in worlds both real

and fictional. With their majestic bark, lush laid-out
branches and billowing cloud of leaves, humans are
drawn to them in deep fascination. This magic is
embodied in the marvelous account of the Norse
World Tree. According to Norse mythology, the entire
world is in fact a tree, called Yggdrasil (“igg-dreh-sell”)
located at the center of the universe.

According to the legends, Yggdrasil is a gargantuan living ash tree with branches extending
above the heavens and a trunk strongly latched into the ground by three great roots. Here, the gods
assemble and meet, seek sustenance from its life-giving branches, and watch over the worlds.
Radiating from this center span the nine realms of existence, including Asgard, the home of the gods
and the hall of Valhalla, and Midgard, the land of the human mortals. An anonymous eagle sits in
the top of its branches in constant conflict with an evil serpent, Nidhogg, who tries to unbalance the
tree by chewing through one of its roots.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

This ever-green ash tree has been found in various

texts, including the famous Prose Edda and the Poetic
Edda. The latter is an unnamed collection of anonymous
poems which contains the text from Icelandic manuscript
Codex Regius, the prime source of Norse mythology. The
Prose Edda is a collection of books written by 13th century
Icelandic historian Snorri Sturluson. In Gylfaginning, one
of the books of the Prose Edda.

Yggdrasil’s three great roots are watered by three wells, Urdarbrunnr, Hvergelmr, and
Mimisbrunnr. Urdarbrunnr, or Urda’s Well, is tended by the three Norn maidens, Urda (Past),
Verdandi (Present), and Skuld (Future), who spin the threads of fate for all beings. In Völuspá, a
seer recites what is perhaps the most famous of all texts.

Izanagi and Izanami (Japanese Mythology)

In Japanese mythology, Izanagi and Izanami were a

divine couple, brother and sister, who had a principal role in
creating the islands of Japan and from whom many important
and elemental kami (gods) had their birth. Their story is told in
the 8th century CE Japanese compendium of mythology, the
Kojik.
Before the formation of the heavens and the world, only
dark chaos existed, with particles of light floating throughout the
darkness. As time passed, the particles of light rose to the top
of the darkness, and the combined particles formed
Takamagahara, or the Plain of High Heaven. The remaining
darkness and chaos below combined to form a mass, what
would later become Earth.
When Takamagahara was formed, Japan’s first three deities or kami appeared. From a
shoot of reeds, two more gods appeared, followed by two more gods. These seven kami then
birthed five subsequent generations of deities, each with a male and female, a brother and sister.
The eighth generation of these deities was a male, Izanagi, meaning “He Who Invites”, and a
female, Izanami, meaning She Who Invites”.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

The product of their union was born deformed and without bones, and he was abandoned
in a basket that Izanami and Izanagi pushed out to sea. They tried once more to produce a child
but this one too was born deformed. Devastated and confused by their inability to create a child,
Izanagi and Izanami consulted the kami of previous generations for help. The kami told the pair
that the reason for their misfortune was that they had not completed the marriage ritual properly;
it was Izanagi, the male, who should have greeted his wife, Izanami, before she greeted him.

They returned home and completed the ritual

as instructed. This time, as they met behind the pillar,
Izanagi exclaimed, “What a fine young woman!”
Their union was fruitful, and they produced all of the
islands of Japan and the deities that inhabited them.
The pair continued to produce the deities of Japan
until the birth of the deity of fire. Though the deity was
born unharmed, Izanami died in childbirth.

Overcome with sorrow, Izanagi traveled to

Yomi, the land of the dead, to retrieve Izanami. In the
shadowy darkness, Izanagi could make out only the
form of Izanami. He asked her to return to the land of
the living, and she told him he was too late. She
would need to ask permission to leave the land of the
dead because she had already consumed the food
of the shadowy land.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Izanami asked for Izanagi’s patience, telling him not to look at her in her current state. Izanagi
agreed, but after a while, desperate to see his love, Izanagi lit a fire. His beloved Izanami was in a
state of bodily decay, with maggots crawling through her flesh. Overwhelmed by fear, Izanagi left
his wife and ran from Yomi. Izanami sent deities to chase Izanagi, but he escaped the land of the
dead and blocked the path with a large stone.

After such an ordeal, Izanagi knew that he needed to cleanse himself of the impurities of
Yomi, as was ritual. While he cleansed himself, three new kami were born: From his left eye
Amaterasu, the sun goddess; from his right eye, Tsuki-yomi, the moon god; and from his nose,
Susanoo, the storm god.

Dragon and the Egg (Chinese Mythology)

In Chinese mythology, Pan Gu was the first living creature and the creator of the world.
Among his acts of creation were the separation of the earth and sky, the placement of the stars and
planets in the heavens, and the shaping of the earth's surface.

At the beginning of time, the universe consisted

only of dark chaos, in the form of a cosmic egg. Within
the egg lay a sleeping giant named Pan Gu. One day
Pan Gu awoke and stretched, causing the egg to split
open. After Pan Gu emerged, the light, pure parts of the
egg became the sky, while the heavy parts formed the
earth. This separation of the earth and sky marked the
beginning of yin and yang, the two opposing forces of
the universe.

Chaos great disorder or confusion, cosmic large or universal in scale; having to do with the
universe. Already gigantic in size, Pan Gu grew 10 feet taller each day. This went on for 18,000
years, and as Pan Gu became taller, he pushed the earth and sky farther apart and shaped them
with his tools until they reached their present position and appearance. Exhausted by his work, Pan
Gu finally fell asleep and died.
When Pan Gu died, parts of his body were transformed into different features of the world.
According to some stories, his head, arms, feet, and stomach became great mountains that help to
anchor the world and mark its boundaries. Other stories say that Pan Gu's breath was transformed
into wind and clouds; his voice became thunder; and his eyes became the sun and moon. Pan Gu's
blood formed rivers and seas; his veins turned into roads and paths; his sweat became rain and

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

dew; his bones and teeth turned into rock and metal; his flesh changed into soil; the hair on his head
became the stars; and the hair on his body turned into vegetation.

Some myths say that humans developed from fleas

and parasites that fell from Pan Gu's body and beard.
Other stories, however, tell how Pan Gu created
humans by shaping them from clay and leaving them
in the sun to dry. When a sudden rain began to fall,
Pan Gu hastily wrapped up the clay figures, damaging
some in the process, which explains why some
humans are crippled or disabled. Supernatural related
to forces beyond the normal world; magical or
miraculous.

Although a giant, Pan Gu is usually portrayed in Chinese art as a little person clothed in a
bearskin or leaves, holding a hammer and chisel or the cosmic egg of creation. Sometimes he is
shown working with his tools to create the world, accompanied by four supernatural creatures: a
unicorn, tortoise, phoenix, and dragon. The earliest known myths of Pan Gu date from the A.D. 200S
to 500s. Though primarily a figure in Taoist belief, he also appears sometimes in Chinese Buddhist
mythology.

Malakas at Maganda (Filipino Mythology)

In the beginning when the Earth was still young,

the gods, Bathala; Aman Sinaya; and Amihan, were
the only beings that existed. Bathala was god of the
Sky (Langit) and Aman Sinaya was goddess of the Sea
(Linaw). The two have been fierce rivals for a long time,
and every day, they would try to outdo each other.
Bathala used his lightning bolts and thunder, and
Aman Sinaya used her waves and typhoons.

One day, Aman Sinaya decided to send her tempests into the Sky to cause a wild commotion. In
order to stop her, Bathala threw giant boulders that came from atop of the mountains. It created
thousands of islands onto the surface of the Sea, which became the Philippine archipelago. Amihan, the

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Northeast Wind in the middle of the two realms, decided to stop the battle once and for all by taking the
form of a bird. He then flew back and forth between them. This made the Sky and the Sea closer than it
was before. At the point where the two realms met, both deities agreed to end the fight and become
friends.
As a sign of friendship, Bathala planted a seed underneath the ocean floor. It soon grew into a
bamboo reed, sticking out of the edge of the Sea. Amihan had gazed upon it one day and heard voices,
coming from inside the bamboo. “Oh, North Wind! North Wind! Please let us out!”, the voices said. He
pecked the reed once, then twice. All of a sudden, the bamboo cracked and slit open. Inside were two
human beings; one was a male and the other was a female. Amihan named the man “Malakas” (Strong)
and the woman “Maganda” (Beautiful). He then flew them onto one of the islands where they settled,
built a house, and had millions of offspring that populated the Earth.
Then, it finally came when the children were too numerous for Malakas and Maganda to control.
One day, they were ordered to work in the fields, but instead, they did nothing. When the parents arrived
home, they noticed that their instructions weren’t followed. Asking for some guidance, they prayed to the
great god, Bathala, and he came to them and said, “Let your anger be shown to everyone and it shall
make them into what they are meant to be.” So out of their anger, they grabbed spoon ladles and began
to give blows to everyone.
All the children started running away. Some hid under the bamboo tables and became slaves. A
few of them went inside the burning cauldron and turned into the Aetas of the islands. Others climbed
up the rooftop and became the datus of the villages. While some climbed on top of the trees and were
believed to have become the commoners. Those who fled to the mountains turned into hunters and the
ones who ran to the seashore turned into fishermen,

Activity 2: Local-based Survey and Analysis

Conduct a local-based survey and analysis on the believed creation myth in the
community

Criteria Rating Scale

• Documentation • 5 (Outstanding)
• Analysis Report • 4 (Very Good)
• Language Mechanics • 3 (Good)
• 2 (Satisfactory)
• 1 (Needs Improvement)

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Self-evaluation:
In brief, answer the following questions;

What kind of story do you think a myth is?

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2. Name some myths that you know:

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3.What do you think are the differences between a myth, a folktale and a fairytale?
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Review of Concepts:

Read over again and remember the following concepts on the gods creation
myths;
➢ Gaea is a Greek personification of the Earth as a goddess. Mother and
wife of Uranus (Heaven), from whom the Titan Cronus, her last-born
child by him, separated her, she was also mother of the other Titans, the
Gigantes, the Erinyes, and the Cyclopes.

➢ Yggdrasil is a huge ash tree in Norse mythology that overspreads the

world and binds earth, hell, and heaven together.

➢ The idea of the world being formless and chaotic is quite common, and
Izanagi and Izanami's creation of the world is similar to the story of Adam
and Eve, in the sense that a male and female pair was necessary for
creation, be it of the world itself or the people who would populate it.

➢ Dragon and the Egg is a mythological creation story in Chinese account.

➢ Malakas at Maganda is a Filipino mythological account of creation. The

names Malakas and Maganda also denote a deeper meaning and truth
about Pilipino culture.

Post Test:
As wrap up to learning on this chapter, chose one among the discussed creation
myths. Present its general concept through either of the following; storytelling, art,
drama and dance.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Reference:

Spence, Lewis. (1921). Introduction to Mythology. Moffat Yard & Company. Pages 11-39

Aquino, B. Audencio V. (1992) Philippine Myths and Legends (Values Oriented). National
Book Store.

Schuman, Michael A. (2001). Mayan and Aztec Mythology. Enslow Publishers, Inc.

Roberts, Jeremy (2004). Chinese Mythology. Chelsea House.

Wilkins, W.J. (2009). Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic. W. Thacker & Co

Remler, Pat (2010). Egyptian Mythology. Chelsea House.

Mortenses, Karl. (1913) A Handbook of Norse Mythology. Thomas Y. Crowell Co.

Daly, Kathleen N. (2009) Greek and Roman Mythology. Chelsea House

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Title : Chapter 4: STORIES OF LOVE (Greek and Roman)

Topic : 4.1 Cupid & Psyche 3.8 Endymion and Selene

4.2 Pyramus & Thisbe 3.9 Alpheus & Arethusa
4.3 Orpheus & Eurydice
4.4 Ceyx & Alcyone
4.5 Pygmalion & Galatea
4.6 Baucis & Philemon
4.7 Apollo and Daphne

Time Frame : 13 hours

Introduction :
Throughout history, every culture has developed its own formula for the ideal
love story. Nowadays, most of our favorites start with “Once upon a time…” and end
with a happily ever after. But these stories differ greatly from those that came before
them, especially if we are talking about Greek and Roman mythology - their great love
stories rarely end well.

So, get on your imaginary Sun chariot, fasten your seat belt, and let us further
explore mythology by looking into at some of the most famous lovers in Greek and
Roman mythology and what these stories of love has to offer to us.

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to;
1. Identify various themes depicted on the various stories of love.
2. Relate the experiences of the characters present in the literary works.
3. Discuss the stories of these myths based on relevance with natural
phenomena or as allegory to present-day realities.

Pre – Test:

Below are some concepts relating to love. Be able to give your personal insights
and/or reflection to these statements by writing three or five sentences on the space
provided below;

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
1. ______________________________________________________________________
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2. ______________________________________________________________________
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3. ______________________________________________________________________
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4. ______________________________________________________________________
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5. ______________________________________________________________________
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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
Learning Activities:

Activity 1: Read-by-my-Own
Independently read and comprehend the following inputs written below
relative to various love stories in Greek and Roman mythology.

CUPID AND PSYCHE

This is a story told only by Apuleius, a Latin writer of the second century A.D. The
story is about beauty, about human and divine rivalry, and about the trials of love. The envious
goddess Venus sends her son Cupid to punish the ravishing mortal Psyche, but Cupid falls in love
with Psyche and disobeys his mother's orders. It is a tale where humans and gods get hurt, where
malice poisons their dreams, and where, through trust, Love and Soul will become forever
inseparable.
There was once a king who had three
daughters, all lovely maidens, but the youngest,
Psyche, excelled her sisters so greatly that beside
them she seemed a very goddess consorting with mere
mortals. The fame of her surpassing beauty spread
over the earth, and everywhere men journeyed to gaze
upon her with wonder and adoration and to do her
homage as though she were in truth one of the
immortals. They would even say that Venus herself
could not equal this mortal. As they thronged in ever
growing numbers to worship her loveliness no one any
more gave a thought to Venus herself. Her temples
were neglected; her altars foul with cold ashes; her
favorite towns deserted and falling in ruins. All the
honors once hers were now given to a mere girl
destined someday to die.

It may well be believed that the goddess would not put up with this treatment As always
when she was in trouble she turned for help to her son, that beautiful winged youth whom some call
Cupid and others Love, against whose arrows there is no defense. neither in heaven nor on the
earth. She told him her wrongs and as always, he was ready to do her bid- ding. "Use your power,”
she said, "and make the hussy fall madly in love with the vilest and most despicable creature there
is in the whole world." And so no doubt he would have done, if Venus had not first shown him
Psyche, never think- ing in her jealous rage what such beauty might do even to the God of Love
himself. As he looked upon her it was as if he bad shot one of his arrows into his own heart. He said
nothing to his mother, indeed he had no power to utter a word, and Venus left him with the happy
confidence that he would swiftly bring about Psyche's ruin.

What happened, however, was not what she had counted on. Psyche did not fall in love
with a horrible wretch, she did not fall in love at all. Still more strange, no one fell in love with her.
Men were content to look and wonder and worship—and then pass on to marry someone else. Both
her sisters, inexpressibly inferior to her, were splendidly married, each to a king. Psyche, the all-
beautiful, sat sad and solitary, only admired, never loved. It seemed that no man wanted her.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Meanwhile, Psyche and her family become worried that she

will never find a husband, for although men admire her beauty,
they always seem content to marry someone else. Psyche's
father prays to Apollo for help, and Apollo instructs her to go
to the top of a hill, where she will marry not a man but a
serpent. Psyche bravely follows the instructions and falls
asleep on the hill. When she wakes up, she discovers a
stunning mansion. Going inside, she relaxes and enjoys fine
food and luxurious treatment. At night, in the dark, she meets
and falls in love with her husband.

She lives happily with him, never seeing

him, until one day he tells her that her sisters have
been crying for her. She begs to see them, but her
husband replies that it would not be wise to do so.
Psyche insists that they visit, and when they do,
they become extremely jealous of Psyche's
beautiful mansion and lush quarters. They deduce
that Psyche has never seen her husband, and they
convince her that she must sneak a look.
Confused and conflicted, Psyche turns on a lamp
one night as her husband lies next to her.
When she sees the beautiful Cupid asleep on her bed, she weeps for her lack of faith.
Cupid awakens and deserts her because Love cannot live where there is no trust. Cupid returns to
his mother, Venus, who again decides to enact revenge on the beautiful girl.
Psyche, meanwhile, journeys all over the land to find Cupid.
She decides to go to Venus herself in a plea for love and forgiveness, and
when she finally sees Venus, the great goddess laughs aloud. Venus
shows her a heap of seeds and tells her that she must sort them all in one
night's time if she wants to see Cupid again. This task is impossible for
one person alone, but ants pity Psyche and sort the seeds for her.
Shocked, Venus then orders Psyche to sleep on the cold ground and eat
only a piece of bread for dinner. But Psyche survives the night easily.
Finally, Venus commands her to retrieve a golden fleece from the river.
She almost drowns herself in the river because of her sorrow, but a reed
speaks to her and suggests that she collect the golden pieces of fleece
from the thorny briar that catches it. Psyche follows these instructions and
returns a sizable quantity to Venus. The amazed goddess, still at it, now
orders Psyche to fill a flask from the mouth of the River Styx.
When Psyche reaches the head of the river, she realizes that this task seems impossible
because the rocks are so dangerous. This time, an eagle helps her and fills the flask. Venus still
does not give in. She challenges Psyche to go into the underworld and have Persephone put some
of her beauty in a box. Miraculously, Psyche succeeds.
On her way toward giving the box to Venus, she becomes curious, opens the box, and
instantly falls asleep. Meanwhile, Cupid looks for Psyche and finds her sleeping. He awakens her,
puts the sleeping spell back in the box, and takes her to Zeus to request her immortality. Zeus grants
the request and makes Psyche an immortal goddess. She and Cupid are married. Venus now
supports the marriage because her son has married a goddess—and because Psyche will no longer
distract the men on earth from Venus.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

PYRAMUS AND THISBE

Pyramus and Thisbe are young lovers in a Babylonian* story told by the Roman poet
Ovid in the Metamorphoses. The lovers, who lived next door to each other, were forbidden by their
parents to see or speak to each other. But the two communicated through a hole in the wall between
their houses.

The story started In Babylon when

two families lived under a single roof,their two
living quarters separated by a singlewall. A boy
of one family, Pyramus, fell desperately in love
with Thisbe, a girl of the other. Apparently, being
neighbors had made enemies out of the adults.
When Pyramus and Thisbe announced their
love, both sets of parents objected and forbade
the couple from seeing one other.

This only made the love of Pyramus and Thisbe grow stronger. The teenagers discovered
a fault in the wall that separated the two living spaces. While their parents slept, the lovers would
sneak to the wall and whisper words passion through the crack. After weeks of secret meetings,
they decided they could stand their separation no longer and agreed to run away together. Pyramus
instructed Thisbe to meet him at the Tomb of Ninus, a local landmark, after nightfall. From there
they would escape into happiness.
The night came, and Thisbe stole silently from her
home. She arrived at the tomb. Something stirred in the
darkness of the mulberry bushes, but it was not Pyramus. She
saw two glowing eyes. The girl turned to flee, and as she did,
the lioness (for that is what was hiding in the bushes) moved
toward her.
Thisbe’s cloak caught upon a branch. The lioness
licked its blood-stained muzzle and crept closer. Jerking
violently, Thisbe tore from the branch, leaving the outer cloak
behind. The girl disappeared into the night, and the lioness, who
had a full belly from a recently kill, curiously examined the cloak,
nuzzling it with her bloody muzzle.
After the lioness lost interest, she sauntered back into the wild. Pyramus arrived soon
after. He had been delayed by his parents, questioning where he was headed at such a late hour.
When he found Thisbe missing, he desperately searched the thicket. What he found there forced
him to his knees: Thisbe’s bloody cloak and the footprints of a beast. The pieces of the puzzle
formed quickly in his mind. Some beast had slaughtered Thisbe and dragged her body away to its
den. In a frenzy, Pyramus drew forth his dagger and, calling out the name of Thisbe, drove it into
his breast.

You might guess what happened next. Thisbe returned to the tomb, suspecting the
lioness was now gone. There she found Pyramus, dead by own hand, his blood staining the ground
and bushes. As she interpreted the scene before her, she took up the dripping dagger that had
pierced her lover’s heart and plunged it into her own. The blood of the two lovers had stained the
fruit of the nearby mulberry tree. As a testament to Pyramus and Thisbe, the gods turned the white
berries of the mulberry tree eternally red.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Orpheus and Eurydice

One of the great tragic love stories from Greek mythology, is the tale of the musician
Orpheus and his wife Eurydice. This features a doomed love story, death, passion, weaknesses of
the human spirit, and afterlife.

Orpheus was the son of Apollo and Calliope, the

Muse. Apollo gave his son a lyre and taught him how to
play; Orpheus did to such perfection that even Apollo
was surprised. It is said that nothing could resist to his
music and melody, neither friends nor enemies or
beasts. Even trees and rocks were entranced with his
music.

Orpheus fell in love with Eurydice a woman of

unique beauty; they got married and lived happily for
many years. Hymen was called to bless the marriage
and he predicted that their perfection was not meant to
last for years.

At some time, soon after his omen, Eurydice was wandering in the forest with the Nymphs,
when Aristaeus, a shepherd saw her and was beguiled by her beauty. He started chasing her and
making advances on her. Eurydice got scared and tried to escape, but she was bitten by a snake
and died.

Orpheus sang his grief with his lyre and managed to move everything living or not on the
world; both humans and Gods were deeply touched by his sorrow and grief.

Apollo then advised his son to descend to the

Hades and see his wife. Any other mortal would have
died, but Orpheus protected by the Gods, went to the
Hades and arrived at the infamous Stygian realm,
passing by ghosts and souls of people unknown. He
also managed to charm Cerberus, the known monster
with the three heads. Orpheus presented himself in
front of the God of the Underworld Hades (Pluto) and
his wife Persephone.

Orpheus started playing for them and even the cold heart of Hades started melting, due to
the melodies coming from Orpheus lyre. Hades told Orpheus that he could take Eurydice with him
but under one condition; Eurydice would follow him while walking out to the light from the caves of
the Underworld, but he should not look at her before coming out to the light because he would lose
her forever. If Orpheus was patient enough, he would have Eurydice as a normal woman again on
his side.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Orpheus was delighted; he thanked the Gods and

left to ascend to the world. He was trying to hear
Eurydice’s steps, but he could not hear anything and he
started believing that the Gods had fooled him. Of course,
Eurydice was behind him, but as a shadow, waiting to
come to light to become a full woman again. Only a few
feet away from the exit, Orpheus lost his faith and turned
to see; he was Eurydice behind him, but her shadow was
whisked back among the dead. Eurydice was gone
forever.

Orpheus tried to return to the Underworld but a man cannot enter the Hades twice, not
alive anyway. Here, there are two different versions of the same myth. According to the first version,
Orpheus started playing a mourning song with his lyre, calling for death so that he can be united
with Eurydice forever. Beasts tore him apart, or maybe the Maenads, in a frenzy mood. According
to another version, Zeus decided to strike him with a lightning because Orpheus would reveal the
secrets of the Underworld to the humans.

CEYX AND ALCYONE

The story of Alcyone and Ceyx is very touching and portrays the love that triumphs over
tragedy. This young couple was so much in love that neither the gods nor death could set them
apart. Alcyone followed her husband to the other life and did so with her free will. From this myth
also derives a well-known phrase, the Halcyon Days.

The lovely Alcyone was the daughter of Aeolus, the Greek

god of the wind, and her mother was either Enarete or Aegiale. She
was the devoted wife of Ceyx, King of Trachis, in central Greece. Ceyx
ruled his kingdom with justice and in peace. Alcyone and Ceyx were
admired by gods and mortals alike for their great physical beauty, as
well as the profound love they had for each other.

They were so happy in their marriage that they used to often

playfully call one another Zeus and Hera. This infuriated the chief of
the gods who regarded it an audacity. Zeus waited for the proper time
to punish the arrogant couple who dared to make themselves
comparable to gods.

Ceyx was still in mourning over his brother's death and deeply troubled over some
ominous signs that had observed. So, he decided to consult the oracle of Apollo at Carlos in Ionia
(Western Anatolia). Alcyone, however, tried to dissuade her husband from his decision to travel
through the dangerous seas to consult the oracle.

She reminded him of the danger from the fury of the winds which even her father, the god of the
winds, often found difficult to control: she put pressure over her husband to take her along with him.
But Ceyx wouldn't put his beloved wife through unnecessary danger. Alcyone watched with a bad
feeling as the ship carrying her husband was getting away from the harbor.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Zeus, the chief god, decided this was an opportune time to punish the couple for their
sacrilege. He launched a thunderbolt that raised a furious hurricane engulfing the ship which began
to sink.

Ceyx realized that the end had come for him and, before he got drowned, he prayed to
the gods to allow his body be washed ashore so as to enable his beloved Alcyone to perform the
funeral rites. As Ceyx gasped his last breath, his father Esophorous, the morning star, watched
helplessly, shrouding his face with clouds, unable to leave the heavens and rescue his son.

The lovely Alcyone waited for her husband for a long

time, praying continually to the gods, especially Hera, queen
of the gods, for the safe return of Ceyx. Hera felt profound
sorrow for the tragic fate of Ceyx. She sent her messenger Iris,
goddess of the rainbow, to look for Hypnos, the god of Sleep
and comforter of the afflicted, to whom was assigned the
mission of gently informing Alcyone about the death of her
husband. Hypnos, in his turn, entrusted the mission to his son
Morpheus, an expert in forming apparitions.
Orpheus created a life-like specter of Ceyx which
revealed to Alcyone the tragic circumstances concerning the
shipwreck and death of her husband.

In profound grief, Alcyone ran to the seashore beating her breasts and tearing her garments.
She suddenly beheld the body of a man that had been washed ashore. Coming closer, she realized
it was the body of her beloved Ceyx.

After performing the last rites and unable to continue living without her husband, Alcyone
threw herself into the sea and got drowned, determined to join her husband in the land of the dead.
The gods on Olympus were profoundly affected by the tragic fate of Alcyone and Ceyx, as well as
their wonderful love for one other which not even the frosty hands of death could extinguish. In order
to atone for his rash action that was responsible for this tragedy, Zeus transformed the couple into
the Halcyon birds (kingfisher).

The phrase halcyon days owes its origin to this beautiful myth of Alcyone and Ceyx.
According to the legend, for two weeks every January, Aeolus, father of Alcyone, calms down the
winds and the waves so that Alcyone, in the form of a kingfisher bird, can safely make her nest on
the beach and lay her eggs. Hence, the term "halcyon days" comes to signify a period of great peace
and calm.

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

PYGMALION AND GALATEA

The story of Pygmalion and Galatea is an enchanting myth about a Cypriot sculptor who
fell in love with his own sculpture. He prays to goddess Aphrodite (aka Venus) to bring the sculpture to
life, because he plans for it to be his wife. The goddess grants his wish, and as a result, Pygmalion and
his creation lived happily ever after.

Pygmalion was a talented Greek

sculptor from Cyprus. After becoming disgusted by
some local prostitutes, he lost all interest in women
and avoided their company completely.
Pygmalion saw women as flawed
creatures and vowed never to waste any moment
of his life with them. He dedicated himself to his
work and soon created Galatea, a beautiful stature
of a woman out of ivory.
Ironically, the masterpiece of his life
was this statue of a woman. Perhaps he sought to
correct in marble the flaws he saw in women of
flesh and blood.

Whatever the case, Pygmalion worked so long and with such inspiration on the statue of
Galatea, that it became more beautiful than any woman that had ever lived or been carved in stone.

As he finished the statue’s features, they

became exquisitely lovely, and he found himself applying
the strokes of hammer and chisel with increasing affection.
When his chisel finally stopped ringing, there stood before
him a woman of such perfection that Pygmalion, who had
professed his disdain of all females, fell deeply in love.

He would bring it gifts, caress it, kiss it and talk

to it every day. He brought it gifts he thought women would
enjoy, such as pretty seashells, beads, songbirds, baubles
and flowers.

He would dress the statue in fine clothing, and

put rings on her fingers, necklaces around her neck and
even earrings. However, what irony that he who had
scorned women should fall in love with a woman who could
never love him in return!

Such a passion could not go unnoticed by the goddess of love, Aphrodite. She took pity
on the young man and, when Pygmalion went to her temple to sacrifice a bull, Aphrodite gave him
a sign. As the offering burned on the temple, the flames shot up one, two, three times.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Pygmalion went home, wondering what to make of the manifestation he had seen. When he
entered his studio, however, and saw the statue, all other thoughts were banished from his mind.
He ran to his statue and embraced it.

Did she seem warm to his touch, or was it just residual heat form the sunset that had
warmed the stone? He kissed her.

Did the statue’s lips seem soft? He stood back and regarded her.

Did there appear the glow of life from within the marble form? Was he imagining it?

No. Aphrodite had given life to the statue, whose name was Galatea.

Pygmalion’s mind oscillated between doubt and joy.

Fearing he may be mistaken, again and again with a lover’s
ardor he touches the object of his hopes.

It was indeed alive! The veins when pressed yielded

to the finger and again resumed their roundness.

Slowly it dawned on Pygmalion that the animation of

his sculpture was the result of his prayer to Goddess
Aphrodite who knew his desire. At last, the votary of
Aphrodite found words to thank the goddess. Pygmalion
humbled himself at the Goddess’ feet.

Soon Pygmalion and Galatea were wed, and Pygmalion never forgot to thank Aphrodite for
the gift she had given him.

Aphrodite blessed the nuptials she had formed, and this union between Pygmalion and
Galatea produced a son named Paphos, from whom the city of Paphos in Cyprus (this city was
sacred to Aphrodite), received its name.

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

BAUCIS AND PHILEMON

Philemon and Baucis had lived out their long lives nobly, but in poverty. Jupiter, the Rom
an king of the gods, had heard of the virtuous couple, but based on all his previous experiences with
humans, he had serious doubts as to their goodness

Jupiter was about to destroy mankind but was willing to

give it one final chance before starting over again. So, in the
company of his son Mercury, the wing-footed messenger god,
Jupiter went about, disguised as a worn and weary traveler,
from house to house among the neighbors of Philemon and
Baucis.
As Jupiter feared and expected, the neighbors turned
him and Mercury away rudely.
Then the two gods went to the last house, the cottage of
Philemon and Baucis, where the couple had lived all their long-
married lives.

Philemon and Baucis were pleased to have

visitors and insisted that their guests rest before their
little hearth fire. They even lugged in more of their
precious firewood to make a greater blaze. Unasked,
Philemon and Baucis then served their presumably
starving guests, fresh fruits, olives, eggs, and wine.

Soon the old couple noticed that no matter how

often they poured from it, the wine pitcher was never
empty. They began to suspect that their guests might be
more than mere mortals. Just in case, Philemon and
Baucis decided to provide the closest they could come
to a meal that was fit for a god. They would slaughter
their only goose in their guests' honor.
Unfortunately, the legs of the goose were faster than
those of Philemon or Baucis. Even though the humans were
not as fast, they were smarter, and so they cornered the goose
inside the cottage, where they were just about to catch it.... At
the last moment, the goose sought the shelter of the divine
guests. To save the life of the goose, Jupiter and Mercury
revealed themselves and immediately expressed their
pleasure in meeting an honorable human pair. The gods took
the pair to a mountain from which they could see the
punishment their neighbors had suffered -- a devastating flood.

Asked what divine favor they wanted, the couple said

that they wished to become temple priests and die together.
Their wish was granted and when they died they were turned
into intertwining trees.

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

APOLLO AND DAPHNE

The myth of Apollo and Daphne is a story describing what happens when lust faces rejection.
It’s a tale about the power of love, and the power of Cupid (or Eros in Greek).

In Greek Mythology, Apollo was the God of Light, and it was his job to pull the sun across
the sky in his 4-horse chariot every day. He has also been referred to as the God of music, poetry,
art, medicine, knowledge, plague and archery.

Apollo was the son of Zeus (the God of Thunder) and Leto. He had a twin sister, Artemis,
who was the Goddess of Hunting. Apollo was also famous for being an oracular god, and had two
cults in Delphi and Delos. People would come from all over the world to learn from Apollo what their
future held. It was believed that, as the God of both medicine and plague, Apollo could heal people
as well as cause disease by shooting people with his arrows.

Daphne was a Naiad Nymph in Greek Mythology, and was the daughter of a river god. She
was famous for being incredibly beautiful and for catching the eye of Apollo. However, Daphne was
determined to remain unmarried and untouched by a man by the rest of her life.

The story on Daphne and Apollo all started

after Apollo, the sun god, killed a gigantic monster,
Python, he felt very proud of himself. This day, he
came across Cupid, also called Eros by the
Greeks. Feeling proud of himself, he decided to
mock Cupid’s archery skill. Intimidated by Apollo
and in order to retaliate, Cupid fired two arrows: a
gold arrow that struck Apollo and made him fall in
love with Daphne, and a lead arrow that made
Daphne hate Apollo.

Under the spell of the arrow, Apollo

continued to follow Daphne, but she continued to
reject him. Apollo told Daphne that he would love
her forever.

Consumed by desire and love, Apollo now started

chasing Daphne all over the woods. Apollo tried to persuade
Daphne of how great he was and hoped that Daphne would
accept his love. Eventually, Apollo caught up with the
beautiful maiden, which made Daphne call out for her father
to help her. Peneus, seeing the situation, decided to turn her
daughter into a laurel tree.

By the time Apollo approached her, she was already

enclosed with the hard exterior of a tree and the roots were
embedded in the ground. The depressed Apollo, in a heated
moment to demonstrate his love for Daphne, exclaimed,
"Since you cannot be my wife, you shall assuredly be my
tree. I will wear you for my crown; I will decorate with you
my harp and my quiver.”

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

SELENE AND ENDYMION

The myth of Selene and Endymion is about a rare female pursuit. The moon goddess, Selene,
falls in love with the mortal Endymion. Endymion is said to be a shepherd, a hunter, or a king. Selene
visited her sleeping love in the night as she rode her moon chariot across the night sky. She would
come down to earth just to be with the beautiful Endymion.

Endymion, in Greek mythology, a beautiful youth who spent much of his life in perpetual
sleep. Endymion’s parentage varies among the different ancient references and stories, but several
traditions say that he was originally the king of Elis. According to one tradition, Zeus offered him
anything that he might desire, and Endymion chose an everlasting sleep in which he might remain
youthful forever. According to another version of the myth, Endymion’s eternal sleep was a
punishment inflicted by Zeus because he had attempted to have a sexual relationship with Zeus’s
wife, Hera. In any case, Endymion was loved by Selene, the goddess of the moon, who visited him
every night while he lay asleep in a cave on Mount Latmus in Caria; she bore him 50 daughters. A
common form of the myth represents Endymion as having been put to sleep by Selene herself so
that she might enjoy his beauty undisturbed.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

ALPHEUS AND ARETHUSA

This story is told in full only by Ovid. There is nothing noteworthy in his treatment of
it. The verse at the end is taken from the Alexandrian poet Moschus.

In Ortygia, an island which formed part of Syracuse,

the greatest city of Sicily, there is a sacred spring called
Arethusa. Once, however, Arethusa was not water or even
a water nymph, but a fair young huntress and a follower of
Artemis. Like her mistress she would have nothing to do
with men; like her she loved hunting and the freedom of the
forest.

One day, tired and hot from the chase, she came
upon a crystal-clear river deeply shaded by silvery willows.
No more delightful place for a bath could be imagined.
Arethusa undressed and slipped into the cool delicious
water. For a while she swam idly to and fro in utter peace;
then she seemed to feel something stir in the depths
beneath her.

Frightened, she sprang to the bank—and as she did

so she heard a voice: "Why such haste, fairest maiden?"
Without looking back she fled away from the stream to the
woods and ran with all the speed her fear gave her.

She was hotly pursued and by one stronger if not swifter than she. The unknown called
to her to stop. He told her he was the god of the river, Alpheus, and that he was following her
only because he loved her. But she wanted none of him; she had but one thought, to escape.
It was a long race, but the issue was never in doubt; he could keep on running longer than
she. Worn out at last, Arethusa called to her goddess, and not in vain.

Artemis changed her into a spring of water,

and cleft the earth so that a tunnel was made under
the sea from Greece to Sicily. Arethusa plunged
down and emerged in Ortygia, where the place in
which her spring bubbles up is holy ground, sacred
to Artemis.

But it is said that even so she was not free of

Alpheus. The story is that the god, changing back
into a river, followed her through the tunnel and that
now his. water mingles with hers in the fountain.
They say that often Greek flowers are seen coming
up from the bottom, and that if a wooden cup is
thrown into the Alpheus in Greece, it will reappear in
Arethusa's well in Sicily.

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Activity 2: Draw a Picture!!!

On a piece of long bond paper, draw a picture of the story that you like best
from among the stories of love tackled. In a short video clip, have yourself showcasing
your drawn output while creatively explaining its summary and justification why you
prefer to choose such.

Criteria Rating Scale

• Documentation • 5 (Outstanding)
• Analysis Report • 4 (Very Good)
• Language Mechanics • 3 (Good)
• 2 (Satisfactory)
• 1 (Needs Improvement)

Self-evaluation:
In brief, write the moral lesson you learned from the various stories of love tackled and
bea able to explain why you say so;

1. Cupid & Psyche

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2. Endymion and Selene

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3. Pyramus & Thisbe

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4. Alpheus & Arethusa

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
5.Orpheus & Eurydice
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6. Ceyx & Alcyone

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7. Pygmalion & Galatea

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8. Baucis & Philemon

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9. Apollo and Daphne

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Review of Concepts:

The following are some of the prominent love stories in Greek and Roman
mythology;
➢ Cupid & Psyche
➢ Endymion and Selene
➢ Pyramus & Thisbe
➢ Alpheus & Arethusa
➢ Orpheus & Eurydice
➢ Ceyx & Alcyone
➢ Pygmalion & Galatea
➢ Baucis & Philemon
➢ Apollo and Daphne

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Post Test:
As wrap up to learning on this chapter, chose one among the discussed stories
of love. Present its general concept through a digital storytelling.
Below is the rubric for grading your activity;

Reference:

Spence, Lewis. (1921). Introduction to Mythology. Moffat Yard & Company. Pages 11-39

Aquino, B. Audencio V. (1992) Philippine Myths and Legends (Values Oriented). National
Book Store.

Schuman, Michael A. (2001). Mayan and Aztec Mythology. Enslow Publishers, Inc.

Roberts, Jeremy (2004). Chinese Mythology. Chelsea House.

Wilkins, W.J. (2009). Hindu Mythology, Vedic and Puranic. W. Thacker & Co

Remler, Pat (2010). Egyptian Mythology. Chelsea House.

Mortenses, Karl. (1913) A Handbook of Norse Mythology. Thomas Y. Crowell Co.

Daly, Kathleen N. (2009) Greek and Roman Mythology. Chelsea House

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Title : Chapter 5: STORIES OF ADVENTURE

Topic : 4.1 Oedipus Rex

4.2 Aeneid
4.3 Iliad
4.4 Odyssey
4.5 The Quest of the Golden Fleece
4.6 Hercules
4.7 Phaeton
4.8 Pegasus and Bellerophon
4.9 Otus and Ephialtes
4.10 Daedalus

Time Frame : 13 hours

Introduction :
An adventure is an event or series of events that happens outside the course
of the protagonist's ordinary life, usually accompanied by danger, often by physical
action.
Adventure stories almost always move quickly, and the pace of the plot is at
least as important as characterization, setting and other elements of a creative work.
This chapter will likely expose you to various stories of adventure in Greek,
Roman, British, and Europe setting.

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you shall have:
1. Express identified themes present on each story of adventure
2. Defend a statement from a story based one’s established moral concepts
and personal experiences.
3. Recognize political concepts found on each story of adventure

Pre – Test:
Think of ideas that you can associate with stories of adventure, then below the mind
map diagram, briefly explain why you have chosen o have such ideas.

Stories of
Adventure

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
_________________________________________________________________________
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Learning Activities:

Activity 1: Read-by-my-Own
Independently read and comprehend the following inputs written below relative
to stories of love and adventure in Greek mythology.

Oedipus the King/ Oedipus Rex

“Oedipus the King” is a tragedy by the ancient Greek

playwright Sophocles, first performed in about 429 BCE. It
was the second of Sophocles ‘three Theban plays to be
produced, but it comes first in the internal chronology
(followed by “Oedipus at Colonus” and then “Antigone”).

It follows the story of King Oedipus of Thebes as he

discovers that he has unwittingly killed his own father, Laius,
and married his own mother, Jocasta. Over the centuries, it
has come to be regarded by many as the Greek tragedy par
excellence and certainly as the summit of Sophocles’
achievements.

To briefly recap on the background to the play:

Shortly after Oedipus’ birth, his father, King Laius of Thebes, learned from an oracle that he,
Laius, was doomed to perish by the hand of his own son, and so ordered his wife Jocasta to kill the
infant.

However, neither she nor her servant could bring themselves to kill him and he was
abandoned to elements. There he was found and brought up by a shepherd, before being taken in
and raised in the court of the childless King Polybus of Corinth as if he were his own son.

Stung by rumors that he was not the biological son of the king, Oedipus consulted an oracle
which foretold that he would marry his own mother and kill his own father. Desperate to avoid this
foretold fate, and believing Polybus and Merope to be his true parents, Oedipus left Corinth. On the
road to Thebes, he met Laius, his real father, and, unaware of each other’s true identities, they
quarreled and Oedipus ‘pride led him to murder Laius, fulfilling part of the oracle’s prophecy. Later,
he solved the riddle of the Sphinx and his reward for freeing the kingdom of Thebes from the Sphinx’s

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
curse was the hand of Queen Jocasta (actually his biological mother) and the crown of the city of
Thebes. The prophecy was thus fulfilled, although none of the main characters were aware of it at
this point.

As the play opens, a priest and the Chorus of

Theban elders are calling on King Oedipus to aid them
with the plague which has been sent by Apollo to
ravage the city. Oedipus has already sent Creon, his
brother-in-law, to consult the oracle at Delphi on the
matter, and when Creon returns at that very moment,
he reports that the plague will only end when the
murderer of their former king, Laius, is caught and
brought to justice. Oedipus vows to find the murderer
and curses him for the plague that he has caused.

Oedipus also summons the blind prophet Tiresias, who claims to know the answers to
Oedipus ‘questions, but refuses to speak, lamenting his ability to see the truth when the truth brings
nothing but pain. He advises Oedipus to abandon his search but, when the enraged Oedipus
accuses Tiresias of complicity in the murder, Tiresias is provoked into telling the king the truth, that
he himself is the murderer. Oedipus dismisses this as nonsense, accusing the prophet of being
corrupted by the ambitious Creon in an attempt to undermine him, and Tiresias leaves, putting forth
one last riddle: that the murderer of Laius will turn out to be both father and brother to his own
children, and the son of his own wife.

Oedipus demands that Creon be executed, convinced that he is conspiring against him, and
only the intervention of the Chorus persuades him to let Creon live. Oedipus ‘wife Jocasta tells him
he should take no notice of prophets and oracles anyway because, many years ago, she and Laius
received an oracle which never came true. This prophecy said that Laius would be killed by his own
son but, as everyone knows, Laius was actually killed by bandits at a crossroads on the way to
Delphi. The mention of crossroads causes Oedipus to give pause and he suddenly becomes worried
that Tiresias ‘accusations may actually have been true.

When a messenger from Corinth arrives with news of the death of King Polybus, Oedipus
shocks everyone with his apparent happiness at the news, as he sees this as proof that he can
never kill his father, although he still fears that he may somehow commit incest with his mother. The
messenger, eager to ease Oedipus ‘mind, tells him not to worry because Queen Merope of Corinth
was not in fact his real mother anyway.

The messenger turns out to be the very shepherd who had looked after an abandoned child,
which he later took to Corinth and gave up to King Polybus for adoption. He is also the very same
shepherd who witnessed the murder of Laius. By now, Jocasta is beginning to realize the truth, and
desperately begs Oedipus to stop asking questions. But Oedipus presses the shepherd, threatening
him with torture or execution, until it finally emerges that the child, he gave away was Laius’ own
son, and that Jocasta had given the baby to the shepherd to secretly be exposed upon the

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mountainside, in fear of the prophecy that Jocasta said had never come true: that the child would
kill its father.

With all now finally revealed, Oedipus curses

himself and his tragic destiny and stumbles off, as the
Chorus laments how even a great man can be felled
by fate. A servant enters and explains that Jocasta,
when she had begun to suspect the truth, had ran to
the palace bedroom and hanged herself there.
Oedipus enters, deliriously calling for a sword so that
he might kill himself and raging through the house until
he comes upon Jocasta ‘s body. In final despair,
Oedipus takes two long gold pins from her dress, and
plunges them into his own eyes.

Now blind, Oedipus begs to be exiled as soon as possible, and asks Creon to look after his
two daughters, Antigone and Ismene, lamenting that they should have been born into such a cursed
family. Creon counsels that Oedipus should be kept in the palace until oracles can be consulted
regarding what is best to be done, and the play ends as the Chorus wails: ‘Count no man happy till
he dies, free of pain at last’.

AENEID

Virgil wrote the Aeneid during what is known as the Golden Age of the
Roman Empire, under the auspices of Rome's first emperor, Caesar Augustus.
Virgil's purpose was to write a myth of Rome's origins that would emphasize the
grandeur and legitimize the success of an empire that had conquered most of the
known world. Virgil was the greatest writer that Rome produced.
In the epic, Virgil makes Aeneas the founder of
Rome and the progenitor of the Romans. The idea and
plan of the Aeneid are derived from Homer. Homer's
Iliad and Odyssey are stories of war and adventure,
respectively. Virgil’s Aeneid inverts this order; it begins
with the adventures of Aeneas and ends with the battle
for the possession of Latium. Both parts closely follow
the structure of Homer's epics. Episodes in Homer are
duplicated and many characters found in the Iliad are
also found in the Aeneid.

The story begins with the burning of Troy and the massacre of the men while the women and
the children are carried off into slavery. Aeneas is saved by his mother, together with his father
Anchises and his son Ascanius, and a few other Trojans. He sails away and from burning Troy.
Their destination is Latium, where they intend to found a Trojan colony. But their ships are driven
from their course by Athena, who is angry with Aeneas. They land in Carthage, in North Africa,
where they are welcomed by Queen Dido. The queen falls in love with Aeneas and makes him co-
ruler of Carthage. But Aeneas has a great destiny-to be the founder of Rome and much as he would
like to stay with Dido, he is commanded by Zeus to leave for Latium. Dido, brokenhearted, commits
suicide as Aeneas sails away.

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He passes through many dangers

paralleling some of the adventures of
Odysseus. After Aeneas finally reaches Italy,
goes down to the Underworld and learns about
his future descendants, the Romans. He
celebrated the anniversary of his father's death
with funeral games in the Underworld.

He reaches Latium and gains the friendship of King Latinus, the ruler of Latium. Oracles have
foretold that the only daughter of the king, Lavinia, would marry a foreigner and become the mother
of an imperial line.

Aeneas has a rival for the hand of Lavinia in the brave and powerful Turnus..A battle begins
between the Trojans and the Latiums and after many pitched encounters, Aeneas defeats Turnus
in single combat and gains the hand of Lavinia. He becomes king, and in ceremonial rites required
by the gods, a new nation is formed and the Trojans are named Latins

THE ILIAD

“The Iliad“ is an epic poem by the ancient Greek poet Homer, which recounts some of the
significant events of the final weeks of the Trojan War and the Greek siege of the city of Troy (which
was also known as Ilion, Ilios or Ilium in ancient times). Written in the mid-8th Century BCE, “The
Iliad” is usually considered to be the earliest work in the whole Western literary tradition, and one of
the best known and loved stories of all time.

Through its portrayal of the Trojan War, the stirring scenes of bloody battle, the wrath of
Achilles and the constant interventions of the gods, it explores themes of glory, wrath, homecoming
and fate. Moreover, the Homeric epic has provided subjects and stories for many other later Greek,
Roman, and Renaissance writings.

FACT INFORMATION
Author Homer
Date Written Mid-8th Century BCE
Setting Trojan War, ancient Greece
Main Characters Achilles, Agamemnon, Hector, Priam, Paris, Odysseus,
Diomedes, Patroclus, Menelaus
Key Themes Glory, wrath, heroism, honor, fate, war, peace

Mythological Background of the Iliad

Zeus, the father of the deities, seemed to have realized that the earth was getting terribly
overcrowded. To solve the problem of overpopulation, he devised a great war that would sweep
like a conflagration over Greece. This was the Trojan War.

A minor goddess, Thetis, was married to a mortal, Peleus .Out of this marriage, Achilles, the
greatest Greek warrior, was born. Eris, the goddess of mischief, was not invited to the marriage
feast, so into the middle of the banquet hall she threw a golden apple with this note: To the fairest
of the goddesses. Each of the most beautiful of the goddesses ⁃ namely, Hera, Athena, and Aprodite

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claimed the golden apple. A quarrel ensued and the Father Zeus was asked to decide who was the
most beautiful of the three. This placed Zeus in a predicament since Hera was his own wife and
Athena and Aphrodite were his own daughters. So, he parted the clouds covering Mount Olympus
the dwelling place of the deities, and showed the three goddesses a prince of Troy named Paris.
Zeus suggested that the three beauty contestants take their problem to Paris and ask him to decide.
The goddesses descended upon the earth, circled Paris by turns, and each proceeded to bribe him
so that he would award her the golden apple. Hera promised him power; Athena promised him
wisdom; Aprodite promised that she would give him the most beautiful woman in the world for his
wife. Paris awarded the golden apple to Aprodite.

It happened that Helen, the most beautiful woman in the world was already married to
Menelaus, king of Sparta. With the help of Aphrodite, Paris abducted Helen and took her to Troy
where she remained until the end of the ensuing Trojan War. That is the reason why she is called
Helen of Troy. The Greeks (Achaians) banded together to restore Helen to Menelaus. Agamemnon,
king of Mycenae was their general. Many adventurous Greek heroes joined the Greek expeditionary
forces. Among them were Achilles, the greatest and bravest of the Greek heroes; Odysseus, the
clever and wily warrior Diomedes, the bold one; Nestor, the prudent old man; Aias, the giant, and a
host of other heroes.

After ten years of preparation, the Greek army landed in Troy and began to attack its
fortifications. The Iliad begins in the tenth year of the war. There was a prophecy that in that year
Troy would fall and be destroyed by the victorious Greeks.

The subject matter of the Iliad. The story opens with a violent quarrel between Agamemnon,
the commander in chief of the Greek army, and Achilles, their greatest and bravest warrior. Briseis,
a concubine of Achilles, is unjustly taken by Agamemnon and as a result Achilles makes a sacred
vow that he will no longer fight.

For the duration of most of the pitched battles between the Greeks and the Trojans, Achilles
stays sulking in his tent. Because of his absence from the battlefield, the Trojans, led by Prince
Hector, make bold advances in battle and the Greeks are driven back. Their situation rapidly
deteriorates until most of the Greek leaders are wounded and are forced to leave the battle.
Patroclus, the dear friend of Achilles, saddened by the growing losses of his countrymen, begs
Achilles to let him lead Achilles' men the Myrmidons, to battle if, because of his anger with
Agamemnon, Achilles still refuses to fight. Achilles gives him his permission.

Patroclus rallies the Greeks and succeeds in making the Trojans retreat, but he is killed by
Hector, the Trojan prince who is equal to Achilles in courage and fighting skill. Angered by the death
of his dear comrade, Achilles now enters the fight, routs the Trojans, killing them mercilessly. Filled
with the dark passion of revenge, he goes after Hector and slays him. With beastly cruelty, he ties
the dead body of Hector to his chariot and drags it round and round the city of Troy. The story ends
with the funeral rites for Hector.

Outstanding episodes in the Iliad are the quarrel between Agamemnon and Achilles; the
single combat between Menelaus (the wronged husband) and Paris (the wife stealer); the farewell
of Hector from Andromade, his beautiful, gentle, unfortunate wife, as he leaves to fight Achilles; the
single combat between Aias and Hector; the games played in the funeral of Patroclus; the ransoming
of the body of Hector by his father , King Priam; and the lamentations of the Trojan women ever the
dead body of their beloved Hector, the magnanimous defender of the city of Troy.

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The Iliad Summary

The story covered in “The Iliad” begins nearly ten years into the siege of Troy by the Greek
forces, led by Agamemnon, King of Mycenae. The Greeks are quarrelling about whether or not to
return Chryseis, a Trojan captive of King Agamemnon, to her father, Chryses, a priest of
Apollo. Agamemnon wins the argument and refuses to give her up and threatens to ransom the girl
to her father. In turn, Chryses pleads Apollo to help him, so the offended god plagues the Greek
camp with a pestilence.
At the warrior-hero Achilles orders, the Greek soldiers force Agamemnon to return Chryseis
in order to appease Apollo and end the pestilence. But, when Agamemnon eventually reluctantly
agrees to give her back, he takes in her stead Briseis, Achilles ‘s own war-prize concubine. Feeling
dishonored, Achilles wrathfully withdraws both himself and his Myrmidon warriors from the Trojan
War.
Testing the loyalty of the remaining Greeks, Agamemnon pretends to order them to abandon
the war, but Odysseus encourages the Greeks to pursue the fight. During a brief truce in the
hostilities between the Trojan and Greek troops, Paris and Menelaus meet in single combat over
Helen, while she and old King Priam of Troy watch from the city walls. Despite the goddess
Aphrodite’s intervention on behalf of the over-matched Paris, Menelaus wins. After the fight is over,
the goddess Athena who favors the Greeks provokes the Trojans to break the truce, and another
battle begins.
During the new fight, the Greek hero Diomedes, strengthened by Athena, obliterates the
Trojans before him. However, in his blind arrogance and blood-lust, he strikes and injures Aphrodite.
Meanwhile, in the Trojan castle, despite the misgivings of his wife, Andromache, the Trojan hero,
Hector, son of King Priam, challenges the Greek warrior-hero Ajax to single combat, and is almost
overcome in battle. Throughout everything, in the background, the various gods and goddesses
(particularly Hera, Athena, Apollo and Poseidon) continue to argue among themselves and to
manipulate and intervene in the war, despite Zeus’ specific orders to not do so.
Achilles steadfastly refuses to give in to pleas for help from Agamemnon, Odysseus, Ajax,
Phoenix and Nestor, declining the offered honors and riches; even Agamemnon ‘s belated offer to
return Briseis to him. In the meantime, Diomedes and Odysseus sneak into the Trojan camp and
wreak havoc. But, with Achilles and his warriors out of battle, the tide appears to begin to turn in
favour of the Trojans. Agamemnon is injured in the battle and, despite Ajax ‘s efforts, Hector
successfully breaches the fortified Greek camp, wounding Odysseus and Diomedes in the process,
and threatens to set the Greek ships on fire.
Trying to rectify the situation, Patroclus convinced his friend and lover, Achilles, to dress in
Achilles ‘own armor and lead the Myrmidons against the Trojans. The first two times Patroclus
launches against the Trojans, he is successful, killing Sarpedon (son of Zeus who participated in the
war). Intoxicated by his success, Patroclus forgets Achilles ‘warning to be careful, and pursues the
fleeing Trojans to the walls of Troy. He would have taken the city were it not for the actions of Apollo.
The god of music and the sun, is the first one to strike Patroclus. After that first blow and in
the heat of the battle, Hector also finds the disguised Patroclus and, thinking him to be Achilles,
fights and (with Apollo’s help) kills him. Menelaus and the Greeks manage to recover Patroclus’s
corpse before Hector can inflict more damage. Distraught at the death of his companion, Achilles
then reconciles with Agamemnon and rejoins the battle, destroying all the Trojans before him in his
fury. As the ten-year war reaches its climax, even the gods join in the battle and the earth shakes
with the clamor of the combat.
Dressed in new armor fashioned specially for him by Hephaestus, Achilles takes revenge for
his friend Patroclus by slaying Hector in single combat, but then defiles and desecrates the Trojan
prince’s corpse for several days. Now, at last, Patroclus’ funeral can be celebrated in what Achilles
sees as a fitting manner. Hector ‘s father, King Priam, emboldened by his grief and aided by Hermes,
recovers Hector ‘s corpse from Achilles, and “The Iliad” ends with Hector ‘s funeral during a twelve-
day truce granted by Achilles.

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ODYSSEY

The Odyssey by Homer was written down sometime between 800 and 600 BCE. The
Odyssey is one of the best known and most stupendously awesome works of ancient literature. It
tells the story of a man trying to make his way home from war. But not just any man, and not just
any war. Its hero is Odysseus: smart, strong, attractive, brave, beloved by the gods.
The Odyssey is a sequel to Homer's Iliad, a poem about the decade-long Trojan War. The
Iliad and the Odyssey may have a lot of the same characters, but they're more like fraternal than
identical twins: they complement each other.

Summary:

Ten years after the fall of Troy, the victorious Greek hero Odysseus has still not returned to
his native Ithaca. A band of rowdy suitors, believing Odysseus to be dead, has overrun his palace,
courting his faithful -- though weakening -- wife, Penelope, and going through his stock of food. With
permission from Zeus, the goddess Athena, Odysseus' greatest immortal ally, appears in disguise
and urges Odysseus' son Telemachus to seek news of his father at Pylos and Sparta. However, the
suitors, led by Antinous, plan to ambush him upon his return.

As Telemachus tracks Odysseus' trail through stories from his old comrades-in-arms, Athena
arranges for the release of Odysseus from the island of the beautiful goddess Calypso, whose
prisoner and lover he has been for the last eight years. Odysseus sets sail on a makeshift raft, but
the sea god Poseidon, whose wrath Odysseus incurred earlier in his adventures by blinding
Poseidon's son, the Cyclops Polyphemus, conjures up a storm. With Athena's help, Odysseus
reaches the Phaeacians. Their princess, Nausicaa, who has a crush on the handsome warrior,
opens the palace to the stranger. Odysseus withholds his identity for as long as he can until finally,
at the Phaeacians' request, he tells the story of his adventures.

Odysseus relates how, following the Trojan War, his men suffered more losses at the hands
of the Kikones, then were nearly tempted to stay on the island of the drug-addled Lotus Eaters. Next,
the Cyclops Polyphemus devoured many of Odysseus' men before an ingenious plan of Odysseus'
allowed the rest to escape -- but not before Odysseus revealed his name to Polyphemus and thus
started his personal war with Poseidon. The wind god Ailos then provided Odysseus with a bag of
winds to aid his return home, but the crew greedily opened the bag and sent the ship to the land of
the giant, man-eating Laistrygonians, where they again barely escaped.

On their next stop, the goddess Circe tricked Odysseus' men and turned them into pigs. With
the help of the god Hermes, Odysseus defied her spell and metamorphosed the pigs back into men.
They stayed on her island for a year in the lap of luxury, with Odysseus as her lover, before moving
on and resisting the temptations of the seductive and dangerous Sirens, navigating between the sea
monster Scylla and the whirlpools of Charybdis, and plumbing the depths of Hades to receive a
prophecy from the blind seer Tiresias. Resting on the island of Helios, Odysseus' men disobeyed
his orders not to touch the oxen. At sea, Zeus punished them and all but Odysseus died in a storm.
It was then that Odysseus reached Calypso's island.

Odysseus finishes his story, and the Phaeacians hospitably give him gifts and ferry him home
on a ship. Athena disguises Odysseus as a beggar and instructs him to seek out his old swineherd,
Eumaeus; she will recall Telemachus from his own travels. With Athena's help, Telemachus avoids
the suitors' ambush and reunites with his father, who reveals his identity only to his son and
swineherd. He devises a plan to overthrow the suitors with their help.

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In disguise as a beggar, Odysseus investigates his palace. The suitors and a few of his old
servants generally treat him rudely as Odysseus sizes up the loyalty of Penelope and his other
servants. Penelope, who notes the resemblance between the beggar and her presumably dead
husband, proposes a contest: she will, at last, marry the suitor who can string Odysseus' great bow
and shoot an arrow through a dozen axe heads.

Only Odysseus can pull off the feat. Bow in hand, he shoots and kills the suitor Antinous and
reveals his identity. With Telemachus, Eumaeus, and his goatherd Philoitios at his side, Odysseus
leads the massacre of the suitors, aided only at the end by Athena. Odysseus lovingly reunites with
Penelope, his knowledge of their bed that he built the proof that overcomes her skepticism that he
is an impostor. Outside of town, Odysseus visits his ailing father, Laertes, but an army of the suitors'
relatives quickly finds them. With the encouragement of a disguised Athena, Laertes strikes down
the ringleader, Antinous' father. Before the battle can progress any further, Athena, on command
from Zeus, orders peace between the two sides.

THE QUEST OF THE GOLDEN FLEECE

The Quest of the Golden Fleece originates in the story of

a prince named Phrixus, whose father Athamas takes a second
wife named Ino. Athamas's first wife, Nephele, rightly fears Ino
will kill Phrixus and his sister Helle to make way for her own
children to inherit Athamas's throne. Ino parches the kingdom's
seed-corn and convinces Athamas to sacrifice his children to
prevent a famine. Nephele prays for her children's safety, and a
ram with a golden fleece takes them from the altar where they are
to be sacrificed. The ram carries Phrixus to Colchis, a country on
the Black Sea, but Helle falls into the strait between Europe and
Asia. In Colchis, Phrixus sacrifices the ram and gives the Golden
Fleece to King Aetes as a gift of gratitude.
Back in Greece, Phrixus has an uncle whose throne is usurped by his nephew Pelias. The
rightful heir to this throne is Jason, who is hidden as a child and returns to confront Pelias as an
adult. Pelias agrees to yield the throne to Jason if Jason brings him the Golden Fleece. Pelias
believes Jason will die on the quest, but Jason is eager for the adventure.

With a crew of heroes, including Hercules and Achilles's father,

Peleus, Jason sets out on the ship Argo. The Argonauts, as the crew
is known, find hospitality on Lemnos, an island populated by women
who eschew the company of men. Hercules leaves the crew on
another island to search for his armor-bearer Hylas who is taken by a
water nymph.
The Argonauts land on an island where an old prophet named
Phineus is plagued by Harpies because his prophecies displeased
Zeus. The sons of the North Wind fight the Harpies and earn Zeus's
promise that they will plague Phineus no more.
Phineus tells the Argonauts how to get past the clashing rocks
called the Symplegades by sending a dove through ahead of their
ship. After the Argo passes, the rocks are rooted together and cause
no more trouble. The Argonauts also pass the island of the Amazons
and see Prometheus chained to his rock in the Caucasus Mountains.

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When the Argonauts arrive in Colchis, King Æetes welcomes them to his table but is angered
when he learns of Jason's purpose. They have eaten with him, so he can't kill them. Instead, he
gives Jason an impossible task, which he claims to have done himself. Jason is to yoke two fire-
breathing bulls with bronze hooves and plow a field with them. He is to sow dragon's teeth there and
defeat the crop of armed men who grow from the teeth. This will prove Jason's worthiness to possess
the Golden Fleece.

Hera and Aphrodite conspire to help Jason by making Æetes's daughter Medea fall in love
with Jason. Medea, a powerful sorceress, gives Jason a charm to make him invincible for a day and
advises him to throw a stone amid the army so that they will kill each other. Æetes is angry when
Jason succeeds at his trial, and begins planning more treachery against him. Following a warning
from Hera, Medea tells Jason to take her and the Fleece back to Greece immediately. She helps
him charm the serpent that guards the Fleece, and they all flee in the night. Æetes sends Medea's
brother Apsyrtus to pursue them, and Medea kills him to ensure their escape. Hera sends nymphs
to guide the Argo between the rock of Scylla and the whirlpool of Charybdis, and Medea saves them
from landing on Crete and being destroyed by a man of bronze.

When the Argonauts return, Jason discovers that Pelias has driven Jason's father to suicide.
Medea tricks Pelias's daughters into killing him by promising them a spell that will restore his youth
if they cut Pelias to pieces. After Pelias's death, Jason and Medea move to Corinth and have two
sons. Then Jason gets engaged to the king's daughter, and Medea threatens the princess's life. The
king exiles Medea and her sons, and Jason scolds her for her jealousy. Medea sends the princess
a poisoned robe that kills her, then she kills her sons to save them from a life of punishment in
Corinth. Jason returns to find his sons' bodies and Medea stepping into a chariot on the roof drawn
by dragons. He curses her has she rides away.

HERCULES
Heracles, Greek Herakles, Roman Hercules, one of
the most famous Greco-Roman legendary heroes.
Traditionally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and Alcmene
(see Amphitryon), granddaughter of Perseus. Zeus swore
that the next son born of the Perseid house should become
ruler of Greece, but—by a trick of Zeus’s jealous wife,
Hera—another child, the sickly Eurystheus, was born first
and became king. When Heracles grew up, he had to
serve Eurystheus and also suffer the vengeful persecution
of Hera; his first exploit was the strangling of two serpents
that she had sent to kill him in his cradle.

Heracles waged a victorious war against the kingdom of Orchomenus in Boeotia and
married Megara, daughter of Creon, king of Thebes, but he killed her and their children in a fit of
madness sent by Hera and, consequently, was obliged to become the servant of Eurystheus. It was
Eurystheus who imposed upon Heracles the famous labors later arranged in a cycle of 12, usually
as follows: (1) the slaying of the Nemean lion, whose skin he thereafter wore; (2) the slaying of the
nine-headed Hydra of Lerna; (3) the capture of the elusive hind (or stag) of Arcadia; (4) the capture
of the wild boar of Mount Erymanthus; (5) the cleansing, in a single day, of the cattle stables of
King Augeas of Elis; (6) the shooting of the monstrous man-eating birds of the Stymphalian
marshes; (7) the capture of the mad bull that terrorized the island of Crete; (8) the capture of the
man-eating mares of King Diomedes of the Bistones; (9) the taking of the girdle of Hippolyte, queen

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of the Amazons; (10) the seizing of the cattle of the three-bodied giant Geryon, who ruled the island
Erytheia (meaning red) in the far west; (11) the bringing back of the golden apples kept at the world’s
end by the Hesperides; and (12) the fetching up from the underworld of the triple-headed
dog Cerberus, guardian of its gates.

Having completed the Labours, Heracles undertook

further enterprises, including warlike campaigns. He also
successfully fought the river god Achelous for the hand
of Deianeira. As he was taking her home, the Centaur Nessus
tried to violate her, and Heracles shot him with one of his
poisoned arrows. The Centaur, dying, told Deianeira to
preserve the blood from his wound, for if Heracles wore a
garment rubbed with it he would love none but her forever.
Several years later Heracles fell in love with Iole, daughter of
Eurytus, king of Oechalia. Deianeira, realizing that Iole was a
dangerous rival, sent Heracles a garment smeared with the
blood of Nessus. The blood proved to be a powerful poison,
and Heracles died. His body was placed on a pyre on Mount
Oeta (Modern Greek Oíti), his mortal part was consumed, and
his divine part ascended to heaven, becoming a god. There he
was reconciled to Hera and married Hebe.

In art and literature, Heracles was represented as an enormously strong man of moderate
height, a huge eater and drinker, very amorous, and generally kindly but with occasional outbursts
of brutal rage. His characteristic weapon was the bow but frequently also the club.

In Italy he was worshipped as a god of merchants and traders, although others also prayed
to him for his characteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from danger.

PHAETON

This is one of Ovid's best stories, vividly told, details used

not for mere decoration, but to heighten the effect.

The palace gleamed of with the Sun ivory was and radiant
sparkled place. with It jewels. shone with Everything gold without
and within flashed and glowed and glittered. It was always high
noon there. Shadowy twilight never dimmed the brightness.
Darkness and night were unknown, few among mortals could have
long endured that unchanging brilliancy of light, but few had ever
found their way thither.

Nevertheless, one day a youth, mortal on his mother's side, dared to approach. Often, he had
to pause and clear His dazzled eyes, but the errand which had brought him was so urgent that his
purpose held fast and he pressed on, up to the palace, through the burnished doors, and into the
throne- room were surrounded by a blinding, blazing splendor the Sun-god sat. There the lad was
forced to halt. He could bear no more.

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Nothing escapes the eyes of the Sun. He saw. the boy instantly and he looked at him very
kindly. "What brought you here?" he asked. "I have come,' the other answered boldly. "to find out if
you are my father or not, My mother said you were, but the boys at school laugh when I tell them I
am your son. They will not believe me. I told my mother and she said I had better go and ask you.”
Smiling, the Sun took off his crown of burning light so that the lad could look at him without distress.
"Come here, Phaethon," he said. "You are my son. Clymene told you the truth. I expect you will not
doubt my word too? But I will give you a proof. Ask anything you want of me and you shall have it. I
call the Styx to be witness to my promise, the river of the oath of the gods."
No doubt Phaëthon had often watched the Sun riding
through the heavens and had told himself with a feeling, half
awe, half excitement, "It is my father up there." And then he
would wonder what it would be like to be in that chariot,
guiding, the steeds along that dizzy course, giving light to
the world. Now at his father's words this wild dream had
become possible. Instantly he cried, "I choose to take your
place, Father... That is the only thing I want. Just for a day,
a single day, let me have your car to drive."
The Sun realized his own folly Why had he taken
that fatal oath and bound himself to give in to anything that
happened to enter a boy's rash young head? "Dear lad,"
he said, "this is the only thing I would have refused you; I
know I cannot refuse. I have sworn by the Styx. I must yield
if you persist. But I do not believe you will. Listen while I tell
you what this is you want. You are Clymene's son as well
as mine. You are mortal and no mortal could drive my
chariot. Indeed, no god except myself can do that. road.
The ruler of the gods cannot. Consider the road. It rises up
from the sea so steeply that the horses can hardly climb it,
fresh though they are in the early morning. In midheaven it
is so high that even I do not like to look down. Worst of all
is the descent, so precipitous that the Sea-gods waiting to
receive me wonder how I can avoid falling head long. To
guide the horses, too is a perpetual struggle. Their fiery
spirits grow hotter as they climb and they scarcely suffer
my control. What would they do with you?

Are you fancying that they are all sorts of wanders up there, cities of the gods full of beautiful
things? Nothing of the kind. You will have to pass beasts, fierce beasts of prey, and they are all that
you will see. The Bull, the Lion, the Scorpion, the great Crab, each will try to harm you. Be per
suaded. Look around you. See all the goods the rich world holds. Choose from them your heart's
desire and it shall be yours. If what you want is to be proved my son, my fears for you are proof
enough that I am your father.

"But none of all this wise talk meant anything to the boy. A glorious prospect opened before
him. He saw himself proudly standing in that wondrous car, his bands triumphantly guiding those
steeds which Jove himself could not master. He did not give a thought to the dangers his father
detailed, He felt not a quiver of fear, not a doubt of his own powers. At last the Sun gave up trying
to dissuade him. It was hopeless, as he saw. Besides, there was no time. The moment for starting
was at hand. Already the gates of the east glowed purple, and Dawn had opened her courts full of
rosy light. The stars were leaving the sky; even the lingering morning star was dim.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

There was need for haste, but all was ready. The seasons the gatekeepers of Olympus, stood
waiting to fling the doors wide. The 'horses had been bridled and yoked to the car. Proudly and
joyously Phaëthon mounted it and they were off, He had made his choice. Whatever came of it he
could not change now, not that he wanted to in that first exhilarating rush through the air, so swift
that the East Wind was out stripped and left far behind. The horses' flying feet went through the low-
banked clouds near the ocean as through a thin sea mist and then up and up in the clear air, climbing
the height of heaven. For a few ecstatic moments Phaethon felt himself the Lord of the Sky. But
suddenly there was a change. The chariot was swinging wildly to and fro; the pace was faster; he
had lost control. Not he, but the horses were directing the course. That light weight in the car, those
feeble hands latching the reins, had told them their own driver was not there, they were the masters
then. No one else could command them. They left the road and rushed where they chose, up, down,
to the right, to the left. They nearly wrecked the chariot against the Scorpion; they brought up short
and almost ran into the Crab. By this time the poor charioteer was half fainting with terror, and he
let the reins fall.

That was the signal for still more mad and reckless running. The horses soared up to the very
top of the sky and then, plunging headlong down, they set the world on fire. The highest mountains
were the first to burn, Ida and Helicon, where the Muses dwell, Pamassus, and heaven-piercing
Olympus. Down their slopes the flame ran to the low-lying valleys and the dark forest lands, until all
things everywhere were ablaze. The springs turned into steam; the rivers shrank. It is said that it
was then the Nile fled and hid his head, which still is hidden.

In the car Phaethon, hardly keeping his place there, was wrapped in thick smoke and heat
as if from a fiery fumace. He wanted nothing except to have this torment and terror ended, He would
have welcomed death. Mother Earth, too, could bear no more, she uttered a great cry which reached
up to the gods, looking down from Olympus they saw that they must act quickly if the world was to
be saved. Jove seized his thunderbolt and hurled it at the rash, repentant river. It struck him dead,
shattered the chariot, and made the maddened horses rush down into the sea.

Phaethon all on fire fell from the car through the air to the earth. The mysterious river
Eridanus, which no mortal eyes have ever seen, received him and put out the flames and cooled
the body. The naiads, in pity for him, so bold and so young to die, buried him and carved upon the
tomb: -

Here Phaëthon lies who drove the Sun-god's car.

Greatly he failed, but he had greatly dared.

His sisters, the Heliades, the daughters of Helios, the Sun, came to his grave to mourn for
him. There they were tumed into popular trees, on the bank of the Eridanus,

Where sorrowing they weep into the stream forever.

And each tear as it falls shines in the water
A glistening drop of amber.

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Carmelin Puracan – Mosa, PhD
LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

PEGASUS AND BELLEROPHON

Two of the episodes in this story are taken from the earliest poets. Hesiod in the eighth or
ninth century tells about the Chimaera, and Antea’s love and the sad end of Bellerophon are in the
Iliad. The rest of the story is told first and best by Pindar in the first half of the fifth century.

In Ephyre, the city later called Corinth, Glaucus

was King. He was the son of Sisyphus who in Hades
must forever try to roll a stone uphill because he once
betrayed a secret of Zeus. Glaucus, too, drew down on
himself the displeasure of heaven. He was a great
horseman and he fed his horses human flesh to make
them fierce in battle. Such monstrous deeds always
angered the gods and they served him as he had served
others. He was thrown from his chariot and his horses
tore him to pieces and devoured him.
In the city a bold and beautiful young man named Bellerophon was generally held to be his
son. It was rumored, however, that Bellerophon had a mightier father, Poseidon himself, the Ruler
of the Sea, and the youth's surpassing gifts of spirit and body made this account of his birth seem
less mortal than divine. Great adventures would call to such a one as he and no peril would ever
hold him back. And yet the deed for which he is best known needed no courage at all, no effort,
even. Indeed, it proved that

What man would swear cannot be done, -

Must not be hoped for,- the great Power on high
Can give into his hand, in easy mastery.

More than anything on earth Bellerophon wantcd Pegasus, a marvelous horse which had
sprung from the Gorgon's blood when Perseus killed her. He was
A winged steed, unwearying of flight,
Sweeping through air swift as a gale of wind.

Wonders attended him. The spring beloved of poets, Hippocrene, on Helicon, the Muses'
mountain, had sprung up where his hoof had stnuck the earth. Who could catch and tame such a
creature? Bellerophon suffered from hopeless longing.

The wise seer of Ephyre (Corinth), Polyidus, to

whom he told his desperate desire, advised him to go to
Athena's temple and sleep there. The gods often spoke to
men in their dreams. So Bellerophon went to the holy
place and when he was lying deep in slumber beside the
altar he seemed to see the goddess standing before him
with some golden thing in her hand. She said to him,
"Asleep? Nay, wake, Here is what will charm the steed you
covet." He sprang to his feet.

No goddess was there, but a marvelous object lay in front of him, a bridle all of gold, such as
never had been seen before. Hopeful at last with it in his hand, he hurried out to the fields to find
Pegasus. He caught sight of him, drinking from the far-famed spring of Corinth, Pirene; and he drew
gently near. The horse looked at him tranquilly, neither startled nor afraid, and suffered himself to

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
be bridled without the least trouble. Athena's charm bad worked, Bellerophon was master of the
glorious creature.

In his full suite of bronze armor, he leaped upon his back and put him through his paces, the
horse seeming to delight in the sport as much as he himself, now he was lord of the air, flying
wherever he would, envied of all. As matters turned out, Pegasus was not only a joy, but a help in
time of need as well, for hard trials lay before Bellerophon.

In some way, we are not told how except that it was purely through accident, he killed his
brother, and he went to Argos where the King, Proetus, purified him. 'There his trials began and his
great deeds as well. Anteia, the wife of Proetus, fell in love with him, and when he turned from her
and would have nothing to do with her, in her bitter anger she told her husband that his guest had
wronged her and must die, enraged though he was, Proctus would not kill him. Bellerophon had
eaten at his table; he could not bring himself to use violence against him. However, he made a plan
which seemed certain to have the same result He asked the youth to take a letter to the King of
Lycia in Asia and Bellerophon easily agreed. Long journeys meant nothing to him on Pegasus' back.
The Lycian king, revived him with antique hospitality and entertained him splendidly for nine days
before he asked to see the letter. Then he read that Proetus wanted the young man killed.

He did not care to do so, for the same reason that had made Proteus unwilling: Zeus's well-
known hostility to those who broke the bond between host and guest There could be no objection,
however, to sending the stranger on an adventure, him and his winged horse. So he asked him to
go and slay the Chimaera, feeling quite assured that he would never come back. The Chimaera was
held to be unconquerable. She was a most singular portent, a lion in front, a serpent behind, a goat
in between-

A fearful creature, great and swift of foot and strong.

Whose breath waas flame unquenchable.

But for Bellerophon riding Pegasus there was no need to come anywhere near the flaming
monster. He soared up over her and shot her with his arrows at no risk to himself.

When he went back to Proetus, the latter had to think out other ways of disposing, of him. He
got him to go on an expedition, against the Solymi, mighty wariors; and then when Bellerophon had
succeeded in conquering these, on another against the Amazons, where he did equally well. Finally,
Proetus was won over by his courage and his good fortune, too; he became friends with him and
gave him his daughter to marry.

He lived happily thus for a long time; then he made the angry. His eager ambition along with
his great success led him to think "thoughts too great for man,” the thing of all others the gods
objected to, He tried to ride Pegasus up to Olympus, He believed he could take his place there with
the immortals. The horse, was wiser. He would not try the flight, and he threw his rider. Thereafter
Bellerophon, hated of the gods, wandered alone, devouring his own soul and
avoiding the paths of men until he died.

Pegasus found shelter in the heavenly stalls of Olympus where the steeds of Zeus were cared
for. Of them all he was foremost, as was proved by the extraordinary fact that poets report, that
when Zeus wished to use his thunderbolt, it was Pegasus who brought the thunder and lightning to
him.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

OTUS AND EPHIALTES

This story is alluded to in the Odyssey and the Aeneid, but only Apollodorus tells it in full. He
wrote, probably, in the first or second century A.D. A dull writer, but less dull than usual in this tale.

These twin brothers were Giants, but they did not

look like the monsters of old. They were straight of form
and noble of face. Homer says they were tallest of all that
the life - giving earth with her bread ever nourished.
Handsomest too, after peerless Orion alone. Virgil speaks
chiefly of their mad ambition. He says they were twins,
huge-bodied, who strove with their hands to destroy the
high heavens. Strove to push Jupiter down from his
kingdom supernal.

They were the sons. of Iphimedia, some say, others, of Canace. At all events, whoever their
mother was, their father was certainly Poseidon, although they went generally by the name of the
Aloadae, the sons of Alocus, their mother's husband.

They were still very young when they set about proving that they were the gods' superiors.
They imprisoned Ares, bound him with chains of brass and shut him up, The Olympians were
reluctant to tty to free him by force. They sent the cunning Hermes to his assistance, who contrived
stealthily by night cunning to get him out of his prison. Then the two arrogant youths dared still
more. They threatened that they would pile Mount Pelion on Mount Ossa and scale the heights of
heaven, as the Giants of old had piled Ossa on Pelion. This passed the endurance of the immortals,
and Zeus got ready his thunderbolt to strike them. But before he hurled it, Poseidon came begging
him to spare them and promising to keep them in order. Zeus agreed and Poseidon was as good as
his word. The twins stopped warring against heaven and Poseidon felt pleased with himself, but the
fact was that the two had turned to other plans which interested them more.

Otus thought it would be an excellent adventure to carry Hera off, and Ephialtes was in love
with Artemis, or thought he was. In truth the two brothers cared only for each other. Theirs was a
great devotion. They drew lots to decide which should first seize his lady, and fortune favored
Ephialtes. They sought Artemis everywhere over the hills and in the woods, but when at last they
caught sight of her she was on the seashore, making directly for the sea. She knew their evil purpose
after her, she but knew she knew too how she would punish them. They sprang after her, but she
kept straight on over the sea. All of Poseidon's sons had the same power: they could run dry - shod
on the sea as on the land, so the two followed her with no trouble. She led them to the wooded
island of Naxos, and there, when they had all but caught up with her, she disappeared. They saw
instead a most lovely milk - white hind springing into the forest. At the sight they forgot the goddess
and turned in pursuit of the beautiful creature. They lost her in the thick woods and they separated
in order to double the chance of finding her. At the same moment each suddenly saw her standing
with ears pricked in an open glade, but neither saw that back in the trees just beyond her was his
brother. They threw their javelins and the hind vanished. The weapons sped on across the empty
glade into the wood and there found heir mark, The towering forms of the young hunters crashed to
the ground, each pierced by the spear of the other, each slaying and being slain by the only creature
he loved.

Such was the vengeance of Artemis.

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LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

DAEDALUS

Both Ovid and Apollodorus tell this story. Apollodorus lived probably more than a hundred
years after Ovid. He is a very pedestrian writer and Ovid is far from that. But in this case, I have
followed Apollodorus. Ovid's account shows him at his worst, sentimental and exclamatory.

These twin brothers were Giants, but they did

not look like the monsters of old. They were straight of
form and noble of face. Homer says they were tallest
of all that the life - giving earth with her bread ever
nourished. Handsomest too, after peerless Orion
alone. Virgil speaks chiefly of their mad ambition. He
says they were twins, huge-bodied, who strove with
their hands to destroy the high heavens. Strove to
push Jupiter down from his kingdom supernal.

Daedalus was the architect who had contrived the Labyrinth or the Minotaur in Crete, and
who showed Ariadne how Theseus could escape from it. When King Minos learned that the
Athenians had found their way out, he was convinced that they could have done so only if Daedalus
had helped them. Accordingly, he imprisoned him and his son Icarus in the Labyrinth, certainly a
proof that it was excellently devised since not even the maker of it could discover the exit without a
clue. But the great inventor was not at a loss. He told his son,

Escape may be checked by water and land, but the air and the sky are free,

and he made two pairs of wings for them. They

put them on and just before they took flight Daedalus
warned Icarus to keep a middle course over the sea. If
he flew too high the sun might melt the glue and the
wings drop off. However, as stories so often show, what
elders say youth disregards. As the two flew lightly and
without effort away from Crete, the delight of this new
and wonderful power went to the boy's head. He soared
exultingly up and up, paying no heed to his father's
anguished commands. Then he fell. The wings had
come off. He dropped into the sea and the waters
closed over him. The afflicted father flew safely to Sicily,
where he was received kindly by the King.
Minos was enraged at his escape and determined to find him. He made a cunning plan. He
had it proclaimed everywhere that a great reward would be given to whoever could pass a thread
through an intricately spiraled shell. Daedalus told the Sicilian king that he could do it. He bored a
small hole in the closed end of the shell, fastened a thread to an ant, introduced the ant into the
hole, and then closed it. When the ant finally came out at the other end, the thread, of course, was
running clear through all the twists and turns. "Only Daedalus would think of that," Minos said, and
he came to Sicily to seize him. But the King refused to surrender him, and in the contest, Minos was
slain.

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